The Courier
MIGRANTS
Between two worlds
^^L
B^B^BTBBt=£v^:^M B^B k9
j Wk
1 Bb
#fe^^""Ä'l^ jB-.
A time to live
Souci is one of the earliest symbols of historic park. Today Unesco is co-operat¬
38 Haiti
Haitian independence. The palace, sur¬ ing with the Haitian Government on a proj¬
The restoration of Sans Souci rounded by gardens which covered ect, financed by the United Nations Devel¬
8 hectares at the height of their splendour, opment Programme, to preserve Sans
was pillaged after Christophe's death, and Souci, the Citadel Laferrière, which was
later seriously damaged in an earthquake. built to protect Haiti against attack by
Built in the early 19th century by Henri In 1973 Haiti launched an emergency pro¬ colonial forces, and Les Ramiers, a for¬
Christophe (1767-1820), who in 1811 pro¬ gramme to halt the deterioration threaten¬ tification above the citadel. Above, recon¬
claimed himself sovereign ruler of the king¬ ing Sans Souci and other parts of its cultural struction work being carried out on the
dom of Haiti, the imposing palace of Sans heritage and to create a national main avenue at Sans Souci in June 1985.
The Courier
A window open on the worid
FROM the very earliest times, men have moved from place
to place. In tribes, clans, families or other groups they fled
from natural catastrophes or the horrors of war in search
of food, shelter and peace. The human sediments left by the great
early tides of migration shaped the face of continents, regions
and countries, and in later times, slaves captured by conquerors,
refugees from terror, impoverished victims of hard times or sys¬
tems, all made their contribution to the inexhaustible wealth of
universal culture, a whole which is greater than the sum of its
parts.
threatened.
A challenge for the schools
This issue of the Unesco Courier reflects Unesco's longstanding by Georges Vignaux
Cover : Physiognomic Blitz. Aquarelle (1927) by Paul Klee, private col¬ 30 The psychology of migrant workers
lection. New York. by Ana Vâsquez
2 A time to live...
Editor-in-chief : Edouard Glissant HAITI : The restoration of Sans Souci
Published monthly in 32 languages English Italian Turkish Macedonian Finnish A selection in Braille is published
by Unesco French Hindi Urdu Serbo-Croat Swedish quarterly in English, French,
The United Nations Educational, Spanish Tamil Catalan Slovene Basque Spanish and Korean
Scientific and Cultural Organization Russian Hebrew Malaysian Chinese Thai
ISSN 0041-5278
7, Place de Fontenoy, 75700 Paris. German Persian Korean Bulgarian
N° 9 - 1985 - OPI
Arabic Dutch Swahili Greek
Japanese Portuguese Croato-Serb Sinhala
The following article reviews some of
the main trends in international
migration and in policies relating to
them in the decade following 1974 when
a World Population Plan of Action was
adopted at the World Population
Conference organized by the United
Nations and held in Bucharest
(Romania). It focuses attention on
migrations of labour, illegal or
undocumented migration, refugee
movements and migration for permanent
resettlement. The article has been
Hence, measures related to family re¬ from 1.8 to 2.8 million. The total foreign mechanisms as the so-called "turn-key
union and to the education, training and population in those countries was esti¬ project" by which a foreign company, con¬
employment opportunities of dependents mated to be 3.5 million in 1975 and is likely tracted to carry out a certain project, pro¬
of foreign workers are key elements in the to have increased less rapidly than the vides every input, including the manpower.
common in Europe, where the restrictive aries do not always coincide with tradi¬ which are commonly the countries of first
admission policies adopted since 1973 have tional ethnic divisions has often led to asylum. In Africa alone, the number of
led many job seekers either to enter a coun¬ undocumented flows of persons arising refugees increased from one to nearly three
try illegally or to enter it legally and accept from what used to be traditionally million between 1974 and 1981, while in
employment illegally. In order to control unimpeded population movements. In gen¬ Southeastern Asia by the end of 1981 there
illegal immigration and prevent its con¬ eral, policy responses to these movements still remained about 3 million refugees
tinued increase, the former labour-import¬ have been liberal and migrants have been awaiting resettlement in third countries.
ing countries have resorted to a wide vari¬ able to stay and work in the receiving coun¬ In general, the policies adopted by Gov¬
ety of measures, including more careful try. However, in recent years some States ernments to deal with refugees have been
border controls, stricter admission require¬ have resorted to deportation measures that strongly shaped by humanitarian consid¬
ments, steeper penalties for traffickers and often contravene basic human rights. erations. In response to the growing num¬
employers of illegal immigrants, and regu¬ ber of refugees world-wide, many devel¬
The importance of refugee movements
larization schemes. oped countries have made special efforts
has increased considerably during the past
It is now impossible to assess reliably to increase their refugee intake. However,
decade, partly because of the growing
either the success of these measures or the since most of these countries have rarely
number of both countries and persons
current size of the illegal population. It received direct refugee arrivals, their posi¬
involved and partly owing to the political
must be noted, however, that immigrants tion as third countries of asylum has
ramifications of these movements. While
whose status is not legal are not only pres¬ allowed them to select refugees for admis¬
in 1974 the Office of the United Nations
ent in the former labour-importing coun¬ sion, with the result that the criteria on
High Commissioner for Refugees
tries, but also in the traditional countries family reunification and skills used in the
(UNHCR) reported that there were
of emigration. Thus, Greece, Italy and selection have been detrimental to the
slightly more than 1.8 million refugees in
Spain have reported that they are hosting resettlement chances of the vast majority
the world (excluding Palestinians), by the
substantial illegal populations, a situation of refugees who lack family ties in the
end of 1981 this number had risen to nearly
that aggravates the problems these nations developed world and are mostly unskilled.
6.8 million (again not counting the nearly
face in reintegrating their own returning
1.9 million Palestinians overseen by the Countries receiving large numbers of
citizens.
United Nations Relief and Works Agency refugees directly have resorted mainly to
Undocumented aliens are also known for Palestine Refugees in the Near East two types of strategy: (a) the creation of
to exist in many of the labour-importing (UNRWA)). "temporary" refugee camps whose basic
countries of Western Asia, where migrants Given the nature of refugee movements, necessities are satisfied with the help of
have been attracted by better economic the figures quoted are only approximate, the international community and (b) the
Note: All flows are continuing at substantial levels except flows into Europe, Source: Population Reports, September-October 1983, The Johns Hopkins
Ghana, and Nigeria. University, Baltimore, USA
resettlement of refugees in rural areas gration: Australia, Canada, New Zealand The decisive moment between past and
where they are provided with land and are and the United States. During the decade future, unemployment and work, hope
encouraged to become self-sufficient. 1971-1981, only in the United States did and fear
International aid has also been sought in immigration levels grow steadily (largely
the latter case so as to integrate the refugee because of the admission towards the end
in the overall development process. Reset¬ of the decade of sizeable numbers of ref¬
tlement strategies have been common in ugees, an immigration category that is not
Africa, while temporary refugee camps are yet subject to quotas).
typical of Southeastern Asia, a region that
The recent adoption by Australia, Can¬
has been the main source of refugees for
ada and New Zealand of new immigration
resettlement in third countries.
laws that allow a better adaptation of immi¬
The role played by the United Nations gration levels to national needs led to a
system in providing aid, safeguarding the reduction in the number of admissions, in
physical safety and basic rights of refugees, spite of the larger intake of refugees that
and working towards permanent solutions they all approved. In fact, the data on
to their plight cannot be overstressed. emigration from New Zealand reveal that
UNHCR has been successful not only in the country experienced a negative migra¬
eliciting support for resettlement pro¬ tion rate during 1976-1980. These devel¬
grammes, but also in aiding the many thou¬ opments suggest that, in terms of the tra¬
sands of refugees for whom voluntary repa¬ ditional countries of migration, the number
triation has been possible. The support of of places available for future migrants are
the international community for the activ¬ not likely to increase.
ities of the United Nations system in regard
to refugees testifies to the importance of
these activities and highlights their con¬
tinued necessity.
7
A challenge for the schools
by Georges Vignaux
THE place where, essentially and his¬ in the same mould. Thus, inevitably, there The acquisition of expression involves
torically, necessary change occurs is often not so much ignorance as rejection first of all the forced learning of a dominant
is the school. That is where migrant of their differences. rhetoric, that of the host country and its
children are subjected to their crucial first language, which is the language of know¬
Yet each of us, each child, needs these ledge since all subjects will be taught in
experience of adjustment to a different
personal and collective differences, if only it. Very early on, therefore, the migrant
culture and, conversely, where the children
to locate and perhaps dedramatize his posi¬ child comes to compare two languages:
of the host country come into contact with
tion on a continuum of images, stereotypes that of the school and that of the family,
their otherness and their differences, which
and prejudices ranging from the nearest the latter being necessarily diminished in
prompts them to reconsider and to under¬
to the most remote. Thus those relegated value relative to the former. In a great
stand their own culture.
to the fringes of society draw upon people's many cases this linguistic handicap will be
Many conflicts can arise in the migrant
attitudes to social relegation their own further aggravated by the absence of family
child as a result of minority practices that
and those of others. All these attitudes can support. If the migrant child succeeds in
can identify him and make him visible as
only serve to widen the gap between how overcoming it, he will have to pay the price
a member of another community (clothing,
the child perceives his social status and how in terms of a rift between himself and the
diet, personal background, etc.). Unfor¬
he experiences his cultural identity. Thus family cultural environment, which he will
tunately, certain underlying cultural
school can serve as much to materialize now regard as being antagonistic towards
assumptions will then act as kinds of "basic
these exclusions, by giving them form and the surrounding model.
concepts", axiomatizing images of the
typology, as to relativize them. This can
world, codes and conventions that are leg¬
With regard to guidance, as a result of
happen on two general levels: those of
itimated by family consensuses and per¬ the standards applied in the school (age-
expression and guidance.
ceived by the child as. being at variance
limits, "backwardness", so-called special¬
with the very rules, implicit or explicit, of
ist courses etc.), even the best intentions
the school, itself the expression of a major¬
in the world can turn out to be terribly
ity consensus.
selective here. Teachers and counsellors
But the school is not only the "reflec¬ Young Swedes and the children of Turk¬ often arrive at a certain, perception of the
tion" of a national consensus; it also aims ish migrant workers learn carpentry in a family and social environment which will
actively to integrate and cast all children school at Göteborg, Sweden. lead them to treat the children as special
In a class comprising 30 per cent of Immi¬
grant children In a co-educational State
school at La Seyne-sur-Mer in the south
of France, an experiment was carried out
In 1983 to foster greater mutual under¬ iii^D^I
standing among the children and to
encourage the young North Africans to
take greater pride in the achievements of
Arabic culture and language. Combining
imaginary and real-life incidents, the
pupils wrote a story about their town
in French and Arabic and Illustrated It
with their own drawings and photos.
of obligations and constraints, will soon be equivalent must be grafted onto a com¬ No culture can be identified with a closed
seem alien and even hostile to them mon core of basic education. The present system of values and behaviour, even if
because they see it as leading them into mistake of selective streaming, inevitably it is necessary, at certain stages of history,
a dead end symbolizing a society in which leading to failure at school and in society, for it to act as if this were the case. On
they cannot see their place. Academic fail¬ must not be repeated. Hence the impor¬ the contrary, all cultures can only be nour¬
ure thus reflects a more general social fail¬ tante of a cultural re-moulding of ele¬ ished by contact with others that are close
ure generating strategies of despair. mentary and pre-elementary education. and by contrast with those that are distant.
Cultural dysfunctions gradually engen¬ Teacher training, analysis and thinking Schools can help to promote understanding
der social maladjustment. "Illegitimate about methods must concentrate on these of this "natural" living process. This is,
offspring" of a society in which they believe points. All children, not only immigrants, perhaps, one of their fundamental roles.
they have no place, from countries which must be offered common educational facil¬
are no longer theirs, these migrant children ities that will provide them with freedom
will then demand the visibility they once of choice later on. Recognition of cultural
This article is adapted from a report entitledThe
feared. Their social dis-identification leads diversity also implies recognition of dif¬
Education of Migrant Children: Problems and
them necessarily to adopt more conspic¬ ferences in rates of progress and adjust¬ Prospects, prepared by Georges Vignaux for
uous fringe behaviour patterns (formation ment and hence a re-evaluation of present the 13th session of the Standing Conference
of minority groups) or to re-identify with modes of enforced "hierarchization" of European Ministers of Education, held in Dub¬
a mythical native culture which will never between types of teaching and curricula. lin from 10 to 12 May 1983.
City lights
The impact of rural-urban migration
THE phenomenon of migration is a migrated from those in which the father Such a situation is understandable since
major factor in social change. It has migrated. In families in which the migration is a temporary phenomenon that
affects not only those places that migrant has the dual status of son and hus¬ requires only ad hoc arrangements. These
receive migrants, but also those that send band the impact of his migration is felt are all withdrawn with the return to "nor¬
them. In one type of migration, a member differently. mality". However, such migration exposes
of the family migrates temporarily to a women to a wider world of work and expe¬
A cross-cultural study of migration has
different place, moves between the place rience in the management of household
indicated that migration increases family
of origin and the place of migration, and affairs that are in normal circumstances
income, raises the standard of living some¬
treats the former as the reference point looked after by men. Longer periods of
what and adds in varying proportions to
to which he ultimately plans to return. absence of husbands create a situation in
the responsibilities of female family mem¬
Migration from a rural to an urban area, bers. Some urban elements enter into the which women begin to assume greater
which is usually motivated by the need to inventory of the material culture of the responsibilities and take decisions on mat¬
find work, makes heavy demands on the ters that cannot wait.
home.
members of the family back home. It This said, the fact remains that men do
Contrary to common belief, migration
means that women have to undertake cer¬ not migrate to improve the status of
and exposure to modernity may serve to
tain tasks they did not previously perform women. They do it for the overall improve¬
cement the bonds of kinship and to rein¬
and thus involves a rearrangement of the
force tradition. It is through the network
ment of the family's standard of living and
family time-table. It influences the social¬ to enhance its status within the traditional
of kinship that people move into the city
ization pattern of children and may result structure. Seen in terms of long-term con¬
and, once there, they continue to move
in a series of psychological problems. It sequences, the suffering due to separation
in the kinship and village circle. Back
affects social life within the family as well caused by migration is actually an invest¬
home, the degree of dependence on kins¬
as relations outside. ment made by the parents to provide a
men increases with the departure of the
The effect of these changes varies from male to the town. The authority structure better future for their children. The status
family to family and from culture to cul¬ changes very little; the patriarchal ethos of the parents may not change much, but
ture. Response to male migration is dif¬ is pervasive. Family reunions generally their sons may have an education, and thus
ferent in families in which the son has coincide with religious festivals and cer¬ get a better job, and their daughters may
i
attraction which is magnified by the
act as guardians.
© hopesometimes justifiedthat in the
city their menfolk will find work enabling
them to improve the living standards of
the families they leave behind.
by Yogesh Atal
*\ -- . »^-
"5^*--*
12
A Unesco approach
to international migration
by Ronald G. Parris
INTERNATIONAL migration, dations for the attention of Member States. identity of individuals and groups as a
whether permanent, temporary or sea¬ ' right.
The major orientation of these actions
sonal, legal or illegal, organized or
has been that migration should be con¬ More recent Unesco programme activ¬
spontaneous, is inherently characterized by
sidered not simply as a labour problem but ities have focused on the education and
varying levels of confrontation between
as a social, cultural and political process training of immigrants and the impact of
different social systems and cultural tra¬
of intricate dimensions. One practical migration on the social structures of
ditions and has occurred within differing
objective remains that of encouraging selected countries, particularly on racial-
historical and structural contexts (reli¬
States to choose and implement appro¬ ethnic relations. Research has also been
gious, political, economic, the result of war undertaken on the patterns and conse¬
priate policies in the economic as well as
and natural disasters).
political and cultural domains that could quences of rural-urban migration in Africa,
These phenomena have long received lead to the definition of a genuine charter Asia and Latin America and the mech¬
the attention of Unesco, beginning as early for immigrants. Such a charter could be anisms of. adaptation of migrant workers
as 1949 with studies ranging from the ques¬ based on the principle of equality of treat¬ to urban life.
tion of cultural assimilation and the edu¬ ment of immigrants with the local pop¬ In his everyday life, the experience of
cation and training of migrant workers and ulation, while recognizing the relevance of the migrant worker is generally one of cul¬
their families to the problems associated making particular distinctions, where spe¬ tural alienation, isolation, ambivalence
with their return and re-adaptation to their cific needs exist (for example, language and and rejection, which forces him into social
countries of origin. skills training) and the importance of the universes that are generally disconnected
Resolution 1.142, adopted at the Seven¬ formation and protection of the cultural and conflictual. The migrant worker is in
teenth Session of the General Conference a "nomansland, which is neither that of
in 1972, called upon Unesco to launch a his country of origin nor that of his country
specific programme of action on behalf of The basis of the apartheid economic sys¬ of employment," resulting often in the des-
migrant workers and their children. Activ¬ tem in South Africa is cheap black migrant tructuring of the very family group and
ities undertaken to implement this reso¬ labour. Millions of Africans are denied the immigrant community that he needs to
lution have included studies of the various right to live permanently with their fam¬ sustain him. Everyday life is typically orga¬
dimensions of migration, wide dissemi¬ ilies, which are left in the rural areas or nized around two poles: his family and
nation of their results and the sponsoring Bantustans. Many African children see
fellow countrymen, in a cultural environ¬
their fathers only once a year and are
of Meetings of Experts to evaluate these ment resembling or at least drawing on
brought up by the womenfolk alone.
research findings and to offer recommen elements of the culture of the country of
Photo shows a family in the "independent
State" of the Transkei in the Republic of
South Africa.
13
Two young Mexican women illegally cross
the Rio Grande del Norte (or Rio Bravo),
which forms the frontier with the United
States, between Ciudad Juárez in Mexico
and El Paso, Texas.
connotation and representing "the lan¬ selves take as a point of departure the
Institutional discrimination, racial and
guage of power or domination." Inter¬ international economic, political and
ethnic prejudice are common features of
related with this linguistic dichotomy is the demographic structures that generate
the societies to which the migrants go.
division of his daily life into two discon¬ them. These factors include, in particular,
Racial and ethnic prejudice is often mani¬
nected universes: the universe of work and the demand in the more industrialized
fest in the terms and conditions of entry
that of the cultural ghetto. countries for cheap manpower and the
and in official immigration policies, in the
need of the labour-surplus countries to sell
The isolation and alienation identifiable daily practices on the job and in the class¬
their labour power. Deteriorating demo¬
in the general migrant population assume room and in indigenous attitudes and daily
graphic patterns in some of the more indus¬
even more significance when female contacts between migrant workers and the
trialized countries also play a role.
migrants are considered. Sex differences, local population. In some cases, racial
rather than obscuring the alienation the It is also important to consider the par¬ strains lead to racial violence. The migrant
migrant experiences qua migrant, tend to ticular terms and conditions of recruitment worker, at first an economic object, soon
exacerbate the problems of cultural adap¬ and employment of migrant workers (for becomes a racial-ethnic object.
tation female migrants have to overcome. example, organized bilateral agreements,
Leaders in the receiving countries, who
The reproductive behaviour together with spontaneous undocumented movements),
declare themselves in favour of immigra¬
tion, so long as it is limited to certain coun¬
tries of origin, or in favour of extending
civic rights and privileges only to those
immigrants whose "cultural traditions"
more resemble or are more likely to be
compatible with their own, hence making
these immigrants more assimilable, are,
like the more direct opponents of coloured
immigration, declaring a case for racism.
14
grants and migrant workers as threatening goating of immigrants. The response of gration Act, 1962, have strictly circum¬
the livelihood and survival of the indig¬ Asian and Caribbean immigrants in Britain scribed the conditions of entry and also
enous population or even as an explanation to racial violence and discrimination has the right of admission of family depend¬
for the economic ills themselves. Greater been increased collective organization and ents, including spouses. This is true also
social controls are usually demanded, participation at the community level as well for some of the labour-importing countries
including calls for their expulsion and as a marked involvement in trade union in West Asia, which have instituted their
repatriation. activities. own measures of control. The extension
Finally, what then is the legal status of of civic rights to immigrants is closely
Examples abound everywhere. Recent
official policy in Nigeria, after the falling immigrants and migrant workers in the guarded. The right, for example, to vote
countries of employment? This is a prob¬ remains a controversial point of issue in
off of oil revenues, has been that of forcible
lem with which Unesco has also been con¬ several of the receiving countries.
expulsion of immigrants, particularly illicit
cerned. Experience has shown that like
workers. In France, a political party has
their socio-economic status, their legal sta¬
been consolidating its political position by
associating immigration with unemploy¬
tus is generally precarious, often depend¬
ing on the discretionary powers of the
ment, provoking a vigorous response in
the form of an anti-racist movement mobi¬ administrative authorities. Their legal sta¬ RONALD G. PARRIS is a specialist on deve¬
tus could be subjected to reassessment dur¬ lopment in Unesco's Sector of Social and
lized under the fraternal slogan "Touche
ing periods of economic downturn. Human Sciences. He is a former professor of
pas à mon pote" ("Don't touch my pal")
sociology at New York University and at Van-
which has been relatively successful in cap¬ This has been the case, for example, with
derbilt University, and Dean of the School of
turing the attention of public opinion and Asian and Carribean immigrants in Brit¬
Arts and Sciences at Virginia Union University,
articulating the opposition of diverse ain, where a series of Immigration Acts in the United States. He is the author of several
groups opposed to racism and the scape- beginning with the Commonwealth Immi publications on the problems of migration.
IN sub-Saharan Africa there are two Most of the migrants come from rural areas Government expelled all aliens without res¬
major patterns of international labour and the lower-income, land-locked countries idence permits. In 1983 there was a similar
migration. such as Burkina Faso (formerly Upper Volta) expulsion from Nigeria.
and Mali. In 1975 as much as 17 per cent
The first and most important is in West The other, much smaller migration flow in
of the population of Burkina Faso was living
Africa, where in nine countries about 2.8 mil¬ sub-Saharan Africa is into South Africa. For
elsewhere. The destinations of the migrants
lion people were living outside their country nearly a century mines in South Africa have
have changed over the last three decades,
of birth in 1975. Long-distance migration in recruited workers on short-term contracts
depending on the relative prosperity of the
West Africa has a lengthy history, beginning from neighbouring countries. The flow of
coastal regions and on their immigration pol¬
with the movement of entire villages or clans international migrants amounts to about
icies. Ghana, the most popular destination
to avoid war or famine. Later, colonists 250,000 a year, and recently the number has
in the late 1950s and early 1960s, gave way
brought labourers, often by force, to Ghana remained fairly constant. The origin of the
to the Ivory Coast and Nigeria after the Ghan¬
and the Ivory Coast. Now unequal job oppor¬ migrants has changed, however, with fewer
aian economy deteriorated and, in 1 969, the
tunities within the region, drought, and the coming from Malawi and Mozambique and
open-border policies of most countries sus¬ more from Botswana, Lesotho and Swazi¬
tain voluntary migration. Moreover, with birth¬ land.
rates now above 45 per 1,000 in all West Villagers in Mali making for the town in
Africa, the number of migrants is likely to search of .work and better living condi¬
Source : Population Reports, Special Topics, Number
grow. Return migration and circulation tions hitch a ride on a truck laden with 7, September-October 1983. Johns Hopkins Univer¬
among countries is common. calabashes. sity, Baltimore, USA.
15
BETWEEN TWO CULTURES
France
by Abdallah Buhamidi
IMMIGRATION from North Africa to Except when the work to be done is to which they would find it extremely dif¬
France is nothing new; it started with arduous, dangerous or dirty, immigrant ficult to adapt. The parents too, while they
the men who came to fight with the workers are the last to be hired. However, are foreigners in France, have also grad¬
French forces in the First World War. But when firms run into difficulties, reorganize, ually become foreigners in their own coun¬
the biggest influx took place more recently and decide to reduce their workforce, they try.
and dates back some thirty or forty years. are also the first to be fired, unless they
In such conditions, is it possible to go
are offered the chance of taking early
Most of the immigrants came after the back?
retirement, possibly accompanied by a
Second World War, to help rebuild the
The experiences of people who have
financial inducement to return to their
French economy. They provided man¬
made the attempt are very instructive,
country of origin.
power that was plentiful, adaptable and
although they are so recent that it is dif¬
cheap; the problem of social and cultural For the present crisis is not merely short-
ficult to draw any general conclusions from
adaptation did not arise. term or cyclic. It affects the country's eco¬
them.
Neither they nor their French hosts nomic structures, which are having to be
Readaptation to the country of origin
envisaged long-term coexistence. The adapted to meet the demands of foreign
is not a simple matter, either for those who
French economy was interested in these competition. The necessary modernization
have made a success of their return or for
men and women solely as a source of calls for technological competence of the
those who have encountered difficulties,
labour, and the immigrants intended to go highest order. The days of unskilled
especially since the "returnees" are often
back home as soon as they had saved labour, however cheap, are over.
ill prepared for the situation.
enough to give their families, which most Furthermore, many of the first arrivals
The most successful cases seem to be
of them had left behind, a better life. have now reached the age of retirement
those who adapted best to life in France,
Today this may still be the case for some (early or otherwise), and for them the
where they acquired knowledge and voca¬
600,000 immigrants whose families have problem of going back home is com¬
tional skills which made it easier for them
remained in their country of origin. But pounded by the question of their children
to fit back into the social and working life
for the majority, the situation is no longer and their children's future. For the fact
of their country of origin.
entirely the same, even though most of is that, although many have never aban¬
It has also been observed that the immi¬
them have not abandoned the idea of going doned the idea of returning home, they
grants' children who have achieved the best
back one day. have always postponed it until their chil¬
results in French schools are those who
dren who were either born in France or
In fact a number of recent developments have maintained the closest ties with their
came as soon as their father was in a posi¬
are causing immigrants from North Africa original culture and with the chief vehicles
tion to give them a home finished their
to reconsider the question of going home. of that culture, their parents. The problem
education.
As a result of the economic crisis they are of the social and cultural adaptation in
victims of unemployment. The current dif¬ As they grew up in France, these chil¬ France of North African immigrants and
ficulties on the labour market are hitting dren acquired attitudes, modes of thought their children is thus closely linked in a
them harder than the indigenous popu¬ and a way of life that have made most of complex interaction with the problem of
lation or even other immigrant groups. them foreigners in their country of origin, identity.
The children of the Mekong in a big family, with Monsieur Péchard the or, preferably, welcoming him into the family
director, whom everyone calls "uncle", Oli¬ at weekends or on holidays. All degrees of
vier the group leader, who might be an older participation are possible."
brother, and the Vietnamese mothers who In this way whole families are welcomed
A quiet street in the Paris suburb of do the cooking. by specially formed groups, often in a parish,
Asnières. A sign above a door bears "We organize a lot of sponsorship," says a movement of some kind, or a school. Some
the unexpected words "Les Enfants Monsieur Péchard. "We give the sponsor the try to find housing for these families, others
du Mekong" ("The Children of the Mekong"). name of a child in a camp in Thailand and help them with scholastic formalities or teach
The house is a hostel inhabited by some 1 5 he agrees to send that child a small sum French to those who have. just arrived. A
young Asians aged between 1 6 and 20. Dur¬ of money through us each month. It is also whole network of solidarity is being created
ing working hours the hostel is empty; every¬ possible to sponsor a young person in in which each person does what he or she
one is at a literacy class or at school. But France, like the young people in this hostel, can.
in the evening or at mealtimes it is like being either by paying for all or part of his keep Source : Peuples du Monde N° 1 84, Paris, June 1 985.
16
Painter Rachid Khimoune's interest in "He is the son of Immigrants, adrift "In the past we thought of going back to
Arabic calligraphy and geometric man¬ between two cultures, two histories, and Algeria one day. Now we know we'll stay
hole cover designs has Inspired an un¬ two languages... inventing his own roots, here," says sculptor Mohand Amara.
usual artistic experiment. He makes casts forming his own attachments," wrote Going back was once the dream of many
of the covers and reproduces them on Algerian writer Mehdl Charef in his novel Immigrants, but is it possible for their
large canvases into which he incorpo¬ Le Thé au Harem d'Archi Ahmed, which children? Many immigrants are only par¬
rates pages of writing. "The street is the he successfully adapted for the screen tially integrated in the host society, but
immigrant's lot, " he says. "I find the same In 1984. Cultural ambivalence can be a no longer feel they belong in their society
arabesques there as I do In Muslim art." bitter experience for second-generation of origin, which also regards them as out¬
result of living in a community which was economy and culture by immigrants from
regarded solely as a source of labour and North Africa has been far from negligible.
which was relegated to the fringes of the Thanks to their constant comings and
host society and its culture. Integration was goings between the two shores of the Med¬
not encouraged. Apart from these diffi¬ iterranean, North African immigrants have
even the less gifted children soon gained
culties, the problem of the adaptation of become an organic link between France
access to a code for understanding the host
North African workers was distorted by and the Maghreb, participating in the com¬
society which was a closed book for their
an enormous misunderstanding which tran¬ merce between the two cultures.
parents, who thus lost their status as socio-
scended the simple question of adopting Through its contact with immigrant chil¬
cultural initiators the basis of their
the laws and customs of the host country dren, the French educational system is re¬
authority and its "legitimacy".
and which made any possible integration examining its methods in such a way that
dependent on repudiation of one's self. Because of their ambiguous attitude to
many French children, hitherto excluded
their own identity, the parents contributed
The values so dear to North African because of their non-conformism from the
involuntarily to the deterioration of their
immigrants and their culture, perceived in traditional channels of knowledge and
relations with their children. Anxious to
France in terms of clichés divorced from instruction, will certainly benefit.
resemble the dominant model through the
the historical context common to the two Mention should also be made of the
educational and social success of their chil¬
shores of this part of the Mediterranean, growing number of writers and artists
dren, they overvalued that model to the
had no chance of asserting themselves (especially musicians, painters and film¬
detriment of their own cultural values, to
against those of the host country. makers) whose specific modes of expres¬
which their children should have referred.
The rejection of certain forms of expres¬ sion are making a mark on French cultural
Caught up in this contradiction, the chil¬
sion of this immigrant community has been trends.
dren harboured a negative image of them¬
attributed to the fact that Arab Muslim One of the greatest benefits which
selves and linked this disparaged identity
culture is very different from European i France is reaping from the presence of
with their failure, which they saw as pre¬
culture. This explanation is not fully sat¬ North African immigrant workers is
ordained. This situation created conflict
isfactory, since in other circumstances the undoubtedly an awareness, still in its
within the family and jeopardized its co¬
two cultures have several times proved to infancy, of her pluralistic identity, the
hesion as a group. The father was the first
be fully complementary and perfectly com¬ ; source of all her riches, symbolized by the
victim and then by way of reaction the
patible. slogan chanted during a recent anti-racist
children, who in such circumstances were
At a very early stage, the values of which demonstration: "First, second, third,
bound to do badly at school. In these con¬
the parents were the bearers were rejected fourth generation, we are all the children
ditions many young people have rejected
not only by the host society but also by i of immigrants." '
their culture of origin, while failing to
their own children, who attributed their acquire access to the host culture or to
ABDALLAH BUHAMIDI, of Morocco, is a psy¬
difficulties to their cultural identity and achieve the qualifications necessary to
chologist and guidance counsellor with the
therefore to their parents. achieve a satisfying social and professional Paris-based association Jeunesse, Culture, Loi¬
Through the school and the acquisition life, still less the integration dreamed of sirs et Technique. He is also director of the
of a working knowledge of the language, by their parents. association's specialized guidance service.
17
BETWEEN TWO CULTURES
Integration or repatriation?
THERE are about 4.5 million for¬ would protect them against expulsion in The ban on recruitment of foreign work¬
eigners living in the Federal Repub¬ the case of long-term unemployment or ers decreed in 1973 and a regulation of
lic of Germany and West Berlin of dependence on social security, only 3.2 per the Bundesanstalt für Arbeit (Federal Insti¬
whom Turkish nationals form by far the cent are in possession of this precious doc¬ tute of Labour), which came into force a
largest group, accounting for 35 per cent ument. year later, concerning the granting of work
of the total. permits for foreigners stipulated that an
In order to clarify the present situation
of foreign communities from countries out¬ interruption of residence in the Federal
As a result of the current economic Republic could result in loss of employ¬
side the European Economic Community
situation the legal requirements affecting ment. To avoid this problem many migrant
(EEC) in general, and of the Turkish com¬
foreigners are being applied in a more workers tried to arrange for their families
munity in particular, it is necessary to
restrictive manner and this has made their to join them in the Federal Republic.
retrace the policies concerning foreigners
situation more precarious and has also As a result, during the years of economic
adopted over the past few years.
made it more difficult for them to plan for crisis, the age and employment compo¬
the future. Only a fraction of these sition of the foreign population underwent
migrants enjoy legal security. Although 2.9 a fundamental change. Whereas the num¬
Uncertainty about the future seems
million foreigners have been living in the etched Into the features of these foreign ber of foreign workers living in the Federal
Federal Republic for more than eight years workers in the port of Hamburg. Facing Republic in 1978 tallied almost exactly with
and thus fulfil the most important condition them was the prospect of massive redun¬ that in 1973, the number of foreigners in
for obtaining a residence permit which dancies in the city's shipyards. employment had actually gone down by
18
28 per cent. The number of children under Turklsh women photographed at the Fed¬ the age of 16 (as compared with 18 pre¬
the age of sixteen increased by about 25 eral Republic of Germany's recruitment viously) have been allowed to join their
per cent, passing the million mark in 1976. office in Istanbul, before the 1973 ban on parents, and a stricter interpretation of the
In the following years the authorities the recruitment of foreign workers. Those regulations concerning living quarters fre¬
who spoke German, had a relative work¬ quently makes it impossible for married
pursued a dual strategy: on the one hand
ing in the Federal Republic or had already
encouraging return to the country of ori¬ couples or for parents and their under-age
worked abroad stood a better chance of
gin, and on the other promoting the inte¬ children to live together.
getting a job.
gration of migrants. As late as 1978 a prac¬ One of the basic aims of policies con¬
tice was introduced whereby foreigners
cerning foreigners under the Government's
who fulfilled certain conditions, such as Urgent Measures Programme was the facil¬
having satisfactory living quarters and a itation of repatriation. Foreigners from
basic knowledge of the German language, non-EEC countries who left the Federal
could be granted an unlimited residence Republic or West Berlin between October
of-school training programmes were ini¬
permit after five years of uninterrupted 1983 and September 1984 could ask for
tiated. Perhaps the most important of these
stay and the right of residence after eight 50 per cent of their pension contributions
was a programme of Measures for Job-
years. In 1979 the general ban on employ¬ to be paid back to them and the usual two-
preparation and Social Integration of
ment for spouses who had joined their year waiting period was waived. According
Young Foreigners (MBSE). The MBSE is
partners at a later date was lifted in favour to information from the Regional Insur¬
a full-time, ten-month programme whose
of a four-year waiting period. Since then ance Offices one-fifth of all Turkish nation¬
primary aim is to provide adolescents with
adolescents joining their parents later have als living in the Federal Republic took
an integrated course combining practical
usually been granted full access to the advantage of this offer even though they
job preparation, language teaching and
labour market after a maximum two-year lost the employers' contributions and had
general education. The vast majority of
waiting period with the proviso that pref¬ to forgo all claims on a pension as well
participants (95 per cent) are Turkish
erence should be given to nationals as the possibility of returning to the Federal
youths. The initial intention was that the
of the Federal Republic and the EEC Republic in the future.
programme should be offered nationwide
countries.
and be extended to offer 20,000 places. Although the Federal Government has
These improvements in the situation of
However, a continual reduction has taken an interest in reducing the number of for¬
the children of immigrant workers were
place since the programme was established eigners living in the Republic, the economy
supported on the grounds that their dis¬
in 1980, and in the year 1983/84 only 6,500 is still dependent to a certain extent on
advantaged position at school and at work
adolescents were able to benefit from it. foreign workers. They account for 28 per
might prove a threat to social stability and
cent of the work force in foundries, 25 per
that the members of this "second gen¬
By the early 1980s, the tendency to cent in the mining industry, 20 per cent
eration" could be considered as a potential
regard integration policy as a means of in the textile industry, 16 per cent in the
source of skilled labour to meet shortages
limiting the number of foreigners grew car industry and 14 per cent in the building
expected in the late 1980s.
stronger. Opportunities for families to be sector. In these areas, as well as in the
1979 was a key year for integration strat¬ reunited have been drastically curtailed. artificial fibre industry, in cellulose pro¬
egies, and a number of in-school and out- Since December 1981 only children below duction and in heating and refrigeration
19
it would be well nigh impossible and consequently about the right of res¬ Even though the educational aspirations
to replace foreign workers by unemployed idence, but also about the uncertain future of foreign pupils have been shown to be
nationals of the Federal Republic of Ger¬ facing their children. no lower than those of nationals of the
many, since their qualification patterns are Federal Republic, 75 per cent of foreign
Foreign children form a significant part
unsuitable. adolescents receive no education beyond
(845,000) of the school populationone
secondary level and no specialized job
About half the unemployed nationals of in every twelve pupils is of foreign origin.
training. Inadequate knowledge of the
the Federal Republic are qualified in areas In towns with a high foreign population
German language goes a long way to
in which hardly any foreign workers are some 25 to 30 per cent of the pupils in
explaining this situation.
employed. Moreover, for health or age primary and secondary schools are of for¬
reasons, two-thirds of them could not take eign origin, with Turkish pupils forming However, in order to enable at least the
over jobs with a high level of stress, and the largest single group (53 per cent). following generations to acquire an eman¬
one-fifth of them are looking only for part- cipated status in their host country and to
The opportunities for social progress for
time employment. Thus, even though ensure the peaceful co-existence of mem¬
these children are minimal 20 to 25 per
many nationals of the Federal Republic bers of differing ethnic and cultural back-
cent play truant, some 50 per cent of for¬
consider foreigners to be a contributory gounds, more must be done than simply
eign school-leavers fail to obtain a certif¬
factor to the unemployment situation, to lament migrants' lack of readiness to
icate of education, and only very few of
ousting them from the labour market go through a process of acculturation.
them continue their education beyond sec¬
would in fact do little to improve it. What is needed and this also in the inter¬
ondary level.
est of the majority of the population is
More than 95 per cent of foreign workers
Since responsibility for education lies
a turning away from the employment of
are employed in production (one in six
with the regions and not with the Federal
foreign workers on the basis of short-term
production workers is a foreigner). In West
Government, there is no homogeneous
economic interests and a re-thinking of
Berlin, where the proportion of foreigners educational policy in the Federal Republic
employment policies by those to whom
(12 per cent) is higher than anywhere else, of Germany. Each local authority puts its
political responsibility is entrusted.
one in every four workers comes from one own interpretation on the guidelines estab¬
of the former countries of recruitment, half lished by the Conference of Education
of them being from Turkey. Foreigners
Ministers. Yet despite certain local dif¬
also form a high proportion of the work ferences to which this leads, a number of GISELA APITZSCH, of the Federal Republic
force in towns in the industrial area of the of Germany, is a research assistant at the Free
common factors can be observed: the
Ruhr and in Frankfurt-am-Main, Offen¬ University of Berlin. She has been engaged in
native language and culture of foreign chil¬
a research programme on "Strategies in Inter-
bach, Stuttgart, Mannheim and Munich. dren is hardly taken into account in regular cultural Communication", and is the author of
Foreign workers have been much more courses and native language teaching rarely several articles on the problems of language
badly hit by unemployment than nationals figures on the time-table where classes are acquisition and communication among
of the Federal Republic. Whereas at the mixed; there is a shortage of teachers who migrants.
end of 1983 there was a total of 9.5 per are adequately prepared for teaching NORBERT DITTMAR, of the Federal Republic
cent of registered unemployed, the rate involving foreign children; there is a grow¬ of Germany, is professor of sociolinguistics and
amongst foreign workers was nearer 14.9 ing tendency to segregate foreign pupils. second-language learning at the Free University
per cent. Turkish workers were the most of Berlin. He is the author of several publi¬
cations, including Sociolinguistics, A Survey of
severely affected with an official unem¬
Theory and Methods (1976). He is currently
ployment rate of 18 per cent.
A "mixed" class of Turkish and German engaged in a project on cross-linguistic second-
- Foreign families are worried not only children at a school in Duisburg, in the language acquisition by Italian, Polish and Tur¬
about uncertain employment prospects, Federal Republic of Germany kish migrants.
20
BETWEEN TWO CULTURES
United Kingdom
by Robert Miles
THERE has been an Asian and Car¬ after 1945, the expansion of the capitalist ing a position of economic and social equal¬
ibbean presence in Britain for sev¬ economy exhausted the supply of labour ity with the indigenous population.
eral centuries, reflecting British within the national boundary and employ¬
colonial history. Many British towns and ers were forced to recruit workers from Most New Commonwealth migrants who
cities, particularly seaports, contain Asian elsewhere. came to Britain before 1965 did so in order
and Caribbean communities which have The majority of those recruited after to fill positions in the labour market
been established for three generations or 1945 were from colonies and ex-colonies, vacated by indigenous workers. These
more. Their origin often lies with travelling and they arrived in Britain with British were mainly manual jobs, and particularly
salesmen from the Indian sub-continent or citizenship. Comparable circumstances semi- and unskilled manual jobs. They
with seamen recruited in the colonies. existed in the case of certain migrant were also often low-paid and involved poor
These communities formed the base for groups to France and the Netherlands. working conditions and/or shiftwork.
the migration that developed in the 1950s These colonial migrants arrived with the Migrants were concentrated in textiles,
in response to the demand for labour in right to settle and work, and with full polit¬ food production, automobile construction,
certain sectors of the British economy. As ical and civil rights. However, this position metal manufacture, transport and the
happened elsewhere in Western Europe of legal equality has not led to their attain National Health Service.
21
% WÊ^--
Although the majority of migrants in this
early period were men, the migration from
the Caribbean did include a large pro¬
portion of women who came in order to
work in their own right. Since the mid-
1960s, almost all the New Commonwealth
migrants have been the wives and children
of those who came in the earlier period,
and many of them have entered the labour
market as is their right.
23
BETWEEN TWO CULTURE S
North America
by Anthony P. Maingot
THE history of the exploitation of the migrant, his family and community as ers) bringing British West Indians to work
migrant workers in general and in well as for the employer. It might be pos¬ in the Florida sugar cane industry. Estab¬
North America in particular is too sible to derive some lessons from a review lished in 1943, it continues up to today.
well known to warrant repetition. It has of such cases. It is fortunate, therefore, The story of the success of this H-2 pro¬
provided the plot of more than one major that we now have good data on two agri¬ gramme is the story of a felicitous match
novel and the workers' plight has been cultural programmes utilizing migratory between nature and economic circum¬
portrayed in all its pathos in more than labour, one in the State of Florida and the stances in Florida and the cultural ori¬
one film. That plight tends to be a com¬ other in Canada. entations of British West Indians.
bination of substandard wages and living
The 8,000 migrant workers in the Florida Florida cane is grown under conditions
conditions and a high degree of job in¬
sugar industry are in a way all that is left which do not allow full mechanization.
security. More often than not these con¬
of the original bracero (strong arm) pro¬ Such a cane culture is not suited to the
ditions have been associated with the agri¬
gramme that started in 1942 and at its use of cane cutting machines; it needs
cultural sector in labour-intensive agro-
height brought more than 420,000 workers, skilled and dependable manual labour.
industries.
mostly Mexican, to work in US agriculture. Here nature shapes economics, for if a
Because such substandard programmes Only one part of that large migrant worker machete- wielding man in Florida is to com¬
continue to exist it might be good to look scheme of the 1940s remained intact: the pete with a harvesting machine in Hawaii,
at some cases where the use of migrant so-called H-2 programme (from the cat¬ he has to be skilled. But cutting cane man¬
labour in agriculture has worked well for egory of visa granted to temporary work ually is nasty, back-breaking work that no
WEST Indians who migrate to Can¬ ticipating in movements which are seeking The evidence suggests that the Haitians
ada today are generally better edu¬ to change the present situation in which they have not encountered major obstacles to
cated than their predecessors and face varying degrees of prejudice and dis¬ their adaptation to the society and culture
more at home in modern metropolitan com¬ crimination. These individuals and groups of Quebec either from the two national major¬
munities. However, in spite of the fact that are joining forces with Canadian-born blacks, ities or from the other groups, in spite of the
South Asians and other disadvantaged group universal feeling that the "Creoles" are going
most of them come from the countryside and
in an effort to eliminate discriminatory prac¬ through a difficult period in Quebec. A "third
small towns and have no experience of big
tices which restrict their full participation in culture" is beginning to emerge in the Haitian
city life, they do not go to the rural areas
Canadian society.
of Canada. They are attracted to the large community, a kind of intermingling born of
urban centres of Toronto, Montreal, and Van¬ the social differences between young Hai¬
The Haitian community in Quebec con¬
couver. tians and their contemporaries in Quebec.
stitutes a special case in this respect. First
This third culture is formed largely of dis¬
Having left their native land for economic
óf all it has to face the problem of illegal or
parate, anarchic elements, taken at random
reasons, and with the expectation of eco¬
clandestine immigrants who wish to leave
from American and English-speaking West
nomic advancement in their adopted home,
Haiti at all costs and cannot receive aid from
Indian "négritude". It can easily be imagined
they are ill-prepared to face the reality of the Government when they arrive in Canada.
that such influences, added to the pro¬
Canadian attitudes towards immigrants. But
nounced oral character of Haitian culture may
West Indians, as well as facing the same
In the early 1960s, the Haitian diaspora
separate the young generation from the main
problems as immigrants of whatever race or
consisted of highly educated individuals,
trends and currents of life in Quebec and
origin, are also victims of greater hostility
mostly professional people, until the political
create an impression of lack of commitment
because of their colour, especially when they
situation in Haiti gave rise to an entirely dif¬
and marginalization.
try to obtain housing and employment. Hav¬
ferent kind of exodus, especially from the
ing experienced a marginal existence in the
rural areas of the country. In addition,
Wegt Indies, and finding that his basic cultural
because of their physical characteristics and
and'human values are not recognized in Can¬ the African sonority of their mother tongue,
ada, the West Indian immigrant often expe¬
the Haitians quickly form a group which the
riences serious identity problems.
officials of the Immigration Ministry describe Sources : "The West Indian Family in Canada: Prob¬
Attempts by West Indians to be accepted as "visible". So far, however, Haitians have lems of Adaptation in a Multiracial, Multicultural Soci¬
ety" by Wilson A. Head, in Multiculturalism, vol. Ill No.
through adapting themselves to the dominant not sought to confine themselves to a ghetto
12, 1979; and "Questions de Culture: Migrations et
culture have, with few exceptions, not suc¬ or to form groups centred on immigrant asso-, Communautés Culturelles, Institut Québécois de
ceeded. Many West Indians are actively par dations. Recherche sur la Culture.
24
one in the world engages in unless the tral Labour Organization. Additionally, In Canada as in the United States the eco¬
rewards are real, as indeed they have been. being citizens of small but proudly dem¬ nomic rationale is the same: the inability
ocratic States such as Jamaica, Barbados, to recruit sufficient native workers.
To be sure, the major element of this
and St. Vincent, they possess the advan¬
reward is monetary the difference As distinct from Florida, however,
tage of having the support and vigilance
between what the workers make abroad where only eight large growers are
of their Governments which, no doubt, are
and what they would! have made staying involved, in Canada the farm workers deal
keenly aware of the contributions the earn¬
home. But there is another incentive which with small farmers; in 1982, 782 employers
ings of these workers make to the balance
explains the popularity of the H-2 pro¬ participated. The hourly wage in 1983
of payments and hard currency situation.
gramme: the worker is not locked into the ranged from $3.50 to $4.80 per hour. As
"cane culture",, i.e. the complex and The joint effort in favour of workers' in the case of those going to Florida, nearly
demeaning life style associated with the rights has paid off. Apart from subsidized all had jobs back home when recruited.
sugar plantation which affected not just room and board, they get a 50 per cent However, those going to Canada tend to
the worker but his whole family. Certainly subsidy for travel to the job, and upon come from a different labour pool: over
the companies' stance toward labour completion of contract, free travel back. half were skilled or semi-skilled workers.
reflects self-interest, not altruism nor a Workers receive a medical exam before
As is to be expected, West Indians indi¬
particular fondness for West Indians. travelling, and are covered by their own
cate that they travel for the increased pay,
group hospitalization insurance as well as
Here again the reason for the situation yet fully 22 per cent of those in Canada
State-mandated workers' compensation
is economic, since the traditional source indicated that they had travelled for the
for job-related injuries. The goal in nego¬
of abundant and thus cheaply available experience of being overseas.
tiating these subsidies is of course to fulfil
labour does not exist. It has not been dif¬
Although clearly a very small part of the
the whole purpose of migratory work:
ficult, therefore, for the U.S. Department
overall flow of migrant farm workers, espe¬
sending much of the earnings back home.
of Labor to provide certification for this
cially into the United States, the cases
programme: every effort to recruit local In a fundamental way, work in the Flor¬
described illustrate the fact that this type
labour has so far failed. This is where both ida sugar industry helps to reinforce their
of work does not have to be exploitative
economics and culture come in, because status back home rather than replicating
and degrading to the workers to be bene¬
the necessary labour is available in the the terrible wastage of human lives so typ¬
ficial to the employer. Work in agriculture
West Indies where migration and work ical of the history of the sugar plantation.
does not have to be associated with the
abroad have long been integral parts of
An interesting comparison can be made wasting "plantation syndrome."
the area's cultural orientations.
with West Indian farm workers in Canada,
An interesting cultural aspect of this where the programme was established
migration is that even before the dawning much later than in the USA. First came
of the trade union movement West Indians the Jamaicans in 1966, followed in 1976
ANTHONY P. MAINGOT, of Trinidad and
tended to organize for improvement. by workers from the eastern Caribbean and
Tobago, is professor of sociology and director
Today these workers who come for the Mexico. By 1982 there were some 6,000
of the graduate programme in International Stu¬
five-month season are represented through working on fruit, vegetable and tobacco dies at Florida International University, Miami,
their union, the British West Indian Cen farms. Over half of these were Jamaicans. USA.
25
B E T W E E N TWO C U L TU RE S
A delicate balance
by Elisabeth Longuenesse THE demographic situation in the Whereas in Saudi Arabia, which is the
Gulf States (the six members of the largest of the Gulf States and whose pop¬
Gulf Co-operation Council Saudi ulation constitutes two thirds of the total,
Arabia, Kuwait, Qatar, Bahrain, United non-Saudi workers accounted for less than
Arab Emirates, Oman) is unique: in 1980, 50 per cent of the total working population
of a total population of some thirteen mil¬ in 1980, the proportion of foreigners in the
lion, it was estimated that over four million small Gulf Emirates has reached such lev¬
were foreigners, while of a total working els that social and cultural imbalances are
population of some four million three getting out of hand. In Qatar 85 per cent
hundred thousand, about two million five and in the United Arab Emirates 90 per
hundred thousand were foreign workers. cent of workers are foreign and three-quar-
26
Since the policy of importing labour
from abroad is of relatively recent origin,
most of these workers are unaccompanied
men and this strong male predominance
UA
has given rise to a very serious population
imbalance. Only in Kuwait and Bahrain,
where immigration has a longer history,
has a better balance been achieved thanks
0.
to the gradual arrival of families and the
©
subsequent creation of families on the spot.
The employment of indigenous workers is cent have been living there for more than
marginal in virtually all sectors except the ten years, since the majority of the second
administration. generation consists of youngsters less than
ten years old. Already in 1975, 126,500
The conditions under which immigration
of the 234,000 children attending school
takes place vary considerably. Strictly
in Kuwait were foreign. Nevertheless, the
speaking, the prospective immigrant must
existence of a core, albeit still small, of
have an employment contract before an
older, well-established immigrants has had
entry visa can be granted, unless he man¬
an integrating influence on the newer
ages to get a job while visiting relations.
arrivals.
There is, however, a lot of illegal immi¬
Life is certainly easier for the worker
gration and the status of illegal immigrants
who is accompanied by his family, but he
is very precarious. They are at the mercy
is liable to be more severely affected by
of the expulsion measures which the
any discrimination to which he may be
authorities apply from time to time, but
subjected. Certainly, he enjoys some of
since they provide a margin of flexibility
the advantages of an oil-rich society such
for the labour market they are usually tol¬
as free medical care and free schooling for
erated in practice. Owing to the absence "
his children (provided that they were born
of local manpower, to the obligation for
in Kuwait or their parents have been living
a foreigner to have a work permit before
there since 1970 and, above all, that they
entry, to the fact that foreigners cannot
don't fall behind in their studies). How¬
easily change jobs, and to the prohibition
ever, scarcity of services and the priority
on foreigners remaining in the country if
given to Kuwaiti citizens often oblige the
they become unemployed, the labour mar¬
foreign worker to have recourse to the
ket is extremely rigid.
private sector. In many cases he is saddled
Apart from illegal immigration there is with an exorbitant rent while access to
another practice which helps to ensure a subsidized housing or house ownership on
supply of marginal, day-to-day manpower. easy terms and grants and allowances of
This consists of the importation of workers , various kinds are reserved to citizens who
quite legally, by someone who is himself also receive higher wages for similar work.
the owner of one or more small businesses.
Philippine workers on a construction site These frustrations contribute to the
in Riyadh, the capital of Saudi Arabia. If he succeeds in obtaining entry visas for
building up of a climate of tension which
workers in excess of his own needs, he
may develop into mutual hostility. Asian
either throws them on the labour market
immigrants seem to provoke most of the
to fend for themselves or hires them out
negative reactions, at least in the press
to other employers on a daily basis, retain¬
which blames them for the growth in the
ing a percentage of their wages for himself.
crime rate (not supported by the facts) or
Foreign workers have no means of which expresses fear of loss of cultural
organizing to defend their rights. Trade identity should they become numerically
unions are forbidden except in Kuwait and predominant. It is true that if immigration
Bahrain where foreigners have the right from Asia continues, even at a lower rate,
to join a union after five years with the the question of integration will eventually
same employer but are not allowed to take be posed in terms of recognizing national
part in elections. So the worker has no "minorities" that will have become major¬
recourse against any possible exploitation, ities.
particularly since in many instances he will
ters of the total population are non-citi¬ have incurred heavy debts to gain entry
zens. In Kuwait over 75 per cent of the into the country in the first place. Even
workers and nearly 60 per cent of the pop¬ if he obtains regular employment it may
27
BETWEEN TWO CULTURES
Scandinavia
by Carolyn Swetland
HOW are migrants adapting to life The ban on Third World immigration and their language as a minority language.
in the Scandinavian countries? To and the arrival of wives and children They have created various institutions
understand the problems of adap¬ changed the situation. The unaccompanied exclusively concerned with migrants, such
tation that migrants face it might be better male worker who, it was assumed, would as housing institutions, separate employ¬
to turn the question round and ask: How eventually return home when no longer ment offices and separate youth clubs, and
are Scandinavians adapting to the presence needed, had become a family man appar¬ subsidized migrants' own organizations as
of migrants? ently there to stay. This not only affected well as mother-tongue and two-culture
the structural situation in the Scandinavian classes in schools and so on. Under this
Scandinavians tend to think of migrant
countries, but also attitudes towards immi¬ policy of cultural pluralism, as it has come
workers as being people from Third World
grants. to be called, ethnic differentiation has not
countries, whereas in fact migrant workers
only been endorsed, but also encouraged.
coming from other Scandinavian countries, Structurally the Scandinavian States
Europe and North America are far more define the migrant community as an ethnic What has been the outcome of this dif¬
numerous. minority, their culture as a minority culture ferentiation?
During the economic upswing in Europe Once the migrant becomes eligible for
during the 1960s Third World migrant it, family housing is normally available
workers were encouraged to come to the either in the older sections in the centres
Scandinavian countries by open-door gov¬ Cover of Immigranten - The Immigrant, of Scandinavian cities or, more recently,
ernmental policies aided by active labour a bilingual (Norwegian-English) quarterly in new suburban housing areas in the out¬
recruitment by private employers. Many produced and published by the Immi¬ skirts. These areas are not limited exclu¬
workers came from India, Pakistan and granten Collective, Oslo. "Norway is not sively to migrants, but in practice a high
Bangladesh, with Pakistani's now forming only for the Norwegians" proclaims the
percentage of migrant families live in them
poster carried by the little girl.
the largest group (about 7,500). since they are directed there by the housing
Just as labour was recruited when it was institutions to which they have to turn for
needed, so its entry was halted when it help in finding accommodation. It is not
was not. Norway was the last Scandinavian uncommon to find that as much as 85 per
country to call a halt to immigration (in cent of the population of these areas con¬
1975), but it did so with certain dispen¬ THE IMMIGRANT sists of immigrants with the remaining 15
>i. j ^im jh. »,-
sations which permitted free movement of per cent being made up of Scandinavians,
nomic element, but now he has become ruling that an immigrant cannot bring his
an ethnic element. Coming from the Third wife until he has family housing, and he
World and still attached to it in the eyes is not eligible for family housing unless his
28
''- \ 1. :'f. ' W
recruited in Rotterdam, taken out directly Immigrant girls in Norway. The first signs minority basis. And it is the host country
by boat and never set foot on Norwegian of adaptation to a culture which will soon that defines what a minority culture is.
soil. As a result these workers do not figure confront their own?
Today's man is a migrant. If he is treated
in Norwegian labour statistics.
as a member of a minority when he arrives
State subsidization of migrants' own in a white industrialized country, it is
organizations led to the destruction of the because he has been ethnically labelled.
original single-organization system which That he is part of a minority group in a
two-culture class teacher, to voice the opin¬
for a time offered a united front in defence particular host country is one thing. For
ion of many migrant parents when he
of migrants' interests. In Norway, for him to be treated as a member of a minority
declared: "We want an end to experi¬
example, the plurality of subsidies has is another.
mentation in the teaching of migrant chil¬
resulted in twenty-six separate and distinct
dren." The Third World migrant, often a for¬
Indian organizations receiving State funds
mer colonial subject, no longer sees him¬
Throughout all this the goal presumably
for a total Indian population of a little over
self as he was taught to, that is to say, with
remains the same to educate migrant chil¬
two thousand. Ethnic youth clubs are also
reference to the white industrial world, to
dren in such a way as to place them on
given financial support.
the white model. His models are changing.
an equal footing and to make them com¬
The policy of cultural pluralism may give The trouble lies in the fact that the former
petitive with indigenous children when
the impression that all cultures are free model seems to be unaware of this change.
they leave school. However, to be com¬
to flourish on an equal basis in the Scan¬ petitive with Scandinavian children the A migrant, as opposed to a man who
dinavian countries. But is this the case in
migrant child has to know three languages. has never moved, is a highly adapted and
the schools? Even a Swede, a Dane or a Norwegian adaptable person. He has to be. In order
The debate on the pros and cons of has to learn English in addition to his to survive he has had to learn the ins and
mother-tongue teaching in schools is far mother tongue if he is to obtain anything outs of other nations' cultures, languages,
from being resolved. Without exception other than a menial job. Learning the lan¬ income tax and social security systems. The
the migrants' own organizations demand guage of the country in which he lives and problem of adapting does not rest, and
mother-tongue teaching. Migrant parents works, when that language is itself a minor¬ never has rested with the migrant.
demand proficiency in the language of the ity language, does not take the migrant
29
The psychology of migrant
workers by Ana Vásquez
WHAT is there in common plans as Maria, who is going on forty? Over and women emigrating to Europe. A host
between Joâo, who had to leave and above the raw data of the figures illus¬ of studies have shown that people emi¬
his wife and children back in trating the trends and scale of the migration grating to the Americas leave their country
Portugal in 1978, and Mohamed, the North problem, what we are interested in finding of origin for good, whereas those who go
African shepherd, who only arrived in out is how human beings cope with their to work in the leading industrial countries
Europe a year ago? Does Mirjana, transplantation and what upsets it causes. of Europe visualize their stay as tempo¬
Mohamed's twenty-five-year-old wife, In the first place it should be remem¬ rary. The migrant's psychological situation
have the same feelings and make the same differs significantly in these two cases.
bered that migrants' attitudes, experiences
and plans vary from one period to another. It is more harrowing for people to leave
For example, they will not have the same their own country when their self-confi¬
outlook if they are only just preparing to dence has been undermined by the expe¬
These two recent (1985) works by the
leave their own country as they will if they riences they have gone through. Migrants
French sculptor Arman stand in the fore¬
have already spent five or ten years as leave because they earn a poor living or
court of Paris's Saint-Lazare station and
"foreigners" in another country. Hence,' because they are unemployed. They are
might be seen as a monument to rail trans¬
in psychological terms, a distinction can accordingly placed in a position where they
port, but they could also be interpreted
be made between several key stages in the are dominated, with all the demeaning con¬
as a comment on time-dominated big-city
life (left, L'Heuçe de Tous, "Everyone's actual experience of migration. sequences that implies. Leaving entails a
Time") and on the improbability of escape This is the standpoint from which the twofold effort. The first is psychological;
(right, Consigne à Vie, "Left Luggage analysis attempted here has been carried it entails an effort to overcome loss of self-
Office for Life"). out. It is exclusively concerned with men esteem and to look forward to the prospect
30
of vocational training or a fob abroad. The Members of a Turkish migrant family From the psychological standpoint, the
second is material and entails finding ways browse before an array of TV screens in main feature of this stage lies in the con¬
and means of making the journey. a store In the Fed. Rep. of Germany. flicts they experience whenever they have
to compare their habitual practices, norms
Strongly influenced by the images con¬
and values, in other words their original
veyed by the media and by the stories told
culture, with those of the host country.
by people who have returned home, which
to make a success of the plans they have
always tend to exaggerate the "wonders" In their country of origin, the extended
made. In many instances, therefore, they
of foreign countries, migrants have an family and the community deal with many
develop defence mechanisms in order to
idealized picture of the country to which aspects of everyday life which are handled
cope more easily with the difficulties con¬
they are so keen to go. The "credibility by institutions in the industrial countries.
fronting them.
gap" between the country they dream of For example, the social security, family
Consequently, they withdraw into them¬
and the real-life situation they will find allowance and day nursery systems require
selves and into their community, since they
there causes their first traumatic experi¬ information that has to be provided on
only feel at ease among their own people
ence. This is compounded not only by their special sheets or forms within prescribed
and tend to idealize their country of origin.
living and working conditions but by their deadlines. This is something foreigners find
This is reflected in the importance they
meagre knowledge of the language of the hard to grasp.
attach to certain features that seem to have
host country, behaviour patterns in large Moreover, urban time and space are also
no bearing on the success or failure of their
industrial cities, administrative formalities regulated. Even in the places where they
emigration plans, such as loyalty to their
which they do not understand, and even live, migrants are subject to constraints
own folk or appreciation of traditional fam¬
mechanical appliances which they look which they regard as infringements of their
ily cooking, or in their readiness to forget
upon as traps. Above all, however, a trau¬ personal freedom. They cannot perform
the unemployment and poverty in their
matic situation is created by the discrim¬ certain religious or family ceremonies such
country of origin.
inatory, if not overtly racist, attitudes to as the "sacrifice of the sheep", because
which they are exposed. As they feel ill Migrants also tend to become more frag¬ the smell and the noise will inconvenience
at ease and anonymous in an unfamiliar ile and to display somatization patterns; their neighbours; nor are they allowed to
situation which they are unable to control, when they are ill, they suffer from a range make a noise after certain hours.
the view they have of themselves is utterly of symptoms which are difficult to identify
The organization of time in industrial
confused. and which may even give rise to certain
cities is particularly demanding: everyday
forms of mental pathology.
Admitting to the resulting disappoint¬ life is compartmentalized, with set times
ment and sense of disarray would be tan¬ After a period of time which varies from for meals and leisure pursuits, and people
tamount to acknowledging failure, but that case to case, the migrants manage to over¬ have to hurry from place to place. The
is something the migrants cannot afford, come these initial stumbling blocks and comments made by migrants point to the
since their only strength lies in their desire embark on a process of transculturation. difficulties they face in adapting to the new
31
as when they claim "The people At this spectacular naturalization cere¬ compelled to live under the thumb of the
here rush around all the time, it's exhaust¬ mony at the Hollywood Bowl in 1954, family.
ing", or "At the factory your every move 7,600 people from 68 countries became
Such uncertainty can be distressing, for
is watched and you're even timed when citizens of the United States.
emigrants feel that they have endured all
you go to the toilet", or else "I am under
kinds of ordeals because they were going
pressure because you always have to be
to succeed and return home. Hence, giving
in a hurry. By the evening, I'm so ex¬
up the idea of returning is tantamount to
hausted that I feel as if I've had all the native culture, which they do not wish to
making a far-reaching appraisal of the very
stuffing knocked out of me". betray, and their newly acquired outlook,
meaning of their lives.
which they feel to be more suited to the
Social relationships, especially between
continued fulfilment of their plans. They have to ask themselves whether
men and women, are baffling and cause
they are going to stay and become inte¬
tensions. Gestures that are meant to be "I should like to open a grocery store
grated. However, in some European coun¬
polite are taken for impudence, and signs in the village, but I haven't managed to
tries the adoption of such a course is to
of friendship are misinterpreted. After save enough money yet. I've been in Paris
some extent a gamble, given the extent
some bewilderment which prompts them for fifteen years.... What worries me most
of discriminatory and even aggressive reac¬
to withdraw into their shells, migrants is that my son wants to stay here, my
tions towards immigrant workers and their
reach the point where they try to com¬ daughter would like to go on with her stud¬
children.
prehend these behaviour patterns and to ies... and even my wife is not all that keen
compare them with their own. Then they on going back." These comments by a What choice lies open to them? The
slowly embark on a process of change migrant worker reflect a situation that has uncertainties and the issues we have
which eventually comes to affect significant become fairly widespread and arises when, described form the backdrop to the lives
aspects of their personality , and cultural after a period of time, the members of the of migrants and place them and their chil¬
identity. family start to question the dream of going dren in a kind of nomansland which often
behaviour in the street" or by "the way is meant to be "home", especially since Chilean origin, is currently engaged in research
with the Centre National de la Recherche Scien¬
they look at women". But even though their friends are "over here". Women
tifique, in France. She formerly taught edu¬
the migrants adopt some of the norms of sometimes without even realizing it find
cational psychology at the University of Chile
the host country; they are still "out on a that they enjoy greater social independ¬
and is the author of some 30 studies and articles
limb" as it were, torn between their deep- ence. They often dread going back to a on the psychological problems of displaced per¬
rooted and unconscious attachment to their situation in which they would again be sons and the processes of transculturation.
32
Return ticket
The problems of going back
the liberal climate of international migra¬ because immigrants were no longer leaving
THE flows of migration to the West¬
tions which still prevailed at the beginning that the host countries "invented" the idea
ern countries which took place after
of the twentieth century. of giving them money to encourage them
the Second World War, and espe¬
cially from the 1960s onwards, differed to return to their own countries.
The idea that States had the right to
from earlier migratory movements in that encourage immigrant workers to return to The fact is that policies to incite immi¬
they were primarily intended to be tem¬ their countries of origin in a situation grants to retufn raise questions of legality
porary. where labour was surplus to requirements both for the countries which carry them
slowly emerged between the two World out and, increasingly, for the countries of
In the wake of those immigrants who
Wars. Today, no European State can take origin. In the host countries, providing
took their families and left their homeland
peremptory measures for the collective assistance for return to the countries of
to conquer a new world, the immigrants
expulsion of migrants. It is widely accepted origin is theoretically supposed to reassure
of the 1960s scarcely entertained the idea
that the loss of residence entitlement, public opinion which is anxious about the
of settling in the host country on a per¬
which entails the loss of acquired social immigrant problem, but in practice it is
manent basis. Their intention was to find
benefits, should give rise to compensation. a costly, not very effective, and sometimes
better paid jobs, to put some money aside,
even damaging exercise. It may well be
and then to go back and turn their savings As a result, there has been a gradual
asked what purpose it serves, apart from
to good account. recognition of a right associated with the
having symbolic implications and serving
return process, which is no longer rejected
The clampdown on immigration decided
as a bargaining counter between the States
either by immigrants or by the trade
by the industrialized countries after the
concerned.
unions, which are now more concerned
1973 oil crisis had the unexpected effect
with negotiating the amount of compen¬ To what extent does the return of the
of increasing the immigrant population res¬
sation to be paid. In a context of economic migrants benefit the countries from which
ident in those countries and prolonging
crisis, workers who are nationals of the they emigrated? In fact, although their
their stay. At the same time, there was
host country sometimes protest against the return may appear, at first sight, to be an
a significant decline in the number of sea¬
discriminatory nature of such a right which advantage for the country of origin, a num¬
sonal returns coinciding with vacation
does not apply to them and which gives ber of recent studies have shown that this
periods.
them the impression that immigrants are is by no means always the case.
This paradoxical situation stemmed from
favoured when it comes to leaving their
In terms of vocational training, the mar¬
the fact that restrictions on immigration
jobs.
ginal status of foreign workers in the host
initially applied only to the workers them¬
This thinking about the return process country is little incentive for them to
selves who, since they expected more strin¬
gradually began to spread in the receiving improve their qualifications. The govern¬
gent regulations to be introduced, did their
countries when they closed their frontiers ments of the host countries have clearly
utmost to bring their families over to join
to foreign workers. In a sense it was recognized this, since those which attempt
them. As a result, many migrant workers
postponed their return home indefinitely,
and, afraid that they might not gain re-
admittance to the host country, refrained
from returning to their country of origin
even for a temporary visit.
33
This work by the Belgian artist René
Magritte ( La Maison de Verre, 1939) could
be seen as the depiction oía man eternally
looking back to his past or dreaming of
a return to his homeland.
Lastly, it must be stressed that on-the- and may entail a high social cost in urban the University of Paris. He is the author of many
job training in factories and other work¬ areas. studies on the legal aspects of migration. He
was director of a comparative study entitled
places is primarily geared to the needs of The tertiary sector of the economy, espe¬
Immigrant Workers in Europe: their Legal Sta¬
the industrial society of the host country cially small independent businesses, is the
tus, published by Unesco in 1982.
and will be of little value to the country big magnet for their savings. Such small
of origin. businesses, of which one-man taxi services CATHERINE WIHTOL DE WENDEN, of
are typical, are notoriously unproductive France, is engaged in research with the Centre
In terms of financial input to their coun¬
and are liable to have parasitic effects on National de la Recherche Scientifique and is
try of origin, regardless of whether the
the economy of the country of return. a consultant with the Organization for Economic
immigrants return as "failures" or "suc¬
Co-operation and Development (OECD). She
cesses", they will try to acquire a social Lastly, savings are often channelled into has published many articles on the political
and economic status higher than that they the purchase of consumer goods. As a rule aspects of migration, including a work entitled
enjoyed when they left. The vast majority this has an adverse effect on the economy Les Immigrés dans la Cité (1978).
Editorial, Sales and Distribution Office: Assistant Editor-in-chief: Olga Rodel Malaysian: Azizah Hamzah (Kuala Lumpur)
Unesco, 7, Place de Fontenoy, 75700 Paris. Managing Editor: Gillian Whitcomb Korean: Paik Syeung-Gil (Seoul)
Swahili: Domino Rutayebesibwa
BRODARD GRAPHIQUE, COULOMMIERS - Dépôt légal C 1 - Septembre 1985 - IMPRIMÉ EN FRANCE (Printed in France)
PHOTOCOMPOSITION/PHOTOGRAVURE DAWANT - 13, rue des Arquebusiers - 75003 PARIS.
34
Two Unesco books on migrant workers
AUSTRALIA. Hunter Publications, 58A Gipps Street, Colling- Kamani Marg, Ballard Estate, Bombay 400038; 17 Chittaranjan Trade Book Service. P.O.B. 6125 Etterstad, Oslo 6; Universitets
wood Victoria 3066; Publications: Educational Supplies Pty. Ltd. Avenue, Calcutta 13; 36a, Anna Salai, Mount Road, Madras 2; Bokhandelen, Universitetssentret, Postboks 307 Blindem, Oslo 3.
P.O. Box 33, Brookvale, 2100, NSW. Periodicals: Dominie Pty. 5-9-41/1 Bashir Bagh, Hyderabad 500001 (AP); 80/1 Mahatma PAKISTAN. Mirza Book Agency, 65 Shahrah Quaid-i-azam, P.O.
Subscriptions Dept., P.O. Box 33, Brookvale 2100, NSW. Sub- Gandhi Road, Bangalore-560001; 3-5-820 Hyderguda, Box No. 729, Lahore 3; Unesco Publications Centre, Regional
agent: United Nations Association of Australia, P.O. Box 1 75, Hyderabad-500001. Sub-Depots: Oxford Book & Stationery Co. Office for Book development in Asia and the Pacific, 39 Delhi
5th floor. Ana House, 28 Elizabeth Street, Melbourne Victoria 17 Park Street, Calcutta 70016; Scindia House, New Delhi; Housing Society, P.O. Box 8950, Karachi 29. PHILIPPINES.
3000. AUSTRIA. Buchhandlung Gerold and Co., Graben 31, Publication Unit, Ministry of Education and Culture, Ex. AFO National Book Store, Inc. 701, Rizal Avenue, Manila D-404.
A-101 1 , Vienna. BAHAMAS. Nassau Stationers Ltd., P.O. Box Hutments, Dr. Rajendra Prasad Road, New Delhi 1 10001. POLAND. Orpan-lmport, Palac Kultury I Nauki, Warsaw; Ars
N-3138, Nassau. BANGLADESH. Bangladesh Books INDONESIA. Bhratara Publishers and Booksellers, 29 Jl. Oto Polona-Ruch, Krakowskie Przedmiescie No. 7.00-068 WARSAW.
International Ltd., Ittefaq Building, 1, R.K. Mission Rd., Hatkhola, Iskandardinata III, Jakarta; Indira P. T., Jl Dr Sam Ratulangie 37, PORTUGAL. Dias & Andrade Ltda. Livraria Portugal, rua do
Dacca 3. BARBADOS. University of the West Indies Jakarta Pusat. IRAN. Kharazmie Publishing and Distribution Co., Carmo 70, Lisbon. SEYCHELLES. National Bookshop, P.O. Box
Bookshop, Cave Hill Campus, P.O. Box 64, Bridgetown. 28, Vessal Shirazi Street, Enghélab Avenue. P.O. Box 31 4/1 486, 48, Mahé; New Service Ltd., Kingsgate House, P.O. Box 131,
BELGIUM. "Unesco Courier" Dutch edition only: N.V. Teheran; Iranian Nat. Comm. for Unesco. 1 188 Enghtab Av., Mahé. SIERRA LEONE. Fourah Bay, Njala University and Sierra
Handelmaatschappij Keesing. Keesinglaan 2-18, 2100 Deurne- Rostam Give Building, Zip Code 13158, P.O. Box 11365-4498, Leone Diocesan Bookshops, Freetown. SINGAPORE. Federal
Antwerpen. French edition and general Unesco publications Teheran. IRAQ. McKenzie's Bookshop, AI Rashid Street, Publications (S) Pte Ltd. Times Jurong, 2 Jurong Port Road,
agent: Jean de Lannoy, 202, avenue du Roi, 1060 Brussels, CCP Baghdad. IRELAND. The Educational Company of Ireland Ltd, Singapore 2261. SOMALI DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC. Modern
000-0070823-13. BOTSWANA. Botswana Book Centre, P.O. Ballymount Road, Walkinstown, Dublin 12. ISRAEL. A. B.C. Book Shop and General, P.O. Box 951, Mogadiscio. SOUTH
Box 91, Gaborone. BURMA. Trade Corporation No. 9, 550-552 Bookstore Ltd., P.O. Box 1283, 71 Allenby Road, Tel Aviv AFRICA. For the Unesco Courier [single copies) only: Central
Merchant Street, Rangoon. CANADA. Renouf Publishing Co. 61000. ITALY. Licosa (Librería Commissionaria Sansoni, S.p.A.) News agency, P.O. Box 1033, Johannesburg. SRI LANKA. Lake
Ltd., 2182 St. Catherine Street West, Montreal, Que. H3H 1M7. Vis Lamarmora 45, Casella Postale 552, 50121 Florence. House Bookshop, 100 Sir Chittampalam Gardiner Mawata P.O.B.
CHINA. China National Publications Import and Export JAMAICA. Sangster's Book Stores Ltd., P.O. Box 366, 101 244 Colombo 2. SUDAN. AI Bashir Bookshop, P.O. Box 1118,
Corporation, P.O. Box 88, Beijing. CYPRUS. "MAM", Water. Lane, Kingston. University of the West Indies Bookshop, Khartoum. SWEDEN. All publications A/B.CE. Fritzes Kungl,
Archbishop Makarios 3rd Avenue, P.O. Box 1722, Nicosia. Mona, Kingston. JAPAN. Eastern Book Service Inc., 37-3 Hongo Regeringsgatan 12, Box 16356. 10327
CZECHOSLOVAKIA. - S.N.T.L., Spalena 51-113 02, Prague 3-chome Bunkyo-ku Tokyo 1 1 3. KENYA. East African Publishing Stockholm 16. For the Unesco Courier: Svenska FN Förbundet,
1; Ve Smeckach 30, P.O.B. 790 - 1 1 1 - 27 Prague 1 (Permanent House, P.O. Box 30571, Nairobi; Africa Book Services Ltd., Skolgrand 2, Box 150 50 S- 104 65, Stockholm; Wennergren-
display); Zahranicni literatura, 1 1 Soukenicka, Prague 1 . For Quran House, Mfangano Street, P.O. Box 45245, Nairobi. Williams, Box 30004-S-104, 25 Stockholm; Esselte
Slovakia only: Alfa Verlag. Publishers, Hurbanovo nam. 6,893 KOREA. Korean National Commission for Unesco, P.O. Box Tidskriftscentralen, Gamla Brogatan 26, Box 62 - 101 20
31 Bratislava CSSR. DENMARK. Munksgaard Export-OG Central 64, Seoul. KUWAIT. The Kuwait Bookshop Co., Ltd, Stockholm. SWITZERLAND. All publications: Europa Verlag. 5
Tidsskriftservice 35 Norre Sogade, DK-1970 Kobenhavn K. POB 2942, Kuwait; for the Unesco Courier; Farafalla Press Rämistrasse. Zurich. Librairie Payot, rue -Grenus 6, 1211, Geneva
EGYPT (ARAB REPUBLIC OF). National Centre for Unesco Agency, P.O. Box SAFA 4541, Kuwait. LESOTHO. Mazenod 1 1 , CCP. 1 2-236. Librairies Payot also in Lausanne, Basle,
Publications, No. 1 Talaat Harb Street, Cairo. ETHIOPIA. Book Centre, P.O. Mazenod. Lesotho, Southern Africa. LIBERIA.' Berne, Vevey, Montreux, Neuchâtel and Zurich. TANZANIA.
National Agency for Unesco, P.O. Box 2996, Addis Ababa. Code and Yancy Bookshops Ltd., P.O. Box 286, Monrovia. Dares Salaam Bookshop, P.O.B. 9030 Dar-es-Salaam.
FINLAND. Akateeminen Kirjakauppa, Keskuskatu 1 , SF-001 00 LIECHTENSTEIN : Eurocan Trust Reg. P.O.B. 5 - 9494 Schaan. THAILAND. Nibondh and Co. Ltd., 40-42 Charoen Krung Road,
Helsinki 10; Suomalainen Kirjakauppa Oy, Koivuvaarankuja 2, - LIBYA. Agency for Development of Publication & Distribution, Siyaeg Phaya Sri, P.O. Box 402; Bangkok: Suksapan Pamt,
01640 Vantaa 64. FRANCE. Librairie de ('Unesco, 7, place de P.O. Box 34-35, Tripoli. LUXEMBOURG. Librairie Paul Brück, Mansion 9, Rajdamnern Avenue, Bangkok; Suksit Siam
Fontenoy, 75700 Paris, CCP. 12598-48. GERMAN 22, Grande-Rue, Luxembourg. MALAWI. Malawi Book Service, Company, 1715 Rama IV Road, Bangkok. TRINIDAD AND
DEMOCRATIC REP. Buchhaus Leipzig, Postfach 140, 710 Head Office, P.O. Box 30044 Chichiri, Blantyre 3. MALAYSIA. TOBAGO. National Commission for Unesco, 18 Alexandra
Leipzig or from Internationalen Buchhandlungen in the G.D.R. University of Malaya Cooperative Bookshop, Kuala Lumpur Street, St. Clair, Trinidad, W.I. TURKEY. Haset Kitapovi A.S.,
FED. REP. OF GERMANY. For the Unesco Courier (German, 22-1 1 . MALTA. Sapienzas, 26 Republic Street, Valletta. Istiklâl Caddesi, N° 469, Posta Kutusu 219, Beyoglu, Istambul.
English, French and Spanish editions): Mr. H. Baum, Deutscher MAURITIUS. Nalanda Company Ltd., 30, Bourbon Street, Port- UGANDA. Uganda Bookshop, P.O. Box 7145, Kampala.
Unesco-Kurier Vertrieb, Basaltstrasse 57, D5300 Bonn 3. For Louis. MONACO. British Library, 30 bd. des Moulins, Monte- UNITED KINGDOM. H.M. Stationery Office, H.M.S.O., P.O.
other Unesco publications: Karger Verlag, Germering/München. Carlo. NEPAL. Sajha Prakashan Polchowk, Kathmandu. Box 276, London, SW8 5DT, and Govt. Bookshops in London.
For scientific maps only: Geo Center, Postfach 800830, NETHERLANDS. KEESING BOEKEN B.V., Joan Muyskenweg, Edinburgh, Belfast, Manchester, Birmingham, Bristol; for
Stuttgart 80. GHANA. Presbyterian Bookshop Depot Ltd., P.O. 22, Postbus 1 1 18, 1000 BC Amsterdam. NETHERLANDS scientific maps only: McCarta Ltd., 122 King's Cross Road,
Box 195, Accra; Ghana Book Suppliers Ltd., P.O. Box 7869, ANTILLES. Van Dorp-Eddine N.V., P.O. Box 200, Willemstad, London WC 1 X 9 DS. UNITED STATES. Unipub, 205 East
Accra; The University Bookshop of Ghana, Accra; The University Curaçao. N.A. NEW ZEALAND. Government Printing Office, 42nd Street, New York, N.Y. 1001 7. Orders for books &
Bookshop of Cape Coast; The University Bookshop of Legón, Government Bookshops at: Rutland Street, P.O. Box 5344, Periodicals: P.O. Box 1222, Ann Arbor, Ml 48106. USSR.
P.O. Box 1, Legón. GREAT BRITAIN. See United Kingdom. Auckland; 130, Oxford Terrace. P.O. Box 1721 Christchurch; Mezhdunarodnaya Kniga, Moscow, 121200. YEMEN. 14th
HONG KONG. Federal Publications (HK) Ltd., 5A Evergreen Alma Street, P.O. Box 857 Hamilton; Princes Street, P.O. Box October Corporation, P.O. Box 4227, Aden. YUGOSLAVIA.
Industrial Mansion, 12 Yip Fat Street, Aberdeen. Swindon Book 1104, Dunedin, Mulgrave Street, Private Bag, Wellington. Mladost, Mica 30/1 1 , Zagreb; Cankarjeva Zalozba, Zopitarjeva 2,
Co., 13-15, Lock Road, Kowloon. Hong Kong Government NIGERIA. The University Bookshop of Ife; The University Lubljana; Nolit, Terazije 27/11, Belgrade. ZAMBIA. National
Information Services, Publication Centre, Baskerville House, 22 Bookshop of Ibadan, P.O. 286; The University Bookshop of Educational Distribution Co. of Zambia Ltd., P.O. Box 2664
ice Street. HUNGARY. Kultura-Bushimport ABT, P.O.B. 149 - Nsukka; The University Bookshop of Lagos; The Ahmadu Bello Lusaka. ZIMBABWE. Textbook Sales (PVT) Ltd., 67 Union
H-1389, Budapest 62. ICELAND. Snaebjörn Jonsson & Co., University Bookshop of Zaria. NORWAY. Johan Grundt Tanum, Avenue, Harare.
H.F., Hafnarstraeti 9, Reykjavik. INDIA. Orient Longman Ltd., P.O.B. 1 177 Sentrum - Oslo 1, Narvesen A/S; Subscription and
m
ï?
'fit
Estimates of the number of migrants in the world vary widely, of employment. On the basis of the definition of migrants as
partly because of the difficulty of obtaining reliable statistics from "persons not possessing the citizenship of their country of employ¬
some areas and partly because of discrepancies in the definition ment", the International Labour Office estimates the number of
of migrants. Leaving aside refugees, tourists, pilgrims and economically active migrants in today's world as at least 19.7
nomads, the major distinguishing feature of migrants is that they to 21 .7 million. Above, a cosmopolitan scene at the Notting Hill
move to a country of which they are not nationals for the purpose carnival. London.