Acoustic Emission - Standards Technology Updates PDF

S T P 1353
Acoustic Emission: Standards

and Technology Update
Sotirios J. Vahaviolos, editor
ASTM Stock #: STP1353
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Acoustic emission : standards and technology update / Sotirios J.

Vahaviolos, editor.
p. c m . - (STP : 1353)
Includes bibliographical references.
"ASTM Stock #: STP1353."
ISBN 0-8031-2498-8
1. Acoustic emission testing. I. Vahaviolos, Sotirios J.
II. Series: ASTM special technical publication : 1353.
TA418.84 .A263 1999
620.1 '27--dc21 99-38512
CIP
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October 1999
Foreword
This publication, Acoustic Emission: Standards and Technology Update, contains papers pre-
sented at the symposium of the same name held in Plantation, Florida, on 22-23 January 1998.
The symposium was sponsored by ASTM Committee E7 on Nondestructive Testing. The symposium
chairman was Sotirios J. Vahaviolos, Physical Acoustics Corporation.
Contents
Overview vii
AE SOURCES: CHARACTERIZATION
Use of Acoustic Emission to Characterize Focal and Diffuse Microdamage in

BonemR. M. RAJACHAR, D. L. CHOW, C. E. CURTIS, N. A. WEISSMAN, AND D. H. KOHN
CONCRETE APPLICATIONS
A Proposed Standard for Evaluating Structural Integrity of Reinforced Concrete

Beams by Acoustic E m i s s l o n - - s , YUYAMA,T. OKAMOTO,M. SHIGEISH],M. OHTSU,
AND T. KISI-H 25
On the Necessity of a New Standard for the Acoustic Emission Characterization of

Concrete and Reinforced Concrete Structures--E. o. NESWJSKI 41
AE Evaluation of Fatigue Damage in Traffic Signal Poles--H. R. HAMILTON,HI,

T. J. FOWLER, AND J. A. PUCKETI" 50
INTmGRrrY AND LEAK DETECTION/LOCATION METHODS
The Development of Acoustic Emission for Leak Detection and Location in Liqnid-
Filled, Buried Pipelines--R. ~ MILLER, A. A. POLLOCK, P. FINKEL, D. J. WATI'S,
J. M. CARLYLE, A. N. TAFURI, AND J. J. y1~7.71 JR. 67
Acoustic Emission and Ultrasonic Testing for Mechanical Integrity--s. J. TERNOWCHEK,

T. J. GANDY, M. V. CALVA, AND T. S. PATIT~SON 79
AE SENSORS, STANDAm)S, AND QUANTITATIVEAE
Calibration of Acoustic Emission Transducers by a Reciprocity Method--H. HATANO 93

DIVERSE INDUS1RIAL APPLICATIONS
Acoustic Emission Applied to Detect Workpiece Burn During G r i n d i n g - -

P. R. DE AGUIAR, P. WILLETI', AND J. WEBSTER 107
Analysis of Fracture Scale and Material Quality Monitoring with the Help of
Acoustic Emission Measurementsms. A. NIKULIN,M. A. SHTREMEL,V. G. KnANZH~,
E. Y. KURIANOVA, AND A. P. MARKELOV 125
Characterization of Micro and Macro Cracks in Rocks by Acoustic Emission--

G. M. NAGARAJA RAO, C. R. L. MURTHY, AND N. M. RAJU 141
Prediction of Slope Failure Based on AE Activity--T. SHIOTANIANDM. OHTSU 156
A E SOURCES: RESEARCH T o P I c S
Identification of AE Sources by Using SiGMA-2D Moment Tensor Analysism

M. SHIGEISHI AND M. OHTSU 175
TRANSPORTATION APPLICATIONS, STANDARDS, AND METHODOLOGy
Practical AE Methodology for Use on AircraftmJ. M. CARLYLE, H. L. BODINE, S. S. HFa'qLEY,

R. L. DAWES, R. DEMESKI, AND E. v. K. HILL 191
COMPRESSED GAS APPLICATIONS AND STANDARDS
Periodic AE Re-Tests of Seamless Steel Gas Cylindersmp. R. BLACKBURN 209
Field Data on Testing of Natural Gas Vehicle (NGV) Containers Using Proposed
ASTM Standard Test Method for Examination of Gas-Filled Filament-Wound
Pressure Vessels Using Acoustic Emission (ASTM E070403-95/1)--
R. D. FULTINEER, JR. AND J. R. MITCHELL 224
Acoustic Emission Testing of Steel-Lined FRP Hoop-Wrapped NGV Cylinders--

A. AKHTAR AND D. KUNG 236
Author Index 257
Subject Index 259

Overview
Acoustic Emission (AE) has been commercially available for more than thirty (30) years. Has
any progress been made? The purpose of the Symposium held in January 1998 in Plantation, Florida
was to discuss the evolution of the technology of AE over the years in instrumentation, applications,
standards and codes and its overall worldwide acceptance. Authors have made comparisons between
AE and other Nondestructive Testing (NDT) technologies as to their suitability in solving practical
industrial problems worldwide.
As the newcomer in the Nondestructive Evaluation (NDE) industry, AE was first tried on applica-
tions where other NDT technologies had previously failed or was used where wild financial cost
savings were promised. The issue of suitability of AE for an application was never considered until
the very late 70's and early 80's, when a new breed of industrial and university researchers entered
the field in USA, Europe and Japan. AE "noise counting" was replaced with basic work on source
characterization, wave propagation, mode conversion, the study of the inverse problem using a
number of Green's functions, pattern recognition and, most importantly, they considered AE as a
science, using all available tools at their disposal. While the university academics worked hard to
identify certain AE waveform features with source and failure mechanisms, a number of industrial
researchers explored a myriad of "Pseudo-sources" of AE and their statistical nature. Instead of
absolute one-on-one correlations and exact location of defects, practitioners developed zonal location
and data bases based on case studies that enabled them to relate AE to fracture mechanics, corrosion
phenomena, and overall part integrity assessment, especially in composite structures first and then
in pressurized systems and individual components. The introduction of artificial intelligence, coupled
with existent data bases, led to the development of ready-to-use knowledge-based systems based
on very complex structures that are found in power utilities, refineries, chemical plants, complex
pipelines, wind tunnels, aircraft structures, etc. The hard work of the late 70's and early 80's by
CARP (Committee on AE for Reinforced Plastics) and the wide application of AE in testing of
Fiberglass (FRP/GRP) vessels and pipes rejuvenated the technology! Eventually they became ASTM
Standards now widely in use.
The well-publicized early failures of AE in several metal vessels tests, especially in Europe
by INEXPERIENCED personnel, were now reconsidered. Unknown to most AE Researchers/
Practitioners a behind the scenes branch of CARP known as CAM (Committee for Acoustic Emission
for Metal) start looking carefully utilizing vast experience in Fracture Mechanics, Civil Engineering,
NDT and, most importantly, vessel construction maintenance and use, realized early on that the
same inexperience that prevented the use of AE in FRP in the early 70's has prevented users to do
Metal Vessel Testing by AE.
With the help of t h e ' 'core members" of CARP, metal vessel testing was reconsidered, especially
after the successes of MONPAC ~ (a commercially available knowledge-based expert system that
formed the basis of acceptance of AE by American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) and
Department of Transportation (DOT) and, thus, gave credence to the newcomer NDE technology).
In addition, the more than ten AE ASTM Standards and AE's acceptance by American Society for
Nondestructive Testing (ASNT) as another major NDT technique and the establishment of Level
III in AE were major steps forward for the technology worldwide.
vii
viii ACOUSTIC EMISSION: STANDARDS AND TECHNOLOGY
In this Symposium basic important work is being presented that constitutes the basis for Natural
Gas Vehicle (NGV) Cylinder Testing with AE, no matter how controversially some people might
view their work. When properly applied, AE can save NGV assets for customers as the ASTM FRP
vessel has done for the past 10-plus years.
It is interesting to note that infrastructure and slope stability applications worldwide and especially
in Japan are now to the point of standardization of existing working procedures. We were very
much encouraged by the continuing success of the Reciprocity Method for Calibrating AE Sensors
and hope that it eventually will become another ASTM Standard. As for the other applications, I
can only comment on their existing uniqueness from micro damage in bones to burning of grinding
tools in high speed manufacturing.
We hope this publication will prove interesting to a wide spectrum of readers, especailly those
who look for new AE Standards and are interested to explore the future directions for the application
of the Acoustic Emission Technology.
Sotirios J. Vahavidos, Ph.D.
Physical Acoustics Corporation

Princeton Junction,NJ 08550
SymposiumChairmanand Editor
AE Sources:
Characterization
Rupak M. Rajachar, 1 Dann L. Chow, l Christopher E. Curtis, 2 Neil A. Weissman, 2 and
David H. Kohn 3
USE O F A C O U S T I C E M I S S I O N T O C H A R A C T E R I Z E F O C A L AND D I F F U S E
M I C R O D A M A G E IN BONE
REFERENCE: Rajachar, R. M., Chow, D. L., Curtis, C. E., Weissman, N. A., and
Kolm, D. H., "Use of Acoustic Emission to Characterize Focal and Diffuse
Microdamage in Bone," Acoustic Emission: Standards and Technology Update,
ASTM STP 1353, S. J. Vahaviolos, Ed., American Society for Testing and Materials,
West Conshohocken, PA, 1999.
A B S T R A C T : Fatigue of cortical bone results in the initiation, accumulation, and

propagation of microdamage. AE techniques were adopted to monitor damage generated
during ex-vivo tension-tension fatigue testing of cortical bone. The primary objectives
were to determine the sensitivity of AE in detecting microdamage in cortical bone and to
elucidate mechanisms guiding the onset of microdamage. Fatigue cycle data and
histological data show that AE techniques are more sensitive than modulus reduction
techniques in detecting incipient damage in cortical bone. Confocal microscopy revealed
the ability of AE to detect crack lengths and damage zone dimensions as small as 25 gm.
Furthermore, measured signal parameters such as AE events, event amplitude, duration,
and energy suggest that AE techniques can detect and distinguish microdamage
mechanisms spatially and temporally in bone. As fatigue processes continue, AE
increases in terms of number of events, event intensities and spatial distribution. Diffuse
damage appears to be a precursor to the development of linear microcracks. The spatial
and temporal sequence of AE events enables differentiation between linear microcracks
and more diffuse damage.
K E Y W O R D S : acoustic emission, bone, microdamage, confocal microscopy
l Graduate Student, Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering,

University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2125.
2 Undergraduate Student, Department of Biologic and Materials Sciences, School of
Dentistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1078.
3 Associate Professor, Departments of Biologic and Materials Sciences, School of
Dentistry and Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering, University of
Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1078.
3
Copyright9 by ASTM International www.astm.org
4 ACOUSTICEMISSION: STANDARDS AND TECHNOLOGY
Age-related skeletal fragility is a significant medical and economic problem. In

the United States, an estimated 250,000 hip fractures occur each year among those age 50
and over [t]. The cost involved in the treatment of these fractures is believed to be over 7
billion dollars [2,3]. In younger people, who have a greater physiologic capacity to
withstand the functional demands placed on the musculosketetal system, stress fractures
and impact/trauma-related fractures are also of significance. However, with age and
pathologic conditions, the compensatory mechanisms needed to maintain the mechanical
stability of skeletal tissue become significantly more impaired [3]. As a result, diffuse
distributions of sub-threshold microcracks, which have been observed even in normal
bone, increase exponentially in number with age. These cracks range in length up to 300
~tm and may ultimately contribute to age-related property degradation and fatigue
fracture in skeletally mature cortical bone (e.g. the dense bone of the mid-femur, or outer
shell of the proximal femur and spine) and trabecular bone (e.g. the porous, spongy bone
inside the cortical shell) [4]. Consequently, the processes guiding the location,
orientation, size, and accumulation of microdamage are important in assessing the
competence of skeletal tissues and in developing a basic understanding of structure-
function relationships.
Cortical bone can be modeled as a fiber-reinforced composite [5]. Osteons or
Haversian canals are cylindrical layers of bone around blood vessels. The inter-osteonal
bone, which is arranged in lamellae, is called interstitial bone. Thus, osteons in bone,
which are primarily oriented in a longitudinal direction, are analogous to unidirectional
fibers in a composite. As in many engineering composites, a comparatively high
strength/low toughness interface exists between each osteon or "fiber" and its
surrounding interstitial bone or "matrix". This region is referred to as the cement line and
is thought to be a site of relatively easy crack nucleation [6]. Also of importance to the
overall structure of bone are embedded cellular compartments and their connecting
network, lacunae and canaliculi, respectively [6]. These regions represent heterogeneous
sites of porosity, akin to processing defects in man-made structural materials.
Accordingly, these pores may serve as additional sites of crack nucleation and
accumulation [7,8].
Bone is therefore a hierarchical composite structure subject to internal
microdamage. Many of the difficulties which exist in characterizing the mechanics of
structural composites also exist with bone. The long-term objectives of this research
program are to model bone as a composite material and: 1) determine the effects of
mechanical history on microdamage initiation and growth; 2) provide insight into
mechanisms of damage initiation and accumulation; and 3) determine how damage
phenomena are modulated by changes in tissue hierarchy.
Previous investigations have attempted to use AE to monitor integrity of bone in-
vitro [9-12], and as a non-invasive diagnostic in-vivo [13-15]. These studies made
inferences that the AE detected was due to specific failure mechanism(s), but no direct
correlations between AE and damage were established. Using more rigorous analyses,
we have shown that AE techniques can be effectively used to distinguish mechanisms of
crack nucleation, slow crack propagation, and rapid crack propagation, spatially and
temporally, in biomaterials, microstructured materials and inhomogeneous materials
[16,17]. The critical resolution of AE for detecting crack nucleation was shown to be on
the order of 10 ~tm [16]. Because of the complex inhomogeneous nature of cortical bone,
RAJACHAR ET AL, ON MtCRODAMAGE IN BONE 5
application of these more detailed AE techniques may provide similar insight into the
mechanical processes involved in the nucleation and growth of damage in bone.
Moreover, the sensitive and non-destructive nature of AE testing may allow multiple
crack sites to be distinguished spatially and temporally.
In support of our long-term objectives, the specific aims of this project were to: 1)
detect and characterize incipient microdamage in cortical bone via AE, 2) verify and
quantify the microdamage histologically, 3) compare the sensitivity of AE and modulus
reduction (AE) techniques, 4) compare microdmnage in bone of different initial stress
intensities, and 5) associate AE signals with microstructural failure mechanisms.
Materials and Methods
Cortical Bone Specimens
The flow chart in Figure 1 provides an overview of the experimental design used
in preparing and testing cortical bone ex-vivo. Cortical bone specimens were prepared
from mature bovine femoral and tibial central diaphyseal sections. Each diaphysis was
sectioned on a band saw into paratlelepipeds, such that the longitudinal axis of each
parallelepiped was aligned with the long axis of the bone. These rough-cuts were then
machined into smooth parallelepiped blanks (L = 120 mm, W = 12 mm, T = 4.5 mm) and
gage sections were machined using a precision milling machine. Buffered saline
irrigation was used during all machining steps to avoid heating the bone and to maintain
tissue saturation. Two gage section geometries were created: V-notched specimens
(p = 200 ktm, K t = 2.5), which provided a localized region of strain, and C-notched
specimens (K t = 1), which provided a distributed strain region. Specimens not tested
immediately after machining were wrapped in moist towels and stored at -65~
Fatigue Loading
Fatigue loading regimes were imposed using a servohydraulic mechanical testing

machine and FLAPS mechanical testing computer interface program (Instron Corp.,
Canton, MA). During loading, specimens were kept moist using an ambient temperature
buffered saline gravity drip, since drying results in an increase in the elastic modulus of
bone. Initial elastic moduli (E0) were determined by subjecting the specimens to
successive uniaxial tensile ramp loading and unloading cycles in the elastic range until a
steady state value was reached. Peak stresses were approximately one-quarter of the
yield stress for bovine cortical bone (~y - 140 MPa), and a steady state modulus value
was typically reached in 5 cycles. The initial elastic modulus was then used to define a
fatigue loading regime [18]. Fatigue loading was performed in uniaxial tension under
load control. Specimens were loaded parallel to the longitudinal axis of the bone,
following a sinusoidal waveform, over an effective strain range (AEeff = A(Y]E0) of 0 to
3000 ge, at a frequency of 1 Hz. The maximum strain was chosen such that it was in the
upper range of physiologic strain experienced by cortical bone during normal loading
[19].
6 ACOUSTIC EMISSION: STANDARDS AND TECHNOLOGY
I Mature Bovine Bone(femur) I
I
1
DiaphysealLongitudinalCut I
J End Milled Paralleleplped J

I
[ v-Notch I C-Notch
localizeddamagezone I I I
, diffusedamagezone I
I I
I Fatigueto Fatigueto Unloaded I
AEo.set I I 1%~.~ I I control
I I
I
tf
I FatigueLoadingConditions I
3000petrain,1 Hzsinewave
I AE ParameteisMeasured
events,Ioc.,ampL,(mergy,etc.
I 10 mmHistology
notchedsection RELATEAE TO
bulkstainingandembedding FAILUREMECHANISMS
150 ~ sedalsections
I Confocal Microscopy
grideachsectionandscan
crackIoc.,density,INze,etc.
3-D reconstruction
FIGURE 1 - Flow chart of experimental design.

RAJACHAR ET AL. ON MICRODAMAGE IN BONE 7
Experimental Design
For each gage section geometry, a 30-specimen experimental matrix was used to
study fatigue-related microdamage: 10 specimens were loaded in fatigue until the onset
of AE, 10 were loaded in fatigue until there was a measured 1% modulus reduction (AE),
and 10 served as unloaded histological controls. Each specimen was randomly assigned
to one of these three groups. Modulus measures were made based upon real-time mean
strain values, measured with an extensometer.
Acoustic Emission Analysis
AE was recorded using a planar array of four Physical Acoustics Corp. (PAC,
Princeton, N J) nano-30 piezoelectric transducers having a broad-band frequency range of
125-750 kHz. Two sensors were placed on the shoulders of the 120 mm x 12 mm face,
for longitudinal location, and the other two sensors were on opposite sides of the width of
the specimen, above and below the notched region, for transverse location. The sensors
were coupled to the specimens with an acoustic couplant and fixed in place using water-
resistant surgical grade adhesive tape. AE data were collected, stored and analyzed with
PAC LOCAN-320 data acquisition and analysis software. The pertinent operating
parameters were: variable gain/total gain = 42 dB/80 dB; peak definition time = 500
gtsec; hit definition time = 2 msec; dead time = 1 msec; sample time = 100 msec;
threshold = 1 V. A threshold value of 42 dB was used to eliminate background noise
produced by specimen irrigation. For the tests stopped at the onset of AE, the first AE
signals above 42 dB simultaneously detected at all 4 sensors were taken to signify the
onset of microdamage.
The following AE parameters were recorded and analyzed: AE source location,
number of AE events, and intensities of AE events. Event intensities are a collective term
for event amplitude, counts per event, event duration, event energy counts and event rise
time. Subsets of events were also created, based on event location, fatigue cycle number,
and stress range at which events were generated. Subsets of event intensities generated
within different ranges of location, fatigue cycle number and stress level were also
analyzed. Subsets of events were then analyzed by evaluating location distribution
histograms (LDH) and intensity distribution histograms (IDH) of events. LDH and IDH
are general terms for the distribution of events and event intensities as functions of
location, fatigue cycle number or stress.
Initial analysis of the spectral components of waves was also carried out. Digital
transient capture of waveforms was performed using an F4000 Fracture Wave Detector
(Digital Wave Corp., Englewood, CO). A maximum digitization sampling rate of 12.5
MHz was used and 1024 points of digitized data were collected from each waveform.
Characteristic extensional and flexural waves were generated by breaking a lead pencil at
multiple sites on selected bone specimens. Actual AE waves generated during testing of
bone were recorded and digitized, and mode shapes and dominant frequency contents
were determined and compared to the waveforms generated by the pencil breaks [20,21].
Histological Analysis
Following fatigue loading, 10 mm blocks from the region near the dominant AE
sources were cut using a diamond wafering blade, and stored at -65~ in buffered saline
solution until histological processing. Specimens were stained en-bloc using a graded
series of 1% basic fuchsin solutions in ethanol [22]. Basic fuchsin is a fluorescent stain
that preferentially marks exposed external and internal defects in biological structures.
Bulk staining with basic fuchsin prior to histological sectioning enables visualization of
microdamage and differentiation between cracking due to mechanical factors and
artifactual cracks induced during histological preparation.
Following staining each specimen was embedded in poly-(methyl methacrylate)
and serially sectioned (-150 p.m thick) parallel to the 4.5 mm thickness. Each serial
section was analyzed using laser scanning confocal microscopy (LSCM) to assess
damage at the notch tip and throughout the bulk of the specimen. Three-dimensional data
on crack morphology were obtained by using a z-axis reconstruction [23]. A l-ram
square grid system was imposed on each histological section. Each grid space was
analyzed for number of cracks, crack length, crack density, and crack angle.
Results
In support of Specific Aims 1 and 2, we were able to detect and characterize AE

generated during fatigue of cortical bone and validate, via histological comparison to
unloaded controls, that the sources of this AE were fatigue-induced microdamage. An
LDH of AE events generated during fatigue of a V-notched specimen is shown in Figure
2. AE events are localized at the notch-tip (location 0). Representative LSCM photos of
the notch-tips of fatigue and control specimens are shown in Figure 3. The highly
luminous regions at the notch-tip of the fatigue specimen represent damage nucleation.
More well defined linear (Mode I) microcracks are observed ahead of the diffusely
damaged region. Quantitative histology revealed crack lengths as small as 25 p.m.
,~ 2O
C
< 10
E
z 0 .....
. . . . . . m,. . ~1,
. . .nn,. nn,
. , , t tm I
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
Location
FIGURE 2 - Location distribution histogram (LDH) of AE events generated in V-

notched cortical bone specimen fatigued until the onset of AE. Events are localized
at the notch-tip (location 0), indicating damage nucleation in this region.
FIGURE 3 - Confocal micrographs of V-notched specimens: a) control (unloaded)

specimen, and b) specimenfatigued until the onset of AE. In the fatigue specimen,
damage accumulation is seen at the notch-tip. Diffuse damage is observed at the notch-
elp, with well-defined linear microcracks observed ahead of the diffuse damage zone.
(Both I OOX)
The average number of fatigue cycles to the onset of damage as determined by the
two techniques, for V- and C-notched specimens, is presented in Table 1 (Specific Aim
3). For both specimen groups, incipient damage was detected at a significantly lower
number of fatigue cycles with AE than AE (p < 0.01, p < 0.02, respectively, via Student's
t-tests).
TABLE 1 - Number of cycles to the onset of fatigue as determined by acoustic emission

(AE) and modulus reduction (AE) techniques.
Technique Specimen Type Averase NumberofCycles

AE V-Notched 8894 • 5317
AE V-Notched 32548 • 25697
AE C-Notched 8094 • 4241
AE C-Notched 40544 • 22828
Figure 4 shows LDHs of AE events generated in V-notched specimens fatigued

until the onset of AE and until a 1% AE. Although both tests reveal AE accumulation at
the notch-tips, the greater number of events generated in the AE specimen is
commensurate with the longer fatigue regime of this specimen. Evaluating IDHs (Fig. 5),
shows that peak and maximum values of signal intensities generated in bone that was
fatigued until a 1% AE are greater than those generated in bone fatigued until just the
onset of AE. Average intensities were also greater in the AE specimens. Comparison of
confocal micrographs from AE and AE specimens (Fig. 6) suggests the presence of
diffuse microdamage followed by development of linear microcracks as fatigue processes
continue. Diffuse damage is characterized by relatively larger zones of staining opacity
and minimally resolvable crack dimensions. While many histological sections exhibited
Mode I microcracks, several sections revealed the presence of linear microcracks,
adjacent to regions of diffuse damage, which were oriented parallel to the direction of
loading (Fig. 6c).
In support of Specific Aims 4 and 5, we were able to compare microdamage in
bone of different initial stress intensities and associate AE signals with microstructural
failure mechanisms. The mechanisms, observed histologically, were characterized based
upon differences in specific AE signal parameters, as shown in the LDH and IDH in
Figures 7 and 8. Specimens with a lower initial stress concentration generated a greater
number of events, a greater spatial distribution of events and more high intensity events.
FIGURE 4 - Location distribution histograms (LDH) of AE events generated in V-

notched specimens fatigued until the onset of AE and until a 1% modulus loss. The
greater number of events generated in the AlE specimen is commensurate with the
longer fatigue process in this specimen.
FIGURE 5 - hztensity distribution histogl"ams (IDI1) o f A E events generated in V-

notched specimens fatigued until tile onset o f A E and m~til a 1% modulus loss. A E
signal hm, nsities in the A E specimens are lower than those o f the AE group, since the
tests were stopped at an earlier stage o f fittigue.
FIGURE 6 - Confocal micrographs of a) diffuse microdamage (I OOX), b) Mode I linear

microcracks (I OOX), and c) combination of diffuse damage and Mode H linear
microcracks (60X).
FIGURE 7 - Location distribution histograms (LDH) of AE events generated in V-

notched and C-notched specimens fatigued until the onset of AE. The C-notched
specimens exhibited a greater spatial distribution of AE events.
FIGURE 8 - Intensity distribution histograms (IDH) of AE events generated in V-notched

and C-notched specimens fatigued until the onset of AE. AE signal intensities are
different in the two specimens, indicating different damage mechanisms.
Discussion
The objectives of this research were to determine the sensitivity of AE in

detecting microdamage in cortical bone and to use the early warning capabilities of AE to
help elucidate the underlying mechanisms guiding the nucleation and growth of
microdamage in bone.
LDHs (Fig. 2) and histology (Fig. 3) provided evidence that damage in cortical
bone can be detected and characterized using AE. This is apparent by the prominent AE
that was detected and microcracking that was observed at the notch-tips. Quantitative
histology revealed that the AE was first generated at crack lengths and damage zone
dimensions as small as 25 ~m.
The fatigue data shows that AE techniques are more sensitive than modulus
reduction techniques for detecting damage in cortical bone for each specimen geometry
(Table 1). A greater number of AE events was also detected in specimens which were
allowed to fatigue until a 1% AE was achieved (Fig. 3). The IDHs (Fig. 4) reflect the
greater number of events, greater peak amplitude and greater number of high intensity
events for the AE specimens. The damage inferred by the AE and AE techniques was
subsequently verified histologically. All of these data support that conclusion that AE is
more sensitive than modulus reduction techniques in discriminating incipient damage in
bone. Currently, modulus reduction techniques represent the accepted real-time means of
detecting damage in bone [24].
Since the sensitivity of AE is greater than that of AE, it is expected that there
should also be a difference in the type and extent of microstmctural damage observed in
the two groups. It is therefore hypothesized that different mechanisms of damage
initiation and propagation in bone will express distinguishable AE signal profiles. The
IDHs suggest these differences.
Based on the relative amounts of diffuse and linear damage observed in control,
AE and AE specimens, there, qualitatively, appears to be a progression of diffuse damage
accumulation which ultimately coalesces into more distinct linear microcracks. There
appears to be a greater damage density (i.e. # of cracks or # of diffusely stained
regions/unit area) in AE samples compared to AE samples, and a threshold in damage
density above which AE is generated. This threshold corresponds to an accumulation of
plastic strain energy sufficient to generate detectable AE.
Coupled with histological data, AE analysis suggests an initial diffuse matrix
damage mechanism in the fatigue failure of cortical bone, analogous to microvoiding and
craze formation in fiber reinforced composites. Further fatigue results in the formation of
linear microcracks. LDH data allows the differentiation of diffuse matrix damage away
from the notch-tip and damage at the primary fracture process zone.
Linear microcracks were most often associated with cement lines, an observation
made by others as well [7,25,26]. The specific nature of the interactions between
microcracks and cement lines is unclear. Microcracks were observed to propagate both
along and across cement lines. Combined with the fact that linear microcracks were
observed to be oriented in both Mode I and Mode II directions, the overlapping of AE
signal parameters in the different test groups is likely due to the combination of
ultrastructural failure mechanisms observed.
The observation of longitudinal and shear oriented cracks motivated an analysis

of AE waveforms. Based on the characteristic extensional and flexural waves generated
during pencil breaks (Fig. 9), analysis of spectral components of AE signals generated
during fatigue of bone revealed the following. At the notch-tip, longitudinal waves, with
a dominant frequency range of 250-400 kHz, were primarily detected, whereas in the
bone matrix, flexural waves, with a dominant frequency range of 100-180 kHz, were
primarily detected. These characteristics are consistent with those of fiber reinforced
plastics [27]. While it is acknowledged that modal analyses are limited to plate specimens
and may not be applicable to in-vivo diagnosis of a whole femur, the modes of micro-
failure observed in this study are consistent with those observed in-vivo. Idealized testing
on plate-specimens, which are amenable to modal analysis, may yield significant insight
into damage mechanisms.
Whether diffuse damage and modes I and II linear microcracking processes can
be linked to specific AE signals is a continuing focus of this research. It may ultimately
be possible to link damage location with particular initiation and propagation
mechanisms, which may provide necessary information to the detection and prevention of
catastrophic damage associated with many degenerative orthopaedic conditions. If a
continuum can be established between diffuse damage and linear microcrack initiation
and propagation mechanisms, it may also be possible to relate mechanical and biological
components affecting the overall structure of cortical bone under different loading
conditions. Thus, future work will not only attempt to quantify the relationship of the
strain history of cortical bone to damage initiation and propagation mechanisms, but also
to define local biologic conditions favoring damage mechanisms.
s) extensional w a v e
4.0
.~ 3.0t
20
1.0
E 0.0-
>0
-1.0 -
0
n, -2.0 -
-3.0 -
-4.0
O.OE+O0 1.6E-04
Time (seconds)
b) flexural w a v e
6.0
4.0
a,.
E
.<
0
>
0
n,
2.0
0.0
-2.0-
I!
I,
T II II
I I, j
4.0-
~.0
O.OE+O0 1.6E-04
Time (seconds)
FIGURE 9 - AE waveforms from lead pencil breaks." a) extensional wave, dominant

frequencies- 300-500kHz, b) flexural wave, dominant frequencies ~ 100-200 kHz.
Summary and Conclusions
AE techniques were employed in association with histological analysis to

determine the effects of strain history on the initiation and accumulation of fatigue
microdamage in cortical bone. Microstructural damage mechanisms were identified and
related to AE parameters spatially and temporally. Specifically, the following conclusions
are drawn:
(1) AE techniques are effective in detecting incipient microdamage generated during

fatigue of cortical bone.
(2) Histological comparison between loaded and unloaded specimens validated the
AE technique and revealed that AE can detect microcracks in bone as small as
25 ~tm. Multiple microcracks and diffuse regions of damage may also be detected.
(3) Incipient fatigue damage is detected at a significantly lower of fatigue cycles with
AE techniques, as compared to modulus loss techniques and, as a result, less AE
is generated.
(4) As fatigue processes continue, AE increases in terms of number of events, event
intensities and spatial distribution.
(5) Diffuse damage appears to be a precursor to the development of linear micro-
cracks. The spatial and temporal sequence of AE events enables differentiation
between linear microcracks and more diffuse damage.
Acknowledgements
Supported by NSF BES-9410303, the Whitaker Foundation and the Natural Sciences and
Engineering Research Council of Canada. We gratefully acknowledge Mitch Schaffler,
Ph.D. of Henry Ford Hospital for his help in the histological processing and analysis, and
Gordon Schneider of Digital Wave Corp. for his help performing the modal analyses.
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Concrete Applications
Shigenori Yuyama, ~ Takahisa Okamoto, ~ Mitsuhiro Shigeishi, 3 Masayasu Ohtsu, aand
Teruo Kishi 4
A PROPOSED STANDARD FOR EVALUATING STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY

OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS BY ACOUSTIC EMISSION
REFERENCE: Yuyama, S., Okamoto, T., Shigeishi, M., Ohtsu, M., and Kishi, T., " A
Proposed Standard for Evaluating Structural Integrity of Reinforced Concrete
Beams by Acoustic Emission," Acoustic Emission: Standards and Technology
Update, ASTM STP 1353, S. J. Vahaviolos, Ed., American Society for Testing and
Materials, West Conshohocken, PA, 1999.
ABSTRACT: A series of studies has been performed to evaluate the structural

integrity of reinforced concrete (RC) beams by acoustic emission (AE). Cyclic
loadings were applied to RC beams with a single reinforcing bar, large repaired beams,
beams deteriorated due to corrosion of reinforcement, and two beams with different
damage levels in an aging dock. The test results demonstrated that the Kaiser effect
starts to break down when shear cracking starts to play a primary role. It has been
also shown that high AE activity is observed during unloadings after serious damage
(slips between the concrete and the reinforcement or those between the original
concrete and the repaired part) has occurred. A standard for evaluating structural
integrity of RC beams by AE is proposed, based on these results.
KEYWORDS: acoustic emission, cyclic loading test, evaluation criteria, Kaiser effect,
reinforced concrete, structural integrity
President, Nippon Physical Acoustics Ltd., 8F Okamoto LK Bldg., 2-17-10, Higashi,

Shibuya-ku, Tokyo 150, Japan.
2 Chief researcher, Central Research Laboratory, Nihon Cement Co., Ltd., 1-2-23, Kiyosumi,
Koto-ku, Tokyo 135, Japan.
3 Associate professor and professor, ,'espectively, Depamnent of Civil and Environmental
Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Kumamoto University, 2-39-1, Kurokami,
Kumamoto 860, Japan.
4 Professor, Research Center for Advanced Science and Technology, The University of Tokyo,
4-6-1, Komaba, Meguro-ku Tokyo 153, Japan.
25
Copyright9 by ASTMInternational www.astm.org
Introduction
In recent years the deterioration and cracking of concrete structures such as

bridges and buildings has been a significant problem. Proper techniques for the
inspection of damaged structures are important in making rational decisions regarding
rehabilitation, repair or replacement. Thus, the development of techniques to evaluate
degradation of concrete structures in long-term service has been one of the most
important issues for an effective maintenance program.
A series of studies has been performed to evaluate the structural integrity of
rcinforced concrete (RC) beams by acoustic emission (AE). Cyclic loadings were
applied to RC beams with a single reinforcing bar [/], large repaired beams [2], beams
deteriorated due to corrosion of reinforcement [3l, and two beams with different
damage levels in an aging dock [4]. The test results demonstrated that the Kaiser
effect starts to break down when shear cracking starts to play a primary role. It has
been also shown that high AE activity is observed during unloadings after serious
damage (slips between the concrete and the reinforcement or those between the original
concrete and the repaired part) has occurred. A concrete beam integrity (CBI) ratio,
the ratio of the load at onset of AE and the maximum prior load, has been proposed as
an effective criterion to measure the severity of the damage induced in the beams. The
high AE activities during unloadings have been shown to be an effective index to
estimate the level of deterioration.
This paper proposes an AE test method for RC structures, demonstrating four
case studies conducted for different types of RC beams. Test procedure and evaluation
criteria are presented as guidelines for practical AE tests of RC beams.
Case Study 1: RC Beams with a Single Reinforcing Bar
Shown in Fig. 1 is a configuration of the specimen used for the cyclic bending
test. A single reinforcing bar of 19 mm dia with lateral lugs is encased eccentrically
in the rectangular concrete beam. Concrete cover (depth of reinforcing bar) is 30 mm.
Compressive and tensile strengths of the concrete were 36.2 and 3.5 MPa, respectively.
Six PAC R15 (150 kHz resonant) sensors were attached on the specimen to perform
both a moment tensor analysis using the SIGMA code [.5] and parameter analysis. The
specimens were subjected to repeated four-point bending loadings by a strain-control
type machine. The maximum load of each loading cycle was increased gradually in
order to investigate the relationship between the cracking process and AE behavior.
Figure 2 presents the relationship between the number of AE hits and the
applied load. AE signals are detected at a lower load than the maximum prior load
(49kN) during the second loading. Accordingly, the Kaiser effect breaks down during
the second loading. It was shown that the Kaiser effect starts to break down when the
YUYAMA ET AL. ON REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS 27
Z
9 '. e .', "..o*..,% : . : , . . ' , . . ,, . Q- .. ," .,,"
/:~.:i-:"..:-..t . ". ;.L::.~ DEFORM E D:BAR :

:..:. @.::,.'
[ . . . . . . . . ' -...-...-.~~ _-.....;. ~.... ; .'....'.:-. ~':'.-: ...:..-;. :;
"J J
150 .l_
Ji
FIG.l-Configuration o f the specimen with a single reinforcing bar.
2500-
)--.T: 2 0 0 0 -
,, f_..J v
o 1500-
kl_l 1V
rn 1000-
z 500-
- ! i i
0 49 9'8 188 ' 196 245

LOAD (kN)
FIG.2-Relationship between number o f AE hits and the applied load.
crack width exceeds 0.12 mm. The breakdown of the effect becomes clearer as the
cracking progresses in the third, fourth and fifth loadings. High AE activities are
observed during the third, fourth and fifth unloadings.
The moment tensor analysis revealed that the contribution of shear cracks
increases as the breakdown of the Kaiser effect becomes clearer with the progress of
the fracture. It was also indicated that high AE activity is observed during the third,
fourth and fifth unloadings after the maximum width of the surface cracks has
exceeded about 0.25 mm. The moment tensor analysis found that the shear cracks
generated near the reinforcing bar is responsible fl)r this activity. "lhe origin ,,i the~
emissions was attributed to rubbings between the faces of the existing cracks or ttiction
between the reinforcement and concrete.
Case Study 2: Repaired RC Beams
The configuration of the specimen and the locations of displacement transducers

and AE sensors are shown in Fig. 3. Six PAC R15 sensors were placed lineally on
the top plane of the specimen. The repaired part is in the tensile side of the specimen.
The depth and length of the repaired part are 100 mm and 2200 mm, respectively. In
addition to steel bars as reinforcement, stirrups were embedded in the specimen to
prevent beams shear failure.
The specimens were subjected to repeated four point bending loadings by a
strain-control type machine. During each loading, measurements of AE, crack width,
slip length between the repaired part and the original part, and strain of concrete and
reinforcement were made by using AE sensors and two different types of displacement
transducers.
These measurements indicated that the initiation of the early tensile
microcracks, main tensile cracks, local slips, and large-scale slips are clearly detected
by AE hit measurement. It was shown that once large-scale slips have occurred at the
interface between the original concrete and the repaired part, AE starts to emanate at
L 480 _1 240_1 240 i 480 J

r -B- -~,- 7-
, ~ , 9
CH.,6 CH.,5 WCH.4 i C 3 CH.m2 CH.II1
I
I
(6) (7) (8) (9) (10)
1 2 3 4 5 " 5.~ '. ~ "
.. - - - - c . . . . . ~ .... IF.:" ,-,---.,.----'-----'----- ....... ~.
9 1_2ooJ2oo.I 2001_2oo.l.2oo 12oo_1 A

I
C
[- Two directional displacement

transducer for sllp length
Displacement transducer
for crack width
mm AE Sensor
FIG. 3-Configuration o f the repaired RC beams and the locations o f displacement

lransduce~ and AE sensors.
•'`''i''''l'``'i`'''•`'''I'''`••'''i•''••''''I''•`•''•`n'''•''''I''''•'`''l''''•','`i•''•''''t
....
100
MAIN CRACK INITIATION
L A R G E - S C A L E SLIP
I
,. , . 9 ..
v
5o
9 .. .;. . .............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1 A
2.5~
MICRO-CRACK INITIATION i0 J l
z
0
'"' '"' '"' '"' "" "" '"' '"' "" "" "" '"' "" '"' "" ""1'"'1'" I I '
3 0 0 0 6000
TIME (SECOND)
FIG. 4-Amplitude and displacement histories.
much lower load than the previous maximum load, that is, the Kaiser effect no longer
holds for the next loading and high AE activity can be seen even during unloading.
Thus, the breakdown of the Kaiser effect and the high AE activity during unloading
can be a good indicator for the occurrence of large-scale slips in repaired RC beam.
Amplitudes of all hits are plotted versus time together with the displacement in
Fig. 4. It is obvious that the initiation of the early tensile microcracks or the local
slips and the mechanical rubbings of the interlocked faces due to large-scale slips gave
amplitude levels between 40 and 60 dB, while the initiation of the main tensile crack at
38.2 kN produced very high amplitudes that reached nearly 80 dB. Thus, the different
AE sources could be clearly distinguished by comparing the amplitude data with the
results of the visual observation and the measurement by displacement transducers.
A concrete beam integrity (CBI) ratio, given below, was proposed as a criterion
to measure the severity of damage induced in repaired concrete beams.
CBI ratio = load at onset of AE / maximum prior load
In the field of fiber-reinforced plastic (FRP) structures, AE tests have been

widely used to evaluate structural integrity and testing has been standardized by ASME
Code, Section V, Article 11. In this code, the Felicity ratio obtained from the ratio of
the load at onset of AE and the maximum prior load gives the criterion to measure the
severity of previously induced damage. It has been shown that the Felicity effect,
which is referred to as the breakdown of the Kaiser effect, is an indication of defects.

The felicity ratio has been well accepted to examine structural integrity of chemical
plant equipment such as pressure vessels, tanks and piping. However, beams, pillars,
columns, and slabs are inspected in concrete structures. In the case of chemical plant
equipment, structures are loaded by pressurization. In contrast, concrete structures are
subjected to tensile, shear and bending loadings by jacking or running a heavy vehicle.
As shown in the test results, failure mechanisms vary with the progress of damage in
RC beams. It is obvious that the decrease of the CBI ratio is related to the generation
and propagation of shear cracks. Thus, the ratio can be a practical index for
evaluating structural integrity of RC beams. Taking these points into consideration,
the CBI ratio was introduced [6].
Listed in Table 1 are CBI ratios for each loading cycle, based on AE hit rate
activity. The ratios obtained by AE energy rate activity for all channels are also given
in the last column. As shown in Table 1, the CBI ratio decreases from the fifth
loading after large-scale slips have occurred due to the fourth loading along the
interface between the original concrete and the repaired part. It continues to decrease
as the damaged areas grow. It is known that the occurrence of large-scale slips is an
essential feature for damage that may result in a serious disaster in repaired concrete
structures. As shown above, the CBI ratio has very good correlation with the onset of
large-scale slips and the growth of damaged areas. Thus, the CBI ratio can be a very
useful and effective criterion to measure the severity of damage induced in repaired RC
beams.
It was also revealed that high AE activity is observed during unloadings once
large-scale slips have initiated between the original concrete and the repaired part. The
source of these emissions was ascribed to mechanical rubbings between the interlocked
faces introduced by the large-scale slips.
TABLE 1-Concrete Beam Integrity (CBI) ratios during the repeated loading tests of
repaired RC beams.
CH2 CH3 CH4 CH5 CH1 "~ 6 CH1 ~" 6

(hit) (hit) (hit) (hit) (hit) (energy)
2nd 1.25 - 1.25 - 1.25 1.25
3rd 1.16 1.16 1.16 - 1.16 1.16
4th 1.20 1.20 1.20 1.20 1.20 1.20
5th 0.69 0.69 0.69 1.00 0.69 0.69
6th 0.53 0.53 0.53 0.80 0.53 0.53
7th 0.68 0.40 0.50 0.68 0.40 0.25
Case Study 3: RC Beams Deteriorated Due to Corrosion of Reinforcement
Shown in Fig. 5 are dimensions (cm) of the specimen and sensor locations.
Six PAC R6 (60 kHz resonant) sensors were attached on the specimen to perform the
moment tensor analysis as well as AE parameter analysis. The lower quarter part of
the specimen was immersed in a 3% sodium chloride solution and an anodic current
was galvano-statically charged to the main steel bars until the maximum width of
surface cracks due to corrosion of the bars reached 1 mm or 4 mm. Thus, three
different types of specimens i.e. specimen with no corrosion damage and those with the
surface cracks determined as above were subjected to repeated four-point bending
loadings.
Indicated in Fig. 6 are relationships between AE hits and the applied load for
the specimens with the different deteriorated levels. It is observed that the Kaiser
effect starts to break down during the third loading in the case of the specimen with no
corrosion damage. However, it tends to break down during the second loading in the
case of the deteriorated specimen (crack width 1 mm) and the breakdown is very clear
during the second loading in the heavily deteriorated one (crack width 4 mm).
~<i (cm)
S
izo ..
Sensor location
(cm)
CH No. x y z
CHI 10 15 0
CH2 50 5 0
CH3 10 5 19
CH4 50 15 19
CH5 20 20 14
CH6 40 20 5
FIG. 5- The specimen and AE sensor locations for the repeated loading tests o f RC
beams deteriorated due to corrosion o f reinforcement.
10000 -
ll.-,* 8000
ml
6000-
(a)~ Ill
,oooi
2000-
O.
i , ~ , i , , E
98 196
LOAD ( k N )
10000-
I-, 8000-
(b) m
6000
,oooi
2000 -
98 196
LOAD (kN)
I0000-
(c)
I~ 8000
N .
~=~ 6000
J
2000 -
O-
LOAD
98
(kN)
FIG. 6-Relationships between A E hits and the applied load for the specimens with
196
different deteriorated levels; (a)specimen with no corrosion damage, (b)deteriorated

specimen (crack width 1 mm), (c)deteriorated specimen (crack width 4 ram).
TABLE 2-Concrete Beam Integrity (CBI) ratios for the second and the third loadings.
Loading cycle II III

No damage 1.00 0.75
Crack width lmm 0.71 0.49
Crack width 4mm 0.28 0.10
CBI ratios for the second and the third loadings are summarized in Table 2. It
is obvious that the CBI ratios exhibit smaller values than Case 1 because of the
breakdown of the Kaiser effect during the second loading in the deteriorated specimens.
It is also seen that the ratio becomes smaller as the deterioration due to corrosion of
the reinforcement becomes greater. During the third loading, the CBI ratios are
smaller than 1 for all the specimens. Again the ratios exhibit smaller values in the
specimens with the greater deterioration induced by the corrosion. Thus, it has been
confirmed that the CBI ratio can be an effective criterion to measure the severity of the
damage due to corrosion of the reinforcement in RC beams.
It is also observed in Fig. 6 that different levels of AE activity are detected
during unloadings, depending on the different damage levels. In the specimen with no
corrosion damage, relatively high AE activity is first observed during the 2nd
unloading, as shown in Fig. 6(a). However, some AE activity is already detected
during the 1st unloading in the case of the deteriorated specimen (crack width lmm).
High activity is seen during the 2nd unloading (Fig. 6(b)). Quite high AE activity is
observed during the 1st and the 2nd unloadings in the heavily deteriorated specimen
(crack width 4 mm), as seen in Fig. 6(c). Thus the levels of AE activity during
unloadings reflect the damage levels induced in the specimens. Since high AE activity
corresponds to the occurrence of serious damage, it can be an effective index to
estimate the level of deterioration.
Case Study 4: An Aging Dock
Structural integrity of RC beams was evaluated in an aging dock. Shown in

Fig. 7 is a cross section of the tested pier. A repaired beam and a damaged one
without repair were subjected to three loadings by running a dump truck with three
different load levels i.e. empty (ll3kN), half load (142kN), and full load (171kN).
Figure 8 schematically illustrates how the tests were performed. Two R15 and
R6 sensors were attached on the beams. However, only the data collected by R6
sensors could be analyzed since there were no significant AE signals detected by R15
sensors due to high attenuation at higher frequencies. A strain gage was attached on
the main reinforcing bar to measure strain changes during the loadings. Two cracks
2=
. ,C0 I
tJ
H.O0 5 0(3
f q.t30 I. 3]23 , 500 &O0 _ IO.f}0
4-~70 i i
t7 HWL ~ 2.00
LW.L -+ 0.00
:]30 9, '~.x ~ -:'.:30
Sea 2,;:
13r
- 2 a Of)
[rn]
FIG. 7- Cross section o f the tested pier.
FIG. 8-Schematic illustration o f the loading test.
the maximum opening width of which reached 0.8 mm were visually observed on the
surface of the unrepaired beam and measurements of corrosion potential confirmed that
serious damages due to corrosion of the reinforcement existed. Strain gage
measurements showed that the strain change is much larger in the unrepaired beam
than the repaired one for the same loadings.
AE hit rate, strain and amplitude histories for the damaged beam are given in
40 ....................................... 80 .~
30 - Go
Lo
0 t :,vlifiii,
Time
i,iil,,i 2o
90
(Empty) (Half loaded) (Fully loaded

..............................................
80
@
70 ................ ~--~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9 $ t
0
60 9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...,. ............................
.,-4 9 " "-&l

!9 .~.
:t"
t~ 50 :'* .............................
9 ",
.| ~"~ /
<
40
Time
FIG. 9-AE hit rate, strain and amplitude histories for the damaged (unrepaired) beam.
Fig. 9. Although the repaired beam (no damage) was very quiet, high AE activity was
observed since the first loading in the unrepaired one. The Kaiser effect breaks down
during the third loading and high AE activities are seen during the second and third
unloading. The AE source during the third unloading was thought to be frictions due
to slips between the reinforcement and the concrete. The amplitudes from this source
are smaller than 60 dB, as shown in Fig. 9. The CBI ratio is smaller than 0.6 during
the third loading. Thus, it has been shown that the CBI ratio and the AE activities
during unloadings are very good indicators for extensive deterioration in RC beams.
Discussion
Cracking Processes and A E Behavior
AE behavior has been studied during cracking processes in different types of

RC beams. Each fracture stage in reinforced concrete is schematically illustrated in
Fig. 10.
It has been reported that AE hits with medium level of amplitudes (40 to 60
dB) are emitted when early tensile microcracks initiate as the first stage of the fracture.
If main tensile cracks are generated, AE signals with larger amplitudes (80 to 100 dB)
are detected. After the width of surface cracks has exceeded a certain value as the
damage progresses to the second stage of the fracture, internal cracks such as
secondary tensile cracks or shear cracks start to initiate near the interface between the
Fracture Stage
$ LoadS
' 9 . . " .: - / . / , Reinforcement
i
.1?.? /. 1 .t 1 " Tensile microcracks
,l $
Internal cracks
[Secondary tensile c r a c k s ]
9)" : "1. 7'.~'. q'.q~'.7 ~ or shear cracks
Slips between the reinforcement

and the concrete
III
9 9 . . . . . .
Slips between the repaired part

and the original concrete
9 "
R e p a i r e d P a r t
FIG. lO-Schematic illustration o f fracture stages in reinforced concrete.

concrete and the reinforcement. In the cyclic loading test [ 7] of an L-shaped rigid
frame, the Kaiser effect started to break down after the crack width reached 0.15 to 0.2
mm and high AE activity was seen during unloadings after shear cracks started to play
a primary role. It has been thus shown that the Kaiser effect no longer exists and high
AE activities are observed during unloadings when the fracture progresses to the
second stage. This is because shear cracks start to play a primary role around the
interface between the reinforcement and concrete, generating AE events due to
mechanical rubbing of crack faces during loading and unloading. The amplitudes due
to this mechanism are smaller than 80dB, as indicated in Figs. 4 and 9.
When the fracture progresses to the third stage, slips (shear cracks) start to take
place during loading and unloading between the reinforcement and concrete or between
the repaired part and the original concrete. The amplitudes from this source are no
larger than 60 dB as seen in Figs. 4 and 9.
Thus, the damage level of RC beams is strongly related to the initiation of shear
cracks. Therefore, it is possible to evaluate structural integrity of RC beams by
analyzing emissions due to shear cracking.
Evaluation Criteria
In evaluating the structural integrity of concrete members, shear crack initiation

at the interface between the reinforcement and concrete or that between the repaired
part and the original concrete is vitally important. Therefore, the detection of shear
cracks (slips) can be a practical criterion to measure the severity of damage induced in
RC beams. As has been shown so far, the breakdown of the Kaiser effect and the
TABLE 3-An example o f evaluation criteria tbr damages induced in RC beams.
Fracture Stage Damage Level Amplitude CBI Ratio AE Activity

W)
(Crack width: (dB) during Unloading
Early microcracks Low 40 ~ 60 Larger than

(W<0.12 Low
Main tensile cracks 0.20mm) 80~ 100 1
Secondary tensile cracks Medium

(0.12 ~ 0.20mm 40 ~ 80 0.8 ~ 0.9 Medium
Internal shear cracks <W)
Slips between
reinforcement and Smaller than
concrete High
or 40 ~ 60 0.8 High
Slips between (0.5mm<W)
repaired part and
original concrete
high AE activity during untoadings correspond to the occurrence of serious damage

such as the slip between the reinforcement and concrete or that between the repaired
part and the original concrete. Therefore, they can be effective indices to estimate the
level of deterioration. An example of evaluation criteria for damage induced in RC
beams is given in Table 3. As demonstrated, the CBI ratio and the AE activity during
unloadings, which can be obtained under repeated loadings with increasing maximum
loads, are very useful for evaluating structural integrity of RC beams.
A Proposed Standard
In the present series of tests, AE signals were detected by PAC R15 (150 kHz
resonant) and R6 (60 kHz resonant) sensors, setting the system examination threshold
at 40 dB. An attenuation study made prior to the tests showed that R15 and R6
sensors can cover the areas of approximately 0.5 m and 2 m in the RC beams with
enough sensitivity, respectively. Since the maximum sensor distance was smaller than
0.5 m for RI5 sensors and 1 m for R6 sensors and the amplitude range of the detected
AE signals was quite large, the effect of either the sensitivity of the AE channel or the
attenuation in the structure on the CBI ratio is considered to be small in the
examinations. However, dependence of minimum detectable AE on the system
examination threshold must be always taken into consideration. Therefore, an
attenuation study and sensitivity calibration of the sensors by a pencil lead break or
electronic waveform generator with a pulse should be performed prior to test.
Based on the series of the tests we have conducted, the following brief test
procedure and evaluation criteria are proposed for AE tests of RC beams.
(1) AE Sensor
Low frequency sensor (60 kHz resonant) : large area (whole structure)
High frequency sensor (150 kHz resonant) : small area
(2) Attenuation Study and Sensitivity Calibration

An attenuation study and sensitivity calibration of sensors should be performed
prior to test by a pencil lead break or electronic waveform generator with a pulse.
(3) Loading Method

Running a dump truck or trailer
1st loading : Empty
2nd loading : Half loaded (half filled with water)
3rd loading : Fully loaded (fully filled with water)
A strain gauge should be preferably attached on the main reinforcing bar to
measure strain changes during loadings.

The maximum load should be determined in accordance with the allowable load.
(4) AE Data Analysis

Hit rate
Count (Energy) rate
Amplitude history
AE activity (hit, count, etc.) vs. load
Linear source location by low frequency sensor if possible
Zone location by low frequency sensor or high frequency sensor
(5) Evaluation Criteria

Serious damages (slips between the concrete and the reinforcing bars or those
between the concrete and the repaired part) in RC beams are indicated by:
CBI ratio < 0.8
High AE activity during unloading
References
[/] Yuyama, S., Okamoto, T., Shigeishi, M. and Ohtsu, M., "Quantitative Evaluation
and Visualization of Cracking Process in Reinforced Concrete by a Moment Tensor
Analysis of Acoustic Emission," Materials Evaluation, Vol. 53, No. 6, June 1995,
pp. 751-756.
[2] Yuyama, S., Okamoto, T. and Nagataki, S., "Acoustic Emission Evaluation of
Structural Integrity in Repaired Reinforced Concrete Beams," Materials
Evaluation, Vol. 52, No. 1, Jan. 1994, pp. 86-90.
[3] Murakami, Y. and Yuyama, S., "Acoustic Emission Evaluation of Structural

Integrity in Reinforced Concrete Beams Deteriorated Due to Corrosion of
Reinforcement," Progress in AE 8 (JSNDI), Proc. 13th Inter. AE Symp., Nov.
27-30, 1996, Nara, Japan, pp. 217-224.
[4] Kamada, T., Iwanami, M., Nagataki, S., Yuyama, S. and Ohtsuki, N., "Application
of Acoustic Emission Evaluation of Structural Integrity in Marine Concrete
Structures," Progress in AE 8 (JSNDI), Proc. 13th Inter. AE Symp., Nov. 27-30,
1996, Nara, Japan, pp. 355-360.
[5] Ohtsu, M., "Acoustic Emission Theory for Moment Tensor Analysis," Res.
Nondestr. Eval., Vol. 7, No. 6, 1995, pp. 169-184.
[6] Yuyama, S., Nagataki, S., Okamoto, T. and Soga, T., "Several AE Sources
Observed during Fracture of Repaired Reinforced Concrete Beams," Progress in AE
5 (JSNDI~ Proc. 10th Intern. AE Symp., Oct. 22-25, 1990, Sendai, Japan,
pp.345-353.
[ 7] Yuyama, S., Okamoto, T., Shigeishi, M. and Ohtsu, M., "Acoustic Emission
Generated in Corners of Reinforced Concrete Rigid Frame Under Cyclic Loading,"
Materials Evaluation, Vol. 53, No. 3, Mar. 1995, pp. 409-412.
Edouard G. Nesvijski 1
ON THE NECESSITY OF A NEW STANDARD FOR TIIE ACOUSTIC EMISSION
CHARACTERIZATION OF CONCRETE AND REINFORCED CONCRETE
STRUCTURES
REFERENCE: Nesvijski, E. G., " O n the Necessity of a New Standard for the
Acoustic Emission Characterization of Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
Structures," Acoustic Emission: Standards and Technology Update, ASTM STP 1353,
S. J. Vahaviolos, Ed., American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken,
PA, 1999.
Abstract: The acoustic emission (AE) method, though rather difficult in application and
interpretation of results, has a great potential for characterization of stress, bearing
properties, fatigue, and fracture of materials. The existing NDT standards that employ AE
cover only a limited number of materials and structures. Direct compilation of these
standards for materials with distinctive properties is difficult and sometimes impossible.
For instance, concrete is a "living" material and AE can be registered immediately after
preparation of cement or concrete mix, then during setting, and later during curing. AE in
hard concrete can be registered due to initiation and growth of cracks under different kinds
of physical factors. Classification of the signatures for different stages of concrete life and
service is given. Some new models of the quantitative AE analysis are presented in this
work.
Keywords: acoustic emission, concrete, strength, stiffness, crack-resistance, signal

processing, standard
Introduction
In spite of the long period of development of construction technologies, concrete

and reinforced concrete are still holding the leading position. Many concrete structures
show symptoms of deterioration before their designed service life. Repair and replacement
of concrete infrastructure is a very expensive and labor-consuming task. It has become a
matter of great concern to preserve existing concrete structures and improve their safety
and durability in the 21st century.
A fast developing theoretical platform for understanding of concrete failure
mechanics and accumulating experimental data give an opportunity for a closer look at new
possibilities of concrete technology [1].
' Visiting Research Professor, Center of Technology, Federal University of Santa Mafia,
Campus Universitafio, CEP: 97105-900, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
41
Concrete and Concrete Structures - "Orphaned Children" of the NDT Standards

Family
Control and management are important components of the complex process of

concrete technology development. NDT and NDE techniques are traditionally vital
instruments of characterization for many materials. A well-developed system of standards
was created to support high quality of materials and safety and durability of structures.
There are a great number of studies, reports and other publications devoted to development
of NDT for concrete and concrete structures [2-4], but only a few test methods are
standardized [5]. This factor has a negative impact on usage of NDT for concrete
technology now and will have a place in the future. Concrete and concrete structures still
remain "orphaned children" of the NDT standards family. For example, acoustic emission
(AE) standards well developed for other materials are out of sight for concrete and concrete
structures testing: ANSI/ASTM Practice for Acoustic Emission Monitoring of Structures
During Controlled Simulation (E0569), ANSI/ASTM Guide for Mounting Piezoelectric
Acoustic Emission Sensors (E0650), ANSI/ASTM Practice for Acoustic Emission
Monitoring During Continuous Welding (E0749), ANS1/ASTM Practice for Characterizing
Acoustic Emission Instrumentation (E0750), ANSI/ASTM Practice for Acoustic Emission
Examination of Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic Resin (FRP) Tanks/Vessels (El 067) and
others.
Features of AE Applications for Cement-Aggregate Based Materials and Structures
The AE method, though rather difficult in application and interpretation of results,

has a great potential for characterization of stress, bearing properties, fatigue, and fracture
of materials. The existing NDT standards that employ AE techniques are of general
character or have been worked out for specific materials, such as metals and alloys, and
cannot be compilated directly for cement-aggregate based materials. Three main factors can
explain the necessity for a new standard for the AE characterization of concrete and
reinforced concrete structures.
The first is connected with particulars of stress-strain relation in concrete under
different loads (static, dynamic, chemical, thermal, etc.) which are responsible for different
failure mechanisms. These mechanisms initiate a generation of signals with various AE
signature characteristics for every one of them or their combination.
The second factor represents specific conditions of propagation of acoustic signals
in a multi component medium, such as different types of concrete. It is connected with the
inhomogeneous structure of the material and contributes to particulars of AE measurement
and analysis. These materials, from the acoustic point of view, can be described by models
of polycrystalline elastic solid and by models of composite materials with stochastic
structure. In this case propagation of AE signals are characterized by attenuation connected
with high dispersion on inhomogeneity with a display of explicit frequency dispersion of
velocity.
The third factor is connected with specific problems of testing concrete and reinforced
concrete structures and control their main characteristics: strength, stiffness, crack-
resistance. Additionally, there are a number of practical problems connected with AE
analysis of pre-stressed reinforced concrete structures during their manufacture as well as
during service and repair, and also of testing the steel-to-concrete bond [6]
NESVIJSKI ON NECESSITY OF A NEW STANDARD 43
There are also other features that are important for AE applications in concrete and
reinforced concrete structures: design of AE sensors, signal processing, procedure of source
coordinates location, etc., which have to be standardized.
Structural AE Sources in Concrete
The model of cement-aggregate material from the point of view of mechanics of

failure may be presented as a matrix-filler composite. Here filler represents various kinds of
aggregate with different shape, size, elastic and strength properties. Matrix may be
represented by a model of polycrystalline solid consisting of various components, such as
sand, hydrated cement, and their chemical compounds with a spreading net of pores and
micro-cracks filled with water of air. Non-organic admixtures that are used now (fly and
rice ash, silica fume and others) change the mechanical structure of concrete matrix. That is
why it is possible to consider three main sources of AE due to different actions and loads.
The first is AE signals emitted by structural changes in matrix. This physical
process is rather difficult to describe because sizes and shapes of micro-cracks, their
direction, and distribution in matrix are of random character. Two opposite processes may
characterize stress-strain mechanism in matrix: opening and growth of micro-cracks and
shut of pores. These processes initiate AE with different signatures. As they are of mass
and continuous character it is very difficult to distinguish them from one another. In this
case the signal reminds typically the "white" noise process. Analysis of this type of AE
requires special instrumentation [7].
The second source is that AE can be initiated as a result of adhesion failure between
matrix and filler surface. This AE source emits short pulses of different shape depending on
filler shape and adhesion character. These pulses have sufficient amplitude for effective
registration. The only problem is their different locations in the matrix. As a result they are
registered as a package AE signal, which represent a combination of continuous AE from
matrix and a sum of AE from matrix-filler sources. Sometimes there are considerable
difficulties to distinguish a weak signal from a distant location in the shadow of a strong
pulse from a close zone at the registration point.
The third source is represented by a physical failure of filler. As a rule this type of
AE can be observed only at a high level of stress before fracture or collapse of material or
structure. AE pulses in this case have very high amplitude and are less frequent than other
types of AE signals. It is necessary to add that at this stage micro-cracks develop to macro-
cracks in matrix and also emit high amplitude AE signals. They resemble AE filler pulses,
but in a number of cases it is possible to distinguish them.
Features of AE Propagation in Concrete
Due to complexity of structure concrete has a strong filtrating effect n the

propagating AE signals. The material can be represented as a chin of filters with changing
from point to point characteristics. That is why the amplitude-phase characteristic of the
signal changes greatly, and the registered signal may be completely different from the
emitted one, or two similar signals may have absolutely different features at the point of
registration. Typical AE pulses and their spectra are shown (Figure 1).
Figure 1 - Typical AE Pulses in Different Kinds of Concrete: a - Hard Concrete," b -

Cement Stone Concrete; c - Lime Stone Concrete
NESVlJSKI ON NECESSITY OF A NEW STANDARD 45
Set of AE Applications Will Be Ready to Meet a New Standard Procedure
Estimation of the Relative Level of Stress
Application of AE for estimation o f stress in concrete and reinforced concrete

structures was developed as a result of analysis o f experimental data o f testing concrete
specimens by central axis compression and measurement o f the AE parameters during
testing time [8]. Estimation of the relative level o f stress is based on the idea of building a
dynamic model with identification of transfer operator F(t) according to the input action
X(t) and the response Y(t). It can be described mathematically: input action X(t) like
Dirac function 6 ( 0 , output action or response like convolution function Y(t). It is possible
to give a physical interpretation with the help o f the small loads (SL) method:
Y(t) = F(t) | 8 ( 0 (1)
Application of additional SL to the specimens that are under various relative levels
of stress (stress to ultimate load ratio) generates AE of different character. The AE signals
are registered during a certain period o f time AT after these actions. This approach allows
the development of a criterion similar to output action as a convolution function, where
multiplication o f count velocity N of AE to period o f time AT after the SL action is the
core of this function.
Analysis of Stress Using NN-Criterion
The AE response to small loads for different relative levels o f stress can be analyzed
using NN -criterion (Nogin-Nesvijski criterion) [8]. Values o f NN -criterion are calculated
for different relative levels o f stress~(t)/R, where R is the strength o f the concrete
specimen. The formula for heuristic NN -criterion is presented below:
(2)
where: N, = the AE count velocity; t i = time interval between the moment o f application
of additional small load and the moment o f the AE registration; B = weight coefficient,
which depends on the material structure and particulars o f its response to an action
i = 1,2...,k, where k is a number o f AE measurements.
Combined Method of Stress Evaluation
Combined method of stress evaluation is based on the joint measurements o f AE

and infrared radiation (IR) as a result of application of SL [9]. AE is charaetefized by the
NN - criterion; IR is characterized by the change o f the density o f thermal flow AW. The
AE method with the help of the NN - criterion allows the evaluation of the relative level o f
stress 8 R. The IR method give the possibility to evaluate the change o f stress ty. Thus, the
combined method uniting the advantages o f both methods could be used to forecast
strength R or bearing properties &concrete structures
R + ~T~ (3)
J f(NN)J
where: ~ = coefficient of the heat expansion of the material; T O= the initial temperature;
Y0 = density of the material; ~ = specific heat of the material; f ( N N ) = experimental
function; plus(+)= compression of the structural material; minus(-) = tension of the
material.
Practical Applications of AE for Stress Analysis
The SL method has its limitations. For the problems of field-testing is can be
substituted by the method of local small loads (LSL) There are two variants of creation of
the LSL:
mechanical loads can be created using a special device (indenter) on the surface,
an AE transducer is included in the device for registration of the signals;
thermal loads can be created by a special device with lens for concentration of
point heating, by the pulse laser, or by the laser with continuous radiation
lhermal A E
The character of thermal AE is different for different types of concrete. It is possible

to consider two thermal processes: beating and cooling. The NN - criterion may be applied
for analysis of the relative level of stress in these cases.
Other Important AE Applications
The AE method can be used for estimation of anchor length in a pre-stressed

reinforced structure [10]. It gives the possibility to analyze stress and / or strain in the
anchoring zone. It also can be applied for quality testing of embedded articles in reinforced
concrete structures and for measurement of stress in core structures of multistory
monolithic concrete buildings during their construction [11]. Concrete, unlike other
construction materials, has special acoustic effects when loaded. These effects could be
used for forecasting of failure or durability prediction of the material [12,13]
Promising Directions of AE Testing of Concrete
Deeper investigation of the AE signal processing should give more information

about structure of testing materials and dynamics of modification of their properties. One of
the directions of the investigation is separation and analysis of AE signals at the point of
their generation. Another direction is analysis of filtrating properties of concrete when the
point of registration is at some distance from the AE source. These two approaches could
allow solving the inverse problem of identification of concrete failure. It is possible to use
complete characteristics of the signal, for example, their complex spectra [14]. General 3-D
images of complex spectrum of single AE pulses are demonstrated (Figure 2).
Figure 2 - General 3-19Images of Complex Spectrum of Single AE Pulses Registered for:

a - Hard Concrete; b - Cement Stone Concrete; c - Lime Stone Concrete
Modeling of the AE testing may be built on the basis of dynamic stochastic models,
when concrete will be represented by a "black box" schematic. In this case the AE process
should be considered a material reply to the testing loads. Usage of such a model gives an
opportunity to solve three main problems:
- forecasting of time series behavior using "lead time" data (data obtained during
current experiments) for prediction of the material response to the similar
actions and loads in the future or testing results for a twin material specimen
during "lead time";
identification of the material properties as an estimation of transfer function for
the "black box" model. In this case the problem of identification has been
solved according to the results of the input and output actions. There is a transfer
of notion of mathematical description of transfer function on characterization of
the material. This logical substitution gives us an opportunity to formalize
testing procedures and describe the material as a set of formulae, which can be
used for quantitative and qualitative characterization of the material;
this "black box" model is open for further development and could include other
types of loads and actions and corresponding material responses to them.
Conclusion
The AE method Applications for NDT of concrete and reinforced concrete

structures differ considerable from other materials (metals, alloys, plastics, ceramics, etc.).
The practical application of AE for concrete structure characterizations and evaluation has
specific tasks and that is why new approaches, equipment, and software are required.
Standardization of all parts is the main streamline for successful application of the AE
method in the laboratory and industry. But it is necessary to point out that this problem
requires further investigation together with studies of mechanism of failure and fracture of
concrete. New modem analysis for AE signal processing and imaging, and analysis of time
series on the basis of stochastic dynamic models, should be provided for successful
standardization of the AE testing of concrete and concrete structures.
References
[1] Ohtsu, M., "Quantitative Evaluation of Crack and Damage in Concrete by Acoustic
Emission," Keynote Speech, Sixth International Symposium on Acoustic Emission
from Composite Materials (AECM-6), San Antonio, TX, June 2-4, 1998.
[2] Hardy, R.H, Jr., "Evaluating the stability of Geologic Structures Using Acoustic
Emission," ASTM-STP 571, 1975, pp. 80-106.
[3] Lord, AE., Jr. And Koener, R.M., "Acoustic Emission in Geologic Materials,"
Proceedings, Joint Meeting of Acoustic Societies of America and Japan, Nov.22-
Dec. 1, 1978, Publ. UCLA, Kanji Ono, Ed., pp. 261-307.
[4] Nogin, S.I. and Nesvijski, E.G., "The Parametrical Points of the Cracking Process in
Concrete under Compression," Journal of Concrete and Reinforced Concrete,
No.3, 1980, Moscow, pp. 10-12.
[5] Nesvijski, E.G., "Perspective Integration of Ultrasonic Pulse Method for Testing of
Concrete in the Frame of GOST, ASTM, and ISSO Standards, "Proceedings,
ASNT's Spring Conference, Las Vegas, NV, 1995.
[6] Nesvijski, E.G., Sagaydak, A.I., and Tukhtaev, B.H., "Quality Control of Embedded
Articles," Journal of Civil Engineering Maretials and Structures, No.3, 1991, Kiev,
pp. 23-25.
[7] Nesvijski, E.G., "On Application of Acoustic Emission Method for Prognosis of Hard
Concrete Properties," Proceedings, Fifth International Symposium on Acoustic
Emission from Composite Materials (AECM-5), Sunsvall, Sweden, 1995,
pp. 385 - 392.
[8] Nesvijski, E.G. and Nogin, S.I., "Acoustic Emission Technics for Nondestructive
Evaluation of Stress of Concrete and Reinforced Concrete Structures and
Materials," Proceedings, Third Conference on Nondestructive Evaluation of Civil
Structures and Materials, Boulder, CO, 1996, pp. 285-294.
[9] Nesvijski, E.G. and Sagaydak, A.I., "'A Combined Method of Estimating Stress in
Structures," Journal of Civil Engineering Materials and Structures, No.2, 1991,
Kiev, p. 37.
[10] Nesvijski, E.G. et al., "'Method of Testing Stress Conditions of Concrete and
Reinforced Concrete Structures," Patent SU 1472820 A1, Publ. BI No. 14, 1989,
Moscow.
[11] Nesvijski, E.G., Sagaydak, A.I., and Vernidub, A.T., "Acoustic Emission Method
Applied to Testing of Multi-Storied Concrete Monolithic Buildings," Journal of
Civil Engineering Materials and Structures, No.2, 1992, Kiev, pp. 34-35.
[12] Nesvijski, E.G. and Nesvijski, T.E., "Kaiser and Felicity Effects and Their Application
for Evaluation of Concrete by Acoustic Emission," Proceedings, ASNT's Fall
Conference, Seattle, WA, 1996.
[13] Nesvijski, E.G. and Nesvijski, T.E., "Failure Forecast and the Acoustic Emission
'Silence Effect' in Concrete," Proceedings, ASNT's Spring Conference, Houston,
TX, 1997.
[14] Nesvijski, E. G., "New Possibility for Acoustic Emission Testing of Concrete
Structures," Progress in Acoustic Emission IX, Transition in AE for the 21st
Century, Proceedings, International Acoustic Emission Conference, 14th
International Acoustic Emission Symposium, 5th Acoustic Emission Worid Meeting,
Big Island, Hawaii, 1998, pp. II-119-125.
H. R. Hamilton, 11I,1 T. J. Fowler, 2 and J. A. Puckett3
AE E V A L U A T I O N OF F A T I G U E D A M A G E IN T R A F F I C S I G N A L P O L E S
R E F E R E N C E : Hamilton, H. R., 11I, Fowler, T. J., and Puckett, J. A., " A E Evaluation
of Fatigue Damage in Traffic Signal Poles," Acoustic Emission: Standards and
Technology Update, ASTM STP 1353, S. J. Vahaviolos, Ed., American Society for
Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA, 1999.
ABSTRACT: Two traffic signal structures recently collapsed in Wyoming. The

collapse was a result of brittle fracture of the connection between the cantilever signal
light support arm (mast arm) and the vertical pole (post) caused by wind-induced, large-
amplitude vibrations of the mast arm. This paper presents the problem, the proposed
test program, the results of initial development tests, and the effort to develop a viable
AE testing technique along with evaluation criteria that can be used to screen in-service
traffic signal poles.
K E Y W O R D S : acoustic emission, traffic signal poles, wind-induced vibrations, fatigue,

welds
Background
Two signal structures recently collapsed in Wyoming. The collapse was the
result of the fracture of the connection between the cantilever signal light support pole
(mast-arm) and the vertical pole (post) connected to the foundation, The Wyoming
Department of Transportation (WYDOT) performed inspections of the state inventory
of traffic signal poles and found that nearly one-third of the approximately 820 poles
inspected had fatigue cracks visible at the surface of the post at the toe of the weld. The
i Assistant Professor of Civil Engineering, University of Wyoming, P. O. Box 3295, Laramie,

WY 82071.
2 M. W. Kellogg, Adjunct Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Texas at
Austin, Austin, TX 78712-10",'6.
3 Professor of Civil Engineering, University of Wyoming, P. O. Box 3295, Laramie, WY 82071.
50
HAMILTON ET AL. ON FATIGUE IN TRAFFIC SIGNAL POLES 51
crack lengths found in the inspection program varied in length from less than one inch
(25 mm) to as much as twenty inches (500 mm).
The findings prompted WYDOT to immediately initiate replacement of the
poles with the most extensive cracking. The replacement poles were fabricated with a
connection detail designed by WYDOT to have improved fatigue resistance over the
existing detail. WYDOT also contacted other states to determine if the problem
extended beyond Wyoming. Other states reported having had isolated failures of traffic
signal poles. However, no states actually have inspection programs in place for routine
inspection of traffic or sign structures. In addition, many traffic signal structures are
owned by local authorities rather than the state DOT and may receive even less attention
in that regard [1].
The University of Wyoming (UW) was asked to look at the problem and provide
assistance. UW is currently involved in research on improving the very low damping
(0.1-0.7 percent critical) in these structures, investigating the fatigue resistance of the
old and new connection detail, and testing and implementing potential NDT methods to
be used in regular inspection of traffic signal poles. This paper covers the concept of
using AE to inspect traffic signal poles and presents the results of a pilot test conducted
on a fill-scale signal structure.
Typical Pole Geometry
Wyoming uses a traffic signal pole that originated in California. The pole is
manufactured from ASTM A53 Grade B
welded steel pipe. The mast-arm and
post are manufactured as a single piece
and then hot-dipped galvanized for
corrosion protection (FIG. 1). Both the Mast-ar
mast arm and post are tapered sections.
The baseplate on the post is bolted
Post
directly to the foundation anchorbolts.
The mast-arm and post are field
connected with two thick plates and high
strength bolts (FIG. 2). One plate is FIG. 1--Signalpole configuration.
welded to a 4-plate box that is, in turn,
welded to the post. The other plate is cut and welded to the mast-arm as a socket type
connection. All welds are fillet welds. There are generally two different types of
connections used, the open and closed box connection. Both Wyoming failures
occurred in the post material at the toe of the weld between the box and post, illustrated
in the figure with bold lines.
Wind-Induced Fatigue
Prediction of the fatigue life in traffic signal poles under wind-induced

vibrations is a complex problem. Because of the low stiffness and damping of these
structures, mild wind can cause significant vibrations of the cantilever element, which
causes variable-amplitude stresses to develop in the connection. The vibrations occur at
relatively low wind speeds causing many cycles at moderate stress ranges to develop in
a short period of time. Wind speeds of 10-30 mph (16-48 kph) are almost a constant
occurrence in Wyoming so it is possible that these poles are experiencing large numbers
of cycles before similar poles in other parts of the country. This may mean that other
parts of the country that use a similar detail could see similar problems surfacing in the
next few years.
continuous Weld
FIG. 2--Comparison of open and closed connections.

McDonald et al. indicate that the primary contributor to vibrations in signal
poles is galloping during wind speeds in the range of 10-30 mph (16-48 kph) [2].
Galloping is an aerodynamic phenomenon that causes the tip to displace vertically. The
signal poles of the type used in Wyoming tend to vibrate predominately in the first
mode as a single degree-of-freedom system with the maximum displacement occurring
at the tip of the cantilever (FIG. 3). McDonald et al. also indicated that out-of-plane
movement was caused by natural wind and truck-induced wind gusts and that the out-
of-plane vibration is In-plane vibrations: tip
predominately first mode in displacement perpendicular to
which the tip displacement is g r o u n ~ /
maximum, causing torsion in the
post. Amplitudes of 8 to 18
inches (203 to 457 mm) in a full-
scale test specimen (with a 48 ft
(13.7 m) cantilever) during
galloping in actual wind
conditions of 10-30 mph (16-48 displacement parallel to [.'1
kph) were found to occur. ground surface ~ "
Fatigue research was - \
conducted at Lehigh University ~ Wind direction for ' x ~
for Caltrans (California galloping to occur
Department of Transportation) in
FIG. 3--Vibration of pole.
1980 on these types of Previous fatigue tests caused

connections [3]. The cracking at toe of pipe/plate weld.
results of the research
indicated that there were Cracking has been found in
no fatigue problems with the vertical post at the toe of
the connection for in- the welds. The cracks have
plane loading of the arm. generally radiated from the
The fatigue tests were comers and have been noted
conducted using in-plane at both the top and the
displacements with no bottom of the box. This
out-of-plane pattern has been found in
displacements imposed. both the open and closed
Most of the connections.
relevant research FIG. 4--Crackingfound during WYDOT inspections.
conducted to date has
focused on the in-plane displacements of the signal arm caused by galloping. However,
the WYDOT field inspections following the failures indicated that the fatigue cracking
is occurring at the top and bottom comers of the box connection indicating that there are
significant out-of-plane stresses in combination with in-plane stresses (FIG. 4). It is
expected that if the in-plane displacements were causing the damaging stresses, then the
majority of the cracks would have been found in the top of the connection. This is an
indication that the stresses caused by out-of-plane displacements may be a significant
contributor to the damage.
Another possible explanation for the fatigue cracking at the bottom of the
connection is an "oil-canning" effect that may be induced by the flexibility of the thin
vertical post to which the box is welded. As the mast arm vibrates, moment develops at
the connection. This moment is transferred through the connection to the post. If the
post is sufficiently thin then unfavorable flexural stresses could develop in the post that
eventually initiate and grow fatigue cracks.
Post-Mortem Examination
A section of one of the Wyoming failed poles was sent to Lehigh University for
examination. The results of the examination indicated that the cracking initiated at the
toe of the fillet weld. There were several sites along the length of the weld where
cracking initiated. These sites eventually coalesced into a single crack that led to
failure. One interesting aspect of the examination was that the cracks grew from the
outside and inside of the wall section and met at approximately mid-depth. This
indicates that external visual inspection will not necessarily detect cracking if it has
initiated on the interior. This also supports the theory that the post may have significant
flexural stresses present that cause cracking on the interior as well as the exterior.
Finally, the examination indicated that there were no significant weld defects that may
have precipitated cracking.
Research Significance
There may be a significant problem with the fatigue strength of many traffic
signal poles throughout the U.S. However, this problem may be going unnoticed
because traffic signal structures are generally not inspected regularly. In fact, in many
instances traffic signal poles are owned by local authorities and are not considered a
structure at risk of fatigue or other damage that requires a regular inspection program.
In addition, while the cost of a typical signal structure is not small, each signal structure
does not represent the significant capital investment that a bridge or petroleum tank
would. It is prudent, then, to develop a method of inspection (to supplement visual) for
these structures that does not require an extensive amount of training and experience
and that is somewhat automated.
AE provides an excellent screening tool that can be used to quickly test a pole to
determine if further more detail inspection is required. Acoustic emission testing has
been used successfully for many years in the petrochemical industry for testing FRP
tanks, steel tanks, gas pipelines, etc. and for testing insulated bucket trucks (ASTM
E 1067, E 1419, and F914). Standard test methods have been developed for testing these
structures using AE. The attractiveness of the method is that it is a global inspection
method. AE provides a method to screen these structures in a relatively quick manner
without significant loss of service time.
UW Research Program
Field Testing
Because of the question concerning how much the in-plane and out-of-plane
vibrations contribute to the connection fatigue damage, the initial focus of the research
will be to determine the actual dynamic movements that typical poles have in service.
Two 50-ft cantilever poles, currently in service in Laramie, WY, have experienced large
amplitude vibrations under windy conditions, and will initially be monitored for several
months to determine the direction and magnitude of the vibrations. These poles have
been in service for only three years and do not have detectable fatigue cracks, so the test
equipment will then likely be moved to a signal pole in Cheyenne that has fatigue
cracks typical of those found on many of the poles inspected. It is anticipated that the
field-monitoring program will yield information regarding the relative in-plane and out-
of-plane movements. Later, these results will be used to formulate laboratory and
numerical studies.
Computer Modeling and Static Testing
Computer models of the old and new connection detail will be developed to
determine the stress distribution in connection due to dead load and wind events. Other
issues that may be significant are the method of assembly and the resulting residual
stresses locked into the connection. Concurrent with the analytical modeling, static
laboratory tests will be conducted on existing connections to confirm the results of the
computer modeling. WYDOT, as a result of the pole replacement program, has a
number of poles that have been taken out of service that will be used to conduct the
laboratory testing. In addition, pole suppliers have offered to fabricate both new and
existing connections for use in testing as a baseline for "new condition."
NDE and Fatigue Testing
The results of the field study will be combined with the computer modeling and
static laboratory tests to develop an appropriate fatigue test scenario for the damaged
and new tes" specimens. The objectives of the fatigue tests are to determine the
constant-amplitude fatigue life and to calibrate the AE and ultrasonic (UT) test methods.
It is unlikely that the specimens will be tested purely with in-plane or out-of-plane
displacements, but rather a combination based on the results of the field study. Acoustic
emission testing will be conducted during the fatigue testing. In addition, the fatigue
testing will be paused periodically to perform static AE tests in order to calibrate the AE
vs. damage level at different stages in the fatigue loading. Periodic ultrasonic testing
will also be conducted during the fatigue tests.
AETesting
While project has not yet reached the point where significant AE work has been
completed, it was felt that a test should be conducted on a full-scale specimen early in
the project to determine if there were any adjustments necessary in the planned
laboratory work to accommodate field testing issues. To the authors' knowledge, AE
has never been used on traffic signal poles, so it was prudent to try it in the field on a
full-scale structure prior to performing the laboratory work. This will avoid developing
procedures in the laboratory that are not appropriate or applicable for field testing.
Results of Initial AE Tests
As a part of the initial phase of the research project for WYDOT, there was a
full-scale pole installed at the Laramie district yard for use by the researchers. The pole
was taken out of service because of cracking that had been found during the dye
penetrant inspection program initiated after the pole failures. The pole is a typical 50 ft
cantilever mast arm that holds three signals, two standard and one turn signal (FIG. 5).
This particular pole was constructed with a closed-box connection.
Dye Penetrant and Ultrasonic Inspections
Prior to AE testing, the test pole was inspected using both dye penetrant and
ultrasonic inspection. Both inspections found cracking at the comers of the box
connection (in the post at the toe of the weld). The results of the dye penetrant testing
indicated that there were two cracks approximately 1.5 inches (38 mm) in length located
at the comers. The inspection report does not specify which comers. Ultrasonic
inspection indicated that there were cracks less than 1 in (25 mm) in length at two
comers corresponding to AE sensors 2 and 3 (FIG. 6)
Instrumentation
The test was conducted using the MISTRAS 2001 system with two Physical
Acoustics Corporation (PAC) AEDSP-32/16 Cards mounted in a portable computer.
PAC R151 (125 kHz resonant frequency; 70-200 kHz operating frequency) sensors with
integral amplifiers (40 dB) were used for acquisition of AE signals. Traditional AE
FIG. 5--Test pole configuration.

feature data were recorded along with the applied load level. The load was fed directly
to the AE cards with a 5 kip (22.2 kN) load cell placed in line with the cable used to pull
on the end of the mast-arm. Wave form capture was also activated during the test. The
following settings were used:
1. Threshold: 40 dB
2. Sample Rate: 2 MHz
3. Peak Definition Time: 200 ~ts
4. Hit Definition Time: 400 ~ts
5. Hit Lockout (rearm) Time: 2 ~s
Sensors were attached to the pole at each Of the four comers of the box connection (FIG.
6) and were attached with hot melt glue. Magnetic clamps were also used to hold the
sensors in place. The ambient temperature was approximately 30 ~ F (-1 ~ C) and there
was some difficulty in getting the glue gun to heat to the proper level so that the glue
could be applied in a sufficiently viscous state to allow the couplant to be squeezed to a
thin layer under the sensor. It is anticipated that in future testing the magnetic clamps
will be used to keep the sensors in place and a more viscous couplant will be used.
Applied Moment Load Application
Load was applied to the end of

the mast arm using a fabric cable and a
winch. As noted previously, the load cell
was installed in line with the cable to
allow recording of the load history along
FIG. G-Location of AE sensors. with AE data. As an added check, the tip
displacements were monitored to ensure
that the load remained in the elastic range.
When considering the strength of the pole under static loads, the location that
controls the capacity of the structure is the base of the mast arm. The calculated tip load
required to yield the pole, based on the measured section properties and an assumed
yield strength of 35 ksi (240 MPa), was 960 pounds (4.27 kN). The maximum load
applied was 665 pounds (3.0 kN), which is 69% of the yield capacity.
AE Test Procedures
After the application of the sensors, lead breaks were made at approximately 3 in
(75 mm) from each sensor. The average of three breaks each was: Sensor 1 - 83.7 dB,
SenSor 2 - 82.7 dB, Sensor 3 - 82.0 dB, and Sensor 4 - 84.0 dB.
After application and testing of the sensors, the pole was fitted at the tip of the
cantilever with the cable, load cell and winch. The cable was attached to concrete
blocks to provide the necessary dead weight. It is anticipated that in actual testing
conditions the cable would be attached to a bucket truck. Acquisition was initiated and
a background noise check was done for five minutes. The load was then applied
incrementally in steps of approximately 100 pounds (450 kN) and held until the
emission ceased. Unfortunately, the gain was not set sufficiently high to obtain good
resolution in the load readings, as can be seen in the load history plot (FIG. 7).
Load (Pounds (kN))
700 (3.1),
600(2.7) .1
500(2.2) i ;~
400(1'8)i /
300(1.3)
1
ii
200 (0.9),; ~,~
d
1 O0(0.4) r
/
0 (0)
0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (minutes)
FIG. 7--Load History.
The load was taken to 665 pounds (69%) on the first loading and 657 pounds
(68%) on the second loading. At full load the tip deflection was 22 in. (560 mm). This
level of load causes an extreme distortion visually and it is hoped that the test load can
be reduced (mostly for the comfort of the operator and general public).
Data Reduction
There was a large amount of AE data acquired during the first loading. Because
this was the first time the pole had been loaded, it is expected that much of the acoustic
emission was from the relieving of residual stresses in the welds and slip in the
connection. The second loading produced much less emission than the first loading
indicating that the material was exhibiting the Kaiser effect.
The counts and load history plots for the first and second loading are divided
into two graphs (FIG. 8 and FIG. 9). There are columns of high count bursts centered,
in general, around the times when additional load is applied and the number of counts
increases with increasing load level. This indicates that there are possible noise events
occurring that are generating spurious AE data. The form of the data looks similar to
that found in steel tank or rail car tests when there is mechanical rubbing present.
To eliminate this spurious data, a post-processing filter (Swansong II) was used
to eliminate the data near hits that are suspected of being spurious emissions [4]. The
filter keys on low amplitude hits that have long duration and removes all of the data
within plus and minus half a second of the telltale hit. Count and load history plots after
filtering indicate that there is a large number of hits that have been removed from the
acquired data set (FIG. 8 and FIG. 9).
Log AE Counts Load (Pounds (kN))
10 5 700(3.1)
600(2.7)
104
500 (2.2)
103 :; ;1 !'
;! ; Illilm..~ " 400(1.8)
102 " '" ii 300 (1.3)
l:l'.~l,II I I: '
200 (0.9)
10
I~..; - 100(0.4)
1 0 (0)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Time (Minutes)
FIG. 8--Count and load history for first loading.

105
t700(3.1)
104 I / ~ ,i 600(2.7)
103
9 fVJ'g
Y";9 !:,.. : l,~"
9~~ in "-" .~"
!.
, ""~" t 400(1.8)
102
( '
f
9
; 9
.''roll ! .~
= ...
IV:
.~.
~"
~-
+, 300(1.3)
10
9
9
9
"
9
! 9 -, 9
:
9
9 -_%!
9 T
-
"-
ma--
;~,i,',,
~'~-~
I
"
+ 200(0.9)
9 ~ m,,.a.~. ~ "~.~.". ~ +100(0.4)

1 : :=':--=', ::~: i,, , io (0)
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (Minutes)
FIG. 9--Counts and load history for second loading.
It is likely that there is slip occurring between the connection plates during the
load increase as the frictional resistance on the surface of the plates (due to bolt
tightening) is exceeded by the applied load (FIG. 10). This is Slip
supported by the fact that spurious data are generated
simultaneously with the increasing load. In addition, there is a
significant amount of AE during low loads and unloading.
While the wind was calm for most of the test there was an
occasional 10-15 mph (16-24 kph) wind that would develop that
may have caused spurious hits. The mast arm is not restrained
out-of-plane and is free to vibrate. One option is to load the mast
ann at an angle (rather than straight down), which will tend to
stabilize the out-of-plane movements caused by the wind. FIG. lO--
Connection slip.
Source Location
The MISTRAS rectangular location algorithm was used after the completion of
the test to determine if there were any clusters of events that might indicate damage.
The source location was run using unfiltered data and was plotted on a two-dimensional
graph (FIG. 13 and FIG. 14). Note that there is a small number of events shown on the
location graph compared to the total number of hits received during the test, indicating
that there were a significant number ofnon-locatable "events." The graphs are plotted
with the sensor location shown at each of the four comers of the graph (inside the
circles). Refer to Fig. 6 for the location of the sensors relative to the box connection.
Also, note that in these location graphs, the box connection is oriented 90 degrees from
vertical.

lOs 700(3.1)
600(2.7)
104
I
500 (2.2)
] s '. ,1~ . 9 ,,1+ g. t
103 400(1.8)
figk "i;s" ' " '
102
9 .. + +
300(1.3)
; ~ .~;" .':..: . .
200 (0.9)
10 9 9 ~ , o,g "o g , * ,~ 100(0.4)
1 o (o)
0 5- 10"~15 20 25 30' 35
Time (Minutes)
FIG. 11 --Counts and Load History for First Loading after Swansong H Filter.
105 700(3.1)
600(2.7)
.:!t
104
500(2.2)
103 400(1.8)
10z 300(1.3)
9 ,:,.. 200(0.9)
10
9
.9 . .| . 9 I o" 9 ~176
... t,oo,o4,
1 :~ .... 0 (0)
0 ' 24' : = 4 == = f0 f2
Time (Minutes)
FIG. 12--Counts and Load History for Second Loading after Swansong H Filter.
12005) (~) 9 9 @
8(203)
og
4(102)
0 ,'~ r . C
0 4(11)2) 8(2'03) 12(305) 16(406) 20(508)
FIG. 13--Event vs. Location for First Loading (in(mm)).
12(305) !
| C
8(203) -
~,-
4(102).
o0| 4(1'02) 8(2'03) 12(505) 16(406) 20(508)

FIG. 14--Event vs. Location for Second Loading (in (mm)).
The first load does not indicate any significant cluster of activity. However, the
second loading indicates that there is a significant area of activity directly between
sensors 2 and 4 indicating that there may be significant damage at this location (FIG.
15). An alternative explanation for the concentrated emissions is friction at the
compression face of the connection. Emissions from this point would appear to be
centered between sensors 2 and 4. The
likely explanation is that there is
mechanical rubbing occurring at the base of
the post. The emissions from this rubbing
is picked up simultaneously at sensors 2
and 4 and then simultaneously at sensors 1
and 3 at a time necessary for the emission
damage
to travel from the bottom to the top of the
connection. FIG. 15--Possible sources for location
A first hit analysis was also cluster during second loading.
conducted on the filtered data to determine
if zonal location would provide a better indication of the damage located using UT and
dye penetrant. Table 1 shows the results of the analysis. The time of arrival was
examined and the sensor with the lowest time of arrival was assigned one first arrival
and any hits received for 3 ms following this first hit were ignored.
TABLE 1--Number offirst arrivals.
Channel First Loading Second Loading

1 58 21
2 122 41
3 14 1
4 235 75
The data indicate that channel 4 has the most first arrivals followed by channel
2. This can again be explained by the possible rubbing of the base of the post. The
spurious events generated by this rubbing are received first by either channel 2 or 4. As
discussed previously, the cracks are at the comers where sensors 2 and 3 are located.
62 ACOUSTICEMISSION: STANDARDSAND TECHNOLOGY
Summary
The AE testing did not indicate significant activity near the sensors where the
cracking is located. However, there was activity noted in the area directly between
sensors 2 and 4. This could indicate that AE is detecting damage that was not
detectable with dye and UT inspection techniques or that the bottom two sensors are
picking up spurious data from mechanical rubbing. As was indicated in the Lehigh
inspection of the coupon, the cracks actually initiated and grew from both the exterior
and interior of the post wall. Although unlikely, the cluster of AE events between
sensors 2 and 4 may indicate a crack that has initiated on the inside of the pole but is too
shallow to be detected by UT. Unfortunately, the pole is still in use for testing and it
was not possible to determine the actual extent of damage in the pole at the time of AE
testing.
The test presented herein did not provide conclusive results. The AE test
reported in this paper used a vertically
applied load. It is suspected that the
fatigue damage is caused by both in-
plane and out-of-plane movement of
the mast-arm. This would suggest that
the load should be applied at an angle
rather than vertically (FIG. 16). This
may activate more damaged areas than
vertical loading. One additional
advantage is that this tends to stabilize
out-of-plane movements caused by
wind during testing.
FIG. 16--Testing configuration.
Implementation Strategies
There are several logistical problems related to the application of AE to traffic

signal structures. The biggest question regarding implementation is how to test the pole
with a minimum interruption to traffic. AE requires a load application and the most
convenient location for this load application is under the cantilever, which necessarily
will involve interruption of traffic flow. One option is to perform the AE inspections
when the signal bulbs are being changed. The Wyoming DOT normally changes bulbs
every two years to prevent burn out in service. I f A E tests were conducted during the
light changes then the traffic control that is already in place could be used to complete
the AE test. Sensors could be applied and checked while the crew was changing
lightbulbs. After the lightbulbs are changed, the AE test could proceed.
Acknow~dgmen~
The authors wish to gratefully acknowledge the continued support of this

research by the Wyoming Department of Transportation and Federal Highway
Administration.
Disclaimer
This paper represents the views of the authors and not necessarily those of the
Wyoming Department of Transportation and Federal Highway Administration
References
[1] B. Patrick Collins, personal correspondence, State Bridge Engineer, Wyoming

Department of Transportation, Cheyenne, WY.
[2] McDonald, J. R., Mehta, K. C., Oler, W. W., Pulipaka, N., "Wind Load Effects on
Signs, Luminaires and Traffic Signal Structures," Texas Tech University
Research Study No. 11-5-92-1303, July 1995.
[3] Mike, C., Fisher, J.W., Slutter, R. G., "Fatigue Behavior of Steel Light-Poles," Fritz
Engineering Laboratory Report No. 200.81.714.1, 1981.
[4] Association of American Railroads Operation and Maintenance Department,

Mechanical Division, Procedurefor Acoustic Emission Testing of Tank Cars
and IMIOI Tanks, Issue 6.
Integrity and Leak
Detection/Location Methods
Ronnie K. Miller, 1 Adrian A. Pollock, l Peter Finkel, l Daniel J. Watts, 2 John M. Carlyle, 2
Anthony N. Tafuri, 3 and James J. Yezzi, Jr. 3
T H E D E V E L O P M E N T OF A C O U S T I C E M I S S I O N F O R L E A K D E T E C T I O N
AND L O C A T I O N IN L I Q U I D - F I L L E D , B U R I E D P I P E L I N E S
R E F E R E N C E : Miller, R. K., Pollock, A. A., Finkel, P., Watts, D. J., Carlyle, J. M.,
Tafuri, A. N., and Yezzi, J. J., Jr., " T h e Development of Acoustic Emission for L e a k
Detection and Location in Liquid-Filled, Buried Pipelines," Acoustic Emission:
Standards and Technology Update, ASTM STP 1353, S. J. Vahaviolos, Ed., American
Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA, 1999.
ABSTRACT: Acoustic Emission leak detection and location for liquid-filled, buried
pipelines was studied using various leak sources and laboratory reference standards.
These standards provided significant data that have contributed to the development of test
procedures for generating two-phase flow and a better understanding of the leak
mechanism. Results are discussed for leak signal enhancement due to two-phase flow,
leak orientation and the presence of backfill surrounding the pipe.
Field studies were performed on buried pipes to demonstrate that small leaks (less
than 0.1 gallons/hour or 0.1 mL/second) can be detected under the right test conditions
and that the location of these small leaks can be determined using a variety of location
methods. Among the different location methods examined was a location technique
referred to as "tuned" linear location. In addition, a modification to the conventional
Signal Difference location technique is discussed.
1 Executive Director, Director of Education and Training, and Research Engineer/Scientist,

respectively, Engineering Services & Inspection Group, Physical Acoustics Corporation
(PAC), 195 Clarksville Road, Lawrenceville, NJ 08648.
2 Executive Director and Acoustic Specialist, respectively, Emission Reduction Research Center,
New Jersey Institute of Technology, 138 Warren Street, Newark, NJ 07102.
3 Research Program Coordinator and Physical Scientist, respectively, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) NRMRL/WSWRD/UWMB, MS-104, 2890 Woodbridge Avenue,
Edison, NJ 08837.
67
KEYWORDS: acoustic emission, leak detection, source location, buried pipelines,

liquid-filled pipelines, laboratory reference standards
The objective of this development program is to determine if Acoustic Emission

can be used to detect small leaks, on the order of 0.1 gallons/hour (0.1 mL/second),
during annual testing on liquid-filled, buried pipelines. An additional objective is to
develop the technology so that a maximum sensor spacing on the order of 500 feet (152.4
meters) may be used to detect the minimum leak rate.
A basic understanding of leaks and Acoustic Emission was given by Pollock and
Hsu [1]. In order to better understand the leak mechanism, to evaluate existing leak
detection and location methods, and to develop new methods, a series of tests and
experiments were carried out. From the onset of this work, it became clear that it would
be impossible to always study functioning, full scale pipelines due to the logistics for
testing, the cost of travel and the need to control all of the test variables. The solution to
this problem was to create small specimens that could be studied in the laboratory as well
as to fabricate a test facility that would allow the study of long sections of pipe.
For the laboratory, we designed and fabricated small test specimens that became
known as laboratory reference standards. They were designed [2] with the idea that
whatever we did in the lab could be repeated in the field. This meant that we could
develop new ideas and study most of the variables that affect leak detection and location
before any field studies were attempted. In addition, we found that the series of tests that
we subjected the standards to produce very repeatable results.
The success with the lab standards was primarily due to the introduction of what
we call PAC Plugs. These devices allowed us to reproduce, in both the laboratory and the
field, very controlled and repeatable leak conditions. This made possible the transfer of
information gathered in the laboratory to the field and reduced the total amount of field
time and travel costs expended in the technology development.
The SERDP Experimental Test Pipeline Facility [3] located at the EPA site in
Edison, New Jersey, offered the opportunity to test and evaluate ideas developed in the
laboratory on full scale piping systems. These systems are comprised of long pipe runs,
elbows, tees, and in some cases, expansion loops. In its second generation, this facility
now contains a 2 inch (5.08 cm) diameter pipe testing facility; a 12 inch (30.48 cm)
diameter pipe testing facility; and a double-wall piping system with a 4 inch (10.16 cm)
diameter carrier and 12 inch (30.48 cm) diameter conduit. There is insulation between
the carrier and the conduit for the double wall system and a section with only the 4 inch
(10.16 cm) diameter cartier.
MILLER ET AL. ON LIQUID-FILLED,BURIED PIPELINES 69
Experimental Method
The experimental work associated with this program can be divided into two
categories. The first is laboratory work performed at Physical Acoustics Corporation,
Princeton, New Jersey, on small lengths of pipe. The second is field work that was
performed at the pipe testing facility located at the Environmental Protection Agency in
Edison, New Jersey. A description of this work follows.
Laboratory Studies
Two different specimens were fabricated for this program. They are referred to as
laboratory standards due to the fact that we have been able to standardize the testing
performed on them and utilize the results in the field testing that followed. Two different
standards were fabricated from steel piping, assembled and subjected to a series of tests
using water and air to internally pressurize the different pipe sections. Threaded plugs
with small machined holes were inserted in the standards so as to provide a well defined
and controllable leak.
Leak Plugs-Three classes of leak simulators/generators were investigated in this
program. Details of these simulators can be found in other publications [2]. The majority
of the lab studies were performed with a device referred to as PAC Plugs. By varying the
pressure across the orifice in the plug, we could program various leak rates varying from
0 to about 2 gallons/hour (2 mL/second).
Two Inch Laboratory Reference Standard-The 2 inch (5.08 cm) laboratory
reference standard was fabricated from 2 inch (5.08 cm) diameter, Schedule 40 steel pipe.
It was designed to handle internal pressure due to gas, liquid or combinations of the two
mediums. For most studies, a PAC Plug was used as a leak generator and was located in
the middle of the pipe section as shown in Figure I.
This experimental setup allows the pipe to be rotated so that leak orientation may
be evaluated while maintaining the same source-to-receiver relationship. The
Plexiglass| housing allowed us to visually monitor each experiment and observe the
development of the leak excavation path. In addition, it gave us a means of adding
different types of soil for studying the effects of backfill.
It was quickly realized that the study of leak orientation was meaningless unless
backfill was present. We therefore combined these two experiments into one. In addition
to these studies, we performed attenuation and damping experiments. The details of these
experiments and results will be presented in future publications.
Figure 1 Two inch Laboratory ReJerence Stanchlrd.
Four Inch Laboratory Reference Standard--The 4 inch (10.16 cm) laboratory

reference standard was fabricated from 4 inch (10.16 cm) diameter, Schedule 40 steel
pipe that was left over from the installation of the double-wall piping at the EPA's test
facility. The same provisions were made for accommodating all types of leak simulators
and generators as shown in Figure 2. The design also allows for varying leak orientation
and backfill as with the 2 inch standard.
Figure 2 - Four inch Laboratory Reference Standard.
Field Studies
Field studies were carried out in Edison, New Jersey at the EPA's Underground
Storage Tank (UST) facility. A section of 2 inch (5.08 cm) diameter buried pipeline was
modified by adding an additional 150 feet (45.72 meters) of straight piping terminated by
an elbow, a tee with a 30 foot (9.14 meters) branch, and a 150 foot (45.72 meters) return
run. The details of the entire piping system are shown in Figure 3.
MILLER ET AL. ON LIQUID-FILLED, BURIED PIPELINES 71
Outlet Inlet
New Section ~ /
9 ;, 777 ~ 1
40' 40' \ Top View ExistingSection

Exposed Section
Surface
Side View
Figure 3 - Full scale 2 inch pipe testing system.
Shortly after the modification was completed, a tightness test was performed to
check for leaks. Several were discovered in the inlet and outlet fittings and repaired. One
was accidentally created at the location of a "blank" plug (no leaking orifice). This
accidental leak provided us with the opportunity to study small leak rates, in this case
estimated at 0.014 gallons/hour (0.014 mL/second) by filling a graduated beaker over a
fixed period of time..
The new modification included removable spool sections that were designed to
accommodate the PAC Plugs at various orientations as shown in Figure 4. Typically
only one PAC Plug with a leak orifice is used while the other holes have "blank" plugs
installed. All PAC Plugs were installed using an O-ring under the collar of the socket
head cap screw.
Drill & Tap 5 holes ~ ~

1/4 - 28 thd
\ A-~
ii,iiiiiiiiiiiiil)iiiiii.iiiii,iiiil)) ..................
I Section A - A
---12" --~1 A~
20' typical !
Figure 4 - Spool section designed for PAC Plugs.
Results
Two-Phase Flow
Early studies on the 2 inch standard were performed without any backfill. Under
these test conditions, leak orientation seemed to have no effect on the Acoustic Emission
(AE) signal that was detected at the end of the standard (see the sensor mounted on the
right end in Figure I). In fact the AE RMS (Root Mean Square) signal was considered to
be extremely low for the given leak rate of approximately 0. I gallons/hour (0.1
mL/second). This was accomplished using a PAC Plug and an internal test pressure of 10
psi (68.95 kPa).
A review of AE leak detection technology with several AE Service companies
provided us with the information needed to overcome this low signal problem. We found
that it is common practice to use an inert gas blanket to pressurize liquid product during
normal field testing. When we tried this procedure in the laboratory the results were very
dramatic.
As seen in Figure 5, data collected between 500 th second and 520 th second of a
laboratory experiment shows that the AE RMS signal level was below 0.12 volts. During
this time, the flow of water through the PAC Plug was well behaved and considered
laminar. As gas began to mix with the leaking water, we observed a transition from
laminar flow to two-phase flow. This transition took place between the 530 'h second and
the 560 th second. After the 560 th second, the flow can be described more as a fine mist
while the AE RMS signal had increased to a maximum of near 1.2 volts.
The order of magnitude change in the leak signal provided us with vital
information to guide us in the development of field testing procedures. As will be
discussed later, this method did indeed help to detect very small leaks during the field test
Pule Traalsition Two

Liquid Phase
vo., Leak Leak
1.2
9.6[-1
7.81s
4 BE I.
2.4s 11
Time (seconds)
Figure 5 - Leak RMS signal (Volts) versus time (seconds).

MILLER ET AL. ON LIQUID-FILLED,BURIED PIPELINES 73
at the EPA's test site in Edison, New Jersey.
Leak Orientation and Backfill
The effects of leak orientation and backfill were studied using dry sand for
backfill. With a PAC Plug installed, the standard filled with water, and a 60 psi (413.7
kPa) test pressure, measurements were made with the plug oriented upward, sideways and
downward. No gas blanket was used during pressurization.
The results of the AE RMS signal level measurements (using a 15 kHz resonant
transducer) are shown in Figure 6. The behavior of the 2 inch (5.08 cm) standard and the
4 inch (10.16 cm) standard are much the same. The strongest signals were detected (see
Figures 7 and 8) when the plug was oriented upward or downward while the sideways
orientation always generated a significantly lower signal. Verification of this behavior
during field studies is expected in future studies.
(a) 2 Inch Standal 9 20 psi (b) 4 Inch Standard 9 20 psi

9 40 psi 9 40 psi
. 7000 ]
~ 600o [] 60 psi I"160 psi
50o0
=L 4000 !
9 3ooo
2000
r loo
r ,oo~]
upward sideways downward '
upv,ard sideways do',mv,ard
Leak Orientation Leak Orientation
Figure 6-RMS versus leak orientation and pressure.
Leak Location During Field Studies
A series of experiments were performed on the pipe testing system, shown m

Figure 3, using water and a nitrogen blanket for pressurization. During one test, a
"blank" PAC Pug (no leaking orifice) had been installed in one of the spool sections to
plug up one of the threaded holes (see Figure 4). A grain of sand became trapped
between the O-ring (used to seal the "blank" plug) and the pipe. This resulted in a small
leak estimated at 0.014 gallons/hour (0.014 mL/second).
Figure 7 - Waveforms collected from the 2 inch standard with the PAC Plug oriented." (a)
upward," (b) sideways; and (c) downward.
Figure 8 - Waveforms collected from the 4 inch standard with the PAC Plug oriented:
(a) upward; (b) sideways," and (c) downward.
Two sensors were mounted on the pipe with 25 foot (7.62 meters) spacing. One
sensor was located 1 foot (0.30 meters) from the leak and the other 24 feet (7.32 meters).
Tuned Linear Location-Location of this small leak was initially attempted using a
conventional linear location approach in real time. The results did not accurately reveal
the location of the leak source. By varying the detection threshold for the AE channel
with the highest hit rate (this corresponds to the sensor closest to the leak), we were able
to tune the system and produce the linear location plot shown in Figure 9.
NJIT LEgit PROJECT -" E D I S O N 2 Oct 82,96 17:29:86
: I
Events
, iiiiii: iiii iiiiilili iiii iilliiiiiiillliiill
36~
_ i iiiilliilll,.illi_.iillillllilllliiiil,illi
:: "
illl
..-ill iii:i:i::::i:i::i:i:ii:ii:ii:::i::i:iii::iiill
-it i ii!iiii!iiiiiii!iiii iii iiiiiiii!iii!i

Leak Location I
H
Sensor 1 Location [ Sensor 2 Location [

J I
Figure 9 - Results of tuned linear location of leak source

located l foot (0. 30 meters)from sensor 1.
The location of the leak as shown in Figure 9 is within 1 foot (0.30 meters) of the
actual leak location. The amount of threshold adjustment is determined by matching the
hit rate on the two sensors that straddle the leak.
Modified Signal Difference-Previous studies of leak location [4] describe how
leaks can be located when the leak source produces a continuous signal. By measuring
the signal level at each sensor location and taking the difference, the leak location can be
estimated by comparing the differential measurement with signal difference versus
position curve generated from an attenuation plot.
In this program, we extended this concept by applying the same principle to the
peak Amplitude measurements taken from transient leak signals. The method cannot be
utilized without an attenuation curve to reference the differential peak Amplitude
measurements.
Even more important, the attenuation curve must be developed for a distance
equal to or greater than the sensor spacing used. In this study, we developed an
attenuation curve over a distance of 150 feet (45.72 meters). This was done using: a 0.3
ram, 2H lead break source; a 0.5 mm, 2H lead break source; and a spring loaded center
punch. The data was fitted together using a spline technique to produce the attenuation
curve shown in Figure 10. Applying the differential peak amplitude measurement
technique gave us a leak location within 1 foot (0.30 meters) of the actual leak source.
9O
80
70 84
~so
~4o
2O
10
O' 50 100 150
D i s t a n c e (ft.)
Attenuation on 2" Pipe at 60 kHz.

Figure 10 - Attenuation curve generated using
three different AE simulators.
Conclusions
As a result of our studies, we have concluded that small leaks can be detected
under the right test conditions. This became apparent after we had investigated the
variables that affect the leak signal (orientation and backfill) as well as the use of a gas
blanket for generating two-phase flow.
The laboratory reference standards proved to be useful for gaining a better
understanding of leak mechanics without having to study full scale systems. That
understanding can be put to good use in the field to improve the chances of detecting and
locating small leaks.
We have found that several methods are available for leak location. The accuracy
of threshold-dependent techniques ("tuned" linear location) and signal level techniques
(modified signal difference) appeared the same for the cases that we studied.
Acknowledgments
The development of Acoustic Emission for leak detection and location in liquid-
filled, buried pipelines was undertaken by Physical Acoustics Corporation and their
sponsor, the Emission Reduction Research Center, a National Science Foundation funded
Engineering Research Center, located at the New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark,
New Jersey. Support and funding for this work has been provided by the Strategic
Environmental Research and Development Program (SERDP). The participating SERDP
agencies are: (1) The Environmental Protection Agency, National Risk Management
Research Laboratory [EPA is the lead Agency]; (2) The U.S. Navy, Facilities
Engineering Service Center; (3) The U.S. Army, Construction Engineering Research
Laboratory; and (4) The Department Of Energy, Oak Ridge National Laboratory.
References
[ 1] Pollock, A. A., Hsu, S-Y S., "Leak Detection Using Acoustic Emission," Journal
of Acoustic Emission, Vol. 1, No. 4, 1982.
[2] Miller, R. K., Pollock, A. A., Watts, D. J., Carlyle, J. M., Tafuri, A. N., and Yezzi,
J. J., Jr., "A Reference Standard for the Development of Acoustic Emission Leak
Detection Techniques," accepted for publication in NDT&E International on May
17, 1998.
[3] SERDP Experimental Test Pipeline construction contract, awarded to Turner
Construction Company, 31 March 1997, NJIT Purchase Order P801468.
[4] Miller, R. K. and Mclntire, P., Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Vol. 5,
Acoustic Emission Testing, American Society for Nondestructive Testing,
Columbus, Ohio, 1987.
Samuel J. Ternowchek,1 Thomas J. Gandy,2 Mauricio V. Calva,3 and Tom S. Patterson4
ACOUSTIC EMISSION AND ULTRASONIC TESTING FOR MECHANICAL

INTEGRITY
REFERENCE: Ternowchek, S. J., Gandy, T. J., Calva, M. V., and Patterson, T. S.,
"Acoustic Emission and Ultrasonic Testing for Mechanical Integrity," Acoustic
Emission: Standards and Technology Update, ASTM STP 1353, S. J. Vahaviolos, Ed.,
American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA, 1999.
ABSTRACT: Today's owner/operator of process equipment is required to implement "good

engineering tests" to ensure the mechanical reliabilityof his equipment. There are several ways
this can be accomplished. One or more nondestructive testing (NDT) techniques, such as
Acoustic Emission, Ultrasonics, Radiography, Magnetic Particle, Visual and others can be
used. Most of these require the equipment be taken off line before the inspections can be
performed. In some cases, when internal inspections are used, the cost of the inspection
increases significantly. This paper describes an inspection program which uses Acoustic
Emission (AE) as the primary technique for performing a global evaluation of the equipment's
mechanical integrity. When the AE results indicate potential problems, a second NDT method,
Ultrasonics (UT) shear wave analysis or thickness gauge, is utilized to determine the source
mechanism, its characteristics and its boundaries. The two techniques complement each other
quite well. This approach to equipment reliabilityoffers several advantages: 1) the test, in
many cases, can be performed on-line with product; 2) the equipment is evaluated under its
normal operating conditions; 3) different damage mechanisms such as cracking corrosion and
embrittlement may be detected with a single test; 4) the cost savings can be substantial over
other methods. In addition to describing the AE technique utilized, its advantages and
disadvantages and an improved analysis method, there are examples of results produced on
several recent tests, a 60 ft. diameter sphere, a 50 ft. diameter storage tank and a jacketed
process vessel.
1 Director of PAQS, Physical Acoustics Corp., P.O. Box 3135, Princeton, NJ 08543.
2 Southeastern Regional Field Test Manager, PAQS, Physical Acoustics Corp., 600
Kenrick, Suite D2, Houston, TX 77060.
3 Northeastern Regional Field Test Manager, PAQS, Physical Acoustics Corp., P.O. Box
3135, Princeton, NJ 08543.
4 Senior Test Engineer, PAQS, Physical Acoustics Corp., P.O. Box 3135, Princeton, NJ
08543.
79
KEYWORDS: acoustic emission, pressure vessels, inspection, ultrasonics, NDT, process

safety management, fitness for service
Introduction
In today's environment of company "right sizing" and reduced operating budgets, the
need for improved, accurate and large-scale inspection techniques has never been greater.
Engineering and plant inspection departments are in greater need for methods which can
evaluate large and complex equipment quickly and provide indications of potential problem
areas. These areas can then be focused on during shutdown or turnaround inspections.
Since its commercial inception in 1968, one technology, Acoustic Emission (AE), has
emerged from the laboratory as having the capability to meet this requirement. AE offers a
number of advantages over conventional inspection techniques for inspecting plant equipment.
These will be discussed in detail in this paper, however, a few include: in-service as well as new
equipment inspection; global monitoring of large complex equipment; non-intrusive; and a
measure of structurally significant anomalies. These features provide a valuable tool in the
evaluation of an equipment's structural integrity and its fitness for service. Based on the results
of an AE test, engineering and inspection personnel are better able to determine what, if any,
further inspections should be performed and where. This can lead to the savings of inspection
dollars by focusing the follow-up efforts in the areas in greatest need and not re-inspecting
areas which are not in need of it.
By definition, Acoustic Emission (AE) is the transient elastic wave generated by the
rapid release of energy from a localized source within a material. Since its development in the
early 1960's, AE has been growing in its use and acceptance by industry. From the laboratory
tests of the 60's on through today's use in the field and laboratories, AE has been shown to be a
valuable tool for detecting and understanding the response of a material or structure to applied
stress.
The basic concept of AE is shown in Figure I. A stimulus is applied to a material or
structure so as to cause localized yielding. This yielding will release a stress wave which
propagates elastically through the structure. At some point it reaches the surface and
stimulates the piezoelectric sensor. This sensor converts the mechanical energy to an electrical
signal which can then be amplified and processed for analysis.
AE testing differs from other NDE in two ways: 1) the signal that is detected is
generated by the material itself and 2) the method is evaluating the response of the
material or structure to applied stresses, hence it is a dynamic technique. These two
factors provide the basic concept for applying AE to vessel testing and other structures.
Advantages of AE
There are a number of advantages that AE offers for the inspection of pressure vessels.
TERNOWCHEK ET AL. ON ULTRASONICTESTING 81
Acoustic Emission (AE) Process
Stimulus Stimulus 9 Measurement
4tm 9R e c o r d i n g
9Interpretation
ousfic 9E v a l u a t i o n
sion
ve
FIG. 1 - Definition: Acoustic Emissions are transient elastic waves generated by

tln~ rapid release of e1~gy from localized sources within a material.
Some of these include:

a) In-service test - Acoustic emission is applied in three ways to pressure vessels: 1)
During initial hydrostatic testing after fabrication; 2) when equipment is being
recertified for alternative use and 3) in-service inspection. The most often used is
the in-service. AE provides the ability to evaluate the structural integrity of a
vessel on-line, under the operating conditions it experiences while in use. This
valuable information, as to how the vessel is performing in-service and whether
degradation is occurring while in use, can help optimize when and where other
inspections are performed. Its use can either extend the time between other
inspections or provide advance warning of an impending failure.
b) Test entire structure - by carefully determining a given sensor's area of
coverage, complete equipment can be tested with a relatively small number of
sensors. This capability of AE makes it most attractive for large columns,
spheres and heat exchangers where access and inspectability are very difficult
and time consuming.
c) Detect structurally significant defects - because AE is utilized under the actual
loading conditions the structure experiences in-service, it has the capability to
differentiate anomalies that are growing versus those that are dormant or
structurally insignificant. With other techniques, it is possible to establish the
presence of an anomaly but it is difficult to determine its effects when the
structure is in-service.
d) Measure of structural severity - utilizing today's testing procedures and analysis, it

is possible to provide a measure of the structural severity of an active AE source.
The most ot~en used programs are MONPAC| ~ and MONPAC PLUS| These
programs provide a means of determining the structural significance of the AE data
when testing to prescribed procedures. A grading of the AE data is provided with
recommendations for follow-up inspections.
e) Non-invasive - the AE test uses sensors that are mounted on the outside of the
vessel wall. There is no requirement to have access to the inside of the vessel when
performing the test. On insulated vessels, only small access holes are required for
sensor attachment, the remaining insulation remains undisturbed.
f) Permanent record - the AE test instrument records data in to files which are stored
on the computer. These files are available for replay and further analysis. They can
be archived and stored for future reference. A library of files can be compiled for
comparing similar type structures or comparing a number of tests over several
years on the same structure.
Types of Problems Detected with AE
AE is a stress-related phenomena. In order to detect discontinuities and damage in

equipment, the technique must be applied when the equipment is being stressed. It cannot
detect problems in areas where there is no loading of the structure. In fact, careful attention
must be paid to the loading schedule ifAE testing is to be successful. The stress concentration
created by defects will produce the localized yielding, which is detected by the sensors, while
the remaining structure is silent. Since different defect types have different stress concentration
factors associated with them, some will emit AE at a lower load level than others, hence, they
are more easily detected. Some examples of detectable defects in new equipment include, but
are not limited to, the following:
a) Welding defects - there are a number of weld problems that produce AE during
hydrostatic testing. These include cracks developed due to hot cracking, cold
cracking, intergranular and transgranular microcracks, base metal cracking in
the heat affected zone (HAZ), incomplete fusion, undercut, lack of penetration,
porosity and inclusions. As noted above, the ability to detect these defects is
dependent on the stress concentration factor of the defect and the ability to
produce localized yielding at the stress levels applied. It is very possible to
have a defect type be very emissive in one case and not as emissive in another
case, simply because of this.
b) Casting defects - again, as in welding, casting defects that produce stress
concentrations may be detected by AE. These include: gas and blow holes
which produce porosity and cavities; inclusions such as scale oxides or dross
entrapped within the casting; shrinkage cavities; hot tears and cracks due to
unfused chaplets; dissimilar metal chills and weld repairs.
c) Forgings - A number of forging defects may be detectable with AE should it be
loaded sufficiently to produce localized yielding. Some of these are:
laminations caused by inclusions or blow holes in original ingots; laps caused
Monsanto Corp., St. Louis, MO, and Physical Acoustics Corp., Princeton, NJ.
by metal protrusions left from previous passes; cracks caused by rolling or

forming and certain types of notches.
d) Heat treat - when heat treating fails to reduce residual stresses or produce the
desired changes in metallurgical structure, a significant amount of AE can be
generated during the hydrotest. Failures in the heat treating process which
produce localized stresses, excessive variations in metallurgical structures, or
failure to stabilize specific phases, all have the potential to generate AE.
In addition to new fabrication, AE is used extensively as an in-service test technique.
While it would be of historical value to have AE test information on equipment from the time
of fabrication throughout its life, it is not necessary. Much equipment is tested after being
placed in use with substantial results. Typically an in-service test is intended to detect and
locate defects that are growing under the service loads. Some oftbese are:
a) Mechanical fatigue - variation in process may cause mechanical fatigue damage
to a structure. The variation can be in internal pressure or pressure cycling. It
can be a result of variation of process flow. It can also be external as in the
case of vibrations. The result is to initiate and grow cracking under the in-
service conditions. The purpose of this AE test is to detect and locate these
cracks prior to catastrophic failure.
b) Thermal fatigue - variation in process temperature can cause crack initiation
and growth. The crack initiation can be the result of mechanical load
concentration in areas such as stiffness, nozzles, hangers and knuckle areas.
These areas experience high local flexural stresses as a result of expansion and
contraction. Or, it can be the result of creep damage. It is the case that
thermal damage is one of the main service related damages detected with AE
testing in utilities and refineries.
c) Hydrogen damage - as opposed to thermal fatigue, hydrogen damage and
hydrogen embrittlement results from the formation ofmicrofissures caused by
the absorption of hydrogen by the steel vessel. Hydrogen damage causes a loss
of ductility and strength in the steel. It has been shown that AE can detect
hydrogen damage during in-service testing.
d) Hydrogen blistering - this is the result of atomic hydrogen contained in a void
or lamination of a steel and changing to molecular hydrogen. As the amount of
molecular hydrogen increases, pressures in the void increase causing internal
splitting and surface blisters. Left undetected, rupturing of the vessel could
result. AE has been able to detect hydrogen blisters at a relatively early stage.
e) Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) - this phenomenon which results from the
effects of corrosion and tensile stress has been detectable by AE in a number of
different materials and processes. SCC typically produces a stable cracking
process that increases the probability of detection with AE. It has been
successful in detecting SCC in austenitic stainless steel as well as SCC in
carbon steel used for ammonia vessels.
f) General corrosion - during the in-service test of many vessels, tanks and
railroad tank cars, acoustic emission is generated as a result of spalling of
corrosion product. Unlike the above applications, the signal source in this case
may not be the localized yielding stress of a defect, but a result of the frictional
rubbing of the corroded product. This does produce a detectable signal that
can be used to indicate the presence of corrosion.
Testing Method
An outline of a typical testing procedure is shown in Table 1. It shows the sequence of

activities that would normally be performed. While different structures (e.g. piping, vessel,
tanks, etc.) may have procedures specific to themselves, the outline shown can be utilized in
many cases.
TABLE 1--Test procedure.
1. Determine area of coverage for a sensor based on signal attenuation on the tank.
2. Mount sensors based on above area of coverage.
3. Perform equipment verification check.
4. Determine test load level and load schedule
5. Perform background noise check.
6. Begin filling the tank according to the specified load schedule.
7. Verify quality of AE data.
8. Complete loading.
9. Evaluate test data per evaluation criteria.
10. Determine location of active sources.
11. Determine whether any follow up NDT is required.
A key step in the test procedure is number 9, "Evaluation of test data per evaluation
criteria." This is an important step since it is here that the tester must decide whether a
problem exists in the test structure. The most often used criteria today is MONPAC| or
MONPAC PLUS| This is a technology program developed by Dr. T. Fowler 1~1at Monsanto
Chemical Company and marketed to industry by Physical Acoustics Corporation (hence MON-
PAC). A typical evaluation would comist of five criteria, including:

1. Activity during hold periods - this can indicate continuing yielding or damage.
2. On going activity during loading - this can indicate widespread damage such as
corrosion.
3. Amount of activity - can indicate presence of defects.
4. Large amplitude hits - can indicate presence of a growing defect.
5. Cumulative energy- c a n indicate that a defect area is responding to increases
in stress.
Within this technology package is a method that allows the significance of the data to
be determined should it not pass all of the above criteria. Based on the energy parameter, a
"Severity" and a '~l-Iistorical Index" value are calculated and plotted on an empirical scale. The
scale is graded from A to E with a corresponding significance level. These are:
A) Nfinor indication. No follow up required.
B) Note for future tests. Check for surface defects such as corrosion, pitting, etc.
C) Indication requiting follow-up evaluation which can include further data
analysis.
D) Significant indication. Follow up with NDT.
E) Very significant indication. Discontinue operations until NDT inspection
performed.
Using the above criteria, the AE tester has a means of evaluating his test results and
determining whether any follow up action is required. This has worked well in many situations.
With the performance of a large number of tests, PAQS has developed a large database of test
results. Periodic reviews of the database allowed the data techniques to be refined and, in fact,
a complimentary analysis developed. This analysis is based on the characteristic AE response
to stress levels. Designated the Emission Source Rating (ESR), it is a method of analyzing the
source response to stress. It has been observed that the emissions from an anomaly will
increase as stress levels increase. Using this as a basis, a numerical scale was developed which
complements the better grades of the MONPAC| System. The ESR ratings are:
0. InsutScient data.
1. Not responsive to stress; no follow up required.
2. Response to stress but not indicative of significant defect growth. No follow
up required.
3. Response to stress. Shows moderate increase with stress. Follow up NDT
recommended.
4. Response indicative of significant yielding. Follow up NDT required.
By using the combined analysis, a more complete test result can be produced. The
following are three examples of the use of both the MONPAC| and ESR analysis for
determining what areas of the structures should be subjected to follow up UT inspection.
A. Above Ground Storage Tank
A carbon steel storage tank of approximately fitty feet in diameter and thirty feet tall
was AE tested. The tank was used to store caustic soda solution. The tank had a rubber liner
that deteriorated. The caustic solution leaked and attacked the tank walls near the base. The
tank was removed from service and the liner replaced. During replacement, repairs were made
in the area where damage was noted. Atter repairs were completed, the tank was relined and a
hydro test performed. AE monitoring was performed during the hydro test. Upon completion
of the test, the data was analyzed using the two methods outlined above. The results are listed
in Table 2. In these areas, where both methods recommended follow up be performed, UT
was conducted. The areas are shown on Figure 2. This is an unwrapped view of the tank. The
four areas for follow up UT inspection are noted at the bottom of the tank. The UT results
showed indication that varied in length from 0.75 inches to six feet. Depths varied from 20~
of wall thickness to 50~ These results were very important to the tank owner. Further
repaks were made to the tank before putting it back in service.
N W S Ir N
I I I I I
X X X X X X X X X X
27 ~ 29 30 31 32 ~ ,'44 35 36
[ ~ S L ~ N S O R SPACING 1~7"
17 18 19 20 21 ~ 23 24 25 26
X X X X X X X X X X
' ~ SI~/SOR S P A C I N G '!.5.7"
(%
s ' x '~ "Im ,3 ,, ,, ,,
n• 'it'x fl'x~n m x n nnmx n x I1 x 11
K)I,LOW.T.,'P.'It~EA#1 rOLLOW,.IJ~'~ t4l I~OLLOW-UPA,.REA
it2 t-'OI.J.OI~'.UPAIIh,A It~l
I ~--SF..NSOR SPACLNG 9,Jl'
FIG. 2 - Caustic storage tank shell; A E sensor locations; NDE follow-up locations.
B. Sphere
A carbon steel sphere was tested while AE monitoring was in place. The sphere was
fitSy-six feet in diameter and was supported on the ten tubular legs with "X" braces. The
sphere was used to store LPG It was tested with LPG while in service. Based on previous
experience with this type of structure, a/l ESR ratings of three or gTeater were inspected. The
ESR rating took precedence over the MONPAC| for this test. The results produced three
areas of activity that were UT inspected. In two areas, cracks ranging in length from one half
inch to two and a half inches were detected. These were deemed unacceptable and required
immediate repaks. The third area had wall thinning up to 30% of the wall thickness. The
results are shown in Figure 3.
TERNOWCHEK ET AL. ON ULTRASONIC TESTING 87
TABLE 2--Combined evaluation summary- initial load data.
Sensor M-P M-P M-P DTI Recommendations

Evai. Int. Sev. ESR
1 Fail C 119.70 2 Note on future AE test

3 Fail C 196.10 3 Follow up-inspection
4 Fail D 186.90 3 Follow up-inspection
5 Fail A 33.70 2 Note on future AE test
16 Fail B 69.20 2 Note on future AE test
17 Pass N/A ... 0 No follow-up
18 Pass INSIG 18.50 1 No follow-up
25 Pass INSIG ... 0 No follow-up
27 Pass N/A 03.00 0 No follow-up
M-P = MONPAC-PLUS| DTI = Dunegan Testing & Inspection

ESR = Emission Source Rating INSIG = Low levels o f AE activity
C/D = Corrupted data N/A = Not available due to low emission levels
WalThinning~
l
up to 30% Cracking
V2"-1"
TOP HEMISPHERE
Cracking
!i
BO'ITOM HEMISPHERE
F I G . 3 - Defect location.
C. Horizontal Vessel
A horizontal vessel was tested using Acoustic Emission monitoring. The vessel was
thirty seven feet long and ten feet in diameter. It is a phosphate processing vessel. The vessel
is insulated. The test was performed in service using product and increasing pressure. The AE
results showed primarily low level activity. The MONPAC| results were "A" ratings which
would indicate minor sources. The ESR ratings were similar except for the sensor on the top
of the vessel. This was sensor number eight. This area was followed up with UT thickness.
The results indicated wall thinning was occurring in the vapor space of the vessel. Additional
readings were taken to determine the extent of the degradation. These results are shown in
Figure 4.
TERNOWCHEK ET AL. ON ULTRASONIC TESTING 89
North End
Bottom
9 3
Top
13
10 4
Bottom 12 6
FIG. 4 - Defect location.
Summary
AE has been shown to be a very useful tool in evaluating the overall structural integrity
of plant equipment. The technique is fast, cost effective and relatively easy. AE allows the UT
inspector to focus his efforts in the areas where anomalies which affect structural integrity are
located. He does not perform inspection in areas where there aren't any problems. It should
be noted that in the examples provided, the UT inspector was aided by the AE tester when
performing his follow-up. This proved to be very useful since the AE inspector provided
insight for the UT indications that might not have been obvious otherwise. The two working
together made UT indication analysis more complete.
Acknowledgment
We are deeply grateful to our fellow employees at Physical Acoustics Quality Services
for their assistance in preparing this paper. We also want to thank Ms. Janet Beyrouty for her
patience in preparing this paper.
REFERENCE: [1] Fowler, T. J., et al., "The MONPAC | System", Journal of Acoustic
Emission, Vol. 8, No. 3, 1989. Acoustic Emission and Ultrasonic Testing for Mechanical
Integrity, ASTM STP 1353, Sam Ternowchek, Physical Acoustics Corporation, Princeton, NJ,
08543.
AE Sensors, Standards,
and Quantitative AE
Hajime Hatano l
CALIBRATION OF ACOUSTIC EMISSION TRANSDUCERS BY A

R E C I P R O C I T Y METHOD
REFERENCE: Hatano, H., "Calibration of Acoustic Emission Transducers by a

Reciprocity Method," Acoustic Emission: Standards and Technology Update, ASTM
STP 1353, S. J. Vahaviolos, Ed., American Society for Testing and Materials, West
Conshohocken, PA, 1999.
ABSTRACT: The paper reviews and discusses the background, methodology and
application fields of absolute calibration of acoustic emission transducers by means of the
reciprocity method. For characterizing and calibrating acoustic emission transducers, a
number of methods utilizing various mechanical sound sources appear in the literature.
Reciprocity calibration of acoustic emission transducers was proposed some time ago, and
has since been employed by transducer manufacturers and laboratories An outstanding
advantage of the reciprocity method is that absolute sensitivity, including frequency
characteristics and impulse responses, both to Rayleigh wave and longitudinal wave, can
be determined by means of purely electrical measurements without the use of mechanical
sound sources or reference transducers. The procedure for calibration was standardized
as NDIS 2109 by the Japanese Society for Non-Destructive Inspection.
KEYWORDS: acoustic emission, transducer calibration, reciprocity method, Rayleigh

wave, longitudinal wave
Calibration of acoustic emission transducers is of significant importance in

acoustic emission measurements, not just for quantitative evaluation, but also for mutual
comparison of data obtained by different laboratories [1-3]. For characterizing and
calibrating acoustic emission transducers, a number of methods utilizing various
mechanical sound sources, for instance, a falling steel ball, a breaking pencil lead, a sand
blast, and an electric spark, appear in the literature [4]. However, by means of these
methods it was difficult to obtain the absolute sensitivity because the characteristics of the
sound sources were not clear and the reproducibility was inadequate [5]. A seismic
surface pulse method was developed by Breckenridge and his colleagues, wherein the
i Professor, Department of Applied Electronics, Science University of Tokyo, Yamazaki,

Noda, 278-8510 Japan.
g3
- - T r t- . "[" r ~ " 2/'r t
(a)Moment tensor. (b)Displacement. (c)Frequency spectrum.

FIG. 1 -- Schematic illustration of acoustic emission generation.
breaking of a glass capillary is employed for the sound source and a capacitive transducer
is used for the reference [6, 7].
Reciprocity calibration of acoustic emission transducers was proposed more than
two decades ago, and has since been employed by transducer manufacturers and
laboratories [8, 9]. An outstanding advantage of reciprocity calibration is that absolute
sensitivity, including frequency characteristics and impulse responses, both to the
Rayleigh wave and longitudinal wave, can be determined by means of purely electrical
measurements without the use of mechanical sound sources or reference transducers.
Once reciprocity calibration has been carried out. sensitivity of an optional transducer,
which is not necessarily reversible, can be determined by a relatively simple procedure by
using a calibrated transducer as the reference for sound transmission or reception. The
procedure for reciprocity calibration was standardized as the ND1S (Standard of the
Japanese Society for Non-Destructive Inspection) 2109: Methods for Absolute
Calibration of Acoustic Emission Transducers by Reciprocity Technique [10].
The present paper reviews and discusses the background, methodology and
application fields of absolute calibration of acoustic emission transducers by means of the
reciprocity method.
Transducer Calibration in Acoustic Emission Measurement
In an analogy of seismology, generation of acoustic emission is attributed to the

change of moment tensor due to the release of inelastic strain such as crack propagation
and plastic deformation in solids [11]. Figure 1 shows a schematic illustration of the
relation between the change of moment tensor, resultant displacement waveform of
acoustic emission, and frequency spectrum of the waveform. In figure, r r is the
transition time of the moment tensor, namely, the duration time of each crack propagation
or dislocation movement. Since the pulse width of the acoustic emission corresponds
to r ,, the distribution range of the frequency spectrum is inversely proportional to r r [1].
If the duration time is supposed to be O. i/L s, the frequency spectrum will attain a range as
high as I0 MHz.
HATANOON A RECIPROCITYMETHOD 95
FIG. 2 -- Propagation of acoustic emission waves.
The waveforms and frequency spectra of electrical signals detected by acoustic

emission transducers are, however, quite different from those shown in Fig. 1. Figure 2
shows the propagation paths of the acoustic emission from the source in the object to the
transducer attached to the surface. The acoustic emission undergoes reflections and
mode conversions along the propagation paths. This means that the transfer function
from the source to the transducer is complicated in both the time and frequency domains.
Figure 3 shows how the frequency spectrum of the original acoustic emission is
deformed during propagation and detection. The detected spectrum is expressed as the
product of the original acoustic emission spectrum, and transfer functions of the
propagation paths and transducer sensitivity. The detected signals are strongly affected
by the characteristics of the transducer, since the frequency bandwidth of the transducer,
C~JACOUSTIC TRANSFER
EMISSION FUNCTION
FREQUENCY FREQU~ENCY
@ TRANSDUCER 0 ELECTRI CAL

SENSITIVITY S I GNAL
@x|174
- ~ -~-NOISE
IL
FREQUENCY FREQUENCY
FIG. 3 -- Schematic illustration of acoustic emission spectrum.
which usually employs a piezoelectric-ceramic element, is much narrower than that of the
original acoustic emission spectrum.
Definition of Transducer Sensitivity
A definition of transducer sensitivity is important for interpreting the results

obtained by the transducer. For conventional microphones and loudspeakers, which are
usually placed in gaseous or liquid medium, sound pressure is taken as the measure of
sensitivity. Since acoustic emission transducers, in contrast, are mounted on the free
surface of a solid medium, it is difficult to determine their pressure sensitivity. Either
displacement amplitude, velocity, or acceleration should be taken as the measure of
sensitivity for acoustic emission transducers [8]+ For instance, free-field velocity
sensitivity of the acoustic emission transducer M,, is defined as
M,, E,,
w,, ( 1)
where Eo is the output open-circuit voltage, and w,, is the vertical component of
displacement velocity of incident elastic wave at the point where the transducer is to be
placed.
Vertical components are most important for calibration, since acoustic emission
transducers are generally attached to the object by means of liquid couplant, and very
small portions of horizontal components are transmitted to the transducers.
Wave Mode for Calibration
In a bounded elastic medium, as shown in Fig. 2, various wave modes are possible,
while acoustic emission transducers generally assume different sensitivities to different
wave modes. For estimating actual characteristics of transducers, it is necessary in the
calibration to use the wave mode identical to that of the acoustic emission waves detected
in the actual object.
In plate objects such as vessel walls, it was shown that Rayleigh waves or Lamb
waves are dominant [8]. As for these wave modes transducer sensitivity is subject to
the aperture effect. Figure 4 shows the mechanism of the effect, where the crests and
~
TRANSDUCER A TRANSDUCERB
EIGH/LAMB ~AVE
FIG. 4 -- Aperture effect on Rayleigh / Lamb wave.

HATANO ON A RECIPROCITYMETHOD 97
troughs of the incident Rayleigh or lamb waves cancel out each other within the
transducer aperture.
Recently, application fields of acoustic emission measurements have expanded to
include various bulky objects, for instance, thick-walled vessels and huge concrete
structures. For such applications, sensitivity to longitudinal waves is of primary
importance. In addition, longitudinal wave sensitivity represents the fundamental
characteristics of acoustic emission transducers, since these transducers usually employ
thickness-mode piezoelectric elements.
In the actual acoustic emission measurements, acoustic emission waves of various
modes, in correspondence to the shape and size of the object and to the positional
correlation between the source and transducer, are introduced into the transducer. To
carry out calibration of sensitivities to all the incident waves is too complicated.
Characteristics of acoustic emission transducers are represented by both Rayleigh wave
and longitudinal wave sensitivities [9,10].
Method of Reciprocity Calibration
Figure 5 shows the fundamental aspects of the method of reciprocity calibration

[12-14]. Three reversible transducers 1, 2, and 3 are prepared, and three independent
transmission/reception pairs are configurated through a transfer medium. The
magnitudes of the transmission signal current and reception signal voltage, lij and E~,
respectively, are measured on each pair, where the subscript ij corresponds to transducer i
for transmission and j for reception. If the reciprocity parameter H, which is dependent
not on the transducer design but on the mode of elastic waves, constants of medium, and
definition of sensitivity, is given, absolute sensitivity is determined by purely electrical
measurements.
TRANSDUCER TRANSDUCER
1 TRANSFER 2
HEDIUM / / ~
2 3
3 1
TRANSMI SSION RECEPTI ON
FIG. 5 -- Three transmission/reception pairs for reciprocity calibration.

For instance, magnitude of sensitivity of transducer 1, M m, is given as

\ I/2
Mol = El2 123
(2)
Ii2 E2~
Reciprocity parameters essential for Rayleigh wave and longitudinal wave

calibrations, H Rand Ht,, respectively, were derived as a function of frequencyfas follows
[8,9]:
1 + O" ( 2 ~ i/2
HR = 2~__.E___kRX~ ~RD~ ) (3)
H,. = 2 f (1 + O')(I - 20") (4)

E(I-o)D,
where
Here, Dk and Dr, are the distances between the transmission and reception transducers in
Rayleigh wave and longitudinal wave calibrations, and E, ,~, and p are Young's
modulus, Poisson's ratio, and density of the transfer medium, respectively. X and Y are
constants which have been obtained from the numerical solutions to Lamb's equation as a
function of Poisson's ratio [9,15].
For both the Rayleigh wave and longitudinal wave calibrations, a cylindrical solid
block is commonly used as the transfer medium [9]. Figure 6 shows schematically the
oRo, 9 Ro'. []
L'
L
7
"'--.s?. Lo
[]
(a)Rayleigh wave. (b)Longitudinal wave.

FIG. 6 -- Transducer arrangements on a cylindrical medium and
assumed propagation paths.
HATANO ON A RECIPROCITYMETHOD 99
transducer arrangements on the medium, and assumed propagation paths of various elastic
waves. Figure 6 a shows the setup for the Rayleigh wave calibration. Both the
transmission and reception transducers are placed on the top plane of the cylindrical
medium with a distance DR apart from each other, and the direct Rayleigh wave R 0 is
employed for the calibration. The longitudinal wave L' reflected at the bottom of the
cylinder, and the Rayleigh wave R0' reflected at the edge of the top plane, are assumed to
be possible spurious waves, which reach the reception transducer subsequent to the direct
Rayleigh wave Ro. Figure 6 b shows the setup for the longitudinal wave calibration.
The transmission transducer is placed on the top plane of the cylindrical medium, and the
reception transducer on the bottom plane where their axes coincide with each other.
The direct longitudinal wave Lo is employed for the calibration here. The longitudinal
wave L~' reflected at the side of the cylinder, and the shear wave Sz' converted from the
longitudinal wave ~ are supposed to be possible spurious waves.
Transmission Signal and Transfer Medium
Tone burst signals with the squared-sine envelope, in place of continuous waves,
were employed for the transmission signal in order to discriminate between the direct
wave and the subsequent spurious waves on the basis of their arrival times [9]. The
bandwidth of the tone burst, which determines the frequency resolution of calibration,
decreases with increasing duration. However, maximum duration of the tone burst is
limited by the minimum difference of the arrival times. Namely, half of the duration of
the squared-sine envelope should not exceed the time difference in order to measure the
amplitude of the direct wave signal from the peak value without interference from the
subsequent spurious waves.
As a larger dimension of the transfer medium causes a greater difference in the
arrival times, a large cylinder of forged steel ( E = 2.1x10 lj N/m 2, o" = 0.28, p = 7.7x103
kg/m 3) with a diameter of 1.1 m, height of 0.76m and weight of about 6 tons was prepared
[9]. Ultrasonic testing was conducted at 2 MHz throughout the block and no detectable
flaws were recorded. In addition, ultrasonic attenuation was measured in order to
confirm that mechanical losses of the medium was small enough for the calibration.
The transfer medium was designed so that the difference of arrival times of the direct and
spurious waves was longer than 0.1 ms for any case in either the Rayleigh-wave or
longitudinal-wave calibration. Duration of the tone-burst signal was set to 0.2 ms.
Finite difference simulation was conducted using an axisymmetric model to study
the wave propagation in the transfer medium. Figure 7 shows results for the
longitudinal wave calibration, wherein the 10-mm-diameter sound source was placed on
the top plane. In Fig.7 a, the direct longitudinal wave L0 reached the bottom of the
medium with a propagation time of about 133/z s. Figure 7 b shows the result at 234/~ s,
where the reflected longitudinal wave Lj' reached the center of the bottom.
FIG. 7 -- Finite difference simulation of wave propagation in a cylindrical

transfer medium.
Calibration Results
Figure 8 shows the calibration results for one of the three identical transducers
(0.14ZIO), which employed a 10-mm-diameter cylindrical piezoelectric element with a
nominal thickness resonance of 140 kHz [9]. In the figure, absolute sensitivities were
shown as a function of frequency; the bold line represents the Rayleigh wave s e n s i t i v i t y
and the thin line the longitudinal wave sensitivity. Below about 150 kHz the two
sensitivities were consistent. On the other hand, beyond that frequency, the Rayleigh
wave sensitivity rapidly decreased in comparison with the longitudinal wave sensitivity
due to the aperture effect described in the preceding section.
40
==
8 30
LONGITU
v
20
z
r~
',./3
F- IO RAYLEI GH
~AVE
{./'}
!
I I
I00 200 300 400
FREQUENCY ( k N z )
FIG. 8 -- Absolute sensitivity of O.14Z10 transducer.

HATANO ON A RECIPROCITY METHOD 101
Comparison with Surface Pulse Method
For the seismic surface pulse method, theoretical dynamic displacements of the
surface were calculated on the basis of Lamb's theory. The reciprocity parameter for
the Rayleigh wave calibration was derived from Lamb's theory as well [15]. There is a
common theoretical basis in the two calibration methods. For the Rayleigh wave
calibration, round robin experiments were carried out in a collaborative effort between the
United States and Japan [16]. Six transducers, of two different types, were each
calibrated three times by the surface pulse method, and three times by the reciprocity
method. They were then recalibrated at NBS to assure that no changes had occurred.
Although the procedures are very different, absolute sensitivities of the transducers as
obtained by either method agreed remarkably well.
Both the surface pulse method and reciprocity method have merits and demerits.
The procedure for each method was specified as Standard, namely, ASTM Designation
E 1106: Standard Method for Primary Calibration of Acoustic Emission Sensors, and
NDIS 2109, respectively [5,10]. There are other calibration methods, such as the laser-
interferometer standard transducer, which could also be documented as standard. In
general, the standard might leave the choice of method open with some provision for
adding other methods to the list if they become feasible.
Measurement of Impulse Response by Reciprocity Method
By means of reciprocity method, impulse responses of acoustic emission

transducers, which are essential for the quantitative analysis of acoustic emission
waveforms [2,3,17], can be determined [18]. On the basis of the newly derived
complex reciprocity parameters, frequency characteristics of phase, in addition to
magnitude, of absolute sensitivity were obtained, and the impulse responses were
determined through inverse Fourier transform.
Three acoustic emission transducers (0.67Z3), which employed a 3-mm-diameter
2.0
RAYLEIGH WAVE 4.0
LONGI TUDI NAL WAVE
N"
~ 1.0
E
0
o ~
~- 0.0 ~ o.o
v
~ -2.0
~,. -1.0
(./3
~, "I -4.0
-2.0 i i i i t i
0.0 si0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0
TIME (~) TIME (~,s)

FIG. 9 -- Impulse responses of O.67Z3 transducer.
disk-type piezoelectric element with a nominal thickness resonance of 670 kHz, were
used as the objects for the reciprocity calibration of impulse response. Figure 9 shows
the impulse responses of one of the transducers to Rayleigh and longitudinal waves [18].
The duration and period of oscillations of the impulse responses were somewhat different
between the two wave modes. These results suggest that waveforms of detected
acoustic emission are liable to change with the wave mode even if the waveforms of the
incident elastic waves are identical.
Based on the impulse responses determined by the reciprocity calibration, matched
filters were constructed [19]. Consequently, the signal to noise ratio was enhanced in
the actual acoustic emission measurements, and acoustic emission signals and spurious
noises were discriminated between.
Conclusion
The background, methodology and application fields of reciprocity calibration of

acoustic emission transducers were reviewed and discussed. A significant advantage of
the reciprocity method is that frequency characteristics and impulse responses of absolute
sensitivity to Rayleigh and longitudinal waves can be determined by means of purely
electrical measurements without the use of mechanical sound sources or reference
transducers. In addition, the transfer medium is not limited to electrically conducting
material, since no reference such as the capacitive transducer is required to measure the
displacement of elastic waves. Mechanical losses of the transfer medium were not
considered in the calibration, since forged steel with a comparatively low mechanical loss
was employed. For more precise measurements or for transfer media with higher
mechanical losses, for instance, concrete and composite materials, the effects of the
mechanical losses and, if possible, methods for compensating for the losses should be
important subjects in the next stage of research.
Acknowledgments
The author wishes to thank T. Watanabe and S. Hashirizaki of Nippon Steel

Corporation for fabricating the forged steel transfer medium, and T. Chaya, S. Watanabe,
K. Jinbo, and M. Koshimura of Science University of Tokyo for their efforts in making
experiments. He further acknowledges D.A. Watson for reading the manuscript.
References
[/] Hatano, H., "Quantitative Measurements of Acoustic Emission Related to its

Microscopic Mechanisms," J.Acoust.Soc.Am., Vol. 57, 1975, pp. 639-645.
[2] Hsu, N.N., Simmons, J.A., and Hardy, S.C., "An Approach to Acoustic Emission
HATANO ON A RECIPROCITY METHOD 103
Signal Analysis - Theory and Experiment," Mater.Eval., Vol. 35, 1977, pp. 100-
106.
[31 Scruby, C.B., Collingwood, J.C., and Wadley, H.N.G., "A New Technique for the
Measurement of Acoustic Emission Transients and Their Relationship to Crack
Propagation," J.Phys.D: Appl.Phys., Vol. 11, 1978, pp. 2359-2369.
[4] Hsu, N.N. and Breckenridge, F.R., "Characterization and Calibration of Acoustic
Emission Sensors," Mater.Eval., Vol. 39, 1981, pp. 60-68.
[5] Hatano, H., "Calibration Standardization of Acoustic Emission Transducers,"

Proc.of14th Inter. Cong.on Acoust., Beijing, Vol. 4, 1992, Invited Paper,
No. LI-3.
[6] Breckenildge, F.R. and Greenspan, M., "Surface-Wave Displacement: Absolute

Measurements Using a Capacitive Transducer," J.Acoust.Soc.Am., Vol. 69, 1985,
pp. 1177-1185.
[7] Breckenridge, F.R., "Acoustic Emission Transducer Calibration by Means of the

Seismic Surface Pulse," J.Acoust.Emiss., Vol. 1, 1982, pp. 87-94.
[8] Hatano, H. and Moil, E., "Acoustic-Emission Transducer and its Absolute
Calibration," J.Acoust.Soc.Am., Vol. 59, 1976, pp. 344-349.
[9] Hatano, H. and Watanabe, T., "Reciprocity Calibration of Acoustic Emission

Transducers in Rayleigh-Wave and Longitudinal-Wave Sound Fields,"
J.Acoust.Soc.Am., Vol. 101, 1997, pp. 1450-1455.
[lO] Hatano, H.., Moil, Y., Kishi, T., and Yamaguchi, K., "On NDIS 2109: Methods for
Absolute Calibration of Acoustic Emission Transducers by Reciprocity
Technique," 4th World Meet. on Acoust.Emiss.and 1st Int. Confon Acoust.Emiss.in
Manufct., Boston, Amer.Soc.for Nondest.Test., Columbus, 1991, pp. 147-154.
[11] Aki, K. and Richards,P.G., Quantitative Seisnu)logy, Vol. 1, W.H. Freeman and
Company, New York, 1980.
[12] MacLean, W.R., "Absolute Measurement of Sound Without a Primary Standard,"

J.Acoust.Soc.Am., Vol. 12, 1940, pp. 140-146.
[13] Cook, R.K., "Absolute Pressure Calibration of Microphones," J.Acoust.Soc.Am.,

Vol. 12, 1941, pp. 415-420.
[14] Foldy, L.L. and Primakoff, H., "A General Theory of Passive Linear
Electroacoustic Transducers and the Electroacoustic Reciprocity Theorem I, II,"
J.Acoust.Soc.Am., Vol. 17, 1945, pp. 109-120; Vol. 19, 1947, pp. 50-58.
[/5] Lamb, L, "On the Propagation of Tremors Over the Surface of an Elastic Solid,"
Philos.Trans., R.Soc.London, set. A, Vol. 203, 1904, pp. 1-42.
[16] Breckenridge, F.R., Watanabe, T., and Hatano, H., "Calibration of Acoustic
Emission Transducers: Comparison of Two Methods," Prog.Acoust.Emiss.,
Vol. 1, 1982, pp. 448-458.
I/7] Michaels, J.E., Michaels, T.E., and Sachse, W., "Applications of Deconvolution to
Acoustic Emission Signal Analysis," Mater. Eval., Vol. 39, 1981, pp. 1032-1036.
l/S] Hatano, H., Chaya, T., Watanabe, S., and Jinbo, K., "Reciprocity Calibration of
Impulse Responses of Acoustic Emission Transducers," IEEE Trans. UFFC.,
Vol. 45, No. 5, 1998, (in press).
[191 Kawano, K., Kawauchi, T, Koguchi, H, and Hatano, H., "Measurement and
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Spring ConfofAcoust.Soc.Jpn, Vol. 2, Mar. 1996, pp. 909-910, (in Japanese).
Diverse Industrial Applications
Paulo R. de Aguiar, t Peter Willett,2 and John Webster a
ACOUSTIC EMISSION APPLIED TO DETECT WORKPIECE BURN DURING

GRINDING
REFERENCE: de Aguiar, P. R., Willett, P., and Webster, J., "Acoustic Emission Applied to
Detect Workpiece Burn During Grinding," Acoustic Emission: Standard and Technology
Update, ASTM STP 1353, S. J. Vahaviolos, Ed., American Society for Testing and Materials,
West Conshohocken, PA, 1999.
A B S T R A C T : Overly-aggressive or otherwise inappropriate grinding of metals can

produce an undesirable change in metallurgical properties of the material being
processed; usually this is referred to as workpiece "burn". In this experimental paper the
acoustic signature of grinding is collected, and compared to the processed workpiece
condition, for thirteen data sets including both relatively hard (Inconel) and soft (52100
bearing steel) metals. This work is distinguished by its use of a high sampling rate (2.56
MHz) in data acquisition and in its processing of the raw, rather than RMS/filtered, data
samples. Signs of burn are seen in the frequency domain, and in the correlation between
wheel rotations.
K E Y W O R D S : grinding, acoustic emission, burn, signal processing
Introduction
Interest in the application of intelligent machines to industry is growing. However, as

yet, numerically-controlled (CNC) machining is insufficiently reliable for stand-alone
operation - it is common to observe a machine's operator using a CNC system simply to
correct the parameters or identify tool wear or breakage. As such, a recent research thrust
has evolved around the monitoring aspect of intelligent control, and naturally acoustic
emission (AE) has a crucial role in this.
The problem of interest to us is the detection of superficial workpiece burn, which can
occur during the cut of a workpiece by the grinding wheel, when the energy in the contact
area generates a temperature increase sufficient to produce a local phase change. This is
sometimes visually observable by a bluish temper color on the workpiece, but more
generally requires time-consuming chemical means for its after-the-fact determination.
Researcher, Center for Grinding Research and Development, U-119, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269.
2 Associate Professor, Department of Electrical and Systems Engineering, U-157, University of Connecticut, Storrs,
CT 06269.
a Technical Director, Center for Grinding Research and Development, U-119, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT
06269.
107
Copyright9 by ASTM International WWW.SStIII.org
The application of AE to monitoring of grinding and machining is not new, and a

number of excellent papers have been written on the subject; we list several of these [ 1-
12, 14]. For the most part these researchers have relied on AE power (sometimes called
root-mean square, or RMS, AE) and statistics derived therefrom to determine grinding
condition and performance. What distinguishes our work from the previous is the use of a
high-frequency (2.56 MHz) analog to digital converter (ADC) coupled with massive data
storage, and the consequent availability of essentially raw AE signals.
This paper deals with the analysis of data records relating to thirteen grinding runs,
involving two different materials. In each case, AE data was sampled for the entire
grinding pass (30 million data samples, approximately 12 seconds each) and analyzed
off-line, with results compared to inspection of each workpiece for burn and other
metallurgical anomaly. A number of statistical signal processing tools have been
evaluated, and an emphasis has been placed on those which are amplitude-independent;
that is, features which are unaffected by overall AE power. This is due to the fact that AE
power can rise and fall during a grinding process for reasons having less to do with the
workpiece condition than with geometry. Unfortunately, most of these amplitude-
independent indicators have failed to recognize burn.
A notable exception is a novel statistic which, in the absence of an accepted term, we
shall refer to as wheel-period correlation. It turns out that AE data arising from one
revolution of the grinding wheel correlates surprisingly closely with succeeding
revolutions. Interestingly, this phenomenon can be employed to determine highly
accurately the grinding wheel rotational speed; and further, it appears that variation in
wheel speed can indicate burn. More important, we have found evidence that the strength
of the correlation is also predictive of burn.
The Experiments
The experimental set-up is shown in Figure 1. Specifically, data from thirteen

different experiments involving two different workpiece types were collected, one of
these being a relatively difficult-to-grind metal (Inconet 718), and the other an easy-to-
grind bearing steel (52100). Most parameters were kept constant among all tests;
however, the depth of cut, ranging from very light to aggressive, was varied. All
workpieces were examined post-mortem, and signs of burn or other stress noted.
Grinding parameters include:

9 Nominal wheel peripheral speed: 75.8 m/s (approximately 7500 rpm)
9 Nominal workpiece feed rate: 12.7 mrn/s
9 Coolant type: Master Chemical VHP 200
9 Coolant flow rate: 29 gallon per minute
9 Grinding wheel type: WOLFCO, CBN 1012, 100/120-CBN, M.O.S. 6115
9 Grinding wheel diameter: 7.5 inches
9 Grinding apparatus: Edgetek Superabrasive Machine
Data was retrieved from a single Physical Acoustics PAC U80D-87 sensor, mounted
directly on the workpiece via adhesive. The data acquisition system employed was a
Hewlett-Packard E1430A run in continuous-sampling mode at 2.56 x 1 0 6 samples per
DE AGUIAR ET AL. ON WORKPIECE BURN DURING GRINDING 109
second. The A/D accuracy was 16 bits per sample, and appropriate anti-'aliasing filtering
was performed internally to the HP system. The wheel spindle power, and both normal
and tangential wheel/workpiece forces were also monitored on separate low-rate ADC
channels.
A typical data trace is shown in Figure 2. It is apparent that this signal is strongly
autocorrelated. In fact, much of this autocorrelation is due to the sensor itself, whose
function is aided by internal resonance. A "pencil-break" test provides an example of the
overall system (workpiece propagation, AE sensor, and electronic filtering)
FIG. 1 - The grinding apparatus
impulse response and transfer function, as shown in Figure 3. A pencil-break test is a

reasonably impulsive event over the frequency range of interest here, and might thus be a
means of extracting the exact system response to be used in a pre-processing step of
deconvolution. However, the response to such a pencil-break is dependent on a number
of factors, not least of which is geometry (the pencil-break was not in the exact same
location as the grinding action, and in any case this grinding interface itself moves), and
hence the result is in fact useful only as a guide for the type of system response to expect.
It is worth mentioning that both deconvolution based on this exemplar impulse response,
and also adaptive (Wiener) whitening [15, 16] were performed on these signals, but did
not aid in detection of burn and were not pursued further.
Details of the tests are shown in Tables 1 and 2. In the case of the Inconel workpieces,
burn can be estimated only visually. In the case of the 52100 workpieces burn was
assayed visually and through laboratory testing (nital etch and surface hardness). Burn,
when it occurred, was found at or near th e outfeed edge; this is due to coolant starvation
from spray off this edge and away from the grinding interface. Generally, the more
aggressive the cutting depth, the more likely burn was to occur. Depth of cut is an
important parameter, since the length of time between first contact and the wheel axis
being directly over the workpiece's infeed edge (full contact) increases with depth of cut
a according to
t full_contac t - t first_contac t = l a3f~- a 2

V
in which D is the wheel diameter, and v is the workpiece feed rate. This is naturally
accounted for in all subsequent analysis.
6000
4000
2000
3=
-2000
-40130
-8000 I = I r
2760.01 2760.02 2760.03 2760.04 2760.05 2760.06
t i m e (ms)
FIG. 2 - A typical "raw" data trace from a benign grinding regime. The data is shown in
16-bit notation," that is, the maximum positive and negative levels are __+32768.
TABLE 1- The parameters f o r the Inconel workpieces. All workpieces were 76.5 mm in
length. Burn location refers to the distance from the infeed edge and the first visible sigm
o f burn. In test number six the workpiece was ramped in such a way that contact was not
established until 21 mm from the infeed edge.
Test Depth of Cut Burn Location Comments
1 0.025 in 65 mm Slight burn
2 0.010 in 68 mm Very slight burn
3 0.005 in No visible burn
4 0.035 in 62 m m burn
5 0.045 in 50 mm Heavy burn
6 60 mm Heavy burn, ramp cut
The Signal Processing
A number of statistical signal processing tools were applied to the data collected. Most
of these, such as moments (e.g. kurtosis) and predictability (the output of an adaptive
Wiener whitener), did not correlate well with grinding quality, and we do not report them
here. For the most part an attempt was made to normalize with respect to AE power,
since this can rise or fall for reasons having nothing to do with burn.
TABLE2 - The parameters for the 52100 workpieces. All workpieces were 78mm in
length. Burn location refers to the distance from the infeed edge and the first visible signs
of burn. Metallurgical softening is denoted by TB (temper burn); a hard Martensite layer
is denoted by RL (rehardened layer).
Test Depth of Cut Burn Location Comments

1 0.002 in 65 mm slight pervasive TB and RL
2 0.010 in 68 mm slight pervasive TB and RL
3 0.020 in no burn
4 0.030 in 62 mm slight TB at end
5 0.040 in 50 mm moderate TB at end; some at start
6 0.050 in 60 mm heavy TB at end; moderate at start
7 0.070 in 60 mm heavy TB, RL at end; heavy TB at start
The Spectrum
It is natural to investigate the behavior of the power spectrum. To calculate this, we

have used fast Fourier transforms (FFTs) of length 1024, and averaged the magnitude-
squares of these according to the Bartlett procedure [ 16]. The power spectral density of
received data before contact and during benign grinding are shown in Fig. 4. It is clear
that active grinding is characterized by enhanced high-frequency power. In Figures 6, 7,
and 8 we show the short-time power-normalized spectrum (that is, the power spectrum
estimated from a block of data, divided by the average AE power during that block). In
these plots lighter shading corresponds to higher power at the given frequency and time;
x 10 ~
2 i i 1
1.5
~ 0.5
~ o
~ -0.5
-1
-1.5
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0,12 0.14 0,16 0.18 0.2
time ( m s )
1 i
._~o.e
~ 0.6
~c0 . 4
m
0.2
i I
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
frequency (kHz)
FIG. 3 - Above: the system response, as determined from "pencil-break" data, amplitude
is in A/D units. Below: the system transfer function, units normalized to give maximum
unity value.
logarithmic pre-processing was performed to avoid dynamic range problems in these

plots.
The Nuttall Statistic
A data-processing step attracting a great deal of interest of late is Nuttall's "power-

law" statistic [13]. The form of the statistic is
Tr zklxkl5
in which X(k) denotes the k th F F F output, and summation is over any specified range of
frequencies. The denominator enforces that this statistic be power-independent; the
exponent of five was found to be a robust choice for most applications.
Essentially, the power-law statistic measures a frequency-domain moment - in fact, if the
exponents above were 4 and 2 instead of 5 and 2.5 this would be easily seen to be a
kurtosis. Nuttall has derived this statistic based upon considerable analysis showing
t0'
E4
2
o J I 1 I I
o 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
frequency(kHz)
x 10r
10
8
E
2
,-~
'D 4
C
"C
, I J
00 200 400 600 800 1000 12100 1400
frequency (kHz)
FIG. 4 - Above." a typical power spectrum o f data observed before wheel/workpiece
contact is made. Below: a typical power spectrum during grinding.
DE AGUIAR ET AL. ON WORKPIECE BURN DURING GRINDING 1 13
that its level is considerably enhanced when transient events (of almost any nature) are
present in the block of data being processed. In grinding, physical phenomena such as
coolant boiling, fracture (cracking), and simple grain-passage (the normal grinding wear
mechanism) can all be thought of as transient burst-energy events, hence our motivation
for exploring this statistic here.
Correlation 1: Wheel-period Correlation
In Figure 5 is shown a typical AE autocorrelation signal. It is somewhat remarkable

that the AE signature from one revolution of the wheel over the workpiece is highly
similar to the AE signature from the next revolution - this is most likely due to the
wheel/cutting profile remaining more or less constant. W e use the value of this
correlation "peak" both as a statistic in itself, and also as a measure of wheel rotation
period. Again, remarkably, AE is therefore able to measure rotational wheel speed very
accurately. W e note that to measure the peak's height and position we have used three-
point parabolic interpolation; from Figure 5 it is seen that the actual peak may lie in
between two samples.
1.2
1
0.8
g
~ o.6
~ 0.4
o
0.2
I I I
-0. 5 10 15 20 25 30 3 40 45 50
time (ms)
0.6
0.4
.~_ 0.2
8 o
-0.2
-0.4 I I I I I
7.92 7.94 7.96 7.98 8 8.02 1.04
time (ms)
FIG. 5: Above: the measured autocorrelation coefficient from a typical grinding AE

signal. Note the peaks at times corresponding to the reciprocal of the wheel rotational
frequency. Below: a zoom view of the first autocorrelation peak.
The autocorrelation can be measured directly; but since this is computationally

burdensome a fast alternative means was used [ 16]. Specifically, we estimate
1 2N-li, . 12 j2ztkm/2N
P(m) =-~--G~, Z, lakl e (2)
~.lV k=0
For any m ~ {0 ..... N-1 }, where
N-!
Xk = ~ Xne-j2~n/2N (3)
n=O
meaning, in essence, that we take the 2N-point zero-padded FFT of a block of data of
length N, take the magnitude-square, and then take the 2N point inverse F I T . Since 2N-
point F F F can be calculated using O[2Nlog2(2N)] operations, all autocorrelations can be
determined very quickly. It should be noted that the means described above yields a
biased autocorrelation estimate; division of ~ (m) by l-lml/N removes the bias. In Figures
6, 7 and 8 the autocorrelation has been scaled by the AE power, or ~ (0).
Correlation 2: Wheel-period Power Correlation
It is arguable that the autocorrelation measure described above is overly sensitive to

random effects such as phase noise (it is unlikely that a wheel revolution corresponds to
an integral number of AE sampling points) and grain slippage (a small wheel deformation
can result in a large loss of correlation). Thus, we propose to perform the same
operations, but instead on filtered power data. Specifically, in equation (3) the raw signal
x, is replaced by
L-I 2 (4)
Yn =(l=_~L+lO--[ll/L~n+ll--Y
in which the mean value y is subtracted. It is anticipated that this statistic retains a more
accurate and robust estimate of the wheel profile than the previous correlation. In our
tests, we used the value L=10.
The Results
Statistics from Inconel tests 3 (no burn) and 6 (angled cut; heavy burn), and from
52100 steel test 7 (heavy burn) are shown in Figures 6, 7, and 8, respectively. AE and
wheel motor power data from these same tests are shown in Figures 9, 10 and 11.
It is clear from the normalized spectrum that normal non-destructive grinding has a
somewhat disordered or "dappled" spectrum; but at the onset of burn the spectrum
remains relatively consistent. We note this feature, but as of yet have been unable to
summarize it into a usable scalar statistic. The normalized Nuttall power-law statistic
does not appear to offer any compelling evidence of burn.
It appears that burn is characterized effectively by increased wheel-period correlation;
the effect is amplified, as expected, when the second (filtered power) correlation is
DE AGUIAR ET AL. ON WORKPIECE BURN DURING GRINDING 1 15
examined. It is speculated that this is due to metallic softening during burn: the wheel
"rubs" and "plows" rather than "grinds," and its change from revolution to revolution is
concomitantly lower. Further evidence of this is available from the wheel speed data, in
which it is evident that the wheel increases its speed - the time between correlation peaks
is lower - when burn is occurring. (It is likely possible that this effect could be measured
by a substantially less involved technique than high-rate AE; but we have noted its
existence for the first time during our AE study,) Comparing Inconel and 52100 plots it
can be observed that correlation is greater in the latter than the former; this is as expected,
since 52100 bearing steel is relatively soft and plastic. If wheel-period correlation is to be
used as an indicator for burn, a relative increase rather than an absolute level should
consequently be sought.
FIG. 6 - Data from the third Inconel test. (a) normalized frequency spectrum. (b) Nuttall
statistic. (c) wheel-period correlation. (d) wheel-period power correlation. (e) wheel
speed measured from AE. (f) AE power. The vertical dashed lines represent: time of first
contact; time of full contact, time of end contact.
FIG. 7 - Data from the sixth Inconel test. (a) normalized frequency spectrum. (b) Nuttall
statistic. (c) wheel-period correlation. (d) wheel-period correlation. (e) wheel speed
measured from AE. (f) AE power. The vertical dashed lines represent: time of lull
contact; time of observed burn, time of end contact. As this was an angled cut, first and
full contact times are coincident.
FIG. 8 - Data From the seventh 52100 test. (a) normalized frequency spectrum. (b)
Nuttall statistic. (c) wheel-period correlation. (d) wheel-period power correlation. (e)
wheel speed measured from AE. (f) AE power. The vertical dashed lines represent: time
of first contact; time of full contact; time of observed burn, time of end contact.
I
1400-
1200
looo
Q.
| 600-
400-
2~ I
i
I .. I
1 J
I I I
2 4 6 8 10 12
7~ J i t
i i i f I
lOI
r
t-
0___J
I I t l a a ~.,.--
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
ill ~ i
150
o100
50
0 I II t I II I I
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
time(s)
FIG. 9 - AE power, wheel power draw (expressed as a percentage of full 35
horsepower), and ratio of these, for lnconel test 3. The vertical dashed lines represent:
time of first contact; time of full contact, time of end contact.
~~ ae power
ratio wheel power
(jrl ~ (jrl 8 8 ~
0 C:~ 0 0 0 Q Q
Q
I I I i i i i i i i i
r~
~-~ EJ
m
G3
c
4~ J~ 33
m
.I--
0
z
cr)
0
~ ~ ~:~ m
CO
c
z
~2 c.-
"11
z
Q
:3:)
z
z
0
I I I I I I I I
.--k
to
I I I I I I ~i I
2000
1500i
O
~1000
t~
500 I I
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10
,.15
0 'Ji i i I I I
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 g 10
'1 I I
100
50
I
I
0 i II I J I r I II I
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
time (s)
FIG. 11 - AE power, wheel power draw (expressed as a percentage of full 35
horsepower), and ratio of these, for 52100 test 7. The vertical dashed lines represent."
time of first contact; time of full contact; time of observed burn, time of end contact.
The wheel-period power correlation statistic is shown for all grinds (except the first
52100 test, left off for reasons of space) in Figures 12 and 13. Comparing this with the
data in Tables 1 and 2 it is seen that burn correlates well with an increase in this statistic.
The table data was mostly gathered through visual inspection; the statistical data appears
to predict bum somewhat earlier (52100 test 5) and more often (52100 test 1) than the
inspection data.
The AE power data shows the familiar "horns" of high amplitude on entry and on exit.
However, AE power either alone or with wheel motor power does not appear to be a
reliable indicator of workpiece burn.
(a) (b)
1 1
t- t-
O O
-~ 0.5 ~_ 0.5
I
0 \ I
I
0
I
~ v , ~ . ,,, 0 . . . . . '~A'-'~^
2 4 6 10 2 4 6 8 10
(c) (d)
_~ 0.5
t-
O
0.5
S
0
0
O
"O
\
. ,v4^,,/v.~ , . M 0 i i ~.,,,~.^ ,~d
2 4 6 10 2 4 6 8 10
(e) (f)
1
I
c-
/
o
_~ 0.5 0.5
8 0
i i
0
2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 10
time (s) time (s)
FIG. 12 - Wheel-period power correlation from Inconel tests 1 through 6. The vertical
dashed lines represent: time of first contact; time of full contact; time of observed burn,
time of end contact. The first and full contact lines are coincident in test 6, the angled cut.
(a) (b)
t~
C t-
0 O
_~ 0.5 I "~ 0.5
I
0 t 0 t
I
o ''~ ~ o iI i i i
2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 10
(c) (d)
1 1
I
9 0
_~o.s -~ 0.5
I I I
0 I 0 I I
U
I I I
iI i i
0 "~ ~ ii i i
2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 10
(e) (f)
9 , .
t I I 1 ~ '
t- t-
O
_~o.5 0.5
I I
0 r 0 I
U
I I
0 ~ r , ~ 0 I ' "r
2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 10
time (s) time (s)
FIG. 13 - Wheel-period power correlation from 52100 tests 2 through 7. The vertical
dashed lines represent." time o f first contact; time o f full contact; time o f observed burn,
t,:me o f end contact.
Summary
In this paper we have described analysis of high sampling rate AE from a series of
ghnding tests with the idea o f finding a statistic indicative of workpiece burn. While our
remits are preliminary, it appears that the metallic softening accompanying burn causes
th~ AE signal to change less from wheel revolution to revolution than would be observed
if he metal were undamaged. This is observable as an increased correlation statistic, and
als) in a degree of self-similarity between short-time spectra. It has also been observed,
somewhat surprisingly, that wheel speed (rotational velocity) can be determined quite
accurately from AE data.
Acknowledgment
This research was supported by the National Science Foundation under contract DMI-
9634859. The authors also wish to express their appreciation to Alan Chasse for his help
in performing the grinding tests.
References
[ 1] Bennett, R., "Acoustic Emission in Grinding," University of Connecticut Master's

Thesis, 1994.
[2] Berkovits, A. and Fang, D., "Study of Fatigue Crack Characteristics by Acoustic
Emission," Engineering Fracture Mechanics, Vol. 51, No. 3, 1995, pp. 401-416.
[3] Bifano, T. and Yi, Y., "Acoustic Emission as an Indicator of Material-Removal
Regime in Glass Micro-machining," Precision Engineering, Vol. 14, No. 4, 1990,
pp.219-228.
[4] Chang, Y. and Dornfeld, D., "Chatter and Surface Pattern Detection for Cylindrical
Grinding Using a Fluid Coupled Acoustic Emission Sensor," International
Conference on Machining of Advanced Materials, NIST, 1993, pp. 159-167.
[5] Dornfeld, D. and Cai, H., "An Investigation of Grinding and Wheel Loading Using
Acoustic Emission," ASME Journal of Engineering and Industry, Vol. 106, No. 1,
1984, pp. 28-33.
[6] Dornfeld, D., "In Process Recognition of Cutting States," JSME International Journal,
Vol. 37, No. 4, 1994, pp. 638-650.
[7] Eda, H., Kishi, K., Ueno, H., Kakino, K., and Fujiwara, A., "In-Process Detection of
Grinding Burns by Means of Utilizing Acoustic Emission," Bulletin of JSPE, Vol.
18, No. 4, 1984, pp. 299-304.
[8] Kluft, W., "Monitoring the Grinding and Dressing Operations Increases Output and
Quality and Reduces Cost and Waste," Proceedings of Fifth International Grinding
Conference, 1990, p. 526.
[9] Konig, W. and Meyen, H., "Acoustic Emission in Grinding and Dressing: Accuracy
and Process Reliability," Proceedings of Fourth International Grinding Conference,
1990, p. 525.
[10] Akbari, J., Saito, Y., Hanaoka, T., and Enomoto, S., "Using Acoustic Emission for
Monitoring of Grinding Process of Fine Ceramics," JSME International Journal,
Vol. 38, No. 1, 1995, pp. 175-180.
[11] Liang, S. and Dornfeld, D., "Detection of Cutting Tool Wear Using Adaptive Time
Series Modeling of Acoustic Emission Signal," ASME Conference on Sensors for
Manufacturing, 1987, pp. 27-38.
[12] Emel, E. and Kannatey-Asibu, E., "Tool Failure Monitoring in Turning by Pattern
Recognition Analysis of Acoustic Emission Signals," ASME Journal of
Engineering and Industry, Vol. 110, 1988, pp. 137-145.
[ 13] Nuttall, A., "Detection Performance of Power-Law Processors for Random Signals
of Unknown Location, Structure, Extent, and Strength," Naval Undersea Warfare
Center Technical Report 10751, 1994.
[14] Waschkies, E., Sklarczyk, C., and Hepp, K., "Tool Wear Monitoring at Turning,"
ASME Journal of Engineering and Industry, Vol. 116, 1994, pp. 521-524.
[ 15] Haykin, S., Adaptive Filter Theory, 3rd edition, Prentice-Hall, 1996.
[ 16] Proakis, J. and Manolakis, D., Digital Signal Processing, 3~dedition, Prentice-Hall,
1996.
Sergey A. Nikulin, 1 Mstislav A. Shtremel,~ Vladislav G. Khanzhin, l Elena Y. Kurianova I and
Anton P. Markelov I
ANALYSIS OF FRACTURE SCALE AND MATERIAL QUALITY

M O N I T O R I N G W I T H THE HELP OF ACOUSTIC EMISSION
MEASUREMENTS
REFERENCE: Nikulin, S. A., Shtremel, M. A., Khanzin, V. G., Kurianova, E. Y.,

and Markelov, A. P., "Analysis of Fracture Scale and Material Quality
Monitoring with the Help of Acoustic Emission Measurements," Acoustic
ABSTRACT: The results of a study of the mechanism and kinetics of metallic

material fracture (dual phase steels, binary Zr-2,5Nb and multicomponental Zr-l,2Sn-
1Nb-0,3Fe alloys, reinforced surface layers and protective coatings, multifilamentary
Nb3Sn and Nb-Ti based superconductors and HTSC-based composition wires) are
given. The quantity fracture analysis is based on measurements of acoustic impulse
peak (maximum) amplitudes by non-resonance sensors for linear measurement of
acoustic shifts and crack parameters measurement. The developed methods of absolute
calibration of AE equipment were checked by testing various types of materials and
crack parameter measurements in laps and fractures. The calibration dependencies for
quantity measurements are shown. The possibilities of AE for quality analysis and for
characterizing of materials in the process of various mechanical tests and in the process
of pressure processing with the help of a developed experimental computerized AE
system are demonstrated.
KEYWORDS: quantitative AE-measurements, AE materials quality monitoring,

computerized AE system, deformation and fracture, materials testing, pressure
processing
At the Moscow State Steel and Alloys Institute (MSAI) the basis of the
program for developing AE quantitative methods is formed by procedures and
instruments that are based on the notion of the linear relation between the maximum
peak amplitude of the acoustic field and the elastic energy of the AE source at the rate
of the AE source evolution close to the sound velocity. The previous AE methods are
1 Professor, professor, leading scientific officer, senior scientific officer, and senior scientific
officer, respectively, Moscow State Institute of Steel and Alloys, Lcninsky av. 4,
117936, Moscow, Russia.
125
126 ACOUSTICEMISSION:STANDARDSAND TECHNOLOGY
oriented on obtaining the maximum sensitivity at the expense of using resonance

detectors which provided just the qualitative analysis of processes due to an intensive
sound reverberation in a metal. Therefore, the instruments and techniques of
measurements developed and employed in this work are based on non-resonance
damped wide-band sensors. This allowed linear measurements of acoustic
displacements and, using the latter, one can assess the dimensions of radiation sources,
in other words, cracks.
There are two ways of practical implementation of AE-method in MSAI. The
first way is monitoring of quality of materials with the help of AE measurements
during laboratory research, which is called "Quality monitoring of materials," that
allows the evaluation of ductility margin, fracture resistance, resistance to SCC, etc.
The second is AE-monitoring of processing of materials and AE-monitoring of
work conditions of technological equipment, which is called "Technological
monitoring."
In the framework of "Quality monitoring of materials" and "Technological
monitoring" various methods of quantitative analysis of processes and materials with
the help of AE were developed.
The present work deals with the results of a 10-year research work, carried out
in MSAI [3,10-24]. The physical principles of quantitative AE measurements were
presented earlier in [3] and were delivered by authors ft the Russian - American
Conference "The Ways of Development of Nondestructive Control" (Moscow, 1989).
In the framework of this research specific methods and equipment were
developed for quantitative AE analysis. In combination with other methods of
investigation, such as metallography, electron microscopy, fractographical analysis, AE
measurements will allow analysis in real scale of time various processes of
deformation and fracture of tested materials.
The developed equipment and methods for AE-measurements are used for
carrying out a wide range of practical problems: development of cryogenic and cold-
resistant dual phase steels [10, 11], increased crack resistance of reinforced surface
layers [ 12] and protective coats [13], development of technology for processing Zr-
based tubes for nuclear power reactors [14-16, 23], development of technology for
manufacturing for multifilamentary superconductors for large scale magnetic systems
[17,181.
Experimental Procedure
Phenomenologyand Principlesof EquipmentDevelopment

An acoustic impulse in material is formed when elastic relief of an area takes
place AV - d 3 (d = diameter of fracture zone). The time of impulse formation is
tp = d/c, where c is fracture rate. Further continuous reverberation is accompanied by
consecutive transmission of oscillation energy to the lower frequencies by excitation o
longitudinal oscillations, and then flexural oscillations of the sample and the system
"sample - machine." Therefore, the maximum frequency of AE source is fo - 1/tp.
NIKULIN ET AL. ON FRACTURE SCALE AND MATERIAL QUALITY 127
In the laboratory test a frequency of source (crack) oscillation is several orders higher
than frequency of longitudinal and flexural oscillations of the sample.
So, frequency characteristics of the AE device influence the physical sense of a
signal: amplitude of an AE signal of high frequency depends on the dimensions of the
sample and decreases when the hardness of the loading unit is raised.
The inside crack, which is formed at a rate o f V - c (c is speed of sound in
metal), can be characterized by different dependence of fracture period on linear
dimension of a crack d. That is why a depends on bandwidth of a device fracture
dimension, measured with the help of the AE methods.
Minimum resolved distance between the sources is Almin ~ c/fo. If the upper
bound o f a frequency band of a device is fo -1 MHz, then Almin - 1 mm. So, the
registered acoustic impulse is insignificant depending on the specific characteristics of
microoscillators - "elementary" microcracks in structure with specific size of d _= 10-
100 ~m and it is determined by averaged change of stress field.
The equipment for signal detection and registration should match the subject of
inquiry by pulse period - to pulse duration ratio.
If for the period of time tp the sample with cross-section F o is distracted, the
registration device with time constant "c cannot separately detect the crack steps on
surface area less than F =_(X/tp)Fo. It is impossible to detect the steps of a crack of a
sample with cross-section Fo ~ 1 cm 2 for the period oftp ~ 10.3 s (linear crack rate
M 0 m/s) on the surface area less than 0.1 mm 2, if the bandwidth is fo - 1 MHz.
As usual in microstructure there are no structure elements with the surface area
of 0.1 mm 2 (liner size d - 0.3 mm) and more. That is why, when the main crack is
formed, high frequency detection reflects not elementary, but complex events in
microstructure. In that case the registered amplitude depends on the time interval
between the events, united in a group.
So, in mechanisms of high rate fracture the registered AE allows the detection
of a single step of crack. Pulse height distribution and frequency allocation provides
information about the stages of crack development when heterogeneous crack is
formed.
AE-Devices for "Monitoring of Materials" and "Technological Monitoring"
The principles stated above are fixed in the basis for development of the
following AE equipment:
1. Small size laboratory equipment for AE-measurements of tested materials.
2. Microprocessor detectors of AE signals - the devices with built-in calculating
machines for automatic detection, storage and processing of information about AE
signals during mechanical tests of materials.
3. Information-measuring system on the base of IBM PC.
Small Size Systems for AE-Measurements -The objectives of laboratory AE-
measurements of fracture are comparisons of events in structure with generated AE
signals. The peculiarity of an AE signal, generated by a microcrack, is a low level of a
signal - which can be compared with the noise level of receiving amplifying devices.
High sensitivity of AE-method is achieved by implementation of resonance

sensors [1-9]. A multireflected acoustic wave passing through a piezoelectric element,
increases the ratio "signal/noise" of the output electric signal to 102-103. But a
continuous reverberation makes it difficult the identify an output signal and does not
allow to detection of a single stage of the fracture process.
In the program for developing AE quantitative measurements it was intended to
use another method, based on implementation of nonresonance damped piezoelectric
elements [3]. In that case the sensor from the opposite side to the tested sample is
damped by acoustic trap, which absorbs an acoustic wave, passing through the
piezoelectric element. This leads to increase of time resolution of devices and allows
the detection of the formation of inside cracks with the help of AE, to calibrate
equipment for crack size measurements and to make quantitative analysis of kinetics of
damage accumulation in deformed material.
In a specially developed wide band piezoelectric converter for broadening the
band of linear transformation the AE piezoelectric element is damped by a conic
acoustic trap. Amplitude-frequency characteristic of a sensor is linear on the level of
3 dB in frequency band not less than 20 MHz. The design of the sensor allows the
registration of a signal directly from the working part of the tested sample. The
acoustic sensor contacts the sample through the oil layer.
The developed small-size device for AE-signals registration in dynamic range
(Fig. 1) consists of a set of wide band piezosensors; a set of small-size amplifiers
(Af = 0.01+15 MHz, 32 dB); preamplifier, connected directly to the AE sensor; a unit
for signal processing, which consists of a power unit of preamplifier, passive RC-filter
additional amplifier with step change of amplification factor (0.8, 14, 20, 40 dB) and a
high speed (50 V/~ts) peak detector.
The reservation of dynamic range of amplitudes during the laboratory
registration of AE signals, is insured by recording of a detected signal with the help of
a multichannel high speed recorder, or directly in the memory of the PC. The dynamic
range of peak amplitude registration is not less than 72 dB. The AE impulses of 0.1 las
is linearly processed. Time resolution of impulses is determined by the frequency limit
of a detector, which for a high speed recorder is fmax = 150 Hz. Peak (maximum) AE
impulse amplitude Up is expressed in dB (Vp = 20.1g(Up/Un)) in relation to average
noise impulse amplitude (U,), which is determined for each sample after the second
loading, the first stage of test, in a zone of Kaizer effect [ 19].
Microprocessor Detectors of AE-Signal -Microprocessor detectors of AE-
signals (MDS) [21 ] were developed for registration, transformation, preliminary
processing and recording of results of quantitative analysis of deformation fracture and
process kinetics.
The built-in calculating machine allows one to make a direct superposition of
deformation diagrams of mechanical tests and AE-diagrams when less than 107 are
cracks formed in one test, and processing according to one of the programs in the
software packet.
The device transmits digital information by communication channels for a
distance of up to 100 m; indicates mechanical and AE parameters; registration of input
information arrays; and monitoring of the work condition of the device.
$
IO n' (D
j J
1 - samples;
2 - AE-transducer
2
FIG. 1- Schematic of acoustic emission facility and test schemes.
Multichannel Computerized System "Test AE" Type - The "Test AE" type
system, developed by scientists at MSAI, allows measuring, processing and archiving
of AE signals [ 16]. Such an information measuring system is designed by a modules
principle. AE-signals are detected by a processor. Preamplifyling and the filtration of
signals is carried out by analogue, connected to a multichannel module of AE signals
numbering. This module is on an interface board, which is mounted in an IBM PC.
Data input is fulfilled by a 16-channel digital module. Numbering of signals is fulfilled
by a 12-digit analogue-to-digital converter. Maximum beat frequency is up to 20 MHz;
for preliminary digital processing of signals a RISK-processor is mounted in the
interface board.
The interface of a system for processing signals is based on the technology of
virtual (image) devices, such as Labview software, which is used for the realization of
algorithms of information processing and data archiving.
AE Devices for Monitoring of Pressure Processing of Materials -High

sensitivity of AE radiation allows the implementation AE method in conditions of high
background noise for monitoring pressure processing of metals, for example, drawing
of a wire made of composite materials.
The faults (breakdowns) of the technological process can lead to nonuniformity
of the plastic deformation of a wire, which can lead to formation of cracks, separation
of components and fiber break in composite wire. AE signals from such defects can be
detected by a "Test-AE" computerized system in the drawing process.
The following problems were solved when the set of devices was developed:
1) Detection of acoustic signals directly in a zone of minimum distance from
defbnnation zone, in conditions of high deformation rate, high temperature and vapor
of technological liquids.
2) Extraction of legitimate acoustic signals from the deformation zone of the
background of technological noise of the loading unit and industrial noise.
Block-schema of AE device is shown in Figure 2,
1- composite wire;
'0
2- drawing tools;
3- AE-transducer;
4- preamplifier;
5- unit of information
o'i pre-processing;
I i Ii i. . . . . . . . . . 6 - additional amplifier;
7 - signal processingunit;
i ' : ! 8 - IBM PC type computer;
9 - signalization unit;
10 - defect
FIG. 2 - Information and measurement unit for drawing AE-control of composite

superconductors.
The information measuring device has 16 channels. The AE-detecting block

consists of a measuring cell with 2-12 piezoelectric sensors (3), connected to them are
small size preamplifiers (4) and electronic devices of preliminary processing of AE
signals (5). The amplification is 60 dB in a frequency band of 0.1 to 20 MHz with time
resolution 10.4 s. The complex and measurements are controlled by 12 channels with
the help of a "Test-AE" computerized system.
Results and Discussion
AE Monitoring of Materials
The development of the AE method to quantitative monitor materials is

implemented by us in two main directions.
13.
r(r
II1
69
6
60 -o
450
CL
300 40 E
150 20 o~
Q)
0.
0 0
0.1 Strain 0.2
a)
r
i m
-r
e
O3
450 60 ~-
E
4O -~
3[ [0 [0 1~ 5 0 ~I'll
20 o.
0 J~ ,i.~, 0
0.1 0.2 Strain
b)
FIG. 3 - Diagrams of strain and AE upon tension Zr-l.3Sn-l Nb-. 4Fe samples
containing fine particle (a); and aggregates of coarse particles (b).
The first direction is the use of the AE method as an indicator of the initiation
end or intensity of deformation and rupture processes that proceed during material
testing. In this case AE measurements were carried out directly in the process of tensile
testing materials using various schemes (tension, bend, torsion, etc.). AE and loading
diagrams were analyzed together with the results of the metallographic and
fractographic studies into changes that take place in the structure or fracture. This
makes it possible to set up unambiguous correspondence of the acoustic signal to the
event that gave birth to it. This complex approach allowed the analysis of the fracture
processes in various materials and the acquisition of the information that could not be
obtained if the indicated methods were used individually.
The second direction in the evolution of the quantitative AE analysis is a direct
measurement of the dimensions of the fractured areas using AE signals.
Some results of material monitoring are given below.
Assessment of Ductility Margin of Materials-The AE method was widely used

by the authors to assess the ductility margin in mechanical tests for tension and bend of
high manganese steels [10, 1 t] and Zr alloys (Zr-l.3Sn-lNb-0.4Fe; Zr-2.5Nb) in

different structure conditions [ 14-16, 23].
The joint analysis of strain and AE diagrams demonstrates the interrelationship
between the ductility determining route of plastic flow stability loss and the mode of
AE.
Figures 3 and 4 illustrate the AE upon the plastic flow stability loss due to a
"geometric loss of strength" by the steels and Zr-alloy where they are of uniform
oo
O.
.=
600 6o
4O0 40 }
m
200 20 -~
0
0.05 Strain 0.10
a)
m
n
nn
~2
oo
600 so .~,
400 40 ~-
I
200 20 -~
ID
I~ I tllllllllhh,J~ll ~ ,i,,,~l]r 0 a.
0.05 Strain 0.I0
b)
FIG. 4 - Diagrams of strain and AE upon tension of hydrogenated Zr-2. 5Nb samples
containing fine (a) and coarse (b) hydrides.
plastic strain and the level of AE does not exceed the level of a noise. The figures
illustrate the earlier loss of flow stability due to the formation of an "internal" neck
induced by microcracks imitating structure defects (aggregates of coarse particles,
brittle secondary phase, etc.). Here, before a load drop into the test several strong AE
impulses are recorded due to microcrack openings which are corroborated by the
metallographic and fractographic analyses of samples.
Thus, the structure determined differences in the way the flow stability and the
deformability of materials are lost are unambiguously revealed in the joint analysis of
the deformation and AE diagrams. This allows the application of AE measurements for
monitoring the alloy quality in the standard mechanical tests.
Analysis of Crack Resistance of Coats -The AE method was employed to study
the processes of surface crack initiation and evolution in hardened layers having
variable toughness (e.g., carburized layers in steels [12]) and in thin layers of
protective coats (e.g., Cr coats on superconductors [13]).
In the tests for static and dynamic crack resistances of carburized layers the
measurements of AE together with metallographic and microfractographic analyses
made it possible to determine differences in the structure mechanisms and the kinetics
of a fracture over the layer depth (Fig. 5). The feasibility is shown using AE to measure
individual crack ramps and predict the depth of a crack penetration into a layer.
Crack length, mm
a
b
3,oI
Peak i
amplitude, zs i
dB
15 G ~ _ 120 2,o!
10 100 1,~
80
5 60 1,~
40
20 o,~ I I
0 0,4 0,8 1,2 1,62,0 2,4 2,8 200 250 300
Crackopening,mm time, s
FIG. 5 - Diagrams of strain, AE (a) and forecast of a crack length on AE (b) in

carburized steel.
Mechanism and kinetics of fracture of electrolytic chrome coatings on

multifilamentary superconducting wire have been investigated with the AE method
when developing superconductors for the ITER magnetic system [ 13]. The objective in
this work is to assess the structure and the strength of 3 types of chrome coatings,
different in view of their production technologies, for choice of the best coating
quality.
Resistance of layers to cracking characteristics of chrome electrolytic
precipitates were determined using the AE measurements at the wire specimen tension.
Figure 6 shows typical AE-diagrams and synchronized with them by the time
works the diagrams of wire specimens deformation. There the kinetic functions F~N(8)
and types of histograms of AE pulses amplitude distributions are also presented. AE
measurements allows the extraction of the deformation at the beginning of active
chrome destruction at tension el. Kinetics of damage accumulation was studied by
integral functions of a number of AE pulses specimen deformation EN(e).
Technological Monitoring
AE Analysis of Material Damageability in Operations Composite

Superconductor Twisting-The technological ductility of composite superconductors
is limited by a crack formation at the drawhole-die interface. The studies into the
kinetics of a damage accumulation upon twisting complex composites, i.e.,
multifilamentary superconductors containing up to 50 000 filaments became possible
only after special instruments and techniques of AE measurements were created [18].
500 600
Peak
Stress ,,# EN
amplitude
(MPa) (dB) 450
"x
60
250 <~(~) ~N(c) ..... 3~
40
151)
20
l ~h ~,l~J 0 0
~ 2 4 25 1 2
S~ain (%) Peak amplitude (Vp)
i
750
Peak EN
Stress , amplitude
(MPa) EN(e) (dB)
>
1000
500 i l 100
i
50 500
o i, ill JJh,,,I ill 25

0 0
I 2
gl 2 4 g2 Peak amplitude (Vp)
Strain (%) b
FIG. 6 - Typical AE diagrams, stress-strain curves, and types of histograms of AE

peak amplitude distributions: (a) - milk Cr; (b) - hard Cr coating.
The AE measurement implemented together with electron microscope and

fractographic analyses revealed the main stage of deformation and crack formation as
well as the degree of damageability of superconductors at different stages of twisting.
This allowed the assessment of the ductility margin of superconductors having various
designs and the control of their damageability in the process of twisting.
The AE diagrams of twisting superconductors of different designs reveal three

distinctive stages that differ in the acoustic radiation power (Fig. 7). The first stage is
distinguished by an increase in the AE power upon transition to the plastic deformation
of a superconductor. The second stage corresponds to a uniform deformation and is
described by AE with a small amplitude of signals. The duration of this stage depends
on the ductility margin of a superconductor. Upon going to the third stage one observes
a raise in the power and a broadening of the amplitude spectrum of acoustic signals
that accompany the formation and evolution of defects, i.e., cracks.
AE Flow Detection upon Pressure Processing-The usability of AE for flow
detection upon working was analyzed using as an example the process of drawing
composite superconductors based on the intermetallic A15 compound type and Nb-Ti
alloys containing up to 50 000 filaments in a bronze (copper) matrix.
Peak amplitude, dB AE total counts, imp.
-1000
5~t
40
30
800
600
20 400
'~
0 ,
0 2O 40
200
Revolutions
FIG. 7 - Acoustic emission of twisted composite conductor.
Upon drawing the friction couple "wire-instruments" are effectively controlled

by the AE method in a wide range of strain rates. A disturbance of the drawing process
can result in a non-uniform plastic strain of a wire that induces tensile stresses in the
center that might lead to a crack formation, component lamination and breakage of
filaments in a composite wire. The AE signals formed by those defects are steadily
revealed by the designed instruments directly in the process of wire drawing.
Therefore, another possibility of the instrument and AE method of a drawing control is
an isolation of the moment crack are formed and accumulated in a strained material.
It is obvious that the acoustic signal pattern is capable of expressing and most
informatively reflecting the greater number of sophisticated technological processes of
metal working.
Crack Measurement by Acoustic Emission
To analyze the fracture processes by the AE signals are to be quantitatively
compared to the events that generated them. For this purpose one is to provide and
calibrate the single-valued linear relation "crack increment-acoustic signal amplitude-
amplitude of recorded electric signal." The single-hyphen valued relation between the
amplitudes of acoustic field and electric signal is given by linearization of sensor by

mechanical damping ofa piezoelement. In this case a sensitivity drop is unavailable,
but, e.g., in our instrument [3] the signal is at the noise level at a microcrack diameter
o f d = 10~a,
But the simple summation of the impulse numbers ("counting rate," "total
count") may give the process kinetics even if all the recorded acts of fracture are of the
same scale. It is not acceptable when impulse amplitudes vary by an order and more
when single acts are replaced by "cooperative" ones,
The numerical investigation of the problem on a single source immersed in a
semispace [3] shows that with the unchanged released energy W and the depth of a
source location r0 the peak (maximum) value of linear surface displacement Up above
the source depends on the time of its action t:
Up x t/W ~ const (1)
A brittle crack is opened up at the rate of the order of the sound velocity. At the
stress c and elastic modules E an increment of elastic energy is U = o'/2E, a crack
with diameter D releases the energy W = Uxd 3 during the time t = d/s and at little
variable stress one obtains the proportionality between the peak displacement in an AE
impulse and a crack area F =_dZ:
Up ~ d 2~ F (2)
The linear detection with recording the extreme values of the impulse
amplitudes in a wide dynamic range is promising because the scope of a fracture may
be seen. Dependence (2) was checked by measuring the displacement Up with a linear
detector (from the electric signal Vp for intemal cracks upon tension round samples of
high manganese dual phase steels [3] and ofhydrided Zr-2.5Nb alloy [I 5].
In the hydrogenated Zr-alloy there were available platelet hydrides of the axial
orientation; the fracture shows internal cracks along hydrides crossing the cup. For 138
cracks in high manganese steels a linear dependence was found lgVv(tgF) with
correlation coefficient o f r = 0.92 (Fig, 8a) [3]. For 15 cracks in the Zr alloy the
amplitude-area relationship is also linear lgVp(lg F) with r = 0,91 (Fig. 8b) [15].
The linear dependence Up - F (with r = 0.91) has been corroborated later for
brittle cracks in 38XH3MqbA steel (Fig. 8d) [3]. Thus for the internal cracks with the
cross section o f d = 0.04 + 2 mm (recording piece by piece) under the constant
conditions of measurements and with the invariable geometry of an experiment the
proportionality is demonstrated for the peak amplitude and the crack area (which
corresponds to the single value relation between the amplitude and power released by a
crack).
The event of a crack propagation from the outer surface is distinguished by the
fact that the time of a ramp is determined by the largest one of the crack sizes - the
sample B width and the acoustic impulse - from a volume discharge V N A12 x B for
tgvp
4
3 o
. o
OgOo~oo
2-
j
1 t I 1 I
i t t
3 4 5 6 Ig F, ~ira2 5,0 5,5 6,0 lgF,/.an 2
a) b)
/
/
8000 /
/
6400
0
4800
0 fJ
6 3206 i,
/
1606 /g
5 I I, o ~ ~o
-0,7 -0,3 0,1 IgAL, mm 0 o,1 o,2

,
0,3 F, ram2
k
c) d)
I I I
-3 -2 -1 lg F, mm 2
e)
FIG. 8 - Structural calibration of AE-equipment at measurement o f crack sizes.
Internal cracks: manganese dual phase steels (4); Zr - 2, 5Nb alloy containing
hydrides (b); and 38XH3M@A steel [24] (el). Surface cracks." converted l & ~
steel (c); and corrosion cracks in 30XFCH3A steel [24] (e).
the time t ~ B / c so that the amplitude o f the displacements Umax ~ A L 2 is weakly

dependent on the sample B width. The A E peak amplitude reflects its least size - the
depth o f the ramp Up ~ A L 2.
The experimental check has been implemented for surface cracks of a brittle
fracture of a carburized layer upon static bending. For 13 surface cracks with a straight
front and an invariable sample width the peak amplitude of signals is linearly related to
a crack ramp depth lgAL (Fig. 8c) [12].
The summation of the arising corrosion crack area in terms of the AE

amplitudes with the calibration on their final area in SCC tests of 50 and 30XFCH3A
type steels having the structure of low tempered martensite [24] gives the dependence
lg Up = lg F (with r = 0 , 9 5 ) (Fig. 8e).
The proper reproducibility of the peak amplitudes of single sources makes it
possible by going from one sample to another to calibrate the instrument against an
acoustic impulse and to retain once directly constructed graduation for crack
dimensions. The existence of the same graduation is shown for changes in the linear
dimensions of cracks in the range of two orders [7].
The linear "amplitude-crack size" correspondence is to be expected at the
invariable rate of propagation of all the cracks. The possibility is not excluded of an
incomparable graduation for a brittle and "slow" tough crack. But the event of the
coincidence of "the amplitude - crack size" graduation for tough and brittle cracks
(Fig. 8) points to a higher rate of a band breakage in a group of pores near a tough
crack.
Thus, the AE measurements of a crack increment is feasible under the
following conditions:
1. Discrete mode of process. The time between crack ramps is more than the
constant of the instrument time.
2. Relatively high elastic energy of release in a single fracture event and high
rate of opening which allows the use linear detection for cracks with sizes of 10 tam
and higher.
3. Wide dynamic range of instruments that allows measurement of large cracks
without losing small ones.
4+ The feasibility of direct graduation by fractographic measurements of cracks
under identical conditions.
Conclusion
The quality level of materials can be determined only by complex analysis of

AE measurements data and comparison of these data with standard mechanical tests.
At the MSAI the basis of the program for developing AE quantitative methods
is formed by procedures and instruments that are based on the notion of the linear
relation between the maximum peak amplitude of the acoustic field and the elastic
energy of the AE source at the rate of the AE source evolution close to the sound
velocity.
The developed system of AE quality monitoring of materials united all the
experience which was obtained for the period of 10 years in testing of materials in
various technological conditions with the help of the AE method. The system allows
the conductance of a complex analysis of mechanical characteristics and the results of
AE measurements. This allows a unique scientific and technological information to be

obtained.
The quantity fracture analysis is based on measurements of acoustic impulse
peak (maximum) amplitudes by non-resonance sensors for linear measurement of
acoustic shifts and crack parameter measurements. The developed methods of absolute
calibration of AE equipment were checked by testing various types of materials and
crack parameter measurements in laps and fractures. The calibration dependencies for
quantity measurements are shown. The possibilities of AE for quality analysis and for
characterizing of materials in the process of various mechanical tests and in the process
of pressure processing with the help of developed experimental computerized Test-AE
system are demonstrated.
The high sensitivity of the test-AE system provides a new level of quality
monitoring of materials.
References
[1] Sagat S., Ambler J.F.R., Coleman C.E. "Application of Acoustic Emission to
Hydride Cracking," AECL-9258 Chalk River Nuclear Laboratories, Chalk
River, Ontario, July 1986, 8 p.
[2] Coleman C.E. "AE from Zirconium Alloys During Mechanical and Fracture
Testing," AECL-91tl, Chalk River Nuclear Laboratories, Chalk River,
Ontario, October 1986, 21 p.
[3] Khanghin V.G., Shtremel M.A., Nikulin S.A. "Assessment of Internal Crack
Sizes from Peak AE Amplitudes," Defectoskopiya, 1990, No.4, pp. 35-40.
[4] Dunegan H.L., Harris D., Tatro C., Eng. Fract. Mech., No. 1, 1968, pp. 105-110.
[5] Hartbower C.E., Gerberich W., Zeisbonits H. "Investigation of Crack Growth
Stress-Wave Relationship," Journal Eng. Fracture Mech., Vol. 1, No. 12, 1968,
pp. 13-28.
[6] Mirabile M. "Non-destructive Testing," Vol.8, No.14, 1975, pp. 77-85.
[7] Scruby C.B., Wodley H.N.J., Hill J.J. Journ. Appl. Phys., No.16, 1983, pp..
1069-1083.
[8] Liptai R.G., Harris D.O., Engle R.B., Tatro C.A. "Acoustic Emission
Techniques in Materials Research," International Journal Non-destructive
Testing, Vol.3, 1971, pp. 215-275.
[9] Williams R.S. "Modeling of Elastoplastic Fracture Behavior using Acoustic
Emission Methods," J. Metals, Vol.31, No. 10, 1979, pp. 21-25.
[10] Nikulin S.A. "Two Variants of the Loss of the Plastic Fflow Stability and
Alloys Ductility," Phisika Metallov and Metallovedenie, Vol. 81,. No.3, 1996,
pp. 36-49.
[11] Nikulin S.A., Khanghin V.G. "The Fractures Classification from AE
Measurements," Zavodskya Laboratoriya, No.2, 1991, pp. 61-63.
[12] Khanghin V.G., Nikulin S.A., Stremel M.A. et al. "The Studies of Carburized
Layers Fracture," Fizika Himicheskaya Mechanica Materialov, No.I, 1990,
pp. 91-95.
[13] Nikulin S.A., Khanghin V.G., Shikov A.K. et al., IEEE Trans. on Appl.
Superconductivity, Vol. 5, No.2, June 1995, pp. 325-328.
[ 14] Nikulin S.A., Markelov V.A. et al. "Influence of Structure on Strain Giagrams
of Zr-2,5%Nb Alloy," Izvestiya AN SSSR, Metals, 1990, No.3, pp. 134-139.
[15] Nikulin S.A., Shtremel M.A., Khanghin V.G., Fateev B.M., Markelov V.A.
"Influence and Hydrides on Ductile Fracture in the Zr-2,5%Nb Alloy," Nuclear
Science and Engineering, Vol. 115, 1993, pp. 193-204.
[16] Nikulin S.A., Goncharov V.I., Shishov V.N. "Effect of Microstructure on
Ductility and Fracture Resistance of Zr-l,3Sn-lNb-0,4Fe Alloy," Eleventh
International Symposium on Zr in the Nuclear Industry, ASTM STP 1295,
Garmish, German),, 1996, pp. 99-112.
[ 17] Shikov A.K., Nikulin S.A. et al. "AE-Monitoring Composite HTS Conductors,"
Sverhprovodimost, Vol. 6, No.2, t993, pp. 429-431.
[18] Nikulin S.A., Khanghin V.G., Kurianova E.Y., Markelov A.P. "Influence of
Desigh Oparameters on Mechanism and Kinetics of Twisting Effected Cracking
in Composite Superconductors," IEEE Trans. on Appl. Superconductivity,
1997, (to be published).
[19] Karser J., PhD Thesis, Hochshull, Muncher, Germany (1950), see also Arch.
Eisenuttenwes, 24, 1953, p. 43.
[20] Khanghin V.G., Tumanov A.V., Nikulin S.A. Prib. Texh. Ehks., No.l, 1991,
p. 241.
[21] Nikulin S.A., Khanghin V.G., Kurianova E.Y., Markelov A.P. "Acoustic
Emission Technology for Quantitative Monitoring SCC," 5th European
Conference on Advanced Materials, Processes and Applications, 21-23 Apri,
1997, Maastricht, NL, pp. 238-241.
[22] Tumanov A.V., Khanghin V.G., Nikulin S.A. "Microprocessor Defector of AE
Signals," Prib. Texh. Ehks., No.5,1987, p. 244.
[23] Nikulin S.A., Shtremel M.A., Markelov V.A. "Influence of Secondary Phase
Particles on Zr-alloy Plastic Flow Stability and Fracture", Colloque C6, Journal
de Physique III, Vol. 6, October 1996, pp. 133-143.
[24] Krupin Yu. A., Kiselev I.K. "Effect of Structural Factor on Corrosion Crack
Resistance Parameters," Mater. Sci. and Engin., A130, 1990, pp. 29-35.
G. M. Nagaraja Rao,t C. R. L. Murthy,2 and N. M. Rajul
CHARACTERIZATION OF MICRO AND M A C ~ O CRACKS IN ROCKS BY

ACOUSTIC EMISSION
REFERENCE: Nagaraja Rao, G. M., Murthy, C. R. L., and Raju, N. M.,

"Characterization of Micro and Macro Cracks in Rocks by Acoustic Emission,"
Acoustic Emission: Standards and Technology Update, ASTM STP 1353, S. J.
Vahaviolos, Ed., American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA,
1999.
ABSTRACT: Rock is a natural brittle material, and under compressive stresses fracture
and failure occur by initiation, growth and interaction of microcracks forming macroscopic
cracks and finally leading to a fault. As stress vs. volumetric strain curve can give only
qualitative results, both for understanding the phenomenon of fault formation in terms of
microcracking stages quantitatively and also for accurate prediction of impeding failure it
becomes essential to identify the stages of the stress vs. volumetric strain curve by a
suitable technique. Thus, in this respect the advantages of acoustic emission, a real-time
on-line monitoring technique, is investigated. Conventionally, plots based on cumulative
events, event rate and amplitude distribution are used to understand crack growth. While
these parametric plots give the trends in terms of their AE activity, the exact
characteristics of events in relation to the phenomena at different stress levels of micro
and macro crack progression to failure are not easily discernible. So, in the present work
based on the recorded wave form parameters, events are classified into four groups as ix,
~, "/and ~ and are characterized as micro and macro crack phases which correlate with
ultrasonically imaged data. Classification of events into micro and macro crack phases
gives a better understanding of fault formation in rock materials and also the effect of
stress, temperature, macrostructure, mineralogy, etc.
KEYWORDS: rock, micro and macro crack, volumetric strain, acoustic emission,
parametric plot, ultrasonic imaging, cluster
1 Scientist and Director, respectively, National Institute of Rock Mechanics,

Kolar Gold Fields - 563 117, Karnataka, India.
2 Associate Professor, Department of Aerospace Engineering, Indian Institute of
Science, Bangalore - 560 012, Karnataka, India.
141
Rocks are highly anisotropic in nature and their mineralogy and composition vary
widely. They contain cracks, pores, joints, faults, folds and other defects. Fracture or
failure of rock occurs by nucleation, extension, interaction and coalescence of microcracks
forming a macroscopic crack. And, microcracking occurs whenever the local tensile stress
exceeds the tensile strength. Though it is well established that with the increase of stress
new cracks form, they interact and coalesce forming macroscopic cracks. A survey of the
existing literature does not indicate any significant study relating to the generation of new
cracks and their growth in phases [1- 6 ]. Understanding the interaction and coalescence of
cracks is essential to get an insight into the fracture phenomenon in rocks.
200 0.14 f
0.12 Stage 4
150 o,Stago3_ r
~
r~ 0.08 Stage 6
100
Axial Strain 0,04

50
Lateral Strain
0.02
Volumetric. Strain
0 ! ~ I
(0.1) 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0 50 100 lso 200 250 300
% Strain Stress (MPa)
Figure 1 - Stress vs. Strain f o r Rock. Figure 2 - Volumetric Strain vs. Stress.
A qualitative picture of microcrack growth can be obtained from a stress vs. strain
curve and typical expected curve is shown in Fig 1. While the axial strain curve shows a
more or less linear portion except at lower stress levels and near the peak stress, the lateral
strain curve is always nonlinear. And as both these curves do not provide detailed and
quantitative information to understand the various stages of microcracking development,
Brace et al. proposed volumetric strain as a sensitive indicator of microcracking
development and suggested the following formula for its calculation [7]
AV
e v =--=t; x +2e l
Vo
where
e = Volumetric strain
V
e x = Axial strain
e t = Lateral strain.
NAGARAJA RAO ET AL. ON MICRO/MACROCRACKS IN ROCKS 143
It can be observed from the volumetric strain vs. stress curve (Fig. 2) that with an
increase in stress volumetric strain increases, reaches a maximum value and then
decreases. And, in the present work the stages in the microcrack development under
uniaxial compressive stress are identified as six compared to the five stages usually
reported in literature [7-9]. They are: Initial nonlinear region depicting closure of pre-
existing cracks and propagation of suitably oriented cracks is stage 1. In the second stage,
the linear elastic region is obtained by drawing a linear regression line. Stage 3 marks the
beginning of a nonlinear region or in-elastic deformation which arises due to the formation
of new cracks. In Stage 3 volumetric strain increases with the increase of stress, reaches a
maximum value and then decreases. The transition region where volumetric strain remains
constant is stage 4. Probably this is the stage where crack interaction and coalescence may
be beginning at localized regions within the sample. In stage 5 the volumetric strain
decreases with increase of stress. In this region crack interaction and coalescence
predominate. And, strain localization leads to the formation of macrocracks that occurs
beyond 95% of the failure stress. Stage 6 corresponds to the peak stress marking the
beginning of the post-failure region. And, with load control tests brittle rocks fail violently
after reaching the peak stress which is referred as the uniaxial compressive strength.
Out of these six stages Stage 3, 4 and 5 are important as new cracks form, grow and
interact. From the foregoing it is clear that the stress - strain curve provides information
only on a macroscopic scale and is qualitative regarding the above mentioned stages
making a detailed understanding of each stage difficult. Thus, to assess the effects of
various stages leading to failure, visual and nonvisual techniques are used. The
conventional method is to observe the microcracks through an optical microscope. But
this method of observation has certain drawbacks. The changes that occur during
unloading and the preparation of the sample are not known. Further, there is some
uncertainty as to whether what is being observed is actually the same microstructure that
was present when the sample was under load. And, during the preparation of thin section,
new cracks and other surface damages are inevitable with the resulting determination of
crack density, crack aspect ratio and crack type becoming uncertain. The greatest
disadvantage of microscopic observation is that only a small section of the sample is
examined, which may not represent statistically a true picture of crack population and the
technique of crack observation is not suitable for studies on the rate of crack growth.
Several indirect methods of monitoring crack growth and their interaction have been
developed. Of these, acoustic emission, a real time on line monitoring technique, was used
to study the initiation and growth of cracks. The study of acoustic emissions associated
with the microcracking offers an excellent means of observing indirectly the microscopic
process that occurs during deformation. These processes can then be correlated with the
observed macroscopic stress-strain properties. In the present work since the information
available from acoustic emission monitoring is indirect, to correlate these results ultrasonic
imaging is also used as a complementary technique. Specific stages of microcrack
development, growth and coalescence to form macrocrack is best presented by ultrasonic
imaging and the complementary information of the evolution of these stages is best
understood by acoustic emission monitoring.
Acoustic Emission Technique for Studying the Cracking Phenomena
Acoustic emission may be defined as transient elastic waves generated by the rapid
release of strain energy in a material. In geological materials, which are basically
polycrystaUine in nature, acoustic emission which are of burst type may originate due to
friction between interlocking grain boundaries, initiation and propagation of microcracks,
crushing of pores, etc. Each material deforms in its own characteristic manner. A number
of micro and macro processes contribute to the deformation and deterioration of a
material under strain and to the resulting series of emission events. Thus, the events
emitted by the material contain information regarding the general deformation processes as
well as what happens at the flaws that exist. Acoustic emission signals are analyzed to
understand the nature of source and deformation mechanism. By an analysis of these AE
events it is possible to understand crack nucleation, propagation, coalescence and
formation of a macroscopic crack. A large amount of literature is available on acoustic
emission studies of rocks under a variety of loading conditions. Several approaches have
been adopted to understand the various aspects of microcracking and fracture processes,
for example: 1) Recording the events expressing them in the form of event rate or
cumulative events [6,10,11]. 2) Determination of source locations and the study of
mechanism of individual events [12-15]. 3) Study of amplitude distributions | 16-20].
4) Investigation on frequency characteristics of emission events [10,11,21].
Experimental Set Up
In the present work, granite has been chosen for investigation as this rock is fairly
homogeneous and a large amount of literature is available on its deformation and strength
behavior. The granite rock selected for the studies was from a quarry near Kolar Gold
Fields. The modal composition of the essential minerals of the granite is given in Table 1.
TABLE l--Modal Composition of Minerals in Granite.
Mineral Percentage
Plagioclase 37
Quartz 31
Microcline 18
Biotite 7
Hornblende 6
Chlorite 1
Granite blocks of the size 45 cm x 30 cm x 15 cm were collected from the quarry. NX size
(~54 mm diameter) right cylindrical core samples were drilled from these blocks, cut to
the desired length, ground and polished using a surface grinder. The straightness and
flatness were in accordance to the tolerances prescribed by the ISRM standard. The length
to diameter ratio was maintained around 2.5. Acoustic emissions were recorded during the
uniaxial compression testing of granites using a wide band sensor and the equipment
details are given elsewhere [22].
Data Analysis
Depending upon the application and type of phenomenon being studied, different
approaches can be adopted for analyzing AE signals. Broadly, they can be categorized as
time domain analysis and frequency domain analysis [23]. Due to convenience in handling
high data rate, time domain analysis has been the most common approach for burst type of
signals. Time domain analysis usually consists of studying a number of parametric plots
that are generated based on individual or cumulative activity or activity rate. The simplest
of them is the estimation of cumulative events, cumulative ring down count, event rate and
rate of ring down count. This data indicates the condition of the component under test in
terms of cumulative or rate of damage or defect growth, thereby providing an early
warning of the impending failure. In the work reported here, analysis of acoustic emission
events was done based on parametric plots and classification of events to understand the
microcrack development.
Parametric Plots
Plots based on cumulative event, event rate (no. of events per unit stress) and
amplitude distribution used to draw inferences about microcrack development yield the
following information and is presented separately under cumulative plots, event rate plots
and amplitude distribution.
,/
80,000. ,.., 2,500
o
60,000" ~ 2 ,ooo
9~ 40,000;
,., 1,500
~'~
; . = 1,000"
iiItiTt
20,000
~ o
~.~ 5OO"
0
I
, _ rUl
o 50 100 150 200 0 40 80 120 160 200
Stress (MPa) Stress (MPa)
Figure 3 --Two Regions of Microcrack Figure 4 --Four Regions of Microcrack
Development. Development.
Cumulative Events--Figure 3 shows cumulative events vs. stress where two regions
of microcracking are identified.
Region I: Increase of cumulative events with the increase of stress is small. This
region corresponds to stage 1 and 2 in the stress vs. volumetric strain
curve.
Region II: Here cumulative events increase rapidly with the increase of stress. This
region represents a large amount of microcracking activity which
corresponds to stage 3, 4, and 5 in the stress vs. volumetric strain curve.
Event Rate--Figure 4 shows the variation of event rate vs. stress. Here event rate
is expressed as events per unit stress, i.e. dn/dg. Event rate vs. stress curve can be divided
into four regions as shown in Fig. 4 and gives better information compared to cumulative
plot.
Region I: The event rate which is initially high, decreases immediately to a low level
with the increase of stress due to presence of pre-existing cracks. The
source of AE may be due to the closure of pre-existing cracks, propagation
of suitably oriented cracks, or friction between the crack surfaces. This
region corresponds to stage I in the stress vs. volumetric strain curve.
Region II: Here the event rate is more or less constant with the increase of stress, this
region corresponds to elastic region (stage 2) in the stress vs. volumetric
strain curve.
Region III: In this region, the event rate slowly increases with the increase of stress
due to stress induced microcracks. It corresponds to stage 3 in the stress
vs. volumetric strain curve, which marks the beginning of dilatancy.
Region IV: Here the event rate rapidly increases with the increase of stress. This
region corresponds to stages 4 and 5 in the stress vs. volumetric strain
curve. In this region a large variation in event rate is observed with the
increase of stress. The event rate does not increase continuously, but it
always increases and decreases with the increase of stress, which implies
that there are obstacles for the growth of cracks.
Amplitude Distribution--Figure 5 shows amplitude distribution at different stress

levels and it is clear from this figure that as the failure stress is approached events shift
towards higher amplitude.
Classification of Events
While parametric plots presented give the trends, the exact characteristics of the
events in relation to the phenomena at different stress levels of micro and macro crack
progression to failure is not easily discernible. In fact from any AE event a number of
parameters (rise time, ring down count, event duration, peak amplitude and energy) can be
determined which help in obtaining this information. Thus, an attempt is made in the
following to study the qualitative and quantitative changes that are discernible from the
values of these parameters. So, rise time, ring down count, event duration, peak amplitude
and energy were recorded for each event. Events are classified into various groups based
on the recorded wave form parameters. Except the peak amplitude, for all the other
NAGARAJA RAO ET AL. ON MICRO/MACRO CRACKS IN ROCKS 147
4oo]
5oo]
300
0-50 %
2,000
1,6001
~ 1,200 t
I
| 50-70 %
200
100
t 400 ]
O/ . , . , . ,~'~ ,,,n ,, .
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 0 . 20. . . 40. . 60

. . . 80 100
Amplitude (dB) Amplitude (dB)
4~176
5,0001 70-95 ~ I 500 t , [q~95-97 %1
m4,oool d"-h I
~=3,000t J ~. I 3O0
1,OOOl
/ \
/ t~
I
I
L~ 200
100 ~
01 : ~___:____J. . . . ~.'7--4 0 ....:----7-------;--- . . . . .
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
1000, 200t
800 I
1 9~~% I
200 ] 8~1 .....

40
/. , .~-~
0/ . . . . . . . . . 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
701 9949" 1 50
40
99.7-100 %1
~ 30
~ 20
10
0 __:____.____:_.___:____./,
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Figure 5--Amplitude Distribution at Different Stress Levels.
parameters individual values vary from very low to very high, making it difficult to group
the events based on them. The peak amplitude varies to a maximum of 100 dB which
permits grouping of these events. The steps involved in classifying the events are:
Step I: Classification of events into six groups :

44-50, 51-60, 61-70, 71-80, 81-90, 91-100 dB.
Step lI: Determination of ring down count, energy and event duration for these
groups of events based on a point plot which is also known as correlation
plot or scatter plot or cross plot. Here each AE hit will produce a single
point at the appropriate place on the screen or print out. The place on the
screen shows the value of the x and y parameters for that hit. This plot is
useful for discriminating between different kinds of sources. Table 2 gives
the ring down count, energy and event duration for the sample tested
(values given in Table 2 correspond to the maximum value). From Table 2
it can be inferred that events in the range 44-50 and 51-60 dB have low
ring down counts, energy and event duration, where the events belonging
to groups 81-90 and 91-100 dB have high values.
Step III: Determination of initiation stress for these six group of events based on the
point plot of amplitude vs. stress. Table 2 also gives stress values for six
groups of events.
From Table 2 the following inferences can be drawn.
1) Events belonging to the group 44-50 dB and 51-60 dB are initiated at the beginning of
stress application. They have low values of ring down count, energy and event duration,
which are classified as "c(' type events.
2) 81-90 and 91-100 dB events are high amplitude events, they initiate more or less at the
same stress level, their ring down count and event duration are comparable. They are
grouped together and named as "8" type events.
3) The remaining two groups of events 61-70 and 71-80 dB, do not have identical features
and are treated as separate groups, named as "13" and " T "-
In brief, the events have been classified into four groups as:
Event type Amplitude (dB)
ot 44-60
l~ 61-70
T 71-80
8 81-100
TABLE 2-- Wave Form Parameters and Initiation Stressfor Six Groups of Events
Amplitude Ring down Energy Event Duration Event initiation Stress

(dB) count (micro second) (MPa)
40-50 19 14 480 Observed from the

beginning of stress till
before failure
51-60 100 I00 1800 Observed from the
beginning of stress till
before failure
61-70 250 450 4000 Observed from the
beginning of stress but
number events
are very low.
71-80 800 1800 10000 82
81-90 2000 5000 19000 112
91-100 2000 10000 20000 115
.-.1,000, ~ ,000.
~ 600] p~
=o'~ 400 ~'~ 400] t ,ltl][
0 40 80 120 160 200 0 40 80 120 160 200

~ 1,0001 ~1,000.
s 800t 7 800] S
~ I 600] ~~ ms6001~t
='= o='~ 4001 .11
~" = 400t 200"
0 40 80 120 160 200 0 40 80 120 160 200

Figure 6--Event Rate vs. Stress for ~,~,?,and S Events.
Characteristic Features of the Events'
Figure 6 shows the event rate (dn/dG) vs. stress for four types of events, From these
figures it can be inferred that the cz, 13, ~/and ~5type events occur at different stress levels.
ot - type events: These are low amplitude events, observed immediately with the
application of stress. At low stress levels they show a high event rate which
decrease to a very low value within a few MPa of stress rise. At about 50 -
60% of the failure strength initially the event rate increases slowly, further
at about 80-90% of its failure strength the event rate shows a sudden
increase, reaches a maximum and then decreases till failure. Event rate vs,
stress can be divided into four regions. The first two regions are not
important as the events are due to pre-existing cracks and localized
microcracking. Region III and IV are important as the stress induced
microcracks are preduced in this region.
- type events: These are observed immediately after the application of stress, but their
event rate is very small which decreases immediately to a negligible value
with the increase of stress. They are once again observed at about 50-60%
of the failure strength and increases with the increase of stress till failure.
~/- type events: These events are observed only in the dilatant region (between 60% - 80%
of the failure strength) of the stress vs. volumetric strain curve. Their event
rate continues to increase with the increase of stress till failure.
~5- type events: These events are observed around 80-90% of the failure strength. Their
event rate continues to increase with the increase of stress till failure.
The total number of events observed and their rate decreases in the order of or, ~, ~/
and & All these four types of events appear at different stress levels. They initiate at a
particular stress level, increase slowly in rate with the increase of stress and beyond a
stress level the event rate increases rapidly.
From this observation it is possible to generalize the variation of event rate as a
function of stress for four groups of events as shown in Fig. 7. o~ type events which occur
from the beginning of stress application are due to microcracks. 13 type events which are
observed mostly in stage 3 are also due to microcracks. Although both cz and 13events are
due to microcracks, with the available experimental evidence it is not possible to
distinguish them but they may be inferred as crack initiation and extension respectively.
The amplitude distribution near failure stress is shown in Fig. 5 which indicates a shift in
amplitude towards higher amplitude events as the failure stress is approached. Before
failure of the sample two things should occur.
1. Macrocrack initiation.
2. Macrocrack extension.
~/& ~ type events occur before failure. It can be inferred that ~ type events are due to
macrocrack initiation that arises due to coalescence of microcracks and 8 type events
which appear after 7 type events are due to macrocrack extension. This result can be
summarized as:
tx type events represent microcrack initiation.
type events represent microcrack extension.
type events represent macrocrack initiation.
8 type events represent macrocrack extension.
Stress Stress
eO
Y
t~
Stress Stress
Figure 7 -- Characteristic Feature of Four Types of Events.
Ultrasonic C-Scan Imaging
So far we have presented results of acoustic emission which shows the development
of micro and macro cracks at different stress levels. And, AE is an indirect technique, to
supplement the observations of microcrack development ultrasonic C-scan imaging was
carried out at specific stages. The details of ultrasonic imaging are explained elsewhere
[22]. Figure 8 shows the ultrasonic images obtained at stage 0, 3, 4 and 5 of the
volumetric strain vs. stress curve. Stage 0 represents a sample in the unstressed condition.
Based on the amplitude of the reflected ultrasonic waves, damage has been classified into
micro and macro crack phases. Microcracks initially appear as random isolated points, but
with the increase of stress coalesce forming clusters (group of microcracks), cluster
density and coalescence increase with the increase of stress. And, most of clusters
coalesce as the failure stress approaches. Further, coalescence of clusters leads to
macroscopic cracks. Ultrasonic images clearly show the formation of microcracks and
their interaction to form a macroscopic crack.
Based on the acoustic emission monitoring and observation of ultrasonic images, it

can be inferred that with increase of stress the microcrack damage development will have
the following phases.
Figure 8 -Ultrasonic Images at Different Stages of Deformation.
Conclusions
AE results are analyzed in two stages, based on simple parametric plots and grouping
of events. While parametric plots give a qualitative development of microcrack in terms of
identifying regions, grouping of events leads to the classification of AE events into micro
and macro crack phases. Based on cumulative event plots, two regions of microcracking
activity were identified. The event rate plot gives a better picture where microcracking
activity is divided into four regions. But still the available information on microcrack
development is qualitative. Classification of events based on wave form parametrics has
revealed four types of events which are identified as micro and macro crack phase events.
Those with amplitude less than 70 dB are identified as microcrack events and greater than
70 dB as macrocrack events (Table 3).
TABLE 3 - - Micro and Macro Crack Phases
Phase Event type Peak amplitude (dB)
Microcrack initiation ~ 44-60

Microcrack extension I] 61-70
Macrocrack initiation ~/ 71-80
Macrocrack extension 8 81-100
The total number of events observed and their rate decrease in the order ~t, I~, ~/and 8. All
these four types of events appear at different stress levels. They initiate at a particular
stress level, increase slowly in rate with the increase of stress, and beyond a stress level the
event rate increases rapidly. Ultrasonic images clearly show the initiation and growth of
micro and macro cracks. Classification of events into micro and macro crack phases gives
a better understanding of fault formation in rock materials and also the effect of stress,
temperature, macrostructure, mineralogy, etc.[22].
References
[I] Patterson, M.S., Experimental Rock Deformation - The Brittle Field, Springer-
Verlag, New York, 1978.
[2[ Tapponier, P. and Brace, W.F., "Development of Stress-induced Microcracks in

Westerly Granite," International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Science
& GeomechanicsAbstracts, 13, 1976, pp. 103-112.
[3] Wawersik, W.R. and Fairhurst, C., "A Study of Brittle Rock Fracture in
Laboratory Compression Experiments," International Journal of Rock Mechanics
and Mining Science & Geomechanics Abstracts, Vol. 7, 1970, pp. 561-575.
[4] Peng, S. and Johnson, A.M., "Crack Growth and Faulting in Cylindrical Specimens
of Chelmsford Granite," International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining
Science & Geomechanics Abstracts, 9, 1972, pp. 37-86.
[5] Wong, T.F., "Effects of Temperature and Pressure on Failure and Post Failure
Behavior of Westerly Granite," Mechanics of Materials, 1, 1982, pp. 3-17.
[6] Scholz, C.H., "Microfracturing and the Inelastic Deformation of Rocks in

Compression," Journal of Geophysical Research, 73, 1968, pp. 1417-1432.
[7] Brace, W.F., Paulding, Jr. B.W., and Scholz, C.H., "Dilatancy in the Fracture of
Crystalline Rocks," Journal of Geophysical Research, 71, 1966, pp. 3939-3953.
181 Scholz, C.H., The Mechanics of Earthquakes and Faulting, Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, 1990.
[91 Martin, C.D. and Chandler, N.A., "The Progressive Fracture of Lac du bonnet
Granite," International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Science &
Geomechanics Abstracts, Vol. 31, No. 6, 1994, pp. 643-659.
11Ol Boyce, G.M., Mc Cabe, W.M., and Koerner, R.M., "Acoustic Emission Signatures
of Various Rock Types in Unconfined Compression," Acoustic Emissions in
Geotechnical Engineering Practice, ASTM STP 750, V.P. Dnevick and R.E. Gray,
Eds., ASTM, 1981, pp. 142-154.
I111 Ohnaka, M. and Mogi, K., "Frequency Characterization of Acoustic Emission in

Rocks Under Uniaxial Compression and Its Relation to the Fracturing Process to
Failure," Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 87, No. B.5, 1982, pp. 3873-
3884.
il2l Lockner, D. and Byerlee, J.D., "Acoustic Emissions and Fault Formations in
Rocks," Proceedings of the First Conference on Acoustic Emission/Microseismic
Activity in Geologic Structures and Materials', H.R. Hardy Jr. and F.W. Leighton,
Eds., 1977, pp. 99-107.
1131 Scholz, C.H., "Experimental Study of the Fracturing Process in Brittle Rock,"
Journal of Geophysical Research, 73, 1968, pp. 1447-1454.
1141 Byerlee, J.D and Lockner, D., "Acoustic Emission During Fluid Injection in
Rock," Proceet.fings of the First Conference on Acoustic Emission/Microseismic
Activity in Geologic Structures and Materials, H.R. Hardy Jr. and F.W. Leighton,
Eds., Trans. Tech Publications, 1977, pp. 87-98.
I151 Nishizawa, O., Onai, K., and Kusunose, K., "Hypocenter Distribution and Focal
Mechanism of AE Events During Two Stress Stage Creep in Yugawara Andesite,"
Pure Applied Geophysics. 122, 1984, pp. 36-52.
1161 Mogi, K., "Study of Elastic Shocks Caused by the Fracture of Heterogeneous
Materials and Its Relations to Earthquake Phenomena," Bulletin of Earthquake
Research Institute, Tokyo University, 40, 1962, pp. 125-173.
[17] Mogi, K., "Magnitude Frequency Relation for Elastic Shocks Accompanying
Fractures of Various Materials and Some Related Problems in Earthquake,"
Bulletin of Earthquake Research Institute, Japan, 40, 1962, pp. 831-853.
[181 Scholz, C.H., "The Frequency - Magnitude Relation of Microfracturing in Rock

and Its Relation to Earthquake," Bulletin of Seismological Society of America, 58,
1968, pp. 399-415.
[191 Atkinson, B.K. and Rawlings, R.D., "Acoustic Emission D u ~ g Stress Corrosion
Cracking in Rock," Earthquake Prediction-An International Review, Maurice
Ewing series, Vol.4, D.W. Simpson and P.G. Richards, Eds., American
Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, 1981, pp. 605-616.
[20] Mogi, K.,"Earthquake Prediction Program in Japan," Earthquake Prediction- An

International Review, Maurice Ewing series, Vol. 4, D.W~ Simpson and P.G.
Richards, Eds., American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, 198l, pp. 635-
666.
[211 Ohanaka, M., "Acoustic Emission During Creep of Brittle Rock," International
Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Science & Geomechanics Abstracts, Vol.
20, 1983, pp. 121-133.
[221 Nagaraja Rao, G.M., "Studies on Strain Rate and Thermal Exposure Effects on
Initiation and Growth of Cracks in Granite by Ultrasonic and Acoustic Emission
Techniques," Ph.D thesis, Indian Institute of Science, 1997.
[23] Murthy, C.R.L, Dattaguru, B., Ramamurthy, T.S., and Rao A.K, "Studies in
Acoustic Emission Signal Analysis," Project Report, ARDB-STR-5015, 1982.
Tomoki Shiotani 1and Masayasu Ohtsu ~
PREDICTION OF SLOPE FAILURE BASED ON AE ACTIVITY
REFERENCE: Shiotani, T. and Ohtsu, M., "Prediction of Slope Failure Based on

AE Activity," Acoustic Emission: Standards and Technology Update, ASTM STP
1353, S. J. Vahaviolos, Ed., American Society for Testing and Materials, West
Conshohocken, PA, 1999.
ABSTRACT: Slope failure occurs transiently due to the brittle nature of failure, of which
mechanisms are dependent greatly on the ground properties. Because the failure often
produces large-scale damage, techniques for predicting slope failure are in urgent
demand. In the present paper, the applicability of AE to the prediction of slope failure is
discussed. Firstly, characteristics of AE wave attenuation in the ground are examined.
Efficient wave-guide materials, which enable us to detect AE waves generated in the
ground with good sensitivity, are studied. Secondly, in order to estimate the failure
process inside the ground, a new procedure is proposed to determine the b-value in real-
time from the peak-amplitude distribution of acquired AE waveforms. Finally, curve-
fitting techniques such as graphical analysis and the rate process analysis are applied to
AE activity to predict the slope-failure time.
KEYWORDS: b-value, graphical analysis, rate process analysis, slope failure, wave-
guide.
It is well known that AE is useful in giving a variety of information on the

fracture state ranging from micro-fracture of crack formation to macro-fracture of crack
coalescence. In the case that AE is applied to the monitoring of slope failure phenomena,
it shows a great promise in predicting the eventual final failure. This study demonstrates
that fracture prediction is possible in laboratory models, by utilizing AE signals radiated
i Researcher, Technological Research Institute, Tobishima Corporation, 5472 Kimagase,

Sekiyado, Higashi-katsushika, Chiba 270-0222, Japan.
2 Professor, Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Kumamoto University, 2-39-1
Kurokami, Kumamoto 860-8555, Japan.
156
SHIOTANI AND OHTSU ON SLOPE FAILURE 157
from the slope failure. Firstly, characteristics of AE wave attenuation in the ground are
examined. Efficient wave-guide materials, which enable us to detect AE waves generated in the
ground with enough sensitivity, are studied. Secondly, in order to estimate the failure process
inside the ground, a new procedure for calculating the b-value is proposed. Finally, curve-fitting
techniques such as graphical analysis and rate process analysis are applied to AE activity to
predict the slope-failure time.
Characteristics of AE Propagation in the Ground
A body wave radiated from a simple AE source is known as a spherical wave. In this
radiation process, the AE wave loses its energy due to propagation, and the attenuation is
normally called "geometrical damping," represented by
A = A0r-" (1)
where A0 is the amplitude of source, A is the amplitude at the distance o f r from the source, and
n: 2 (semi-infinite media); 1 (infinite media); 1/2 (surface wave). The AE wave also attenuates
due to absorption. The absorption results from internal friction. Taking into account the
absorption, Eq 1 is modified,
A = Aoe-~r -" (2)
where 2 is the ratio of equivalent attenuation to the absorption, and is given by
2 = 2nhf (3)
V
where h is the ratio of absorption,f is frequency and v is the velocity of waves.
Characteristics of Attenuation in Toyoura Sand
Due to the homogeneous distribution of the grain size, Toyoura sand is recognized as
standard sand for various tests. Dry, wet and saturated conditions of the sand are adopted in the
attenuation tests. Twelve AE sensors of 60 kHz-resonance type are set in the sand as shown in
Fig. 1. An artificial AE is generated by hi~ing nails of stainless steel, and is detected by the
sensors. Peak amplitudes of acquired AE signals are fitted to Eq 2, and 2 is determined by the
method of least squares, where v of 220 m/s is measured.
FIG. l--Experimental set up of AE attenuation in sand.
According to the experimental results, 2, ranged from 0.01 to 0.05. Using derived 2, h
was also obtained by Eq 3, Hence, AE attenuation characteristics in frequencies were
determined by Eqs 2 and 3.
Results of Attenuation Characteristics in Sand
Figure 2 shows results of AE attenuation at frequencies of 1, 5, 10, 30 and 50 kHz,

when 2 is 0.3. Attenuation characteristics are 1.91 dB/cm at 1 kHz, 5.3 dB/cm at 5 kHz and 6.6
dB/cm at 10 kHz. At 30 kHz, AE extremely attenuates when it propagates longer than 8 cm. It
is also found that the distance of 5cm at 50 kHz is utmost to detect AE signal efficiently.
Accordingly, the effective frequency range for AE monitoring of slope failure is under 10 kHz.
FIG. 2--AE attenuation in each frequencies, where ,~ is 0.3.
Effective Wave-Guides [I]
Because the attenuation of AE through the ground is higher in general, wave-guides

leading weak AE signals to AE sensors have been used. In this case, the purposes of the wave-
guides are to drive AE signals to the AE sensors as to reduce the attenuation to the minimum,
and allow the wider range monitoring. For the materials of wave-guides, because of their low
attenuation characteristics, metallic guides are often used [2,3]. It is known, however, that the
wave-guides could not detect AE successfully due to mis-matching of the acoustic impedance.
As for other materials, surrounding the wave-guides with gaanular soil [4] and filling rosin into
steel pipes [5] and so forth have been performed. For the examination of characteristics on
wave-guides, a few papers have so far been reported [6, 7]. These papers mainly described about
the characteristics of wave-guides after AE has already attained to the wave-guides.
Accordingly, their results are only applicable to the case that the ground would deform in the
vicinity of the wave-guides and these AE are detected as deformation-related emissions of the
ground. Therefore, when AE generated due to fracatre of the ground is monitored with the
wave-guides, further studies are needed. A most important characteristic to be examined on
these wave-guides is their adaptability to the geotechnical materials. When AE traveling
through the materials is incident to the wave-guides, wave transmission and reflection are made
at the boundary between the materials and wave-guides. The wave-guides for this purpose
should feature excellent characteristics in the wave transmission.
Wave Transmission Loss at Interfaces
An interface is defined as the boundary between two media with different acoustic
properties. The transmission loss of an incident wave is dependent on the difference between
acoustic impedances Z~oaand Z ~ g ~ . , which are defined as density times wave velocity. The
amplitudes of the reflected and the transmitted waves, Ar and A,, are given by,
Ar = A, (Z2 - Z~) (4)

Z, + Z 2
A, = A, 2Z2 (5)
(Z 2 + Z~)
where Z~is the acoustic impedance of the medium where the wave propagates and is incident to
the interface, Z2 is the acoustic impedance of the medium where the wave is transmitted from
the interface, and A, is the amplitude of the incident wave. The ratio of At~A, is the coefficient of
reflection, R,
R = Z2 - ZI (6)
Z2 + ZI
The traditional and still widely used wave-guides are made of metal [1,2]. This implies
that an incident wave is almost reflected at the soil/metal interface, because Z~ is even smaller
than Z2 in Eq 6. Therefore, in the case where the wave-guides are applied to the detection of AE
underground, the materials of wave-guides should be examined for their acoustic properties.
Effective Wave-Guides
Taking into account characteristics of AE propagation, new wave-guides are proposed.

The wave-guide is combined "Unplasticized Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Pipes" with "water".
The PVC pipe is devised for the decrease of the transmission loss between soil and the outer
portion of wave-guides, and water filled in the pipes is for the decrease of attenuation under
propagation. AE sensors are set at proper places in the water, and they detect AE waves
propagated in the water without notable attenuation.
FIG. 3--Configurationsof wave-guides.
Experimentof Wave-Guides
Tested materials for wave-guides are an aluminum pipe and PVC pipe (Fig. 3). The
length of wave-guides is 500 ram; the diameters are 70 mrn (PVC) and 78 mm (aluminum), and
the thicknesses are 11 mm (PVC) and 20 mm (aluminum), respectively. Two AE sensors,
denoted as A and B, are placed on both sides of the wave-guides. Figure 4 shows the setup of
AE sensors in the wave-guides: (a) AE sensor attached to the internal wall of the pipes; (b) AE
sensor in water; (c) AE sensor directed vertically; (d) AE sensor suspended in the water; and (e)
AE sensors conventionally mounted. The wave-guide is set in Toyoura sand of 50% relative
density. Five 60 kHz-resonance type AE sensors are arranged at 3 mm separated from the
wave-guide as shown in Fig. 3, from #1 through #5. AE measurements are performed by
Mistras DSP (PAC), in which each AE wave is recorded at a sampling frequency of 1MHz and
with 2k words.
FIG. 4--Setup of AE semors in the wave-guides.
Experimental Results
Figure 5 exhibits the AE amplitude detected by the AE sensors of A and B, and shows
in decibel terms in which artificial AE output referred to 140dB. "Considered transmission
loss" in the figure shows the average of the amplitude when the artificial AE is generated at
pulsers #1 and #5 in Fig. 3. The amplitude also includes the effect of the attenuation of AE
propagation in the water. "Considered transmission loss and propagation attenuation of 25 cm"
shows the results of the average of the amplitude when the artificial AE is generated in the
middle of the wave-guide at pulser #3. In the horizontal axis, methods of AE sensor setups and
materials of wave-guide are indicated. "Alum, non-fill, hor," for example, represents the case
where the wave-guide of aluminum is not filled with water, and AE sensors are mounted
horizontally. From Fig. 5, the proposed wave-guides denoted as "Vinyl-chl, w-fill, ver" shows
better characteristics than the monolithic aluminum, and the amplitude is twice as high as those
of the aluminum pipes. Therefore, it is concluded that the proposed wave-guide combining
PVC pipes with water reveals excellent characteristic for detecting AE under ground.
Improvement for Calculating b-Value [8]
AE Amplitude Distribution
Because AE peak amplitude is associated with the magnitude of fracture, the b-value
that is defined as a slope of the amplitude dislribution is known as an effective index related to
the states of the fracture (see [9,10]). The b-value is originally defined in seismology. In the case
of AE applications, however, there are some problems to be solved. Here, one calculation
method of the b-value suitable for an AE technique is proposed.
FIG. 5--AE amplitude detected by AE sensor of A and B on various wave-guides in decibels.
0.15 ] 1st 2nd : 3rd

14~---~-L~'~ cycle =i~ cycle
o."1 ,A ~ - i -
0.09 : ;
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Number of AE hits
FIG. 6--A result of cumulative calculation of b-value when one set of AE data is executed three
times in an overlapped way.
Quantitative Calculation Procedure of b-Value
Determining the b-value, first, the number of the peak amplitudes should be set to be
calculated. Roughly classified, two methods for determining the calculation number have been
adopted: a) accumulated number from the beginning data; and b) number per unit time. in the
case of a), the number determining the b-value is increasing with elapsed time, while in b),
because the AE activity increases exponentially with approaching final failure, it is apparent
that the number determining the b-value is growing with passing time, and therefore it leads to
inconclusive evaluation when the b-value is calculated. Figure 6 shows a result of cumulative
calculation of b-value when one set of AE data is executed three times overlapped. If the b-
value is not dependent on the number of data, the result of each cycle should be of the same
tendency. It is found, however, that the derived b-value converges to 0.12 with reiteration.
Consequentl), these results imply that, for one fracture phenomenon, when the same magnitude
of plural fractures occur, there is a great possibility that the earlier fractures are overestimated
and later fractures are underestimated. Accordingly, it is important to determine the b-value that
the constant number of data is applied to the calculation in real-time. To improve the calculation
of the b-value, the number of AE data is formulated by,
fn(a)da=fl (7)
where n(a) is a number of AE at da and flis a number of AE data. 50 to 100 offlvalues are
thought to be an appropriate number by the results of the correlation coefficient when data is
fitted to a Gutenburg- Richter's equation.
Qualitative Calculation Procedure of b-Value
The value of AE peak amplitude is varied with such monitoring conditions as: methods
of sensor setup, AE traveling media, AE occurrence location and so forth. Accordingly, the AE
amplitude distribution is also dependent on these conditions. As a result, it is required for
calculating the b-value that a method for determining the amplitude range, which is not to be
dependent on the above-mentioned conditions, be established. Because amplitude distributions
are unchangeable under the monitoring conditions, statistical values of the distribution are also
invariables. Then, applying statistical values such as mean and standard deviation for
determining the amplitude range, the effective calculation of b-value is possible. We let the
mean of amplitude distributions as/1 and the standard deviation as or, the upper amplitude w 2
and lower wt be formulated as l~,~a~crand/~-~ respectively. Setting accumulated amplitude
over w~ and w2, as N (wl) and N (w2), which is obtained by,
N(w 1) = N(kt - ct2cr) = f_~,,o n(a)da (8)

N(w~_) = N(p + a,cr) = ~§ n(a)da (9)
where, the range of amplitude would be (c6+tz2)cr, then Ib-value (Improved b-value) is given by
Ib = l~176 N(w~ ) - logl0 N ( w 2) (10)

(a, + a2)cr
where, a~ and or, are constants.
22"
20-
[ ] Horizontaldisplacement
18-
A Vertical displacement
16-
E
g 14-
~, 12-
E
8 lo-
~. 8-
._
a 6-
4-
2-
0 --
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
Elapsed time (sec)
FIG. 7--Results of surface displacements.
Applications of lb- Value
A Failure Testof a Full-Scale Embankment Slope--A full-scale embankment slope of 3

m height was fractured by seepage water. AE due to friction between steel wave-guides and soil
is monitored. AE signals are detected by 15 kHz-resonance AE sensors, and processed by
LOCAN-AT (PAC).
Results ofDisplacemem--Figure 7 shows the results of surface displacements.

Conceming vertical displacement, remarkable behavior could not be observed. For horizontal
displacement, a similarly notable tendency as a precursor of final fracture could not be
confirmed.
0.6 ..................................................................................................
i.......................................................................................................
] 16oo
0.5
[ Cumulative I
J 1400
9 0.4
_=
,>
e~
03 -
Ib-value..
t 1200
I000
800
0
_=
=
"= 0.2
400
b-value per 500 sec
0.1
200
zeroed al
start of interval
~ 1 I I I I 0
2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

Elapsed time (sec)
FIG. 8--Results of AE behavior in a failure test offull-scale embankment slope.
Results ofAE--Figure 8 shows AE behavior in a failure test of full-scale embankment

slope. The Ib-value in the figure is calculated by Eq 10 setting flis 100, a, is 1 and ~ is zero.
Conventional b-values per unit time of 500 sec and zeroed at start of interval are also shown
with cumulative AE hit. For the conventional b-values per unit time and zeroed at start point,
steep changes as to give useful information could not be observed. Around 5000 sec, increasing
of AE hits is observed, then after 6000 sec, AE hits are activated remarkably. From these
results, the period after 6000 sec is predicted as an unstable fracture state. Although, it is
difficult to estimate how large scale of fracture is progressing within the slope and whether there
is in hazardous conditions or not. Paying attemion to the Ib-value, it is obvious that Ib-vaiue
tends to increase until 7000 sec and drop at 7200 sec. Because the increasing trend of the b-
value exhibits the predominance of micro-fracture occurrence. On the other hand, decreasing of
the b-value demonstrates the predominance of macro-fracture, and thus it is estimated that the
main failure of the slope occurred at 7200 sec. Therefore, the proposed Ib-vaiue could provide
useful information related closely to the states of the fracture.
Prediction of Slope Failure Time [11]
In order to estimate the slope failure time, a graphical analysis method based on slope
surface strain is defined by Saito [12] and is widely adopted. The analysis, however, is not only
Final exp.re~sio.n .
! Creep rupture / ~ '~'

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
~' :A'I M N /'~ ! i
L A I . ~ , ~ " / I MidpointbetweenA',~ndA~
t, b. t~ ~" (Rupture-life)
Time
FIG. 9--Schematicprocedure of the graphical analysis method.
limited to the strain in geomaterials, but also is applicable to cumulative AE number for
forecasting failure time.
Here, AE techniques are applied to the tilting box tests [13] of model slope, and two
methods are examined for their effectiveness: AE graphical analysis combined with the Ib-
value, and AE rate process analysis [14].
GraphicalAnalysis Method
In the slope failure test of soil materials, application of stress leads to the stage of
transient creep, where strain rate increases suddenly at the beginning and then decreases
continuously with time. Then the stage of creep follows with steady-state strain rate, and it tums
to an accelerating stage leading to final failure. Generally, these three stages are termed primary,
secondary, and tertiary. Figure 9 shows the procedure of the graphical analysis method. To trace
the rapture-life curve, firstly, the standard time oft~ and At of strain at tl are determined, and A 3
is a strain at t3 which is the time when the forecasting is performed. A'~ is obtained as a middle
point between A~ and a projected point to vertical axis by A3. A2 is given as an intersection
point between a parallel line to horizontal axis through A't and the strain c u r v e . A ' 3 is given as a
projected point o f A 3to this horizontal line. M and N are middle points of A'~A2and A'IA'3;
M'A2 and N'A2 are obtained as equals MA2 and NA2 along a vertical line through A2 and t2.
Finally, top,are forecasting time t, at the time of t3 is determined as an intersection point
between a parallel line to the horizontal axis through M' and a line connected A'~ and N'.
Because the method does not require computation, it has been used in practical applications.
However, it is noted in this method that the rapture forecasting time is strongly dependent on t~
initially determined as the standard time.
FIG. I O--Estimatedrupture curves by graphical analysis on AE parameters.
Application of Graphical Analysis to AE 70meHistory
Because an experimental AE time history is similar to that of displacement, particularly

in the tertiary creep range, an applicability of the graphical analysis to AE time history is
examined. Figure 10 shows the results of estimated rupture curves from three AE parameters,
where 800, 850, 890, 900 sec are adopted as the standard time. 890 sec in the figure is identical
to the time when Ib-value is first dropped. It is found that the graphical analysis is applicable to
AE, and the failure time could be predicted as the same as that of the displacement. In AE
parameters, a cumulative AE event curve is the most effective for earlier forecasting of final
failure. Concerning the optimum standard time, the result of 890 sec by Ib-value leads to
successful prediction.
Application of Rate Process Theory to AE Activity
Rate Process Theory--In concrete materials under uniaxial tests, Ohtsu [14] leads Eq 11
under the condition that AE activity is closely associated with the crack occurrence process.
Where a and b are coefficients to define a hyperbolic approximation of the probability function
of the rate process model, and C is a constant of integration. These are determined by the
SHtOTANI AND OHTSU ON SLOPE FAILURE 169
AE Event(50%) r=0.981 AE Event(70%) r-=0,978

1201
10~
':t "
Failure tir~e:1190s~
I
Estimated failure time:950s': j i
9 600
Evaluated AE event .x..:
, ' ,
400 < ~1 Evaluated AE event ..: :~s
200 Empirical AE event .'
i qo, E m p i r i c a l ' "
(~OO/o!_._L-- .....
~ i~
i!
0
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 0 200 480 600 800 1000 1200
Elapsed time (sec) Elapsed time (sec)
AE Event(60%) r=0.990 AE event(80%) r=0.953
1200.1....................... i!
10o~ Faiturer.~e', l lgOs i'i ! Failure~rne;11~ iil
11i ~ %
)-o~-~'%...,,,-~" i:
600] ,," ii
40 Evaluated AE event 50s Evaluated AE event :" 30s
2j0t Empio. "
:
Emp ricalAEevent ~"

. .:
~,oo~ __L- ....... ii (a5%) " !
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 0 200 400 600 800 t000 1200
Elapsed time (sec) Elapsed time (sec)
FIG. 11--Results of rate process theory applied to AE activity.
method of least squares. In this study, let Vbe time, rate process theory is applied to AE activity.
N = CV ~ exp(bV) (11)
Results o f Application--Figure 11 shows predicted results estimated by the rate process

theory at the tilting level of 50, 60, 70 and 80%. In Fig.l 1, solid lines represent empirical AE
FIG. 12--Cbmparison between rate process results and graphical analysis.

data, and dotted lines exhibit estimated curves by Eq t t, where forecasting failure time is
determined as the time when the estimated number of AE is identified to total AE number of
1063, acquired empirically.
Figure 12 summarizes the comparison between the rate process results and the
graphical analysis. In the case of 50% AE events, 950 sec is estimated as the final failure time,
and the difference between that and real failure time of t 190 see is 240 sec. In the case of 60%,
however, the difference becomes as small as 50 sec. By the graphical analysis, on the other
hand, the time which gives us results tess than 50 sec difference is after a tilting level of 88%.
rlqaeretbre, it is lbund that the application of the rate process theory to AE activity gives us more
promising results than the techniques based on graphical analysis.
Conclusions
1. For effective and inexpensive monitoring of A E data. a wave-guide of"Unplasticized

Polyvinyt Chloride (PVC) Pipes" is developed. The pipe is filled with water and AE sensors are
suspended inside.
2. It is found that the proposed Ib-value is sensitive to the slope conditions and
applicable to failure prediction.
3. The curve-fitting technique by graphical analysis is available for AE activity.
4. In the case that the rate process analysis is applied to AE activity, the prediction
procedure is flaker improved, and gives us more promising results than the techniques based
on graphical analysis.
References
[1] Shiotani, T., Sakaino, N., Ohtsu, M. and Shigeishi, M., "Damage Diagnosis of
Concrete-Piles after Earthquakes by Acoustic Emission," Proceedings Fourth Far East
Conference on Nondestructive Testing, KSNT, Oct. 1997, pp. 579-588.
[2] Koemer, R. M., Lord, A. E. and McCable, W. M., "Acoustic Emission Monitoring of
Soil Stability," Journal qf the GeotechnicalEngineering Division, Proceedings of
ASCE, Vot. 104,No. GT5, May 1978, pp. 571-582.
[3] Chichibu, A., Jo, K., Nakamura, M., Goto, T. and Kamata, M , "Acoustic Emission
Characteristics of Unstable Slopes," Journal of Acoustic Emission, 1989, pp. 107-112.
[4] Kawakami, J., Hattori, H. and Nakao, K., "On the Monitoring Method for Landslide
ActMty Using Acoustic Emission," Journal of Japan Landslide Society, 30-2, 1993,
pp. 17-24, (in Japanese).
SHIOTANI AND OH'I'SU ON SLOPE FAILURE 171
[5] Nakajima, I., Negishi, M., Ujihira, M. and Tanabe, T., "Application of the Acoustic
Emission Monitoring Rod to Land Slide Measurement," Proceedingsof 5th Conference
ofAcoustic Emission/MicroseismicActivity in Geologic Structures and Materials, June
1991, pp. 1-15.
[6] Lord, A. E., Fisk, C. L. and Koemer, R. M., "Utilization of Steel Rods as AE
Waveguides,"Journal of the Geotechnicat Engineering Division, Proceeding of the
ASCE, Vol. 108, No.GT2, Feb. 1982, pp. 300-305.
[7] Hardy, H.R. Jr. and Taioli, E, "Mechanical Waveguides for Use in AE/MS
Geotechnical Applications," Progressin Acoustic EmissionIV, JSNDI, Jan. 1988, pp.
292-301.
[8] Shiotani, T., Fujii, K., Aoki, T. and Amou, K., "Evaluation of Progressive Failure Using
AE Sources and Improved b-value on Slope Model Tests," Progress in Acoustic
Emission VII, JSNDI, Jan. 1994, pp. 529-534.
[9] Mogi, K., "Magnitude Frequency Relation for Elastic Shocks Accompanying Fractures
of Various Materials and Some Related Problems in Earthquakes," Bulletin of
Eartkquake Research Institute, 40, 1962, pp. 831-853.
[10] Sholz, H., "The Frequency-MagnitudeRelation of Microfracturing in Rock and Its

Relation to Earthquakes," Bulletin of Seismological Society ofAmerica, Vol. 58, No. 1,
1968, pp. 399-415.
[~l] Shiotani, T., Aoki, T. and Ohtsu, M., "Prediction of Slope Failure Based on AE
Activity," The First US-JapanSymposium on Advances in NDT Proceedings Book,
ASNT, June 1996, pp. 239-244.
[121 Saito, M. and Uezawa, H, Failure of Soil Due to Creep," Proceedings of Fifth
International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundations of Engineering, 1, 1961,
pp. 315-318.
[131 Matsuoka, H. and Sugiyama, Y., "Failure Mechanism and Effective Reinforcement of
Granular Soil Slope," Proceedings of the International Symposium on Earth
Reinforcement, JGS, Nov. 1996, pp. 803-808.
[14] Ohtsu,M., "Rate ProcessAnalysisof AE Activityin UniaxialCompressionTest of

Core Sample,"Progress in Acoustic Emission V, JSNDI, 1990, pp. 311-316.
AE Sources:
Research Topics
Mitsuhiro Shigeishi t and Masayasu Ohtsu 2
IDENTIFICATION OF AE SOURCES BY USING SiGMA-2D MOMENT TENSOR
ANALYSIS
REFERENCE: Shigeishi, M. and Ohtsu, M., "Identification of AE Sources by Using

SiGMA-2D Moment Tensor Analysis," Acoustic Emission: Standards and Technology
Abstract: Acoustic Emission (AE) is a phenomenon caused by the emission and

propagation of elastic waves generated from micro-cracking. A procedure named
"SIGMA" (simplified Green's function for moment tensor analysis) to identify the crack
kinematics from AE waveforms has been developed recently. Using this procedure, the
crack location, crack orientation and crack type can be determined. Computer software
for the SIGMA procedure has been developed and applied in practice. To apply the
SIGMA procedure for AE source inversion in a thin plate and other two-dimensional
(2D) models, the SiGMA-2D procedure is proposed in this paper. The most distinctive
feature of this procedure is projection of 3D moment tensor components onto a plane. For
confirmation of SiGMA-2D solutions in practical AE waveforms, the in-plane uniaxial
compression tests of plates, which are made by mortar having an internal through-
thickness slit, are carried out. The results confirm the applicability of the SiGMA-2D
procedure for elucidating the crack mechanisms in 2D models. Further, estimation of
crack volume is proposed. For this purpose, the AE sensors are quantitatively calibrated
using the Davies-bar technique. A laser opto-interferometer is used to measure the
oscillation at the bar end. These results are applied to determination of micro-crack
volume.
Keyword: acoustic emission, waveform analysis, source inversion, moment tensor,

eigenvalue analysis, micro-crack, SIGMA, Davies-bar, sensor calibration, crack volume
The phenomenon, acoustic emission (AE), is a propagation of elastic waves

generated by releasing internal energy, as micro-fracturing in an elastic material.
Cracking of a solid, which generates two surfaces by conversion of internal energy to
surface energy, is mentioned as the typical cause of AE generation. At the same time, a
part of the released energy is consumed as propagation of dynamic motion in the elastic
material, which is called elastic waves (AE waves).
Generally, AE techniques based on the pattern recognition of AE signals and AE

parameters such as AE energy and AE count have been used to evaluate the physical
property and the quality of materials. However, these techniques bring only qualitative
results. To make the cracking and fracturing mechanisms in concrete clear, quantitative
information about micro-crack motion at AE source is indispensable.
i Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Kumamoto

University, Kumamoto 860-8555, Japan.
2 Professor, Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Kumamoto University,
Kumamoto 860-8555, Japan.
175
Recently, a procedure, which is named "SIGMA", for determination o f AE source

kinematics, such as AE source location, directions of micro-crack surface and motion and
micro-crack type, has been developed. This procedure has been applied to many AE
experiments in concrete engineering.
To execute the SIGMA analysis, the procedure requires two parameters, which
are arrival time of the primary P-wave portion and its amplitude. For each data set o f AE
waveforms, these two parameters must be detected at six or more observation points
simultaneously. This simplified procedure provides easy operation and quick results.
Furthermore, the SIGMA procedure could be applied to quantitative evaluation of micro-
crack volumes at AE sources. In the present paper, the procedure is extended and is
applied to a test o f cement-mortar plate under uniaxial compression.
Moment Tensor Analysis for Two-Dimensional Problems
Summary of Moment Tensor Analysis
Referring to the generalized theory o f AE based on the elastodynamic field in the

boundary element method (BEM) [1], the amplitude A (x), o f the primary P-wave portion,
which is observed at point x, is simply represented
A(x)= 1 _1Re(s,, ri)7,7 qm ~ ( x ' ) ' D F (i)

4npv~ 3 r
where
d(x) = output from the AE sensor at observation point x (Fig. 1)

p = density of the material
vp = velocity of the P-wave
r = distance between the source and the sensor
s = sensor-sensitivity directions
r = direction of wave incidence from the source
Re(s,, r,) = reflection coefficient associated with s and r
m~O') = moment tensor at AE source y
DF = area of the micro-crack surface
Figure 1 - d E observation by a sensor placed on a boundary surface.

SHIGEISHI AND OHTSU ON SiGMA-2D MOMENT TENSOR 177
The moment tensor mt,q can be represented
m pq = ~,blknk 8 m + ~tbl pn q + p.bl qn p (2)
where
2, ,u = Lame's constants
8 = Kronecker's delta symbol
bl = Burgers vector
n = normal vector to crack surface
b =bl
Figure 2 - Dislocation model f o r a micro-crack.
n &
el ::'
9 P,":!
:' e3 ."
,'[ ......
Figure 3 - Crack orientations and eigenvectors o f moment tensor.
When an elastic wave due to one AE event is detected by more than six sensors
arrayed properly, the source location [2] and the amplitudes of the first motion are known.
Hence, the independent six components of the moment tensor can be determined by
solving the simultaneous equations ofEq. 1 at each observation point.
Information about crack kinematics can be obtained from the eigenvalue analysis
of the moment tensor. Using Poisson's ratio v, the eigenvalues E, and eigenvectors e, are
determined from Eq. 2
mt, q[e , e2 e31= E2 0 [e, e2 e,]

0 E3
[Ikn*+I 0
1-2v
(3)
'-"1
= 0 2v lknk 0 l+___nn l•
1-2v
z,-, _1]Ll/+nl It• I1-.I
0 0 1-2v
where
I,n, =(E, + E , - 2 E 2 ) / ( E , - E , ) ; (E, > e 2 > E3)
Note that all vectors are normalized in the calculation. Making reference to Fig. 3,
original magnitudes of the vectors g, can be reproduced from the following equations
g, = .42 + 21,n k .e, (4)
g3 = ~ 'e3 (5)
Thus, the direction of the normal n to the crack surface and the direction 1 of the
crack motion can be recovered.
A quantitative classification of the crack types into shear mode, tensile mode and
mixed mode is developed. The eigenvalues of the moment tensor are decomposed into a
shear component; a deviatric compensated linear vector dipole (CLVD) component and a
hydrostatic component [3]. Generally, AE sources consist of a mixed mode with tensile
and shear components. Setting the ratio of shear component as X, that of CLVD
component as Y and that of hydrostatic component as Z (Fig. 4), all eigenvalues are
uniquely decomposed as follows
X = e2 - e3 (6)
eI
y = 2 (e, - 2e 2 + e 3) (7)
3 eI
Z = e, + e 2 + e 3 (8)
3 e~
Intermediate
? ~ Minimum
--•.5Y $
X Y Z
Shear (X) CLVD (Y) Hydrostatics
(Z)
Figure 4 - Eigenvatue decomposition of a moment tensor.

In the case that the moment tensor components are determined from detected AE
waveforms, inherent information on locations, types and directions of cracks is
determined by moment tensor analysis of AE sources. This procedure for moment tensor
analysis for AE is named "SIGMA analysis" and program code for computer calculation
has already been developed and distributed. The experimental verification of this
procedure in concrete structures has already been reported by several researchers [4-7].
SIGMA Application to Two-Dimensional Problems
For only the two-dimensional (2D) problems, a procedure for identification of AE
source was researched by Ouyang et al [8]. However, SIGMA analysis can be treated
similarly in the 2D models.
In the 2D case, the moment tensor is projected on to x~- x 2 plane. Therefore, the
eigen vectors of a moment tensor in respect with x3 direction become zero, as/3 = n3 0.
=
The moment tensor components in Eq. 2 are represented by
mm = [ 3~l~n, + 2~tl~n~
sym.
~t(t~n2 +12nl)
~lkn k + 2~t12n2
~ ]
~,lknk
(9)
where
1k n k = I~ n 1+ l2 n2
In the case that all AE sensors (observation points) are located and directed on the
same plane, the component m33 of the moment tensor cannot be obtained from the
detected AE waveforms because the out of the plane displacement cannot be measured.
Therefore, the estimation of the m33 component is performed in the following manner
based on Eq. 9
m33 = ~.(l,n, + 12n2)= (~./2(~. + kt)Xm,, + m22 ) = v(m,, + m22 ) (10)
In the same way as for the three-dimensional (3D) problem, crack types can be
classified by decomposition of eigenvalues, and crack orientations are also determined.
This procedure is named "SiGMA-2D analysis", and some numerical simulations have
already demonstrated the applicability of SiGMA-2D [9].
Evaluation of Micro-crack Volume
Micro-crack Estimation by SIGMA Analysis

Expanding on the SIGMA analysis of AE, a quantitative method for evaluation of
micro-crack volumes is developed in fracturing of a material.
Note that all components are normalized in the calculation. Hence, original
magnitudes of the moment tensor must be reproduced for evaluation of the micro-crack
volume. It is considered that the original moment tensor m;q is the product of the
maximum component ]mpql in the original moment tensor and the normalized moment
tensor mm', or mpq = Impql mpq'. Then Eq. 1 is modified as
Ar , = l lmeql'DF3 (ll)
Re(s,, r,)~tp)lqmpq 4rcpvp
By relation ~, = 2lay~ (1-2 v), Eq. 2 can be rewritten as
mpq =bla(1-~2vl, n,8 ~ +lpnq +lqnpl (12)
The direction ! and n of the crack kinematics are known from Eqs. 4 and 5. Then,
the maximum component of Eq. 12, max(m), can be derived by substituting the unit
vectors, ! and n, into Eq. 12,
[m~[ = blamax(m) (13)
Furthermore, substituting Eq. 13 into the Eq. 1 1, the equation for micro-crack volume
b.DF can be determined by
Ar 1 lamax(m)(b. DF) (14)

Re(s,,ri)~,yqm'pq 4npvp 3
If the sensitivities of sensors are equalized, the calculated moment tensor consists
of relative values. To evaluate the magnitude of the micro-crack quantitatively, the sensor
outputs should absolutely be calibrated.
SHIGEISHIAND OHTSUON SiGMA-2DMOMENTTENSOR 181
Sensor Calibration Using Davies-Bar Technique
To determine the micro-crack volume by the procedure explained above, it is

indispensable that the AE sensor measures an absolute quantity for displacement. Hence,
the dynamic characteristics of the AE sensor are examined. Generally, a simple physical
phenomenon based on a known law must be utilized for characterizing sensors because it
is essential to have a clear knowledge on an input signal into the sensor. Further, it is
ideal that the method is extremely precise and provides easy-operation.
A simple method for characterizing AE sensors using Davies-bar as a propagating

media of elastic waves was presented [10]. Figure 5 shows the principle of this method.
The sensor response in the frequency domain corresponding to the input signal as
displacement can be characterized. When a projectile strikes the end of a bar, a
compression pulse is generated as an elastic wave. This wave propagates along the bar as
far as the bar deforms elastically.
Projectile StrainGauge I= L .] iLas'e';'i'nie~erom'et'er]

9" ~ DaviesBar \-~ " q ~ i i i l ] " ...............................
[AE Sensor
,['ChargeAmplifier I
[Amplifier
['"
I Oomu,er rans,ent emo t ........................
Figure 5 - Block diagram of the AE sensor characterization.
The equation of the one-dimensional elastic wave is represented as
~2u = C 2 a2u
~t 2 C3Z2
(15)
C = x/Ex/~ (16)
Here, u is the displacement of the particle of the bar in the axial direction, t is time.
z is spatial coordinate parallel to the axis of the bar. C is the velocity of the longitudinal
elastic wave in the bar. E is Young's modulus of the bar. p is the density of the bar. The
wave reflects at the other end of the bar where AE sensor has been attached on, and
propagates in the opposite direction as a tensile pulse. At the instance o f reflection, the
wave produces the displacement given as
act)= 2cf,/t) t (17)

Here, d(t) is the displacement and ~(t) is the strain of the incident pulse at the end
of the bar. It is assumed that the cross-sectional area and the acoustic impedance of the
bar are larger than those of the sensor, and that the influence of the presence of the sensor
on the wave reflection is negligible. When the strain pulse 6,,(t) is measured by the strain
gauges glued to the bar at the distance L apart from the end, the displacement at the
sensor position is derived from Eq. 9. The transfer function G(jco)of the sensor,
describing the relationship between the output signal am(t)and the displacement, is
expressed by
G0co)=
2CL[G,(t _ L ) ] (18)
Here, L[ ] is the Laplace transform operator, j is the imaginary unit and co is the
angular frequency. The gain characteristic go(co) and the phase characteristic ~a (co) of the
sensor are given as follows.
ga(o)=lGd(jO ] (19)
r = arg[Ga (jo)] (20)
Here, the waveforms of strain-gauge output and the AE sensor signals are
recorded by digitizing into N samples in length at At sampling rate. The spectrums, F/-
and FA are given by Fast Fourier Transformation (FFT) of the strain-gauge output and the
AE sensor signal, respectively. From the spectrum of the gauge outputs as the velocity,
the displacement allowing the time function to the AE sensor is represented as
1
e = ~_~ F E (21)
LT~J
The sensor sensitivity S can be given by
s=FA= FA = 27tf F__E_AA (22)

1L_
2~f
G &
In practice, it is necessary that the response of the whole system including Davies-
bar with the sensor should be clarified. A laser interferometer could be useful for this
purpose.
Experiment for Cement Mortar Plates
According to the SIGMA procedure and sensor calibration, evaluation of micro-

crack volume was applied to the practical AE waveforms, which were recorded in a
compression test of a plate specimen made of cement-mortar.
AE Sensor Calibration Using CementMortar Bar
For evaluation of micro-crack volume, six wide-band AE sensors were made
using PZT piezoelectric elements, characterized in advance. Then, they were used in AE
waveform sampling during a compression test.
A Davies-bar made of cement-mortar of the same mix proportion as the specimen

and was 1 350 mm in length and 20 mm diameter. Two strain gauges, which were made
by alloy leaf of copper (Cu) and nickel (Ni) and 10 mm long, were bonded 400 mm from
the end. Elastic waves were generated and propagated by the strike of a hammerhead,
which was made of carbon steel with the same diameter as the Davies-bar. The
amplification of the signal from the strain gauges was defined so that the recorded 1 volt
was equivalent to 5 000/.t strain.
It is noticed that the length of the strain gauge is long enough to ignore the size of
the sand, which is qualified for JIS Concrete Materials (R 5201-1997), for the mortar.
The average size of the sand grain was 200/an. The measured velocity of the
longitudinal wave was 3 543 rn/sec. These results lead to the fact that the strain gauge
could detect frequency components up to 350 kHz theoretically.
The sensors were bonded on to the end face of bar using silicon grease. Silicon
grease was used to turn air out between the sensor and the rod surface. This procedure
was taken in the experiment of a mortar plate again. Thus, the characteristics of the whole
AE measurement system could be calibrated.
Typical waveforms of the gauge output and the AE sensor output recorded in the
Davies-bar test are shown in Figs. 6 and 7. The spectrums of the each waveform are also
shown in Figs. 8 and 9. Figure 10 shows the characteristic curve o f this AE sensor by Eq.
22. It shows that the resonant frequency of this sensor is about 60 kHz. The sensor
sensitivities calculated up to 60 kHz are summarized in Table 1.
TABLE 1 - Sensor sensitivities.
Sensor # Sensitivity, V/mm
1 6.32 X 104
2 6.32 X 104
3 3.56 X 104
4 3.56X 104
5 3.98 X 104
6 11.24 X 104
1 w ! g !
0.5
>
0
9
-0.5
-1 ! I I I
0 0.001 0.002
Elaosed Time (see)
Figure 6 - Output of strain gauge.

1 I ' !
>, 0.5
0
9
-0.5
_] i I , I
0 0.001 0.002
Elapsed Time (sec)
Figure 7 - Output of AE sensor.
I ' !
i i -, ; .
100 200 300

Frequency (kHz)
Figure 8 - Spectrum of signal from strain gauge.
' I ' I ' I
100 200 300

Frequency (kHz)
Figure 9 - Spectrum of signalfrom AE sensor.

~ 4
~ 2
~ 0
0 100 200 300
Frequency (kHz)
Figure 10 - Sensor characteristics curve.
Uniaxial Compression Test of Cement Mortar Plate

To evaluate micro-crack volumes, a cement-mortar plate was employed for in-
plane uniaxial compressive loading tests.
The sketch of the experiment is shown in Fig. 11. Mixture proportion was
arranged so that the mass ratios of cement, sand and water were 1 : 2 : 0.65 the same as
the Davies-bar used at the sensor calibration. The plate specimen dimensions was 150
mm x 150 mm x 15 mm and contained a through-thickness slit o f I mm wide and 30 mm
long at the center o f the specimen. The inclination angle o f the slit was 45 degrees.
The configuration of the specimen and sensor locations is shown in Fig. 12. Six
calibrated AE sensors on both sides of the specimen detected AE waveforms. Total gain
o f the measurement is 40 dB. One AE waveform is digitized into 1 024 words in length at
1MHz sampling frequency.
Sensor #1 Sensor #4
Sensor #2 ~ Sensor#5
Sensor #3 Sensor #6
Internal Slit
Figure 11 -Overview of in-plane uniaxial compression test of plate.

150 ~-
I ! 1~35,
, ~
i
1 5
Figure 12 - Plate specimen and sensor arrangement.
Applying the "SiGMA-2D" analysis (which is a version for two-dimensional AE

problem of the SIGMA) AE sources were identified. The result is shown in Fig. 13. The
arrow symbol (<--~)indicates the AE sources classified into a tensile type and the direction
of the arrow symbol represents the crack opening direction. The cross symbol (x)
indicates shear-type AE sources and their two directions are o f crack normal and crack
motion, The observed final failure surface o f the specimen is shown by dotted lines in Fig.
13.
Evaluation o f micro-crack volume was performed for AE sources, with the result
that their volumes were between from 0.33 mm 3 to 44.00 m m . Estimated volumes o f
micro-crack sampled randomly from the result are shown in Table 2. However, the
reliability of these volumes for micro-cracks have been not authenticated yet because a
practical means for observation of the interior (micro-cracks) has not been found. It could
be considered that these estimated volumes are index values including relative
magnitudes of AE sources.
, | + x
,,, \ x,,,
•
l
Figure 13 - Source locations and crack motions.

Table 2 - Results of crack volume estimation.
Shear type Tensile type

Hit # Volume, mm 3 Hit # Volume, mm 3
16 4.59260 81 1.26234
50 8.35497 146 0.34080
60 0.71634 165 0.73336
62 1.02402 194 0.43135
70 4.26770 467 2.19672
023 5.35833 1 086 0.41629
024 4.73927 1 154 2.32983
034 5.36791 1 162 0.86267
048 0.94326 1 182 0.67694
050 1.85148 1 204 0.99309
358 1.75165 2 400 0.48238
360 3.55262 2 518 0.39802
367 6.83452 2 523 2.71605
374 2.71419 2 542 1.83941
375 1.64583 2 575 0.41912
Conclusion
A quantitative method for evaluation of micro-crack volumes has been developed
using acoustic emission (AE) waveforms, detected during fracturing of a material,
extending the SIGMA procedure for an AE moment tensor analysis. For application of
this method to practice, characteristics of AE sensors in the frequency domain are
examined using a Davies-bar technique.
To examine the applicability of the method to evaluation of micro-crack volumes,
a cement-mortar plate was employed for in-plane uniaxial compressive loading tests. The
estimated volume could be referred to as relative for AE source magnitude. To improve
the precision of the sensor calibration technique, the study is in progress.
References
[1] Ohtsu, M. and Ono, K., "A Generalized Theory of Acoustic Emission and
Green's Functions in a Half Space," Journal of Acoustic Emission, Acoustic
Emission Group, Vol. 3, 1984, pp. 124-133.
[2] Ohtsu, M., "Simplified Moment Tensor Analysis and Unified Decomposition of
Acoustic Emission Source: Application to in Situ Hydrofracturing Test," Journal
of Geophysical Research, The American Geophysical Union, Vol. 96, 1987, pp.
6211-6221.
[31 Knopoff, L. and Randall, M. J., "The Compensated Linear Vector Dipole: A
Possible Mechanism for Deep Earthquakes," Journal of Geophysical Research,
The American Geophysical Union, Vol. 75, 1970, pp. 4975-4963.
[4] Ohtsu, M., Shigeishi, M. and Iwase, H., "AE Observation in the Pull-out Process
of Shallow Hook Anchors," Proceedings of the Japan Society of Civil Engineers,
The Japan Society of Civil Engineers, No. 408, 1989, pp. 177-186.
[5] Yuyama, S., Okamoto, T., Shigeishi, M. and Ohtsu, M., "Acoustic Emission
Generated in Corners of Reinforced Concrete Rigid Frame under Cyclic
Loading," Material Evaluation, The American Society for Nondestructive Testing
Inc., Vol. 53, 1995, pp. 409-412.
[6] Yuyama, S., Okamoto, T., Shigeishi, M. and Ohtsu, M., "Quantitative Evaluation
and Visualization of Cracking Process in Reinforced Concrete by a Moment
Tensor Analysis of Acoustic Emission," Material Evaluation, The American
Society for Nondestructive Testing Inc., Vol. 53, 1995, pp. 751-756.
[7] Grosse, C., Reinhardt, H. and Dahm, T., "Localization and Classification of
Fracture Types in Concrete with Quantitative Acoustic Emission Measurement
Techniques," NDT & E International, Elsevier Science, Vol. 30, 1997, pp. 223-
231.
[8] Ouyang, C., Landis, E. and Shar, S. P., "Damage Assessment in Concrete Using
Quantitative Acoustic Emission," Journal of Engineering Mechanics, Vol. 117,
1991, pp. 2681-2898.
[9l Shigeishi, M. and Ohtsu, M., "A SIGMA Analysis of the 2-Dimensional PMMA
Model," Progress in Acoustic Emission, Vol. 6, The Japan Society for Non-
Destructive Inspection, 1992, pp. 211-217.
[10] Ueda, K. and Umeda, A., "A Study on the Characterization of Accelerometers
Using Davies' Bar Technique," Transactions of the Japan Society of Mechanical
Engineers, The Japan Society of Mechanical Engineers, Vol. 57, 1991, pp. 143-
147.
Transportation Applications,
Standards, and Methodology
John M. Carlyle, I Harvey L. Bodine, 2 Steven S. Henley, 2 Robert L. Dawes, 2 Robert Demeski, 3
and Eric v. K. Hill3
P R A C T I C A L AE M E T H O D O L O G Y F O R USE ON A I R C R A F T
REFERENCE: Carlyle, J. M., Bodine, H. L., Henley, S. S., Dawes, R. L., Demeski, R.,
and Hill, E. v. K., "Practical AE Methodology for Use on Aircraft," Acoustic
ABSTRACT: The first production use of practical acoustic emission (AE) on aircraft
was on the F-111, where more than 240 U.S. and Australian aircraft have been
successfully monitored during cold proof testing since 1987. A key factor was the design
of an instrument which automatically configured itself at power-on, so that aircraft testing
could take place in a highly efficient and reliable manner. The second production use of
AE on aircraft was on the VC-10, where an entire fleet of 22 aircraft was monitored 40
times during pneumatic proof pressurization. The monitoring of this large transport
required anywhere from 282 to 313 narrowband AE sensors per aircraft. In both aircraft
types, numerous significant defects were discovered through AE-based nondestructive
testing. Finally, we present on-going in-flight AE research. This new research uses digital
waveform processing of wideband AE signals and offers the potential of adding new and
complementary capabilities to classical, narrowband AE.
KEYWORDS: acoustic emission, aging aircraft, nondestructive testing, signal

processing, global defect detection, proof testing
Introduction
The average age of aircraft in both military and civilian service is increasing.
As a consequence of this aging process, high cycle fatigue from pressurization and
aerodynamic forces causes very small defects to appear at widespread locations
throughout the airframe. This multi-site damage (MSD) is not easily amenable to being
detected and mapped by conventional nondestructive inspection. Furthermore, the
presence of MSD makes the evaluation of the serviceability of the airframe extremely
1 Chief Scientist, Carlyle Consulting, 1009 Buckingham Way, Yardley, PA 19067

2 Martingale Research Corp., 1485 Richardson Drive, Suite 110, Richardson, TX 75080
3 Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, Aerospace Engineering Department, 6100 Clyde
Morris Blvd., Daytona Beach, FL 32114-3900
191
difficult. A classic example of this problem is the Aloha Airlines accident, in which a
section of the upper lobe separated from the airframe during flight at 7.6 km (25,000 ft).
What is required is a nondestructive evaluation technique that can detect, map and
quantify the extent of MSD. Lasers, eddy current, thermographic and ultrasonic methods
have been proposed and studied for mapping MSD, but they appear to be fundamentally
flawed in that they require visible or tactile access to the entire airframe structure. Wheel
wells, front and rear pressure bulkheads, and the bulkheads at the front and rear of the
wing torque boxes are typically filled with shafts, hoses, tubes, wiring, electronic
equipment, air-packs and other items that make it impossible to see or touch the pressure
structure in these areas. MSD detection here requires remote sensing of flaws.
A nondestructive evaluation method that has shown promise, but which is not yet
widely used for general aircraft application, is acoustic emission. Acoustic emission is
essentially seismology for a structure. As in seismology, flaws are detected remotely from
their actual source position using AE. This inherent ability completely eliminates the
access problem which affects all other nondestructive methods. The promise of AE has
been demonstrated in various successful applications on aircraft, including the work of
Hutton on the Macchi MB-326 (crack growth detected in flight) [I], McBride on the
Northrop CF-5 (cracks detected well before eddy current could confirm them) [2], and
Carlyle on the General Dynamics F - I l l and the Vickers VC-10 (entire airframes
monitored globally for crack growth) [3, 4, 5, 6, 7].
Despite these successes, AE is still not widely employed on aircraft. Part of the
reason for this is a negative impression of the technology in some quarters. In the U.S.
Air Force AE gained a bad reputation during an in-flight KC-135 wing structure
inspection project. The basic problem was due to poor system design - the signal
processing techniques utilized did not properly eliminate noise, and so generated a false
alarm that was shown during flight to a general who was piloting the aircraft. For the U.S.
Navy a bad impression of AE was given during full-scale testing of a F-14 bulkhead. The
basic problem was that the entire bulkhead was not monitored, only a small portion which
was thought most likely to fail. The bulkhead catastrophically failed in an unexpected
area in front of an admiral, completely without warning from the AE system because the
crack was outside of the monitored area.
Both of these so-called problems with AE, a type I error (false detection) in the
first case and a type II error (missed detection) in the second, were due solely to
implementation failures and were not due to any fundamental failure of AE technology.
Nevertheless, poor impressions were made at very high management levels, which
unfortunately persist to this day. We believe that AE can definitely contribute to aircraft
safety, and that dwelling upon several poorly implemented monitoring projects is a
mistake. As proof, we offer the following success stories.
Success Stories
AE-based nondestructive testing has been applied successfully to aircraft in a

production environment, not just in experimental situations. As such, it has been
CARLYLE ET AL. ON METHODOLOGY FOR AIRCRAFT 193
proven to be a cost-effective and powerful tool for locating damage and failures in
structures where other technologies were either not useable or not practical. Two of the
more notable production successes of AE-based NDT are the General Dynamics F-111
fighter-bomber aircraft and the Vickers VC-10 transport aircraft.
F- 111 Production AE-Based Nondestructive Testing
The AE testing of the F - I l l m a r k e d the first production use of AE on in-

service aircraft. All U.S. and Australian F-111A's and EF-11 l's undergoing cold proof
testing since May 18, 1987 (about 240 aircraft) have been monitored with AE.
The F-111 fighter/bomber is capable of Mach 2.5 at better than 18.2 km (60,000
ft). First delivered in the 1960s, its most unique feature is its variable sweep wing. The
wing is supported by a D6AC steel wing carry-through box, which has the job of holding
the 22.8 m (75 ft) long, 19.2 m (63 ft) wide, 5.2 m (17 ft) high, 45,300 kg (100,000 lb)
aircraft aloft. Although D6AC steel has high strength and toughness, it also has a small
critical crack size. Failures of a wing carry-through box in 1968 during ground based
fatigue testing, and a wing pivot fitting in 1969 which resulted in the loss of an aircraft,
caused the Air Force to institute a thorough nondestructive inspection program for the F-
111 fleet [3].
The structure (a portion is
shown in Figure 1) is quite
complicated, making it a
challenge to find small defects.
Innovative use is therefore made
of the ductile to brittle transition
temperature, a metallurgical
condition in which small flaws
can be made to propagate
catastrophically. The entire
aircraft is cooled using liquid
nitrogen to -40 ~ C (-40 ~ F) inside
of a 24.4 m (80 ft) by 18.3 m (60
ft) by 9.1 m (30 ft) chamber, and
loaded to +7.3 g and -3.0 g with
theowing sweep in the 0.14 rad FIG. 1 - F - I l l structure withAEsensors.
(26) and 0.31 rad (56 ~ positions.
Load is applied to the aircraft through fixtures that attach to the wing stores positions, the
nose gear, the main landing gear, the arresting hook, and the tail. The wing tip deflects
about 1.2 m (48 in.) under maximum positive load. The test program was designed to
enhance the safety and longevity of the F-111, since any failure that occurs during the
testing could potentially occur in flight.
The major purpose of the cold proof testing is to test the integrity of the steel
components of the F-111; failure would result in visible damage to the aircraft. The
nonferrous components are also highly stressed, but their failure may not cause visible
damage. Because the proof testing is conducted late in the re-work cycle, it is important
to ascertain quickly if non-visible structural damage has occurred. AE monitoring was
implemented on the F-111, because AE offered a high sensitivity for locating secondary
structural damage as the cold proof test was being conducted, and because AE analysis is
capable of a high degree of automation.
Discussions on the stress analysis and historical failure sites of the F-111 during
cold proof testing were held with Air Force structures personnel. This resulted in a
priority listing of the areas which needed to be monitored. They were (in descending
order of importance) the wing carry-through box, the tunnel structure, the 770 bulkhead,
the wings, the main gear well, the 560 bulkhead to 770 bulkhead structure, the forward
lower fuselage structure, and the forward upper fuselage structure.
The next concern was the number and location of sensors needed to obtain the
most effective location in the areas to be monitored, bearing in mind that the contract
called for _+_0.3 m (12 in.) accuracy. Normally optimum sensor location can be calculated
from the acoustic attenuation of the structure, which is a single number expressed in dB
per unit distance. However, because of the complexity of the F - I l l structure the
attenuation was not unique. It not only varied from place to place, it also had different
values for various directions from a single point. Thus the number of sensors required and
their placement had to be determined experimentally instead of analytically. In the end 28
narrowband 300 kHz sensors were used. Sensor spacing varied from 0.5 m (20 in.) to 6.7
m (265 in.), and averaged 2.4 m (93 in.) over the aircraft.
The AE monitoring system used for the F-111 project was a specially modified
commercial instrument [4]. Because three dimensional location of the AE events was
necessary in the F-I 11, additional features had to be developed. These additional features
included color graphics hardware to depict the aircraft in two views; color graphics
software to draw the aircraft, calculate the location, rank the severity, and plot the AE
events; main data acquisition program modifications to pass data to the color graphics
software; and initialization routines to automatically configure the entire system at power-
on so that aircraft testing could take place in a highly efficient and reliable manner.
The operator interface was designed to present the information in a timely and
intelligent fashion with minimum input requirements. The primary presentation is a color
graphics CRT, which has two separate displays. The main color screen, shown in Figure
2, depicts the top and side views of the F-111. Superimposed upon each of these views
are the locatable AE events, colored green, yellow or red according to severity, as well as
the sensor locations which show as small black dots. AE locations are displayed
essentially in real-time, i.e., they appear on the color display within a second of being
detected on the F-I 11. All AE results were located to + 0.15 m (6 in.) on a scaled diagram
of the F-111. The second color screen is a numerical listing of the attributes of each
locatable AE event, with each line colored green, yellow or red according to severity.
This display aids the operator in determining how many events occurred at a particular
spot, since on the aircraft display AE events can superimpose, with yellow taking priority
over green and red taking priority over everything. The numerical listing shows the
fuselage station, water line and butt line position (in inches) for each Iocatable AE event,
as well as the load (in percent of limit) at which each event occurred. Another use for the
numerical display is in determining the exact severity of the AE event, instead of relying
on the green, yellow and red color coding.
YELLOW .-'F'~ 7
J" f
RED
j/.-/'. /"
,/
YELLOW ~/" r
J 2
YELLOW
' \
RED ~"\. . ,\ "~... ~
\,
NOTE: COLOR REMOVEDFOR REPRODUCTION ""~...__~
FIG. 2 - Side and top ofF-111, showing results of AE monitoring.

Of particular interest in Figure 2 are the cluster of yellow AE events in the tunnel
area, the yellow AE event on the starboard wing, and the red AE event in the left front
comer of the wing carry-through box. The yellow events in the tunnel area were caused
by the formation of a crack in the forward tunnel truss during cold proof testing. This is
an arch shaped piece of aluminum; its aft counterpart is shown in Figure 1. The yellow
events on the starboard wing (two AE events happened at the same site) are believed to
be due to the formation of a disbond in the wing skin to wing pivot support assembly
joint. The red event is due to the failure of a large bolt which helps hold on the cover of
wing carry-through box (the wing carry-through box also serves as a fuel tank). The
failure of the bolt could not be verified immediately, as fuel tank sealant held it firmly in
position. However, ultrasonic inspection of bolt lengths revealed that one bolt was shorter
than its installed length. Similar bolts on the rear left edge of the wing carry-through box
may be seen in Figure 1.
Noise discrimination was accomplished using several AE signal attributes. It was
found during the project that AE signals caused by actual airframe damage had
characteristics which included high amplitude and high energy in the 300 kHz frequency
range. Loading noise and normal airframe reactions, although they were sometimes loud
enough for a human to hear, did not have high amplitudes and energies in the ultrasonic
range. This fact was exploited by building a filter for amplitude and energy with three
different thresholds. Signals exceeding both the first amplitude threshold and the first
energy threshold were colored green; these were termed "moderate" signals. Those
signals which exceeded both the second amplitude threshold and the second energy
threshold were colored yellow; they were termed "strong" and triggered a low pitched
audible alarm. Signals which exceeded both the third amplitude threshold and the third
196 ACOUSTICEMISSION:STANDARDS AND TECHNOLOGY
energy threshold were colored red; they were termed "severe" and triggered a high
pitched audible alarm. It should be noted that three other AE signal characteristics are
measured by the AE instrument. They were not used to categorize the severity of the AE
events, however, because they were so susceptible to dispersion of the AE wave form.
Various system parameters were required for proper operation of the data
acquisition computers of the AE instrument; these included gain, detection threshold,
three detection time out values, sampling interval and dual alarm thresholds. In addition
channel neighbor relationships and wave propagation times were needed for the location
algorithms. Initial values for these parameters were derived during the sensor coverage
experiments, and the values were refined during three cold proof tests. All of this data
was recorded in an automatically executed computer program, so that when the system
powered on graphs were set up, severity classification levels defined, amplifier gains and
detection thresholds set, alarms adjusted, etc., without any intervention from the operator.
The goal was to automate the system to the point where minimal operator training was
needed. This approach also enhanced quality control, since the cold proof testing
procedure, programs and parameters could be verified against factory recorded check
values through computer command. As a final quality control measure, a written check
list was developed so that no item would be inadvertently forgotten during testing.
Vickers VC- 10 Pressurization Proof Testing
The second successful implementation of production-type AE testing was

done on the Vickers VC-10. The entire fleet of the U.K. Royal Air Force VC-10
transports and tankers has been tested several times (a total of 40 tests on the 22 aircraft
fleet). The goal of the AE monitoring on the VC-10 aircraft was to provide a real-time
capability to the RAF for detecting degradation of structural integrity in VC-10 aircraft
during 82.7 kPa (12 psi) proof pressurization testing (1.33 times the normal in-flight
limit). Specifically, it was desired to detect the presence of growing cracks (or other
significant flaws) if they occurred, in order to prevent serious damage to the aircraft.
In several acoustic monitoring trials conducted for the RAF it had been
demonstrated that the requisite real-time sensitivity needed to detect structure threatening,
growing defects existed; and that there existed a real-time method of monitoring the AE
output to detect any growing defects as they grew [5]. Given these crucial capabilities,
AE personnel had the authority to advise the pressurization team to rapidly reduce
pressure in the aircraft if growing cracks (or other significant flaws) were detected,
offering assurance to the RAF that the VC-10 aircraft would not be damaged during proof
pressure testing.
The entire pressure hull of the 48.5 m (159 ft) long, 44.5 m (146 ft) wide, 12.2 m
(40 ft) high, 136,000 kg (300,000 lb) VC-10 aircraft was monitored. This included the
entire lower belly fore and aft of the wing, the nose-crown area, the tail section around the
stub wing and vertical stabilizer, the entire crown section, the front pressure bulkhead, the
cockpit structure, the Doppler bay, the nose landing gear well, the forward lower cargo
door, the main cargo door, the aft bulkhead of the forward cargo bay, the roof of the slat
bay, the roof of both main landing gear wells, the forward bulkhead of the rear cargo bay,
the aft lower cargo door, and the aft pressure bulkhead. Depending upon which model of
the three types of VC-10 aircraft was being tested, the AE monitoring was accomplished
with anywhere from 282 to 313 narrowband 150 kHz sensors per aircraft. Figure 3 shows
the instrumented nose of a VC-10.
Pressurization of
the fuselage was
accomplished using two
air compressors feeding
at a rate of up to 5,270
cm3s "1 (50 ft3s "1) through
a specially modified over-
wing emergency door.
The entire pressure cycle
used to load the VC-10
consisted of a climb at
3.4 kPa (0.5 psi) per
minute to 41.3 kPa (6
psi), a 5 minute hold, a
F I G . 3 - AE monitoring on a Royal Air Force VC-IO.
descent to 27.4 kPa (4
psi), a 2 minute hold, a
climb to 62.0 kPa (9 psi), a 5 minute hold, a descent to 48.2 kPa (7 psi), a 2 minute hold,
a climb to 68.9 kPa (10 psi), a 5 minute hold, a descent to 55.1 kPa (8 psi), a 2 minute
hold, a climb to 75.8 kPa (11 psi), a 5 minute hold, a descent to 62.0 kPa (9 psi), a 2
minute hold, a climb to 82.7 kPa (12 psi), a 5 minute hold, and finally a descent to sea
level [6].
The AE monitoring system provided the RAF with a real-time capability for
detecting degradation of structural integrity in VC-10 aircraft during proof pressure
testing. This was provided, first, by using the channel activity lights on the front panels of
the AE instruments, which gave the operators an immediate indication (within
microseconds) that a sensor was receiving signals; and second, by using graphs of signal
amplitude and signal arrival rates per channel which showed (within seconds) the
characteristics of the signals that were being received. Because AE is the direct result of
stress, if a defect continued to energetically emit sound during a pressure hold period it
was an obvious indication that harmful damage was occurring. Conversely, if the defect
stopped emitting or its emission characteristics changed drastically when the pressure was
held constant it was an indication that the defect was benign.
To establish that very small and/or growing cracks could be detected in the
structure of the VC-10 British Aerospace fastened "dog-bone" shaped tensile specimens
containing fatigue cracks to the outer surface of a test aircraft. The specimens were
attached to the aircraft using epoxy and rivets in such a fashion that they spanned the
space between adjacent stringer members. Thus, when the aircraft was pressurized to 59.3
kPa (8.6 psi) the fatigue cracks were subjected to tensile forces. The dimensions of the
specimens were chosen such that the pressure loading would be sufficient to cause the
fatigue cracks to extend. In this manner, known cracks were made physically and
acoustically "part" of the airframe so that the sensitivity of AE could be readily checked.
This would be done by showing that the standard sensor arrays proposed for use on the
VC-10 could locate the growing cracks and by showing that AE data from the cracks was
present during load hold periods.
UC-IBXUI~B8 No~le awl C,~k~it T 1 ~ 4 / ~ ~.3~ . ~ ?
=me LEADBREAKS ~ ~LEAK NOISE

Lie-
- CRACKI~
e- IHI 1~1
-IN"
FIG. 4a - Simulated acoustic signals on FIG. 4b - Acoustic data obtained during

samples mounted at two locations. pressurization. Diffuse patch is from a
small leak source.
Figure 4 demonstrates the ability to locate the pre-cracked specimens during

pressurization of a VC-10. The "a" part of the figure shows how a simulated AE signal
can be located prior to pressurization. The purpose was to show that the standard sensor
spacing of 1.8 m (72 in.) for the VC-10 aircraft was proper, and also to direct the eye to
the expected location of actual crack signals. The "b" part of the figure shows locations
obtained during the actual pressurization of the VC-10; the locations at the site of the
specimens are due to cracking during actual pressure loading. Figure 4a shows the
location of two specimens due to simulated AE signals, one at fuselage station 237.5,
stringer 4.5 right and the other at station 253, stringer 4.5 right. Figure 4b shows the AE
activity from the cracking of these specimens during pressurization, plus a few signals
from a small leak source.
It is clear that the cracking of the two tensile specimens was detectable with AE
through the use of the post-test source location program. For AE to be successful in
preventing serious damage to a VC-10 during proof pressurization, however, it was
necessary to determine that cracking was occurring while the aircraft was actually being
loaded. This was done by using channel activity indicators and a series of plots that were
updated in real-time. During the test the operator would keep graphs of cumulative AE
hits versus channels on the computer screen, and would scan the channel activity
indicators. Any channel that showed activity would be investigated for "leak-like" or
"crack-like" behavior, using additional plots and specific quantitative criteria. Active
investigation (during the test) of any suspicious channels also would be carried out on the
aircraft itself by mechanics.
An idea of how the interpretation process worked can be had by referring to
Figure 5. The "a" part of the figure shows both the amplitude of the signals being received
as a function of time, as well as an overlay of the pressure within the aircraft. Notice the
four large amplitude bursts received before the pressure hold, and the marked drop off in
amplitude during the load hold. The "b" part of the figure shows individual channel
activity as a function of time, with the pressure overlaid again. Notice that the activity on
some channels remains constant throughout the pressure hold period. The hold period
activity on channel 1 was caused by an air leak, while the pressure hold activity on
channels 65, 66 and 67 is due to movement of the cockpit windows - notice that this
activity ceases as the pressure decays. The cracking of the tensile specimen at station
237.5, stringer 3.5 right, was detected by channels 28, 29 and 35. It can be seen that their
activity in Figure 5b corresponds to the amplitude bursts seen in Figure 5a, when it is
probable that the actual cracking occurred.
uc-ze xulee No.a ~na cocwpit 7.,24/9e z3:ls:x?
lee- .
A -
M~_ ~- H~"-I l I I
P _ : .-
A - r~ ....................
T ....
U -
-ii
,:,~--"--"-~:
D,2-.-T--~::'.-..~.-;.:..-).:.:.__.-:}:-.-_I-.]
E _ - ~.'--~-~: ~--.-..:!~.::
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:
F::-I :-i"l
F I G . 5a - Amplitude (in dB) versus time F I G . 5b - Channel number versus time (in
(in seconds), plus pressure versus time. seconds).
The detection of cracking in real-time was not as difficult during the actual test as
might be thought from the preceding example, both because the operator had many more
AE graphs available on the computer, and because all of the AE plots showed dynamic
changes rather dramatically. The cracking of the tensile specimen can readily be seen
when looking at a dynamic replay of amplitude and hits versus channel, though it is
admittedly somewhat obscure in the static "snapshot" graphs shown in Figure 5. Indeed,
it was sufficiently clear in real-time that a R A F oversight committee concluded that the
occurrence of cracking was not only detectable while the aircraft was actually being
loaded, but that there existed a relatively straight forward real-time method of
differentiating harmful cracking from benign defects, such as leaks, frets and the
movement of composite window structures.
One important aspect of the AE testing of the VC-10 that should be noted was that
the RAF considered AE to be only an "electronic safety net," which was there only to
help the proof pressurization to be conducted in safety. Officially, the R A F had no
interest in locating AE sources which did not require calling a halt to the proof
pressurization testing. However, a little ad hoc effort was spent in trying to determine the
source of some location clusters that were seen in the post-test analysis (which consisted
of location plots over the entire aircraft, filtered by pressure, amplitude and energy
criteria). Figure 6a shows an internal view of the VC-10 fuselage in an area where a
location cluster was observed in one aircraft. This cluster had not shown up until
pressures in excess of 9 psi were attained. Figure 6b shows a close up of a site in this
overall area. It can be seen that the intercostal has a crack in it - located right at the site of
the AE cluster. Several other location clusters were investigated in other aircraft; for
example in one a problem with the rear pressure bulkhead was found, while in another
skin cracks were found coming from the main deck cargo door [7].
FIG. 6a - Overall Ji4selage structure F I G . 6b - Detail r~cracked intercostal.

showing position of cracked intercostal.
()n~,oing Research
In addition to past successfnl AE applications, other a p p r o a c h e s are being

examined that take a d v a n t a g e of recent advances in the fields of p a t t e r n recognition
to automate the process of crack detection a n d recognition. Martingale Research
Corporation is addressing the issues of automatic detection and classification by applying
advanced signal processing and pattern recognition techniques, including neural
networks, to actual AE waveforms.
This effort is sponsored by the National Science Foundation as a Phase II SBIR
project. In an earlier Phase I project, it was demonstrated that detection and classification
results of up to 93% correct detection and classification for crack growth could be
produced using data from a single wideband sensor. Note that these results were produced
at various sensor spacings from the originating acoustic events, thus demonstrating the
relative insensitivity of the approach to the effects of dispersion. The Phase I project used
a laboratory test article (see Figure
7), constructed to simulate an
aircraft pressure hull, which was
tested to destruction using many
pressurization cycles [8, 9].
Although the results from
the Phase I project were extremely
impressive, the critical proof-of-
concept is to extend the technique
to AE data from real-world testing. F I G . 7 - The laboratory test article was a riveted
That is the goal of the current cylindrical plate structure that simulated aspects o f
Phase II research project. In Phase an aircraft pressure hull.
II, the automated pattern recognition techniques proven in Phase I are being applied to the
detection and classification of AE resulting from crack growth using actual in-flight data.
This data is being collected using a commercial AE data acquisition system, and uses
digitized waveform data from wide bandwidth sensors.
The research project is being conducted with subcontract support from Embry-
Riddle Aeronautical University (ERAU), Daytona Beach, F L ERAU is supplying the
aircraft and collecting the in-flight data for analysis by Martingale Research. Professor
Dr. Eric v. K. Hill is the subcontract lead for this effort. Figure 8 shows the target aircraft
for the Phase II project.
FIG. 8 - In-flight AE data has been collected from a Cessna Crusader.

The Cessna Crusader was selected as the target aircraft for in-flight AE data
collection. The portion of the aircraft selected for data acquisition was the vertical
stabilizer area (see Figure 9). The tail section of this aircraft is relatively flexible, and
during flight maneuvers, such as Dutch rolls, enough tail motion is present to cause AE
events in the instrumented portion of the structure.
Special test articles, designed to be mounted in the tail section and act as a passive
element, were fabricated for insertion into the aircraft. These test articles are built of
7075-T6 aluminum and are highly flexible. The article is mounted to the main tail
structure using bolts and rivets, all of which helps to cause noise and create clutter in the
data. The test article is notched to allow the quick initiation of fatigue cracks, and proof
qualification of the test article design was done by cycling to destruction a test specimen
in an MTS machine.
The special test structure that is being used for AE data generation (shown in
Figure 10) meets the constraints of flight safety, type certification, and data collection.
The test article is mounted just behind the front spar of the vertical stabilizer. The
structure does not compromise the aircraft's structural integrity in any way, since it acts
as a doubler for the existing spar. Because of motion in the structure, it fatigues during
flight and produces AE data for subsequent processing. The installation did not require
the certification of the aircraft as an experimental aircraft, although it was of course done
with the proper F A A oversight and approvals. The test structure, AE sensors, and cabling
were installed in the aircraft during May 1997. Data collection was also performed during
May 1997 to get actual in-flight data, including data from various in-flight maneuvers.
FIG. 9 ('h;se-w~ q/ the Cessna F I G . 10 - Photo qf test article showing

Crusa~h'r tail section, where the Jatigue sensor placement and stress notch.
test article is inserted.
For an even more stringent test, another aircraft is also being used to collect in-
flight AE data. This aircraft, a Piper Cherokee, is shown in Figure 1 I. This aircraft has
experienced cracking in the engine cowling. A total of four sensors, shown in Figure 12,
have been used for the collection of data. As before, these are wideband sensors, and the
data is collected and digitized using a commercial AE system.
FIG. I1 7he Piper Cherokee has FIG. 12 - Reverse view (?/ the engine
e_u~erienced cracking in the engine cowling, showing the AE sensor placement.
cowling area.
The characteristics of this data collection environment are much more stringent
than the Cessna Crusader, because of the vibration and noise from the engine located just
beneath the cowling. In both aircraft, the data are collected in flight, downloaded at the
end of flight, and processed off-line where a variety of specialized routines are evaluated
for their relative efficacy with respect to detection and classification.
Processing of the digital waveform data (see Figure 13) involves various
specialized routines, and includes time domain and frequency domain feature extraction.
Figure 14 shows, for example, a simple I-D wavelet transform of the acoustic event
shown in Figure 13. Note the multi-resolution aspects of the wavelet transform, which
produces a signature quite different from that of a Fourier transform. In Figure 14 the
coefficients from 512-1023, 256-511, 128-255, 64-127, etc. provide information at
different time-frequency scales because of the simultaneous time-space localization of the
wavelet transform. This property of the wavelet transform process offers interesting
benefits when processing AE events. The wavelet basis function used for this example is
a Daubechies-4 mother wavelet which is a highly-localized basis function. However, we
are also exploring other representations for AE event detection and classification.
File FT 107007, Event 38 8 2 HHZ
3750-
2500-
1250-
-1250 -
-2500-
--3750 -
I I I I
0 200 400 600 800
Se~ople Nttn~oer
FIG. 13 - Acoustic event captured from in-flight testing.

1024-P~ ~aveleg Transform - FIle FT 107007, Eveng 38
7S00
0 I I I 1 I
0 ZOO 400 600 800 1000
Wavelet Coefficient
FIG. 14 - 1024-point wavelet transform of the acoustic event in Figure 13.

Training, test, and validation data sets are built from the processed data, then
applied to the neural network-based detector and classifier. Results to date are quite
encouraging and validate the Phase I results. Good AE data has been collected from both
aircraft, and the processed data reacts as did the Phase I data when run through the
detection and classification software.
Conclusions
Acoustic emission provides proven benefits to the nondestructive testing

industry. When properly applied, AE-based NDT can isolate failures in real-time and can
locate cracks even when hidden by other structures or added equipment. We have shown
in this paper how AE has been applied successfully to the testing of the F-111 and VC-l0
aircraft, both of which were difficult applications that simply could not be satisfied by
other NDT technologies. The use of AE-based NDT in a production environment
demonstrates that this technology has truly arrived.
Moreover, new research results involving digital waveform processing for
"wideband AE" offer the potential of adding new, but complementary capabilities to
"classical AE" done with narrowband sensors. The proven benefits of wide sensor
spacing and high sensitivity of narrowband sensors can be combined with the automatic
detection and classification demonstrated with wideband sensors. This offers the potential
of new AE systems that will blend automated detection, classification, and location of
failures as part of an integrated intelligent NDT system that can be used in operational as
well as maintenance applications.
Acknowledgments
The work on the F-111 and the VC-10 aircraft was performed when Dr. Carlyle
was with Physical Acoustics Corporation. The work on the Cessna Crusader and the Piper
Cherokee was performed with the support of the National Science Foundation under
Grant Number 9503017. All opinions are those of the authors alone and not necessarily
those of the sponsoring organizations.
References
[ 1] Hutton, P.H., Skorpik, J.R., "Develop the Application of a Digital Memory Acoustic
Emission System to Aircraft Flaw Monitoring", Battelle - Pacific Northwest
Laboratory Report No. PNL-2873/UC-37, ARPA Contract No. 3476, Code 7DL0,
Dec. t978.
[2] McBride, S.L., Deziel, G., "Acoustic Emission Monitoring of the CF116 (CF5) Full-
Scale Durability and Damage Tolerance Test", 1992 USAF Structural Integrity
Program Conference, WL-TR-93-4080, pp. 496-506, 1993.
[3] Carlyle, J.M., "Research on Acoustic Emission Testing of the F-111 Aircraft", Final
Report, P.O. 1207011, General Dynamics Corporation, Fort Worth, TX, September
1987.
[4] Carlyle, J.M., "AE Testing the F-111", NDT International, Vol. 22, No. 2, pp. 67-73,
April 1989.
[5] Carlyle, J.M., "Acoustic Emission Testing of XV108, a Vickers VC-10-CI", Final
Report, P.O. AS-824015, British Aerospace (Commercial Aircraft) Ltd., Airlines
Division, Woodford, England, May 1990.
[6] Carlyle, J.M., "VC-10-C1 Acoustic Emission Testing Procedure", Phase Report,
UKDPO Contract G5759, U.K. Ministry of Defence, London, England, November
1991.
[7] Carlyle, J.M., "VC-10 AE Review", Final Report, Contract ASF/20660L, Defence
Research Agency, Farnborough, Hampshire, England, September 1996.
[8] Bodine, H., Dawes, R., Henley, S., Hill, E. v. K., "Automatic Detection and
Classification of Cracks in Complex Structures - Applying the Parametric Avalanche
to Acoustic Emissions", American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Proceedings
of the ASNT Spring Conference, 1995
[9] Bodine, H., Dawes, R., Henley, S., Hill, E. v. K., "Detecting Crack Growth in Metal
Structures using Temporal Processing", Artificial Neural Networks in Engineering
(ANNIE), 1995
Compressed Gas
Applications and Standards
Philip R. Blackburn 1
PERIODIC AE RE-TESTS of SEAMLESS STEEL GAS CYLINDERS
REFERENCE: Blackburn, P. R. "Periodic AE Re-tests of Seamless Steel Gas

Cylinders," Acoustic Emission Standards and Technology Update, ASTM STP 1353,
S. J. Vahaviolos Ed., American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken,
PA, 1999.
ABSTRACT: Sometimes industrial gas distribution involves hauling pressurized gas
over the highways in seamless, forged, steel cylinders which are mounted on truck trailers.
To ensure public safety, Federal regulations require periodic cylinder examinations. In
1983 the U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) began to allow use of acoustic
emission (AE) examinations in lieu of hydrostatic tests for this purpose. AE data are
recorded in the linear location mode while cylinders are filled with gas. Examples and
explanation of excellent location accuracy are provided. Significant AE sources are
subjected to secondary inspection and flaw depth is determined. If flaw depth exceeds a
prescribed limit the cylinder is removed from service. Study of emission from specific
flaws over two and three subsequent periodic re-tests shows that, generally, flaws are
benign.
KEYWORDS: acoustic emission, secondary inspection, alloy steel, seamless pressure

vessels, industrial gases
One distribution mode for industrial gases (albeit a minor one) involves hauling
pressurized gas over highways in assemblies of seamless, forged, steel cylinders which are
mounted on truck trailers (i.e. "tube trailers"). Perhaps 4000 such trailers and skids (i.e.
both jumbo tube trailers with 3AAX and 3T cylinders2 and trailers with smaller 3A and
1 Consulting Engineer, P.O. Box 761, Buffalo, NY 14213

2 U.S. Department of Transportation cylinder specifications
209
3AA cylinders) are in use in North America 3. (In addition to the above-mentioned tube
trailers there is a fleet of about 100 rail cars with DOT 107A cylinders which the U S
Bureau of Mines uses to transport helium.) To ensure public safety, federal regulations
require periodic cylinder examinations, typically at five year intervals. In 1983 the U.S.
Department of Transportation (DOT) first allowed use of acoustic emission (AE)
examinations for this purpose.
Forged, seamless, alloy steel cylinders are used on tube trailers and on rail cars.
These are routinely examined by AE test. Some dimensions and service pressures are
listed in Table 1.
The AE examination, which is approved by the U.S. Department of

Transportation, involves recording data in the linear location mode while cylinders are
filled with gas. Sources which produce a prescribed number of AE events are subjected to
secondary inspection (e.g. shear wave angle beam inspection) to verify flaw presence and
to determine flaw depth. If measured depth exceeds a prescribed limit the cylinder is
removed from service. (This limit is prescribed based on estimated fracture toughness of
the cylinder material, linear elastic fracture mechanics analysis of the specific cylinder
geometry, and estimates of fatigue crack propagation through specific cylinder materials
and geometries.) Usually, AE examination and secondary local inspection are
accomplished without disassembly of cylinder bundles. Usually, there is enough space
between cylinders for passage of the ultrasonic search unit. Usually, all of the cylinders
which are mounted on a trailer are examined simultaneously while they are filled with gas
to 110% of normal fill pressure. Two sensors are mounted on each cylinder and AE data
are acquired with the signal processor set up in a linear location mode. This arrangement
is depicted in Figure 1. The AE method does accomplish inspection of 100% of the
cylinder; precise locations are computed for AE sources which lie between the sensors;
AE sources which lie in a cylinder end are lumped together into one location (that being
referred to as an "end of the cylinder").
This AE examination was described by Blackburn & Rana [1]; it represented a

significant improvement over the established retest procedure. Another description of the
method is found in Standard Test Method for Examination of Seamless. Gas-Filled.
Pressure Vessels Usin~ Acoustic Emission, ASTM E 1419-96.
The prior, established, retest procedure involves disassembling cylinder bundles,

filling cylinders with water, individually pressurizing them to 5/3 times normal service
pressure while they are submerged in a water jacket, measuring volumetric expansion of
the cylinder, and removing from service any cylinders which exhibit large expansion or
which leak.
sW.E. Angus, Weldship Corporation, Bethlehem, PA - private communication

BLACKBURN ON SEAMLESS STEEL GAS CYLINDERS 211
DOT Specification Cylinders, Typical dimensions

and service pressure
ACOUSTIC EMICClON RE.RESTING OF JUMBO TUBE TRAILERS
AE SENSOR
PLANT COMPRESSOR
-(
MULTI CHANNEL SIGNAL PROC|$$OR FLOPPYD15C DATA STORAGE
~o * * i r L T I i b i I
04
| II~ Ill !a~l egal' .o,o

~OCATICN
Test Schematic
FIGURE 1
Improvements associated with use of AE examinations (in lieu of hydrostatic tests) on

cylinders in tube trailer service are:
Economy - a hydrostatic test typically costs $20,0004 whereas an AE examination
typically costs $7,000. (A purveyor of industrial gases with a fleet of 200 tube trailers
might save about 2.6 million dollars in plant cost during five years operation.)
More information about cylinder condition - flaw location (axial location) is
determined with the AE examination and circumferential location and flaw depth are
measured with subsequent ultrasonic examinations.
Product contamination is reduced - cylinders are pressurized with nitrogen or with
actual product. Cylinders are not contaminated with water, which is forced into
discontinuities located on the internal surface by the high pressure used in hydrostatic
tests, and which cannot be completely removed.
Equipment utilization can improve - rolling stock need not be lost from service for
weeks while it is pulled to a retest facility, disassembled, hydro tested, re-assembled and
returned. AE examinations can be accomplished in the production environment while
cylinders are filled with product.
Also, this AE test method accomplishes examination of the entire cylinder. (It is a
100% examination.) AE sources in cylinder walls are identified as well as sources in
cylinder ends.
Nowadays, fourteen years after initial use, AE re-examinations are widely used in
industrial gas distribution operations; perhaps 90% of the trailers with jumbo tubes (i.e.
3AAX and 3T cylinders), in the US, are routinely re-examined with the acoustic emission
method.
THE NATURE OF FLAWS IN FORGED SEAMLESS STEEL CYLINDERS

Gas cylinders used in North America are made from chrome-moly steel, mostly.
Seamless pipe is formed by piercing a heated billet on a mandrel (e.g. the Mannesmann
process). Pipe is formed to size as it is forced over lubricated mandrels. A series of four
or five separate forming steps may be used; pipe sections are re-heated (to about 790 ~
between some of these forming steps. Flaws originate at folds or depressions on billet
surfaces. These discontinuities are stretched and moved within the pipe during forming
operations, Mandrel lubricant is forced into flaws; lubricant burns when the hot pipe is
ejected from the mandrel. Combustion leaves solid carbonaceous scale (mill scale) within
a flaw volume.
A grinding operation is performed to clean the inside wall and improve

concentricity between inside and outside diameters. Pipe ends are heated and then
hammer forged to produce closures at the cylinder ends. Visual inspections locate flaws on
the inside and outside surfaces. These are removed with hand held grinding wheels.
41998 US dollars
There is ready access to the cylinder exterior; hence, few flaws remain on exterior walls.
However, access to the inside surface, for visual inspection and for grinding, is more
difficult; and, if flaws exist they are more apt to be on the inside surface. Automated
ultrasonic shear wave angle beam inspection is conducted; any flaws with depth greater
than five percent of wall thickness are located 5. These are removed. Cylinders are heat
treated to achieve specified strength. Finished cylinders undergo hydrostatic test; here
water is forced into any flaws on the inside surface.
Subsequently, residual water from the hydrostatic test causes corrosion within the
flaw volume while the tube is in service. During AE examinations corrosion and mill scale
within flaws do produce measurable emission and benign flaws are located based on
emission from these secondary sources, even when flaws do not grow in service.
AE EXAMINATIONS OF CYLINDERS IN SERVICE

When an emission source is in the end of a cylinder (i.e outboard of the space
between the two AE sensors) the AE signal processor will not compute a precise source
location and the cylinder end is treated as one location. If five or more AE events are
recorded from one axial location then a secondary (ultrasonic) inspection is performed.
Exemptions to the Code of Federal Regulations which have been issued by the
U S Department of Transportation to allow use of AE examinations in lieu of hydrostatic
retests require that secondary inspections (e.g. ultrasonic angle beam) be performed at
locations which produce five or more AE events (i.e. five or more events within an eight
inch axial distance). This "five event limit" is specified for smaller cylinders (DOT 3A and
3AA), for large cylinders (DOT 3AAX and 3T) and for very large cylinders (DOT 107A).
Actually flaws in thick walled cylinders tend to be deeper and more voluminous and they
can grow to greater length. Hence, in thick walled cylinders crack growth and mill and
corrosion scale can be expected to produce more AE events. Experience teaches that the
"five event limit" is appropriate for the cylinders with thin walls. (3A and 3AA cylinders
have about 0.7 cm wall thickness.) And, a larger number of events is physically
appropriate for larger cylinders. However, the "five event limit"does represent practice
which is conservative and which is easy to implement and to regulate.
AE system threshold setting

A scenario for structural degradation of cylinders during service is initiation of
fatigue crack growth at the deepest part of a flaw (a lap or fold) located in the tube wall.
The largest stress is in the hoop direction on the large diameter portion of cylinders;
maximum stress occurs when cylinders are filled with product. Such fatigue cracks would
have longitudinal orientation and would grow when a cylinder is periodically pressurized
during service. Estimates of crack growth in such cylinders appear in the open literature
lq.
SFelbaum, J. CP Industries Inc. McKeesport PA, November 1997 - private

communication
AE examinations are performed at 110% of the maximum pressure which occurs

during service. The AE system must be set-up so as to produce adequate sensitivity so as
to detect emission from flaw growth which might occur during an AE examination. Signal
processor threshold of 32 dB (where 0 dB equals 1 microvolt at the preamplifier input) is
used.
One must consider peak amplitudes associated with typical sources of AE at flaws
and attenuation of such emission as they travel through a cylinder. Typical sources of AE
in cylinders are rust patches, fracture of, and interference with, mill scale and corrosion
products when a flaw is subjected to strain, contact of fatigue crack surfaces while the
cylinder is strained, and crack propagation through the parent metal. Data from cylinder
retests, and from laboratory work with pre-cracked compact tension specimens, were
reported by Blackburn [2]. It was shown that growth of a fatigue crack through parent
metal in 3AAX and 3T steels (Le. chrome-molybdenum steel, quenched and tempered)
produces, typically, peak amplitude at the source as high as 60 dB. Other typical sources
(crack surface contact, mill scale fracture and rubbing and spalling of rust scale) all
produce emission with even higher amplitude than emission from crack growth. Table 2
shows ranges of peak amplitudes (corrected back to the source) which are associated with
these emission sources.
Consider attenuation of acoustic emission in a cylinder. Figure 2. shows a typical

attenuation curve; this is from measurements on a 3AAX cylinder with 1040 centimetre
overall length. Sensors are usually mounted about 30 cm from the very end of cylinders.
Inspection of Figure 2 indicates that emission from a source which is located between a
"first hit sensor" and the very end of a cylinder would suffer about 8 dB attenuation; and,
emission from a source which is located between the two sensors on a cylinder could
suffer as much as about 8 dB attenuation before it reached the "first hit sensor" and as
much as perhaps 16 dB before it hit the far sensor. Hence use of a 32 dB signal
processor threshold setting provides assurance that emission from crack growth through
parent metal will be detected and that emission source will be located. Moreover,
emission from secondary sources discussed above, with their characteristically larger peak
amplitudes, would accompany emission from actual crack growth and provide further
assurance that crack growth through parent metal will be detected.
ALLOWABLE FLAW DEPTH

When flaw depth exceeds a prescribed limit a cylinder is removed from service.
The depth limit is prescribed based on estimated fracture toughness of the cylinder
material, linear elastic fracture mechanics analysis of the specific cylinder geometry, and
estimates of fatigue crack propagation through the specific cylinder geometry [1].
Allowable flaw depths for some cylinder specifications are shown in Table 1.
TABLE 2
Sources of acoustic emission at flaws

(DOT 3AAX and 3T steels)
AE Source Peak Amplitude tat source in dB~
(From field test (From CT

data) specimen data)
mill scale 50 to 110
external 66 to 78
corrosion
mechanical
contact (at 19 to 66
crack
surfaces)
crack growth
(in parent 19 to 60
metal)
0 I J I
-5
-10
dB O
O
-15 O O
O ~..
O
O
-20 measured with 150 kHz sensor

O
-25
O
-30
0 200 400 600 800 1000
DISTANCE (cm)
Attenuation in 3AAX cylinders
Figure 2
SECONDARY INSPECTION - FLAW DEPTH MEASUREMENT

Routinely, after an AE test, local ultrasonic examination with a distance -
amplitude technique is used to measure flaw depth, The method is described in Standard
Practice for Ultrasonic Examination of H e a w Steel Formngs. ASTM Standard A 388/A
- - v
388M-94,
Secondary inspections are made while cylinders are at full pressure, when the
cylinder is strained and the flaw surfaces are separated. Fatigue cracks which initiate on
the inside surface of cylinders (i.e, flaws which we most often encounter with these
cylinders) exhibit considerable space between crack surfaces. On the other hand, fatigue
cracks which initiate on the outside surface exhibit little space between crack surfaces
(these cracks are very tight.) Hence we should expect better depth measurements with
cracks which initiate in flaws located on the inside surface of cylinders. Indeed, inside
surface flaws are most often encountered for reasons discussed in the above paragraphs
above under the "NATURE OF FLAWS" heading.
Inside or outside surface location of flaws can be readily determined by a skilled

operator using a distance - amplitude ultrasonic inspection technique. Ultrasonic
calibrations are performed on rings with machined notches which are located on the inside
surface. Distance - amplitude curves are drawn on the display from the ultrasonic
instrument. Flaws located on outside surfaces produce amplitude peaks which are
displaced on the time axis relative to the calibration curve; these are readily identified as
being located "on the outside surface."
When a distance - amplitude technique is used depth measurements may exceed

actual flaw depth because laps in cylinder walls meet the outside surface at some angle.
Reflections of ultrasonic beams which strike the side of a flaw which forms an acute angle
with the cylinder surface have larger amplitude than a reflection from a notch which is
perpendicular with the surface (e.g. a calibration notch). This situation is described by
Yokono [3].
Use of a reflected ultrasonic tip diffraction technique should provide more accurate
flaw depth measurements. A comparison of six different flaw sizing techniques by
Mansour & McGaughey [4] indicates that a tip diffraction method should provide more
accurate indication of flaw depth than a distance - amplitude technique.
I f a decision about removal from service must be made, a cylinder owner should
want to consider additional inspection to verify flaw depth. Jumbo trailer tubes ( DOT
specification 3AAX or 3T cylinders) cost about $10,000 each; investment in thorough
secondary inspection (e.g. use of more than one secondary inspection method) can be well
justified before a cylinder is actually removed from service.
CONDITION OF FLAWS WHICH HAVE BEEN DETECTED

AE data from periodic retests of one tube trailer fleet, over a fifteen year period,
were examined to establish any trend in measured emission from specific flaws during
service6. (e.g. Do depths of known flaws increase during service? Do known flaws
produce more emission during a subsequent periodic AE retest?) Based on these data, it
was determined that known flaws produced fewer AE events during subsequent retests.
Figure 3 shows AE event count from specific flaws, averaged, and plotted versus AE test
number (AE tests were for the most part five year apart). The trend is "AE event count
decreases with time in service." This is evidence that the flaws which were detected and
measured were benign. They were not growing in service; and, emission which were
measured were produced by mill scale and corrosion within laps. Elimination of water,
which was introduced during periodic hydrostatic tests, had eliminated a corrosion agent;
hence, emission from benign flaws diminished during subsequent re-tests.
AXIAL LOCATION OF AE SOURCES

Ordinary linear location algorithms are used. A typical result is illustrated in
Figure 4. Here the AE location distribution and a depth profile (from subsequent LIT
inspection) associated with a 15 centimetre long flaw in a DOT 3T cylinder are plotted;
the abscissa for these plots is the longitudinal axis of the flaw. Inspection of the figure
shows that AE events are clustered in the deepest regions of the flaw (i.e. regions which
should contain more mill scale and/or corrosion).
Location measurements are set-up by breaking pencil leads to produce elastic
waves; elapsed time between threshold crossings at the two sensors on a cylinder is
measured. When the method was used initially, state of the art AE signal processor
software permitted entry of elapsed times for each cylinder into the AE test set-up. With
that capability, excellent location results like those shown in Figure 4 are attained. (This
flaw was 90 degrees away from the axis between sensors and it was located at 3% of the
distance between the AE sensors. Measurement of such a location represents a reasonable
challenge to the linear location technique; but it worked very well indeed.)
Nowadays, state of the art AE signal processor software does not always permit
entry of the actual measured wavespeed from each cylinder. A typical number of cylinders
in one test is twelve. Wavespeeds are different in each cylinder because plate waves
develop when pencil leads are broken during location calibrations. Speed of plate waves
depend strongly on cylinder wall thickness. There is significant difference in wall
thickness due to manufacturing tolerances. Use of incorrect wavespeeds can cause
location inaccuracy.
Actually, any lack of accuracy which is associated with such an AE system
deficiency can be accommodated by performing local ultrasonic inspection of emission
sites over a larger distance along the cylinder longitudinal axis.
It is instructive to consider elastic wave propagation in more general terms. In the
6Lee, Andrew, Amko Service Company, July 1995 - private communication

220 A C O U S T I C EMISSION: S T A N D A R D S AND T E C H N O L O G Y
~! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
t-
:3
2
O
~O
e-
G)
iii
(!)
1
<
0
1 2 3
AE Test No.
Trend in AE event count, from individual flaws, with

time (note: subsequent re-tests follow former re-
tests by five years)
Figure 3
.030
~: .020
u
Z"
010-
I'J ' ' '

6 INCHES ' ' 'j'
>
,, III,, I I ,,
7 ; 1~) 1'1 12 13 114
AXIAL LOCATION, INCHES
Depth Profile and AE Location

Distribution (from a 15 centimetre long
flaw in a DOT 3T cylinder)
FIGURE 4
ideal case of an infinite olate with stress waves which travel at constant speed in all
directions, the locus of points which satisfy an observed hit sequence and measured time
difference will comprise a hyperbola (which can be drawn on the surface of the plate). In
this case, if an emission source is displaced from the axis between sensors there will be an
error in the computed location (said error being related to the shape of the hyperbola)[5].
Experience with location measurements in DOT specification cylinders (e.g. the off-axis
example which is shown in Figure 4) suggests we measure the passage of waves which
move uniformly along the cylinder axis. Linear location measurements are accurate even
when sources are displaced from the axis on which the sensors lie.
It seems that we locate AE sources in these cylinders by measuring the passage of
Lamb waves. It was pointed out that 3T and 3AAX cylinders represent a favorable case
for the measurement source location with such waves 7. If we use the AE sensor resonant
frequency (i.e. 150 kHz) together with the wall thicknesses indicated in Table 1 we can
see that the product of frequency and thickness is about 2 mm- MHZ. Examination of
dispersion curves for plate waves in steel (see Krautkramer [6]) show that at 2 mm-MHZ
there are three separate wave modes (i.e. so, ao and a0 which have the same group
velocity. If we assume that wave dispersion is similar in DOT specification cylinders then
we can perceive a favorable situation for location measurement. Zero order bending
waves produced by an out-of-plane source (e.g. pencil lead break) would travel at (or at
about) the same speed as zero order symmetric mode waves produced by an in-plane
source (e.g. crack growth or mill scale fracture within a lap). Accuracy of linear location
measurements should be excellent in this case; and, indeed, it is.
For 3AAX and 3T cylinders, wall thickness variation is about plus-minus 15%
(based on manufacturing specifications). A survey o f cylinder re-test data shows that
measured time between hits at sensor pairs (when the source is outboard of the sensor set)
is typically within a range of plus 19% and minus 9%. This difference in time between
hits (i.e. difference in wave speed) is attributed to variation in wall thickness from cylinder
to cylinder. In order to realize best practice with this method one should use data
acquisition software which can accept and use separate values for wave speed or elapsed
time between hits on the sensor pair for each individual cylinder which is examined.
Experience with location measurement, as described above, indicates that in

these cylinders we measure source location based on arrival o f plate waves. Speed
o f plate waves depend upon cylinder wall thickness. Location measurements are
accurate even when the AE source is displaced (i.e. in a circumferential direction)
from the sensor axis.
7pollock, A.A., Physical Acoustics Corporation, August 1986 - private communication

CONCLUSION
To date, in DOT specification cylinders (Note: DOT cylinders are examples of

very conservative structural design), no flaws which are actively growing in service have
been foundf
Experience with this application for AE testing teaches the following lessons:
Secondary sources of emission (e.g. mill scale, flaw surface contact) enable one to locate
flaws. Secondary sources of emission produce larger peak amplitudes than actual crack
growth through parent metal; but, it is possible to detect crack growth when a proper AE
system threshold is used.
REFERENCES:
[ 1] Blackburn, P,R. & Rana, M.D. "Acoustic'Emission Testing and Structural

Evaluation of Seamless Steel Tubes in Compressed Gas Service "Transactions of the
ASME, Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology, VoL 108 May 1986
[2] Blackburn, P.R. "'AcousticEmissionfrom Fatigue Cracks in Chrome - Molybdenum

Steel Cylinders" Journal of Acoustic Emission, Vol. 7, March 1988
[3 ] Yokono, Y. et al "Influence of Inclination Angle of Notch- Type Defect on Echo

Amplitude m Ultrasonic Testing" Proceedings of 13th World Conference on
Nondestructive Testing, Sao Paulo, Brazil, October 1992
[4] Mansour T. & McGaughey W. "UltrcL~onicTesting Applications m Welding",

Section 16, Volume 7, Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Second Edition, P. Mclntire
Editor, American Society for Nondestructive Testing, 1991
[5] Baron, J.A. & Ying, SP. "Acoustic Emission Source Location, " Nondestructive
Testing Handbook, Volume Five, Second Edition, Miller R.K. & Mclntire P. (Editors)
American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Columbus, Ohio 1987
[6] Krautkrarner J. & H. "Ultrasonic Testing of Materials", page 576 - Diagram 9, 4th
Edition, Springer-Verlag New York, 1990
Roy D. Fultineer, Jr. I and James R. Mitchell2
FIELD DATA ON TESTING OF NATURAL GAS VEHICLE (NGV)

CONTAINERS USING PROPOSED ASTM STANDARD TEST M E T H O D FOR
EXAMINATION OF GAS-FILLED FILAMENT-WOUND PRESSURE VESSELS
USING ACOUSTIC EMISSION (ASTM E070403-95/1)
REFERENCE: Fultineer, Jr., R. D. and Mitchell, J. R., "Field Data on Testing of

Natural Gas Vehicle (NGV) Containers Using Proposed ASTM Standard Test
Method for Examination and Gas-Filled Filament-Wound Pressure Vessels Using
Acoustic Emission (ASTM E070403-95/1)," Acoustic Emission: Standards and
Technology Update, ASTM STP 1353, S. J. Vahaviolos, Ed., American Society for
Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA, 1999.
ABSTRACT: There are many composite wrapped pressure vessels in service. These
containers are most widely used for gas storage in natural gas vehicles (NGV). A
standard has been developed for the testing of these vessels by the subcommittee ASTM
E07.04.03 Acoustic Emission (AE) applications. The AE test method is supported by
both field test data and laboratory destructive testing. The test method describes a global
volumetric testing technique which is offered as an alternative to the current practice of
visual inspection.
KEYWORDS: acoustic emission, compressed natural gas containers, pressure vessels,

composites, burst testing, nondestructive testing
Introduction
A new standard titled Standard Test Method for Examination of Gas-Filled

Filament-Wound Pressure Vessels Using Acoustic Emission (ASTM E070403-95/1) has
been developed by the subcommittee on Acoustic Emission (AE) applications. The basis
of this document is founded on over 20 years of industrial experience in the use of AE
techniques for evaluating composite pressure vessels, tanks and numerous other
components fabricated from composite materials. The test method is supported by test
i Engineer, Spencer Testing Services, Inc, P.O. Box 429, Spencer, WV 25276.
2 Accounts Executive, New England Region, Physical Acoustics Corporation, 711 Cow
Hill Rd., Mystic, CT 06355.
224
FULTINEER AND MITCHELL ON NATURAL GAS VEHICLE 225
results from several independent testing agencies who have agreed to follow the standard
test method and report the results to the ASTM subcommittee. Reported here is the input
from one testing agency which has accumulated data from over 3 000 in-service containers
and 14 destructive tests.
Background
The theory which supports the use of AE for measuring mechanical properties is
derived from the observation that a predictable pattern of acoustic emission is produced
when a composite material is subjected to stress. Specifically, there is very little emission
at low stress and an abruptly higher level of emission at higher stress [1]. The transition,
called the "Knee in the AE vs Load curve," is characteristic of the particular material being
examined and typically occurs between 40% and 70% of ultimate load (Figure 1).
Numerous codes and standard test methods utilize this observation. They are as follows:
Standard Practice for Acoustic Emission Examination of Man Rated Aerial

Devices (ASTM F 914)
Standard Practice for Acoustic Emission Examination of Fiberglass Reinforced
Plastic Resin (FRP) Tanks/Vessels (ASTM E 1067)
Standard Practice for Acoustic Emission Examination of Reinforced
Thermosetting Resin Pipe (RTRP) (ASTM E 1118)
Acoustic Emission Examination of Fiber Reinforced Plastic Pressure Vessels
(ASME Section V Article II)
Design and Testing of Composite Pressure Vessels (ASME Section X, RPT-1)
CARP Recommmended Practice for Acoustic Emission Testing of Pressurized
Highway Tankers Made of Fiber Reinforced Plastics with Balsa Cores
(ASNT)
In essence, a composite structure is considered to be safe for continued service if loading

to service stress produces low emission (below the KNEE) and questionable if the
emission level is high (above the KNEE).
ASTM E070403-95/1 specifically addresses the use of AE to evaluate composite
wrapped pressure vessels. The most wide use of these components is for compressed
natural gas (CNG) storage in natural gas vehicles (NGV). Many thousand NGV's are in
service throughout the US. Their use has been heavily promoted by the natural gas
providers and auto manufacturers as a means to lower vehicle emission. A typical NGV
fuel container operates at a maximum fill pressure of 3 000 to 4 200 psi (20.68 to 28.95
MPa). The risk of a catastrophic failure of the gas container is a major safety concern.
The US DOT-RSPA is mandated to regulate all gas containers that are transported
on public roads. The historical record indicates that regulatory accountability and periodic
inspection can lower the risk to a satisfactory level. AE and other NDT methods are in
wide use under regulatory approval (e.g. ASTM Standard Test Method for Examination
of Seamless, Gas-Filled, Pressure Vessels Using Acoustic Emission (ASTM E 1419) and
the Compressed Gas Association (CGA) Methods for Acoustic Emission Recertification
of Seamless Steel Compressed Gas Tubes (CGA C-18)). Unfortunately, from a safety
viewpoint, NGV fuel containers fall outside of DOT-RSPA authority and instead fall
under DOT-NHTSA which cannot mandate a national inspection policy for in-service
containers. In-service inspection is currently accomplished on a voluntary basis following
ANSI/AGA Basic Requirements for Compressed NGV Fuel Containers (ANSI/AGA
NGV-2) which recommends a visual inspection at 36 month intervals or alternatively,
nondestructive testing with specific inspection details described in CGA Guidelines for
Reinspection of NGV-2 Type Fuel Containers (CGA C-6.4).
ASTM E070403-95/1 provides a volumetric nondestructive alternative to visual
inspection. The authors' opinion is that visual inspection is too subjective and arbitrary to
be a stand alone method. The AE test method offers additional advantages over visual
inspection:
a) AE is sensitive to the internal condition of the NGV container that may not be
detected with visual inspection,
b) Examination can be carried out during normal filling,
c) Container removal is not required,
d) Gas is not released into the environment,
e) Sensitivity to leaks at connections.
BURST TEST CONTAINER #14

Cumulative AE Counts Versus % of Maximum Fill Pressure
Maximum Fill Pressure -__3000psi (20.68 MPa
100
90: Burst Pressure - 7800
80:
70:
60:
"~ 40~
301-
20~
i i L i i i i--, , i i i i i i
0 10 30 50 70 90 110 130 150 170

% of Maximun Fill Pressure
Figure 1 - Illustration of the "Knee".

Procedure for In-Service Inspection of NGV Containers
The testing procedure used for the evaluation of the NGV containers is the same
procedure found in ASTM E070403-95/1. First, all accessible exterior surfaces of the
vessel are visually examined. The second step calls for the inspector to isolate the vessel
to prevent contact if possible. The next step includes connecting the fill hose and the
elimination of any leaks at the connections. The AE sensors are then attached in
accordance with ASTM Standard Guide for Mounting Piezoelectric Acoustic Emission
Sensors (E 650). In step five, the examiner adjusts signal processor setup conditions. A
performance check at each sensor should be performed at this time to verify that the peak
amplitude is greater than a specified value. Pressurization of the vessel will then start. A
fast-fill or slow-fill pressure schedule may be used. Plots of AE activity versus time or
pressure should be monitored during the pressurization of the vessel in case any unusual
responses occur. The next step is to store all data on mass storage media. The data is
then compared to the acceptance criteria and the results recorded. At this time, vessels
which have produced excessive emission may be reexamined without delay. Finally, a
system performance check at each sensor should be carried out.
Acceptance Criteria
The nonmandatory appendix found in the ASTM E070403-95/1 includes

acceptance criteria and instrumentation settings adopted from ASTM E 1067 and other
related standards. The acceptance criteria are based on the most widely accepted AE
parameters, i.e. counts, signal strength, and peak amplitude as a function of time and
pressure. Evaluation of the acceptance criteria leads to 3 possible outcomes:
1) The emission level is low indicating that the container is not over stressed
at service pressure. The vast majority (99.0%) of containers tested fall
into this category and are put back into service. The recommended
retest period, 3 years, is consistent with ANSI/AGA NGV-2.
2) The emission level is moderate (0.9%) indicating that the container may
have a slightly lower burst pressure than when new, but is safe for
continued service. The recommended retest period for these containers is
1 year.
3) The emission level is high (0.1%) indicating that the containers is over stressed
at service pressure and should be removed from service.
Destructive Testing
Test Setup
The first step in the test setup was to construct an explosion chamber. The
chamber was constructed with 12 in (30.38 cm) thick fiber reinforced concrete walls, a 4
in (10.16 cm) thick concrete fiber reinforced floor with a drainage system, and a solid oak
cover. The container to be tested was filled with water and a high strength, flexible supply
line was connected. The supply line was connected to a steel manifold that contained a
pressure relief valve and a pressure transducer. The container was then laid down in the
chamber. The water pressure was supplied by a air driven water pump which was
connected to the steel manifold with another section of the supply line. A 150 kHz AE
sensor was connected to each end of the container, The pressure transducer and the AE
sensors were connected directly to the data acquisition system. This allowed the operator
to monitor the pressure and AE activity during the pressurization of the container. A
schematic of the test setup can be seen in Figure 2.
DATA ACQUISITION
SYSTEM
PRESSURE - ~2~__
TRANSDUCER . . . . . "-
STEEL ..... "..... "
P R E S S U R E roA)qlFOLI~ ~ "',
R E -L' I- E
F ~'~. . . . . . . . r~ ...... Ll n "~
VALVE ~ ~ ~:~ :_~-'-'-7._-__z_ ",._
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , [ [
WATER
SUPPLY
Figure 2 - Schematic of test setup.
Pressurization of Containers
Pressurization of NGV containers for purposes of AE testing can be either fast-fill

or slow-fill. For the purpose o f this study, we will be considering fast-fill pressurization.
Each container will be pressurized up to its maximum fill pressure with pressure holds at
50, 75, 87.5, and 100%. AE activity collected during these load holds is compared to
acceptance criteria at the conclusion of the test.
FULTINEER AND MITCHELLON NATURAL GAS VEHICLE 229
Results of Destructive Tests
Fourteen type II NGV containers were AE tested according to ASTM E070403-

95/1. The containers were then destructively tested to burst pressure. This burst pressure
was then recorded for each container and used for comparison with AE test
recommendations. Figures 3, 4, and 5 are plots of the cumulative AE counts versus
percentage of maximum fill pressure for the containers tested.
Figure 3 contains the data for containers 1 through 5. Containers 1 and 5 showed
high levels of AE activity indicating serious structural problems. Following the guidelines
found in ASTM E070403-95/1, these containers would be removed from service. Results
of the destructive test of containers 1 and 5 confirmed that the burst pressures were low,
5 800 psi (34.47 MPa) and 5 664 psi (36.79 MPa), respectively. Containers 1 and 5 were
properly identified by ASTM E070403-95/1 as being unsafe for continued service.
There were also two containers with moderate levels of AE activity which called
for a one year retest. Containers 2 and 4 were the two containers in question and they had
burst pressures of 7 400 psi (51.02 MPa) and 8 228 psi (56.73 MPa). The final container,
container 3 on this graph, was given a three year retest certification. It produced low
levels of AE activity, and was considered to have little or no loss of structural integrity.
The AE indicated acceptability of this was confirmed with a high burst pressure of 8 100
psi (55.85 MPa).
Figure 4 has a plot of cumulative AE counts versus percentage of maximum fill
pressure for five more containers. These containers are labeled containers 6 through 10.
All of these containers were recommended for one year retests due to the presence of
moderate AE activity. These containers had burst pressures of 7 208 psi (49.70 Mpa),
6 640 psi (45.78 MPa), 7 080 psi (48.81 MPa), 7 880 psi (54.33 MPa), and 7 080 psi
(48.81 Mpa), respectively. These containers should be reevaluated in one year and the
results compared to the previous years results to see if there have been any changes.
Figure 5 shows the data for containers 11 through 14. One of these containers
(container 11) was recommended for a one year retest. It had a burst pressure of 7 000
psi (48.26 MPa), and produced moderate amounts of AE activity. The other containers
(containers 12, 13, and 14) represented on this graph were given a recommendation for a
reevaluation in three years. The burst pressure of these containers were 7 840 psi (54.06
MPa), 8 200 psi (56.54 MPa), and 7 800 psi (53.77 MPa), respectively.
Figure 6 illustrates a composite correlation plot of the cumulative AE counts
during the AE test versus the final burst pressure. The trend can be seen that the
containers with lower burst pressures had higher levels of AE activity, and containers with
higher burst pressures had lower levels of AE activity. The containers with high levels of
AE activity were considered to have low burst pressures and would have been removed
from service. The remaining containers were considered to have moderate or lower levels
of AE activity and were allowed to remain in service for one or three years.
PRESSURE TESTING OF NGV CONTAINERS

Cumulative AE Counts versus % of Maximum Fill Pressure
Maximum Fill Pressure - 3000 psi (20.68 MPa
8O
70
i..
.~ ~ 40
60
~3C
f
." +
IG
0 0 20 40 60 80 100
% of Maximum Fill Pressure
~ #1 .Container #2 o Container #3
~ #4 , Container #5
Figure 3 - Containers I through 5.

80 __Ma_~ m u m Fill Pressure - 3000 psi (20.68 MPa'
70
4~ ... 60
50
.~o~40
S
-~3o
~ 20
10
0 20 40 60 80 100
o Container #6 9 Container #7 o Container #8
Container #9 ~ Container # 10
Figure 4 - Containers 6 through 10.


80 Maximum Fill Pressure - 3000 psi (20,68 MPa
70
~ .60
15o
9~ ~ 4 0
'* ~ 3 0
10
0 9 ~-
b ......2~0 ' ,~0 | 60 80 100
o Container # 11 9 Container # 12 o Container # 13
9Container # 14
Figure 5 - Containers 11 through 14,
Cum. AE Counts at 100% Maximum Fill Pressure

versus Burst Pressure (% of Maximum Fill Pressure)
80f Maximum Fill Pressure - 3000 psi (20.68 MPa
,.6
10t ~176 ~
0 150'1-70' 190 2 i 0 ' 289 250 270 290
Burst pressure (% of Maximum Fill Pressure)
Figure 6 - Containers 1 through 14.

23 2 ACOUSTICEMISSION: STANDARDSAND TECHNOLOGY
Field Testing
During the testing o f approximately 3 000 containers, we discovered six suspect

containers at four test sites. Figure 7 is a plot & d a t a obtained from containers at Test
Site #1. This test site as well as all other test sites discussed in this paper will be labeled
by number such as Test Site #1. Figure 7 shows a plot o f AE counts versus % of
maximum fill pressure for six containers at Test Site #1. The curve labeled one year retest
represents a container which did not meet the criteria for a three year retest. With 12 605
AE counts, this container was recommended for a one year retest. The other containers
illustrated on this figure had very little AE activity and passed the three year retest criteria.
The data for Test Site #2 can be seen in Figure 8 At this test site, two suspect
containers were identified and recommended for a one year retest in accordance with
ASTM E070403-95/1. One o f these containers had l0 688 counts and the other container
had 12 631 counts as can be seen on Figure 8. The remaining four containers all met the
criteria for a three year retest.
At Test Site #3, two suspect containers were identified. One o f these containers
was recommended for a one year retest when the number o f counts reached 17 397 aiter
the final hold. With that number of counts, the container did not meet ASTM
E070403-95/1 criteria for a three year retest. The curve for this container was labeled one
year retest in Figure 9 and showed a jump in AE counts between 75% and 100% o f its
maximum fill pressure. The second o f these suspect containers was recommended to be
removed from service when the number o f AE counts exceeded 50 000 before the
container was even pressurized to maximum fill pressure. The container represented by
the curve in Figure 9 labeled remove from service showed a large jump in AE counts
between 50% and 87% o f its maximum fill pressure. Pressurizing o f this container was
stopped at 87% of the maximum fill pressure because o f the large amount o f AE being
observed. This container showed evidence o f the "knee," discussed earlier, in the counts
versus pressure curve which would indicate a loss in structural integrity and a loss in
ultimate strength. The container removed from service at Test Site #3 was taken to the
manufacturer for further evaluation. The container was retested with AE during this
reevaluation and almost identical data was received. Figure 10 shows a plot for both the
field data as well as the retest data. It is obvious from this graph that the curves are close
to identical. This shows that this method is repeatable as well as effective in removing any
possible suspect containers. The container recommended to be retested in one year
showed a jump in the AE counts received, however, the "knee" has not yet been observed.
The remaining four containers represented were typical containers that passed the three
year retest criteria.
The final test site discussed in this paper is Test Site #4 where one suspect
container was identified. This suspect container was removed from service. The reason
the data on Figure 11 shows only 12 167 counts is because at the end o f the third hold
there was a dramatic jump in AE counts, This rapid increase in counts is attributed to the
beginning o f exponential count growth. When this occurred, the AE monitor stopped the
test for safety purposes and recommended the container be removed from service,
Test Site # 1
14Maximum Fill Pressure, 3000 psi (20.68 MPa)

~One Year Retest 9Three Year Retest oThree Year Retest
~Three YearRetest ~Three YearRetest ~Three YearRetest
Figure 7 - Field." Test Site #1.
Test Site #2
14Maximum Fill Pressure 3000 psi (20.68 MPa)
-
9~ il
nl / - ~ i ~ o, 9
v O 20 40 60 8'0 100
% of Fill Maximum Pressure
o Three Year Retest * ]~hre~.Year_Retest ~ Three Year Retest
Three Year Retest ~ One Year Retest One Year Retest
Figure 8 - Field: Test Site #2.

234 ACOUSTIC
EMISSION:STANDARDS
ANDTECHNOLOGY
Test Site #3
6a Maximum Fill Pressure - 3000 psi (20.68 MPa~
! ,~ /
9g 3ot.
m [""
"" 20[ 9
IOF - /
,J"
OU 6 - '
20 , ~ - 1 - 60 80 ,,,0
~'Three Year Retest" Three Year Retest~ Three Year Retest
Three Year Retest ~One Year Retest ~Remove From Service
Test and Retest of Suspect Container

!613 Maximum Fill Pressure - 3000 psi (20.68 M P a )
!40F p////
~20F
!OOF
~80F
60F
L40F
L2@-
~00~
80~
60~-
40F ~:
o ~ 20 40 60 80 160'1~0'
o Field Test *Retest
Figure 10 - Retest of suspect container.

Test Site #4
13 Maximum Fill Pressure - 3000 psi (28.68 MPa)
(~ 20 40 - 60 -80 - 100
o Three Year Retest +Three Year Retest ~Three Year Retest
Three Year Retest xRemove From Service ~Three Year Retest
Conclusions
1) AE inspection in conjunction with a visual inspection provides a more objective

evaluation of the containers structural condition than does visual inspection alone.
This is particularly evident if the visual inspection does not include the area under
the straps or if gradual chemical attack is taking place in inaccessible areas.
2) AE inspection o f containers using the proposed standard showed that AE was
capable o f detecting containers with low burst pressures.
3) Burst tests have shown that the AE activity is inversely proportional to the burst
pressure. This, along with phenomenon o f the "knee in the AE versus pressure
curve," has shown that the methodology o f A S T M E070403-95/1 is quite
effective.
4) Field test data shows that containers exposed to ukraviolet rays, chemical attack,
and various types of mechanical damage produce more acoustic activity than
containers that are protected.
5) No container examined with the AE test method has failed in service.
References
[1] Mitchell, J. R., "Standard Test Method to Quantify the Knee in the Acoustic
Emission vs Load Curve as a Material Parameter for Composites," Proceedings
of the 3rd International Symposium on Acoustic Emission From Composite
Materials, AECM-3/ASNT, Paris, France, July 17-21, 1989.
Ainul Akhtar~and David Kung 2
ACOUSTIC EMISSION TESTING OF STEEL-LINED FlIP HOOP-WRAPPED

NGV CYLINDERS
REFERENCE: Akhtar, A., and Kung, D., "Acoustic Emission Testing of Steel-Lined
FRP Hoop-Wrapped NGV Cylinders," Acoustic Emission: Standards and Technology
ABSTRACT: Acoustic emissions (AE) were examined from ten steel-lined cylinders,
hoop-wrapped with continuous glass fiber reinforced plastic (FRP), after 4 years in
natural gas vehicle (NGV) service. A test pressure of 27.6 MPa (4000 psi) was used
which is 7% above the standard specified factor of 1.25 of the nominal service pressure.
Hydraulic pressure cycling was applied in the range of 2.4 - 24.1 MPa (350 - 3500 psi) to
simulate refueling in the laboratory. Burst pressure was measured for vessels containing
no detectable flaw, with flaws in the FRP and cracks in the metallic liner. It was found
that visual examination has shortcomings for the inspection of hoop-wrapped cylinders.
AE data obtained through incremental pressurization to 27.6 MPa (4000 psi), holding
pressure for 5 minutes, and unloading, do not provide useful information on structural
integrity. Relative emission during two consecutive pressurization cycles holds promise
for the nondestructive evaluation of metal lined FRP hoop-wrapped cylinders.
KEYWORDS: acoustic emission testing, visual inspection, continuous fiber reinforced

plastic, metal lined FRP hoop-wrapped cylinders, natural gas vehicle, structural integrity
There are existing specifications for the acoustic emission testing of pressure
vessels made of metallic materials and those made of fiber reinforced plastic (FRP). A
relevant document is the American Society for Mechanical Engineers (ASME), Boiler
and Pressure Vessel Code, Section V, Nondestructive Examination, Article 12, "Acoustic
Emission Examination of Metallic Pressure Vessels." Test methods for vessels made of
FRP were developed in 1982 and revised in 1987 by the Society of the Plastics Industry.
JDirector, Materials Engineering, Powertech labs Inc., Surrey, V3W 7R7, Canada. Adjunct
Professor, Metals & Materials Engineering, University of B.C., Vancouver, Canada.
~Senior Materials Technologist, Powertech Labs Inc., 12388-88th Avenue, Surrey, V3W
7R7, Canada.
236
AKHTAR AND KUNG ON NGV CYLINDERS 237
That document, "Recommended Practice for Acoustic Emission Testing of Fiberglass

Reinforced Plastic Resin (RP) Tanks/Vessels," commonly referred to as the CARP
Recommended Practice, is used widely as is the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code,
Section V; Article 11, "Acoustic Emission Examination of Fiber Reinforced Plastic
Vessels," and Section X, Article RT-6, "Acceptance Test Procedures for Class II
Vessels."
Cylinders used for the storage of compressed fuel on natural gas vehicles (NGV)
are designed to minimize the mass of the vessel. As a result, the metal-lined hoop-
wrapped NGV cylinders operate in the regime of low cycle fatigue, a situation different
from that of vessels designed to the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. The
American National Standards Institute/American Gas Association (ANSI/AGA)
document "NGV-2 - Basic Requirements for Compressed Natural Gas Vehicle (NGV)
Fuel Containers" provides the details of the various designs currently in use. Typically, a
metal lined FRP hoop-wrapped cylinder with a nominal service pressure of 20.7 MPa
(3000 psi) would have a burst pressure of 51.7 MPa (7500 psi). The metallic liner
(without the FRP) is required to withstand a pressure of 1.25 times the nominal service
pressure. Pressure rise of up to 1.25 times the nominal service pressure may occur in
service in extreme cases from heat of compression due to fueling. A process called
autofrettage is used in the final fabrication stage. The cylinder is pressurized to produce a
slight plastic deformation of the liner. Upon depressurization, the liner goes into
compression while the FRP remains under tension. Although autofrettage enhances the
fatigue life of the cylinder, the complexity of strain interaction between the metallic liner
and the FRP makes the metal-lined FRP hoop-wrapped cylinder different from ASME
designed vessels. Acoustic emission testing is attractive for it holds the promise of in-situ
inspection without the cylinder being removed from the vehicle. Removal of the cylinder
for retesting and re-installation are added costs, hence unattractive. The object of this
paper is to explore the possibility of acoustic emission testing of steel lined glass FRP
hoop-wrapped cylinders.
Materials and Methodology
Vessels used in the present investigation (commonly referred to as Type-2) had an

overall length of approximately 1118 mm (44 in.), outer diameter of about 356 mm
(14 in.) and an internal volume of around 81.82 liters (4992 cu. in.). The steel liner was
cylindrical over a length of about 787 mm (31 in,) with one near hemispherical closed end
and a threaded 19 mm (0.75 in.) opening at the other. The cylindrical metallic wall had a
thickness of 6.3 mm (0.25 in.) and an internal diameter of 330 mm (13 in.) A modified
version of AISI 4130 steel had been used in the quenched and tempered condition to a
hardness of Rockwell C-24. The cylindrical portion of the vessel was hoop-wrapped with
an FRP thickness of approximately 6.7 mm (0.26 in.). Continuous E-glass fibers, making
up about 60% of the composite, were embedded in a curable polymer matrix. Following
wrapping and curing, the cylinder had undergone autofrettage at a pressure of around
39.3 MPa (5700 psi). The vessels had a minimum design burst pressure of 51.7 MPa
(7500 psi) and the nominal service pressure was 20.7 MPa (3000 psi).
Ten cylinders were tested that had been in NGV service on fleet vehicles for
approximately 4 years. Seven were manufactured in the year 1991, two in 1989 and one
in the year 1990. The cylinder identification, L1122-4/91 for example, includes the
specific cylinder number (L1122) followed by the month and year of fabrication (April
1991 in the above example). The tests carried out consisted of visual inspection, eddy
current scanning of the interior surface of the metallic liner, acoustic emission testing,
pressure cycling, hydrostatic tests, burst tests, and magnetic particle inspection.
Visual Inspection and Eddy Current Scanning
Flaws on the exposed FRP surface were subjected to visual examination. Eddy
current scanning was used to detect flaws on the cylinder interior surface that might have
been a result of manufacturing or NGV service. The interior surface of the cylinder is
subjected to the highest level of dynamic hoop stress and remains exposed to the attack of
natural gas contaminants. Hence this surface is potentially the site for the nucleation of
flaws on the liner. To detect such flaws, an eddy current pencil probe was inserted
through the 19 mm (0.75 in.) opening at the cylinder end. The probe was mechanically
manipulated to scan the entire surface for cracks having axial-radial orientation (Fig. 1),
A 500 kHz probe was used with a Nortec-19-e II instrument to generate the impedance
plane diagrams. Flaws 0.5 - 3.0 mm (0.02 - 0.2 in) could be detected.
I:IG. l --Photogrw~h shows a eylitzder Hndergoi~g eddr current scamfing.
Acoustic Emission Testing
The experimental set-up for acoustic emission testing is shown in Fig. 2. A

Spartan-AT instrument supplied by Physical Acoustics Corporation was used for data
acquisition and analysis. Two resonant frequency piezo-electric transducers of the R6
type (frequency response range 20 - 100 kHz with resonance at 60 kHz) were mounted on
the metallic liner adjacent to the FRP at either end of the cylinder as shown schematically
in Fig. 2. This lower frequency transducer was preferred over the commonly used R15
type (frequency range of 100 - 300 kHz with resonance at 150 kHz) due to the lower
signal attenuation with distance associated with the former. The ultimate objective is not
only to detect the signal (feasible with either transducer) but to quantify damage using
only two transducers on vessels up to 3 m (10 ft) in length. Using a pulser with a 100 dB
setting, it was found that an attenuation level of up to 20 dB may be expected with the R6
transducers over a length of 1.83 m (6 ft). A higher attenuation associated with the R15
transducer (30 - 35 dB over the same distance) was considered undesirable for further
signal processing. The signal from the sensor was pre-amplified with the usual 40 dB
setting. An appropriate band pass filter was employed along with a threshold setting of
40 dB. The pencil lead break test was used to check the set up prior to the
commencement of the experiment. The Hit Definition Time (HDT) was 1000 laS.
A hydraulic pump was used to pressurize the cylinder with water. Parametric input
from the pressure transducer (Diaphragm gage) was fed into one of the channels of the AE
system for the simultaneous recording of pressure and acoustic data with time. Fig. 3
Containment Vessel
Pressu
transdu
--• y
Preamplifiers
t ~ 4 0 db gain
~7 Digital Storage So
(wave form record
Cylind~
,. •
I~ carau|q
)umplt
AE Transdur
Parametric Input
FIG. 21Schematic drawing shows the acoustic emission test set up.
shows the loading, hold and unloading sequence used. Since surface abrasion is likely to
have occurred during removal of the cylinders from the vehicles, transportation and
handling during the experimental set up, a conditioning cycle to 24,1 MPa (3500 psi) was
used to simulate refueling, Such a conditioning cycle, however, would not be needed for
the in-situ testing of the cylinder which is the eventual goal. Acoustic emissions were
monitored during two consecutive loading, hold, and unloading cycles to 27.6 MPa
(4000 psi). For each of these two latter test cycles it took 5 minutes to reach the peak load.
The load was held for 5 minutes which was followed with unloading. Each cycle took
approximately 15 minutes throughout which AE data were collected.
6000
40
4000 30
I 27.6 27.6 ',
,,~ MPa MPa ~,
A 3,SO0psi l
24.1
; MPa /
/
} ,
f 20 |
r
; ',
2000 /
I,h
10
q~
'~ ~ MONITORING MONITORING ~
X)NOITIONING !i cvc,E-~ CYCLE-2 ',
0 ' " 0
Time
FIG. 3--The loading, hold and unloading sequence used with acoustic emission testing.
Fueling Simulation, Hydrostatic Test and Burst Test
The pressure change between two consecutive fuelings was simulated using
hydraulic pressure cycling between 2.4 - 24.1 MPa (350 - 3500 psi). An electro-hydraulic
control system was used with a sawtooth waveform. Pressure cycling was carried out at
the rate of 2 - 3 cycles per minute. Hydrostatic testing was conducted to determine the
nature of deformation of the cylinder with increasing pressure. A water jacket surrounded
the cylinder during the test. The water volume expelled from the jacket was measured to
determine cylinder expansion. For cylinder burst testing, the same configuration was used
with the exception that the water was removed from the jacket to accommodate the sudden
release of water from cylinder rupture. The initial rate of loading was 6.9 MPa/24 s (1000
psi/24 s). This rate of pressurization dropped during the rapid expansion of the cylinder
immediately prior to the occurrence of rupture. To measure the burst pressure of flawed
cylinders, axial flaws of known lengths were cut mechanically through the entire thickness
of the FRP. Some of the cylinders tested were cut transversely into 4 - 8 sections for
fluorescent magnetic particle inspection to determine the nature of flaws on the interior
surface of the vessel. Significant flaws located via the magnetic particle inspection
method were subjected to fracture face examination. The fracture face was revealed
through cooling of the specimen using liquid nitrogen followed by impact loading.
Results
Visual inspection of the FRP outer surface indicated varying degrees of resin
cracking on all cylinders. Gross fiber breakage was not visible on seven of the ten
cylinders examined. The remaining three (L0749, L1122 and L1131) had abrasion
damage to the FRP in the lower transition region (between the FRP and the liner) which
had resulted in fiber breakage. Figure 4 is a photograph of the damaged region on cylinder
L0749. In appearance, these damaged regions on all three cylinders were similar, being
approximately 75 nun (3 inches) long axially and tapered so as to have gone through the
entire thickness of the FRP at the lower transition region. According to the guidelines
provided in the Compressed Gas Association (CGA, Virginia) pamphlet C-6.4, 1996
"Methods for External Visual Inspection of Natural gas Vehicle (NGV) Fuel Containers
and their Installations," a flaw such as that shown in Fig. 4 would be classified as Level 3
damage, which is cause for removal of the vessel from service. Circumferential
delaminations may be noted in Fig. 4. Such delaminations were present on each of the ten
cylinders examined. The eddy current scan indicated an absence of flaws on the interior
surface of the liner of each of the ten cylinders examined.
FIG. 4--Photograph shows abrasion damage to the FRP on cylinder L0749-10/90.
Acoustic Emission
Figure 5 shows the acoustic emission data collected for two cylinders, one with abrasion
damage and the other without. The plots show non-cumulative hits plotted on the y-axis
against amplitude (dB on the x-axis)
"r 40OO
0
3000
E
3
2OOO
0
Z
1000
20 40 60 80 100
Amplitude (db)
50O0
40OO
I-
4)
3ooo
E
-I 2O00
(3
C
O
Z
1000
20 40 6O 80 100
Amplitude (db)
FIG. 5--Non-cumulative hits vs. amplitude during the first test cycle for an apparently
undamaged cylinder (Ll126-4/91) and one with abrasion damage (Ll122-4/91).
Above the threshold setting of 40 dB, the number of hits increased with amplitude,
attained a maximum in the vicinity of 42 - 43 dB and decreased thereafter in general.
Qualitatively, the acoustic emission data collected for the other six undamaged
cylinders and for the remaining damaged cylinders were similar to those shown in Fig. 5.
The emissions recorded for each of the ten cylinders tested in the as-received
condition, listed in Table 1, show that the cylinders containing no apparent fiber breakage
produced emissions in the first test cycle ranging from a low of 2212 total hits to a high
value of 72 880. Total hits during the first test cycle for two cylinders with visually
apparent fiber damage were well within the range measured for the undamaged cylinders.
A higher value of 91 241 hits was recorded for one damaged vessel (L0749). A similar
trend may be noted in Table 1 for the number of high amplitude hits (>_60 dB), and for the
data obtained during the second AE test cycle.
For each of the ten as received cylinders, the AE data were examined after dividing
the test cycle into loading, hold and unloading segments. Table 2 shows for each segment
the hits and the corresponding counts (shown in parenthesis) during the first 0-27.6 MPa
(0-4000 psi) cycle. The hits and the corresponding counts for each of the three segments
listed in Table 2 show variability similar in nature to that found with total hits and hits
having amplitudes ~60 dB, the latter two listed in Table 1.
TABLE l--Acoustic emission from as-received cylinders
Cycle 1 Cycle 2 Cycle 2/Cycle 1

Cylinder All Amplitude All Amplitude All Amplitude
Hits ~60 dB Hits ~60 dB Hits z60 dB
Undamaged Cylinders
L0529-7/89 2 212 31 706 9 0.32 0.29
L0531-7/89 11 311 505 5 277 171 0.47 0.34
L1026-3/91 72 880 2 497 37 356 902 0.51 0.36
L1123-4/91 25 362 780 14 468 314 0.57 0.39
L1125-4/91 53 854 1 691 28 589 635 0.53 0.37
L1126-4/91 25 074 1 498 13 687 571 0.54 0.38
Ll132-4/91 65 174 5403 33 131 1 955 0.51 0.36
FRP Abrasion Damaged Vessels
L0749-10/90 91 241 6 458 55 835 2 095 0.61 0.32
L1122-4/91 24 958 1 446 15 516 554 0.62 0.39
L 1131-4/91 48 803 6 070 26 791 2 488 0.55 0.40
The three damaged cylinders were pressure cycled to simulate fueling in the laboratory
with interruptions for AE testing. The results are summarized in Table 3. Total emissions
decreased as the number of simulated fueling cycles increased in the case of vessels L0749
and L1131. However, cylinder L1122 was different in this regard. The total emissions
decreased upon applying 14 230 simulated fueling cycles (3442 hits from 24 958) but
increased gradually upon subsequent pressure cycling to 3779 hits after 29 230 simulated
fueling cycles.
TABLE 2--AE hits (the corresponding counts in paranthesis) for the various segments of
the first 0-2Z 6 MPa (0-4000 psi) cycle
Cylinder Loading Hold Unloading

Undamaged Cylinders
L0529-7/89 1 280 ( 9 600) 760 ( 6 000) 172 ( 3 076)
L0531-7/89 6600 ( 84000) 3400 ( 112000) 1 311 ( 14753)
L1026-3/91 16000 ( 340000) 56000 (1140000) 880 ( 8874)
Ll123-4/91 5000 ( 60000) 20000 ( 260000) 362 ( 6253)
Lll25-4/91 9500 ( 160000) 40500 ( 780000) 3854 ( 19587)
L1126-4/91 5000 ( 200000) 16500 ( 600000) 3574 ( 55345)
Ll132-4/91 20000 ( 580000) 40000 (1180000) 5174 ( 20925)
FRP Abrasion Damaged Vessels
L0749-10/90 20000 (1000000) 68000 (3200000) 3241 (47953)
L1122-4/91 7200 (150000) 11600 ( 3 2 0 0 0 0 ) 6158 (87674)
L1131-4/91 12000 (560000) 31000 (1400000) 5803 (45658)
Results of Post AE Investigation
Hydrostatic testing was carried out on the three FRP damaged cylinders following
the last set of pressure cycling and AE tests. The permanent hydrostatic expansion was
measured upon pressurization to and depressurizing the vessels from 34.5 MPa (5000 psi).
Permanent expansion figures expressed as a percentage of total expansion (elastic and
plastic) were as shown in Table 4. These figures suggest that cylinder L1122 underwent a
larger permanent expansion than did the other two damaged vessels. Each of the three
vessels was subsequently pressurized to successively higher pressures until expansion
continued to occur without an increase in pressure. Tests were interrupted at about 32%
total expansion. The highest pressure reached ( estimated burst pressure) is shown in
Table 4.
Table 5 shows the burst pressures of as-received cylinders and those containing through
thickness FRP flaws of various lengths.Vessels without apparent fiber breakage, gave
burst pressures within a narrow range of 61.9 -+2.6 MPa (8975 -+375 psi). These values are
well in excess of the design burst minimum (ANSI/AGA-NGV2) figure of 51.7 MPa
(7500 psi). The burst pressure decreased rapidly with about a 52 mm (2 inch) long FRP
cut, but a gradual decrease occurred thereafter with the length of cut. It is noteworthy that
the three cylinders that sustained in service abrasion damage (Fig. 4) had estimated burst
pressures following the simulated fueling in the laboratory (Table 4) that would be
equivalent to approximately a 102 mm (4 inch) axial-radial through FRP cut.
TABLE 3 o A E data at intervals offueling simulation
Test Cycle 1 Test Cycle 2 Cycle 2/Cycle 1

Cylinder Cycles All 260 All 260 dB All 260 dB
Hits dB Hits Him
L0749-10/90 0* 91241 6 458 55 835 2095 0.61 0.32
10 749 8 404 245 7 768 161 0.92 0.68
15000 4431 87 3056 65 0.69 0.75
Ll122-4/91 0* 24 958 1 446 15 516 554 0.62 0.39
14 230 3 442 97 2 320 50 0.67 0.51
19 230 3 652 98 2640 49 0.71 0.52
29230 3 779 86 2 618 40 0.69 0.47
L1131-4/91 0* 48 803 6070 26 791 2 488 0.55 0.40
14 230 5 870 166 4 523 116 0.77 0.70
19 230 3 897 104 3 170 122 0.81 1.17
29230 3 125 96 2 630 84 0.84 0.87
* As-received
TABLE 4--Cylinder characteristics after simulated fueling
Simulated Permanent Estimated Liner Flaw

Cylinder Fueling Expansion Burst Pressure Dimensions
Cycles % MPa (psi) length x depth
mm (inch)
L0749-10/90 15 000 3.5 45.5 (6 600) 6.4 x 1.2
(0.25 x 0.047)
L1122-4/91 29 230 5.4 44.9 (6 500) 20 X 0.3
(9.79 X 0.012)
L1131-4/91 29 230 3.6 45.5 (6 600) 12.4 X 4.2
.......... (0.49 X 0.165)
Cylinders that had in-service abrasion damage were sectioned transversely following the
simulated fueling (Table 2) and the hydrostatic test noted earlier. Magnetic particle
inspection of the inner surface of the liner revealed bands of superficial flaws that are
commonly encountered following NGV service of steel vessels [I]. One significant crack,
however, was found on each of the three cylinders examined. The location of that
significant liner flaw is shown in Fig. 6 in relation to the FRP-abrasion damage for all
three vessels. The dimensions of those major liner flaws are shown in Table 3. The
internal diameter of the liner was slightly larger at the locations containing the liner flaw
which suggested that these were the locations of the bulge, although the bulge was not
visually apparent.
TABLE 5--Burst pressures of as-received cylinders

and those with artificially induced FRP damage
Cylinder Axial Through Thickness FRP Cut mm Burst Pressure MPa

(inch) (psi)
L0529-7/89 ... 63.8 (9 250)
L053t-7/89 ... 64.5 (9 350)
L1126-4/91 ... 59.3 (8 600)
L1132-4/91 ... 60.7 (8 800)
L1026-3/91 51 (2) 49.0 (7 100)
L1125-4/91 102 (4) 44.7 (6 480)
L1123-4/91 152 46) 41.7 46 050)
Discussion
Visual inspection has been proposed recently for the periodic inspection of CNG
cylinders on natural gas vehicles (CGA pamphlet C6.4-1996). The evidence gathered in
the present work suggests that visual examination has significant shortcomings for the
periodic inspection of metal lined FRP hoop-wrapped cylinders on two accounts. Figure
7a shows the liner flaw in cylinder L1131 following 29 230 simulated fueling cycles, 8
AE test cycles, and after hydraulic pressurization to 45.5 MPa (6600 psi). The liner flaw
had grown through roughly 67% of the liner thickness. Figure 7b is a schematic drawing
of the transverse section of the cylinder through that liner flaw. Along the radius of the
cylinder containing the liner flaw, a crack had initiated in the FRP (Fig. 7b). The crack in
the FRP, however, was not on the outer surface of the cylinder. Hence, it could not be
detected visually. The FRP crack had initiated at the interface between the metallic liner
and the FRP (Fig. 7c) and had propagated about 20% (1.3 mm or 0.05 in.) through the
thickness of the FRP (Fig. 7d). As shown in Fig. 7, cracks well in excess of the tolerance
limit of 0.254 mm (O.010 in.) depth, the latter considered acceptable for cuts, scratches
and gouges mentioned in the CGA-C6.4 pamphlet, may remain in the FRP of metal lined
hoop-wrapped cylinders, without being detected through visual inspection. Secondly, the
inspection criteria (CGA-C6.4) are such that vessels that are fit for usage must be
removed from NGV service. As seen from Table 4, cylinders L1122 and L1131, in spite
of FRP damage in NGV service, had a remaining life each in excess of 29 230 cycles and
had burst pressures equal to or in excess of 44.9 MPa (6500 psi). Such vessels are
suitable for NGV service from a fitness for purpose standpoint and yet they must he
removed according to CGA-C6.4. Therefore, there exists a need to use alternative
methods for the periodic inspection of CNG cylinders in NGV service.
1
................................. ~ ...................................
i
9 II L1131-4/91
L079-10/90 j
i
I
I
!
i
I
............................. i-"Damage ..... '--~5~

1
FIG. 6---Orientation of liner flaws in relation to FRP abrasion damage. This illustration
is a two dimensional representation of the curved cylinder surface obtained through
making an imaginary axial cut and flattening.
Acoustic Emission Testing
Acoustic emission remains an attractive option because of its potential for in-situ
testing, i.e. without removing the cylinder from the vehicle. However, that potential may
be realized only through demonstrated correlation between acoustic emission and
structural integrity of the vessel. The total number of hits measured in the present work
during the first test cycle (Table 1) are not helpful in that regard. The as-received
cylinders subjected to burst tests (Table 3) gave values in the range of 61.9 • 2.6 MPa
(8975 • 375 psi). This scatter in the measured values of burst pressure is small being
• yet the associated acoustic emission hits ranged from 2212 (L0529) to 65 174
(L1132). More importantly, this wide range of hits did not show a systematic variation
with burst pressure within the narrow span of burst pressures measured. This lack of
correlation between burst pressure and total acoustic emission noted above, is also
observed if one uses loading, hold and unloading segments for the analysis of hits or
counts as seen from Table 2. An analysis of "knee pressure" has been proposed by
Mitchell and Newhouse [2] based on their work with one type of all composite NGV
cylinders. These last mentioned authors have claimed that a lower "knee pressure"
implies a lower burst pressure. Some of the data obtained in the present work are shown
in Fig. 8 as a plot of cumulative acoustic hits vs pressure during the first test cycle. A
cursory examination of Fig. 8 shows that for a given criterion to define "knee pressure"
(such as 1000 hits) one obtains a wide range of knee pressures even though the cylinders
have a narrow range of scatter in their burst pressure. One arrives at similar conclusions
as regards felicity ratio and emissions during pressure hold at 27.6 MPa (4000 psi).
The Sources of Acoustic Emission
Reasons for emissions at low pressures (Fig. 8) and the variability in the quantity
of emission from vessels having similar structural integrity may be considered. It is
noteworthy that the steel liner and the FRP both produce AE in hoop-wrapped cylinders.
Moreover, emissions may occur at their interface due to the cracking of the coating
applied sometimes on the liner for corrosion protection prior to the application of the
FRP. Remnants of such a coating are seen in Fig. 7c.
The AE sources in the FRP are: matrix cracking which may occur in varying
degrees in NGV service due to ultraviolet exposure, etc., delaminations which occur in
the transverse plane resulting from the axial expansion of the vessel (Fig. 4) and fiber
breakage. Of these, the first two have no direct bearing on structural integrity. Although
fiber breakage occurs when the structural integrity of the vessel has been compromised
(Fig. 7), the occurrence of fiber breakage is not necessarily an indication of structural
integrity loss. In an idealized hoop-wrapped cylinder, the fiber axis will lie along the
circumference of a circle. However, in practice the roving of fibers used for the
fabrication of cylinders contains many misaligned and twisted fibers. Such fibers will
fracture at relatively low pressures or even in the absence of cylinder pressurization with
time, since the FRP remains under tension due to the autofrettage treatment. An attempt
has been made with some success by Walker et al. [3] through neural networks and
amplitude distribution of acoustic events to predict the burst pressure of all composite
cylinders in their as fabricated state. Matrix cracking and fiber breakage were considered
relevant sources by those authors, while debonding was considered not relevant.
However, the situation appears to be different with hoop-wrapped cylinders removed from
NGV service. As shown in Fig. 5, the amplitude distribution remains similar for vessels
with and without gross fiber damage. The explanation for that similarity possibly lies in
the varibility of transverse delamination (Fig. 4) observed with NGV cylinders removed
from service. Amplitude distribution is therefore unlikely to be of value when applied to
cylinders removed from NGV service.
Another source of emission is the oxide scale left on the interior surface of the
steel due to fabrication heat treatment. In their search for a correlation between the
quantity of emission and structural integrity of all-steel NGV cylinders, Akhtar et al. [4]
eliminated the oxide scale associated emissions and established a quantitative relationship
between crack depth and AE. In hoop-wrapped vessels, the autofrettage treatment forces
the steel liner into compression while the vessel remains at low pressures. The cracked
and debonded oxide scale interfaces will produce AE as a result even at low pressures.
FIG. 7--Cylinder L1131-4/91 after 29 230 simulated fuelling cycles, AE tests, and
pressurization to 45.5 MPa (6600 psi).
(a) Fracture face of the liner flaw.
(b) Schematic transverse section of the cylinder through the liner flaw.
(c) Underside of FRP showing the crack and two delaminations (vertical).
(d) Transverse section shows FRP crack originated from the FRP inner surface.
Those sources in the liner, the FRP and their interface may explain emissions at
low pressures (Fig. 8) and the variability in the quantity of emission observed in the
present work with vessels having similar burst pressures (Tables 1, 2 and 5). An approach
to overcome those difficulties in the AE testing of hoop-wrapped cylinders may be to
examine relative emissions during two consecutive test cycles (Tables 1 and 3). The ratio
of high amplitude hits (>_60 dB) shows a trend towards higher values when the vessel
undergoes degradation through simulated fueling (Table 3). A similar approach is
recommended in ASTM E 1888-97, "Standard Test Method for Acoustic Emission
Testing of Pressurized Containers Made of Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic with Balsa
Wood Cores".
Pressure (psi)
0 1000 20O0 3000 4000
12 000 1 .... 1 .............. L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . t-i---
10000
8000 Cylinder Burst MPa (psi)
# L0531 64.5 (9 350)

; L0529 63.8 (9 250)
. D
"r"
8000J 9 Ll132 60.7 (8 800)
9 L1126 59.3(8600)
. Ll122 FiberDarnaged
0oo
j I
10 20 30
Pressure ( M P a )
FIG. 8--Cumulative hits vs. pressure for as-received cylinders during the first cycle.
Conclusion
1. Visual inspection has shortcomings; it is not capable of detecting certain types of

flaws in the FRP and it rejects cylinders which are fit for service with a wide
margin of safety as observed in the present study. Hence, there exists a need for
other nondestructive test methods for the periodic inspection of NGV cylinders in
service.
2. Acoustic emission data obtained through incremental pressurization to 27.6 MPa

(4000 psi) holding pressure for 5 minutes and unloading, do not provide useful
information for structural integrity assessment.
3. Relative emissions during two consecutive test cycles hold promise for the
periodic inspection of hoop-wrapped NGV cylinders.
Acknowledgment
A portion of the work reported here was carried out under Gas Research Institute
(GRI-Chicago) sponsorship. The authors are grateful to Steve Takagishi and Marco Liem,
formerly of GRI, for their patience and support. The opinions expressed in this paper are
those of the authors and not of Powertech Labs.
References
[1] Akhtar, A. and Kung, D., "An Assessment of All-Steel Cylinders Currently in
NGV Service for the Storage of Compressed Natural Gas Fuels on Vehicles,"
Report NGV200-3.19, Gas Technology Canada, Toronto, Ontario, 1996.
[21 Mitchell, J.R. and Newhouse, N., "Techniques for Using Acoustic Emission to
Produce Smart Tanks for Natural Gas Vehicles." Paper presented at the Fifth
International Symposium on Acoustic Emission from Composite Materials
(AECM 5), Sundvall, Sweden, 1995.
[3] Walker, J.L., Russell, S.S., Workman, G.L., and Hill, E.V.K., "Neural Network/
Acoustic Emission Burst Pressure Prediction for Impact Damaged Composite
Pressure Vessels," Materials Evaluation, Vol. 55, No. 8, August 1997, pp. 903-
907.
[41 Akhtar, A., Wong, J.Y., Bhuyan, G.S., Webster, C.T., Kung, D., Gambone, L.,
Neufeld, N., and Brezden, W.J., "Acoustic Emission Testing of Steel Cylinders
for the Storage of Natural Gas on Vehicles," Nondestructive Testing and
Evaluation International, Vol. 25, No. 3, March 1992, pp. 115-125.
DISCUSSION
L.R. Gambonel--Comment 1--The conclusion that "Visual inspection has some

shortcomings; it is not capable of detecting certain types of flaws in the FRP...." is
misleading and without basis given the data provided in the paper. The authors have
failed to include pertinent design information regarding the intended service life of
natural gas vehicle (NGV) cylinders. Specifically, the ANSI/NGV2-1992 standard for
NGV cylinders requires the designs to provide 13 000 pressure cycles to service pressure
and 5 000 pressure cycles to 1.25 times service pressure. The July 1997 draft revision to
the ANSI/NGV2 standard requires that cylinders intended for a 15 year design life
provide only 11 250 pressure cycles to 1.25 times service pressure. These performance
test requirements are based on actual pressure cycling service conditions experienced by
cylinders in NGV service.
The cracks in the composite wrap of the three hoop-wrapped cylinders were
artificially created in the laboratory by applying test conditions that imposed an excessive
number of pressure cycles (fatigue), and overpressurization cycles, several of which far
exceeded the allowable design stress for the glass fibers. For example, the cylinders
L1122 and L1131 were subjected to the following:
(i) First used in NGV service for 4 years (possibly some 1 000 pressure cycles
incurred).
(ii) Pressure cycled in the laboratory up to 29 230 cycles to 3 500 psi (equivalent to
an additional 39 years of NGV service).
(iii) Overpressurized in the laboratory 8 cycles to 4 000 psi for AE measurements
(not done in NGV service).
(iv) Overpressurized in the laboratory to 5 000 psi for a hydrostatic test (not done in
NGV service - there is no requirement for periodic retesting).
(v) Overpressurized in the laboratory to some 6 500 psi in an attempt to predict the
eventual burst pressure (certainly not done in NGV service).
As a result, the damage observed in the FRP wrap would have been caused by stress
rupture. Neither the fatigue conditions (excessive pressure cycles), nor the stress rupture
damage could occur to the FRP wrap in service.
Tens of thousands of hoop-wrapped cylinders have been used in NGV service since
1982. Since that time there has never been an incident or failure associated with
"hidden" damage. A review by Powertech Labs in 1997 of the condition of hoop-
wrapped cylinders removed from NGV service ["Condition Assessment of Glass Fiber
Hoop-Wrapped Cylinders Used in NGV Service" - Gas Research Institute Report
i Engineer, Materials TechnologiesUnit, PowertechLabs Inc. 12388- 88th Avenue, Surrey, B.C. Canada.
V3W 7R7.
GRI-97/0052] did not provide any evidence of "hidden" damage in the FRP wrap. There
has never been any reported instance of any metal or metal-lined composite NGV
cylinder falling by fatigue associated with pressure cycling in service. Of the only
Type 2 (hoop-wrapped) cylinders that have failed in service, both were associated with
extensive external damage to the composite wrap that would have been readily detected
by visual inspection. ["Cylinder Safety Revisited" by W. Liss - Gas Research Institute -
Natural Gas Fuels, November 1996].
Comment 2--The authors claim in their discussion that the visually apparent damage on
cylinders L1122 and L1131 would be sufficient to warrant their removal from NGV
service in accordance with CGA C-6.4; however, both cylinders still had considerable
pressure cycle life remaining. As a result, the authors concluded "...there exists a need
for other nondestructive test methods for the periodic inspection of NGV cylinders...".
The fact that the visual inspection criteria in CGA C-6.4 is conservative for this
particular hoop-wrapped cylinder design does not provide evidence that some other
inspection method is required. It is a result that must be expected of inspection criteria -
erring on the side of conservatism. For other cylinder designs the inspection criteria will
be less conservative. The purpose of the inspection criteria in the CGA C-6.4 document
is as follows:
(i) To prevent essentially any damage to the composite wrap (other than scratches
from routine handling) from remaining in service.
(ii) To have a single set of inspection criteria applicable to all cylinder types, and not
confuse inspection staff by trying to establish different criteria for each different
cylinder design and cylinder size.
Comment 3---The conclusion that AE emissions generated during two consecutive

pressure cycles "...holds promise for the periodic inspection of hoop-wrapped NGV
cylinders" cannot be justified since the data has been generated from cylinders subjected
to excessive pressure cycling and overpressurization conditions that would not occur in
service.
A. Akhtar and D. Kung (authors' closure)--The authors appreciate this opportunity to

clarify issues surrounding visual inspection. Mr. Gambone has made two assumptions of
which one is false and the other speculative at best. His translation of 29 230 laboratory
hydraulic pressure cycles into 39 years of NGV service presumably means that a vehicle
cylinder may be fueled to a maximum of 750 times a year. While the authors agree that
750 cycles is a reasonable assumption, the implication of the critic that a fueling cycle in
NGV service is equivalent to a hydraulic pressure cycle is incorrect. The synergistic
action of the dynamic stresses between refuelings and the corrosive contaminants present
in natural gas, principally H2S, CO2 and H20, causes accelerated degradation of the
cylinder in NGV service which is only beginning to be documented. For example, in a
recent study (Ref I of the paper) approximately 350 all-steel cylinders were removed for
ultrasonic scanning after they had been in NGV service for up to 13 years. Fifteen
among them were pressure cycled in the laboratory for their remaining life assessment. It
was concluded that the incubation period (the fatigue regime leading to the nucleation but
prior to the growth of cracks) is reduced by a factor of 5 in NGV service when compared
with that obtained through hydraulic pressure cycling. Such information is still lacking
for the crack growth regime. However, if one applies that equivalence of 5 laboratory
hydraulic pressure cycles to one NGV service pressure cycle, the 29 230 laboratory
hydraulic pressure cycles reported in the paper (Table 3) would not translate into 39 years
as done by the critic but to a further service life of 5.8 years, placing the cylinder well
within its intended service life of 15 years.
The statements concerning ANSI/NGV2 document (comment 1) would have one
believe that 11 250 cycles were applied over a period of 15 years using natural gas for
fueling to a peak pressure of 1.25 times the service pressure through each cycle. Neither
a reference to this effect is provided in the said ANSI/NGV2 document nor is it likely
that such precise information has been or would be generated. What is certain is that the
figures used in the ANSI/NGV2 document (and in other standards as well), which are set
with the state of the knowledge at the time of formulation of the standard, will undergo
revision as new information (such as that contained in Ref I of the paper) becomes
available.
In his systematic enumeration of the cylinder treatment used to create the FRP flaw,
Mr. Gambone has overlooked the important fact that Type 2 cylinders made from fiber
rovings (all the cylinders examined in the paper were made in this manner) are subjected
to an autofrettage pressure of approximately 40 MPa (5 800 psi) as apart of the
fabrication process. However, the evidence suggests that neither the autofrettage
treatment nor the laboratory pressure cycling (including the subsequent
overpressurization) caused stress rupture damage. Had there been stress rupture damage,
it would be widespread. The damage seen to the underside of the FRP (Fig. 7 in the
paper) was confined to the region immediately above the flaw in the steel (which was
only part way through the metallic liner). The authors believe that this FRP flaw, which
cannot be detected through visual inspection, to have been a result of the liner flaw. The
final overpressurization cycle to 44.9 MPa (6 500 psi) did not produce a detectable
change in the liner flaw depth. There was only a slight increase in the axial length of the
flaw as seen in Fig. 7a. It is conceivable that a smaller FRP flaw would have resulted had
there been no overpressurization. The salient point conveyed in the paper, however, is
that the creation of a liner flaw over the next 5.8 years of NGV service would produce
FRP damage that cannot be detected through visual inspection.
The second assumption made by Mr. Gambone that there has never been any incident
of failure associated with "hidden" damage is speculative at best. With reference to the
two Type 2 (hoop-wrapped) cylinder failures in NGV service, he has stated that both
were associated with extensive external damage to the composite wrap that would have
been readily detected by visual inspection. When a Type 2 cylinder ruptures in a
catastrophic manner under gas pressure as opposed to hydraulic pressure (the former
being the case with the two incidents under discussion), the composite material is
obliterated adjacent to the region of the FRP flaw which might have caused the failure.
Thus the relevant material not being available, post failure analysis is carried out on the
adjacent regions of the FRP which have not been obliterated. Hence, the existence of
FRP surface flaws at these adjacent regions, revealed through post failure analysis, does
not preclude the possibility that the failure occurred as a result of FRP flaws that were not
on the surface. The evidence from materials examined in the adjacent regions being
circumstantial, the conclusion regarding the nature of the FRP flaw that caused the failure
may at best be considered speculative.
A reference has been made by Mr. Gambone to the project carried out at Powertech
Labs on behalf of Gas Research Institute (GRI Chicago) for the evaluation of Type 2
cylinders removed after they had been in NGV service. That work was done by the
present authors (A. Akhtar and D. Kung). A conclusion of that investigation, transmitted
to GRI, was that visual inspection has shortcomings. The GRI did not wish to see such a
conclusion in its report. Upon request from GRI, an alternative interpretation was
provided by L.R. Gambone, C.T. Webster and J.Y. Wong of Powertech Labs Inc. who
concluded that visual inspection is an acceptable periodic inspection method. The latter
interpretation was accepted by GRI. The statement made by Mr. Gambone that the
review by Powertech Labs of hoop-wrapped cylinders removed from NGV service did
not provide any evidence of "hidden" damage in the FRP is correct to the extent that the
draft report submitted by the present authors to the GRI and to Mr. Gambone et al for
their reinterpretation did not contain the evidence shown in Figure 7 of this paper. That
information was gathered later.
A single rationally based acceptance criterion when applied to a number of cylinder
designs may reject cylinders of one of those designs with a wider margin than that
dictated by fitness for purpose for that specific design. However, this is not the case with
the visual inspection of NGV cylinders. That so called "margin" is such that 2 out of 3
cylinders shown in Figure 6 of the paper (L079-10/90 and L1133-4/91) would have life
limitation occurring at locations far removed from the band which the visual inspection
has identified as being FRP flawed. In other words, not only is the acceptance criterion
not rationally based, the visual inspection method itself is not rationally based as far as
the NGV cylinders are concerned. If one adds to the shortcomings of visual inspection
identified in the present work the fact that certain types of significant impact damage on
carbon fiber wrapped vessels can not be detected visually2'3, visual inspection becomes
unsuitable indeed for the inspection of NGV cylinders.
2 Christoforou, A.P., and Swanson, S.R., "Strength Loss in Composite Cylinders Under Impact", Trans
ASME, JEMT, Vol. 110, April 1988, pp 180-184
3 Kaczmarek, H., and Maison, S., "Comparative Ultrasonic Analysis of Damage in CFRP Under Static
Indentation and Low Velocity Impact", Composites ,Scienceand Technology, Vol. 51, 1994, pp 11-26
STP 1353-EB/Oct. 1999
Auihor Index
A M
Akhtar, A., 236

Markelov, A. P., 125
B Miller, R. K., 67
Mitchell, J. R., 224
Blackburn, P. R., 209 Murthy, C. R. L., 141
Bodine, H. L., 191
C N
Calva, M. V., 79
Carlyle, J. M., 67, 191 Nagaraja Rao, G. M., 141
Chow, D. L., 3 Nesvijski, E. G., 41
Curtis, C. E., 3 Nikulin, S. A., 125
D
O
Dawes, R. L., 191
De Aguiar, P. R., 107
Demeski, R., 191 Ohtsu, M., 25, 156, 175
Okamoto, T., 25
Finkel, P., 67 P
Fowler, T. J., 50
Fultineer, R. D., Jr., 224
Patterson, T. S., 79
G Pollock, A. A., 67
Puckett, J. A., 50
Gandy, T. J., 79
H R
Hamilton, H. R., lIl, 50

Hatano, H., 93 Rajachar, R. M., 3
Henley, S. S., 191 Raju, N. M., 141
Hill, E. v. K., 191
Khanzhin, V. G., 125

Kishi, T., 25 Shigeishi, M., 25,
Kohn, D. H., 3 175
Kung, D., 236 Shiotani, T., 156
Kurianova, E. Y., 125 Shtremel, M. A., 125
257
T Weissman, N. A., 3
Willett, P., 107
Tafuri, A. N., 67
Ternowchek, S. J., 79
Y
W
Watts, D. J., 67 Yezzi, J. J., Jr., 67
Webster, J., 107 Yuyama, S., 25
STP 1353-EB/Oct. 1999
Subject Index
A Defect detection, 191

Deformation, 125
Aging dock, 25 E
Aircraft, aging, 191
Amplitude, 3 Eigenvalue analysis, 175
Embrittlement, 79
B
F
Bone, microdamage, 3
Burn, workpiece, 107 Fatigue, aging aircraft, 191
Burst testing, 224, 236 Fatigue damage, traffic signal
B-value, 156 poles, 50
Fatigue testing, bone, 3
C Flaw depth, 209
Fracture, 125
Calibration procedure standard, brittle, traffic signal
93 structures, 50
Cold proof testing, 191 rock, 141
Composite wrapped pressure
vessels, 224, 236 G
Concrete beams, structural
integrity, 25 Gas containers, natural, 224, 236
Concrete, reinforced Gas cylinders, seamless steel, 209
beams, structural integrity, 25 Graphical analysis, 156
structures, characterization, 41 Green's function, simplified, for
Corrosion, 79 moment tensor analysis,
reinforced concrete beams, 25 175
Cortical bone, fatigue, 3 Grinding, 107
Crack characterization, rocks,
141
Crack determination, 79
Crack lengths, 3 lnconel, workpiece burn
Crack measurement, 125 detection, 107
Crack mechanisms, two- Iron alloys, material quality
dimensional model, 175 monitoring, 125
Crack resistance, 41
Crack, shear, 25 K
Crack volume estimation, 175
Curve-fitting techniques, 156 Kaiser effect, 25
Cyclic loading test, 25
D Japanese Societ~r for Non-

Destructive Inspection
Damage zone dimensions, 3 calibration procedure
Davies-bar technique, 175 standard, 93
259
natural gas, filament wound,

224
Laser opto-interferometer, bar natural gas, hoop wrapped,
end oscillation steel lined, 236
measurement, 175 Process safety management, 79
Leak detection, buried pipelines, Proof testing, 191
67
Linear location mode, 209 R
Loading
unloading, 25 Rate process analysis, 156
l_x)cation methods, buried Rayleigh wave, 93
pipelines, 67 Reciprocity method, 93
la)ngitudinal wave, 93 Reference standards, laboratory,
pipeline leaks, 67
M Rocks, crack characterization,
141
Material quality monitoring, 125
Mechanical integrity testing, 79
Metals S
gas cylinders, seamless steel,
inspection, 209
material quality Screening, in-service, traffic
monitoring, 125 signal poles, 50
steel-lined hoop wrapped, 236 Sensor calibration, 175
workpiece burn detection, 107 Shear cracking, 25
Microscopy, confocal, 3 Shear wave analysis, 79
Mineralogy, rock fault SiGMA-two-dimensional
formation, 141 procedure, 175
Moment tensor analysis, 175 Signal difference location
technique, 67
N Signal enhancement, 67
Signalprocessing, 41, 107, 191
Natural gas vehicle, 224, 236 Slope failure prediction, 156
Niobium, material quality Standards
monitoring, 125 characterization, concrete
structures, 41
P laboratory reference, 67
proposed, gas-filled
Parametric plot, 141 filament-wound
Peak-amplitude distributions, pressure vessels,
156 224
Pipelines, buried, leak proposed, reinforced concrete
detection, 67 structural integrity,
Plastic, continuous fiber- 25
reinforced, 236 transducer calibration,
Pneumatic proof pressurization, reciprocity
191 method, 93
Pressure processing, 125 Steels
Pressure vessels alloy, pressure vessel testing,
gas distribution, seamless steel, 209
testing, 209 bearing, workpiece burn
inspection, ultrasonics, 79 detection, 107
INDEX 261
dual phase, material quality V

monitoring, 125
gas cylinders, steel-lined, 236
Stiffness, 41 Volumetric strain, 141
Storage tank, mechanical Volumetric testing technique,
integrity, 79 224
Strength, concrete structures, 41
Stress effects, rock, 141
Superconductors, 125
W
T
Tin alloys, material quality Wave attenuation, 156
monitoring, 125 Waveforms analysis, 141, 175
Titanium alloy superconductors, b-value, 156
125 digital, 191
Traffic signal poles, 50 Welds, 50
Transducer calibration, 93 Wind-induced vibrations, 50
Workpiece burn, 107
U
Ultrasonic imaging, 141
Ultrasonic testmg, 79 Z
U.S. Department of
Transportation, seamless
pressure vessel inspection, Zirconium-tin-niobium-iron
209 alloys, 125
Z
D
!
0
ILl
!
rU
O~
!

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S T P 1353

Acoustic Emission: Standards

Sotirios J. Vahaviolos, editor

ASTM Stock #: STP1353

Printed in the U.S.A.

Acoustic emission : standards and technology update / Sotirios J.

Peer Review Policy

Use of Acoustic Emission to Characterize Focal and Diffuse Microdamage in

A Proposed Standard for Evaluating Structural Integrity of Reinforced Concrete

On the Necessity of a New Standard for the Acoustic Emission Characterization of

AE Evaluation of Fatigue Damage in Traffic Signal Poles--H. R. HAMILTON,HI,

INTmGRrrY AND LEAK DETECTION/LOCATION METHODS

Acoustic Emission and Ultrasonic Testing for Mechanical Integrity--s. J. TERNOWCHEK,

AE SENSORS, STANDAm)S, AND QUANTITATIVEAE

Calibration of Acoustic Emission Transducers by a Reciprocity Method--H. HATANO 93

Acoustic Emission Applied to Detect Workpiece Burn During G r i n d i n g - -

Characterization of Micro and Macro Cracks in Rocks by Acoustic Emission--

Prediction of Slope Failure Based on AE Activity--T. SHIOTANIANDM. OHTSU 156

Identification of AE Sources by Using SiGMA-2D Moment Tensor Analysism

TRANSPORTATION APPLICATIONS, STANDARDS, AND METHODOLOGy

Practical AE Methodology for Use on AircraftmJ. M. CARLYLE, H. L. BODINE, S. S. HFa'qLEY,

COMPRESSED GAS APPLICATIONS AND STANDARDS

Periodic AE Re-Tests of Seamless Steel Gas Cylindersmp. R. BLACKBURN 209

Acoustic Emission Testing of Steel-Lined FRP Hoop-Wrapped NGV Cylinders--

Author Index 257

Subject Index 259

Sotirios J. Vahavidos, Ph.D.

Physical Acoustics Corporation

A B S T R A C T : Fatigue of cortical bone results in the initiation, accumulation, and

K E Y W O R D S : acoustic emission, bone, microdamage, confocal microscopy

l Graduate Student, Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering,

Age-related skeletal fragility is a significant medical and economic problem. In

Materials and Methods

Cortical Bone Specimens

Fatigue loading regimes were imposed using a servohydraulic mechanical testing

I Mature Bovine Bone(femur) I

J End Milled Paralleleplped J

FIGURE 1 - Flow chart of experimental design.

Acoustic Emission Analysis

In support of Specific Aims 1 and 2, we were able to detect and characterize AE

FIGURE 2 - Location distribution histogram (LDH) of AE events generated in V-

FIGURE 3 - Confocal micrographs of V-notched specimens: a) control (unloaded)

TABLE 1 - Number of cycles to the onset of fatigue as determined by acoustic emission

Technique Specimen Type Averase NumberofCycles

Figure 4 shows LDHs of AE events generated in V-notched specimens fatigued

FIGURE 4 - Location distribution histograms (LDH) of AE events generated in V-

FIGURE 5 - hztensity distribution histogl"ams (IDI1) o f A E events generated in V-

FIGURE 6 - Confocal micrographs of a) diffuse microdamage (I OOX), b) Mode I linear

FIGURE 7 - Location distribution histograms (LDH) of AE events generated in V-

FIGURE 8 - Intensity distribution histograms (IDH) of AE events generated in V-notched

The objectives of this research were to determine the sensitivity of AE in

The observation of longitudinal and shear oriented cracks motivated an analysis

FIGURE 9 - AE waveforms from lead pencil breaks." a) extensional wave, dominant

Summary and Conclusions

AE techniques were employed in association with histological analysis to

(1) AE techniques are effective in detecting incipient microdamage generated during

[18] Caler, W., 1989, "Bone Creep-Fatigue Damage Accumulation," J. Biomech.,

[21] Kohn, D.H., 1995, "Acoustic Emission and Non-Destructive Evaluation of

A PROPOSED STANDARD FOR EVALUATING STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY

ABSTRACT: A series of studies has been performed to evaluate the structural

President, Nippon Physical Acoustics Ltd., 8F Okamoto LK Bldg., 2-17-10, Higashi,

In recent years the deterioration and cracking of concrete structures such as

Case Study 1: RC Beams with a Single Reinforcing Bar