CORPUS CHRISTI COLLEGE, OXFORD

SCHOOLS SCIENCE PRIZE 2009

Corpus Christi College, Oxford is looking for bright and talented Sixth Form Science
students to enter our annual science competition. If you enjoy solving interesting, yet
challenging problems, then we invite you to enter one of our competitions. There is a
top prize of £500 available in both categories, with smaller prizes for runners up and
entries which the judges decide are Highly Commended. All prize winners will be
invited to Corpus Christi on our Open Day on September 18th where they will have the
opportunity to have lunch and receive a tour of the University science facilities.

To enter, please complete this coversheet and send your responses either electronically
(as a PDF or word document) to science.prize@ccc.ox.ac.uk.

The closing date for entries is Friday 31st July 2009. Good luck!

Name: Indranil Banik

School: The Harvey Grammar School

Address: Cheriton Road,

Folkestone,

CT19 5JY

Which competition are you entering (delete as appropriate)?

PHYSICS

What assistance (if any) did you receive in completing your entry?

None

Finally, please sign below to verify that this entry is your own work.

Indranil Banik
 Dark Matter

One of the great unsolved mysteries of modern day

physics and cosmology is the enigma of dark matter.
We still do not know what most of the matter in the
universe actually is. Although this may seem
remarkable, it is perhaps not surprising considering how
vast and mysterious the universe still is. Scientists now
believe that most of the mass in galaxies (inferred from
rotation speeds and positions and also gravitational
lensing effects) cannot actually be seen. This has been
believed as far back as 1933, when observations of the Figure 1 A typical galactic rotation
Coma Cluster of galaxies by Fritz Zwicky suggested curve. Rotation speeds do not
that there was much more mass present than could decrease outside the galaxy’s
actually be seen. The mass was calculated from central bulge which should contain
measurements of the velocities and positions of stars most of its mass. The density must
and galaxies in this cluster [fig.1]. This invisible matter therefore remain constant outside
was named ‘dark matter’ to signify the unknown. it, despite there being fewer stars
More accurate measurements in recent times, especially with the Hubble and other space based
telescopes, have given us an accurate estimate of how much dark matter there actually is. We
believe that the composition of the universe is as shown in Figure 2, which shows both mass
and energy as they are equivalent. Only 4% of the total composition is currently understood.
Dark matter makes up five times as much mass as ordinary baryonic matter (composed of
protons and neutrons). Dark energy, although beyond the scope of this essay, makes up the
majority of mass and energy in our universe. The above estimates are based on measurements
taken including galactic rotation curves (velocity and position measurements), gravitational
lensing effects and detailed cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB) measurements.

Intergalactic Taken recently by the Cosmic Background Explorer Satellite,

Stars,
gas the CMB measurements reveal how much radiation was emitted
planets etc.
3.6% when stable atoms first formed in the universe. Due to their
0.4%
discrete energy levels and a temperature too low to ionise the
Dark hydrogen atoms, most of the radiation incident on them (due to
matter the high temperature of 3000°K) was not absorbed. Instead, it
22% was reflected and we can still observe it. We know accurately
the mass to photon ratio for this event so we know how much
Dark energy baryonic matter there is in the universe. Distances to Type IA
74% supernovae of constant absolute magnitude (-19.3) and their
redshifts can be measured easily, telling us their velocity away
from us. This tells us how the expansion rate of the universe has
altered over time and thus its total gravitationally attractive
Figure 2 The composition
mass. As a result, we know that there is nearly 7 times as much
of the universe
matter as baryonic matter – the rest is called dark matter.
Although most scientists accept the existence of dark matter, it is possible but unlikely that it
does not exist. There may be a huge number of black holes, brown dwarfs or other ‘ordinary’
objects which we can not see simply because they are dark rather than non – baryonic and do
not interact with electromagnetic radiation. It is fair to say that a lot of the ‘dark matter’ may
be explained in this way. However, the amount of it is just too much to explain using known
particles. Hence the need for new as yet unknown particles [fig.3].

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 Nature of Dark Matter

We believe that dark matter has similarities to ordinary matter in certain ways, for instance it
can be concentrated by gravitational forces. However, the particles involved do not interact via
the electromagnetic or strong nuclear forces. They only interact via the weak nuclear force and
gravity. This is what makes them difficult to detect and ‘dark’. The particles that make up dark
matter are not baryonic in nature (made of protons or neutrons). They are as yet undetected.

There are several explanations for dark matter including new particles. Known phenomena like
neutron stars and black holes could account for a lot of the dark matter as they are dark but not
unknown. These are called massive compact halo objects (MACHOs) as they must occur in an
extended halo around galaxies to account for their observed galactic rotation curves and nearly
uniform density beyond the central bulge. These may explain some of the dark matter but we
do not think that they can fully explain the staggering amount of dark matter out there.

Modifications to Newton’s theory of gravity may account for dark matter (for example, if the
inverse square law was replaced by a simple inverse law for very large galactic distances).

Particle Mass (in Charge (in Spin However, the most favoured
proton electron explanation is a new weakly
masses) charges) interacting massive particle
Electron L 0.00054 -1 ½ (WIMP). This is because a lot of
Electron neutrino E 0 0 ½ theories postulate such particles and
Muon P 0.11 -1 ½ there is a clear reason why they
Muon neutrino T 0 0 ½ have not yet been discovered (they
Tau O 1.9 -1 ½ are massive or heavy and take more
Tau neutrino N 0 0 ½ energy to produce than current
S particle accelerators can provide).
Up quark Q 0.0047 +2⁄3 ½ Of course, their weakly interacting
Down quark U 0.0074 1
⁄3 ½ nature does not help either.
2
Charm quark A 1.6 + ⁄3 ½ Some theories like supersymmetry
1
Strange quark R 0.16 ⁄3 ½ predict ‘super-partners’ to all known
2
Top Quark K 189 + ⁄3 ½ particles with a spin value which is
1
Bottom quark S 5.2 ⁄3 ½ ½ different. The lightest such super
symmetric particle may be stable
Photon B 0 0 1 like the proton but they are all very
Gluon O 0 0 1 heavy. Therefore, it could explain
W+ S 89 1 1 dark matter. Supersymmetric
W- O 89 -1 1 models include superstring theory.
Z0 N 99 0 1
Graviton S 0 0 2 These particles are believed to be
moving slowly (‘cold dark matter’).
Supersymmetric ~1000 0 0 This is because the particles would
particles ? ~1000 0 1 not clump together due to gravity
otherwise as they must to account
Figure 3 Properties of known elementary particles for the galactic rotation curves.

The actual WIMP particles responsible for dark matter, in addition to the properties in their
name, also self – annihilate. This would produce energy that may convert to pairs of electrons
and positrons which again annihilate and produce photons of wavelength 2.43 × 10-12 m. Such
annihilation in excess of our predictions may have been observed near the centre of our galaxy.

2
 Searching for Dark Matter

Although astrophysical measurements have proven the existence of dark matter, it is only
through detection on Earth that we can learn what the particles involved actually are and learn
their properties. All direct searches for dark matter must either produce and detect the particles
or detect them only (if they are floating through space and luckily enter the detector). The
detection can only take place through interaction with ordinary matter as all our detectors are
made of it or detect photons (which dark matter does not emit or absorb). As such interaction
is rare and cosmic rays are common, it is difficult to distinguish a dark matter event from a
cosmic ray event. Various strategies like magnets have been used to overcome this problem.

EDELWEISS (Expérience pour D’Etecter Les Wimps En Site Souterrain) is a dark matter
detector under the Alps that use germanium detectors to measure ionization and heat created
by dark matter particles. These particles may collide with the detector, resulting in heat. They
can also remove electrons by colliding with them, causing ionization which can be detected.

The Cryogenic Dark Matter Search (CDMS) uses supercooled detectors that measure
ionization and phonons when dark matter particles interact with the detector’s atoms.
Ionization occurs when electrons are knocked out of detector atoms and phonons are vibrations
of the crystal lattice structure of the detectors. The Cryogenic Rare Event Search with
Superconducting Thermometers (CRESST) uses very similar technology to the CDMS.

The Zoned Proportional scintillation in Liquid Noble gases is a different type of dark matter
detector. It uses liquid xenon which scintillates when dark matter particles hit it. These
particles push up the energy of electrons and ionize some of them. These free electrons may
excite other bound electrons and cause the emission of a flash of light. Sensitive
photodetectors (photomultiplier tubes) are used to detect these flashes. The XENON Dark
Matter Search Experiment uses very similar technology.

A photomultiplier tube uses the photoelectric effect and an accelerating potential difference.
An incident photon causes emission of electrons which are accelerated by a large potential
difference. This electron then hits a dynode which is like an electrode and causes further
emission of electrons. However, as electrons may lose part of their energy to liberate one
electron and the rest to liberate other electrons, more than one electron is emitted at this stage.
This is called secondary emission. A large number of dynodes may be used, creating a cascade
of electrons. This may then be detected as a large electric current (relative to the single
incident photon)! Thus, photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) are very sensitive photon detectors.

Figure 4 Diagram showing how an end-on photomultiplier tube (PMT) works

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The WIMP Argon programme uses very similar technology to the previous two experiments
but is able to detect recoiling noble gas nuclei. These nuclei may be hit by electrons and alpha
particles and recoil, but not by as much as if they were hit by a dark matter particle. This is
because such particles are theorised to be heavier. Nuclear recoil can be detected if the
temperature of the liquid is such that a superconducting wire carrying current through it is at
just under its critical temperature. A tiny rise in temperature therefore leads to a large rise in
resistance and further rises in temperature etc.
The technology normally used for this purpose is called a
transition edge sensor (TES). Such a sensor involves a
superconducting material cooled to within the narrow range
where it changes from superconducting to normal. If the
temperature rises, the resistance rises [fig.5] and reduces the
current through the wire and its heating effect.

As P = V2 ÷R for constant voltage (the voltage is kept

constant), a rise in temperature and resistance (R) leads to a
Figure 5 Graph of resistance fall in the heating effect (P). Alternating current is used
against temperature for a because direct current would lead to true superconducting and
superconductor with a an ever increasing current if the wire was too cold with no way
critical temperature of 0.8ºK for this current to ever cause the required heating (as P = 0).
When a dark matter
particle hits a noble gas
nucleus, its velocity rises
and this leads to a sharp
rise in temperature
[fig.6]. This is soon
dampened down by the
decrease in current, as
Figure 6 A spike in temperature leads to a sharp momentary mentioned. However, it
drop in current which is easily detected by ordinary electronics is this decrease in current
that is actually measured
with current being used as a proxy for resistance (as voltage is kept constant) and resistance
depends on temperature. Dark matter particle impacts may increase the kinetic energy and thus
the temperature of the detector which in this case is acting as an ultrasensitive thermometer.
Some superconducting detectors are kept much cooler than their critical temperature, usually at
thousandths of a kelvin. Superconductors consist of nuclei and delocalised electrons that carry
current [fig 7]. These electrons form Cooper pairs and this is what allows the material to
superconduct. A rise in temperature (which is just a measure of the motion of particles) causes
these Cooper pairs to break and results in the production of excited Bogoliubov quasiparticles.
However, the material remains superconducting. If the superconductor is arranged beside
another conductor with a thin insulator separating the two and current flowing into the
superconductor, current will clearly not flow into the conductor under normal circumstances
due to the insulator. However, quasiparticles can tunnel across the insulating barrier. The
number of quasiparticles flowing across can easily be measured as an electric current. The rise
in temperature affects the number of quasiparticles produced. This in turn gives us information
on the energies of the dark matter particles. In this case, there is no liquid noble gas except
perhaps as a coolant with the dark matter particles interacting directly with the nuclei of the
superconductor itself. No superconducting technology is ideal for scaling up due to safety.

4
Figure 7 Quantum tunnelling in a superconductor due to the breaking of Cooper pairs. This
breaking is caused by the impact of a dark matter particle which may be slow but heavy
(the prediction of most current theories of dark matter) and the resulting temperature rise.

Whatever the technology used in the

actual detectors, interactions between
dark matter and ordinary matter remain
rare and the ‘weakly interacting’
description remains as accurate as ever.
In fact, these interactions are so rare
that ordinary cosmic ray events would
normally far outnumber them. For
these reasons, it is necessary to shield
the detectors from cosmic rays. The
easiest way to achieve this is by putting
them underground as cosmic rays come
from space [fig.8].

Figure 8 Dark Matter Experiment using Argon

Figure 9 Deflection of charged
Pulse-shape discrimination (DEAP) in Sudbury,
particles in a magnetic field. Dark
Ontario (Canada) in Vale Inco's Creighton nickel
matter particles are not deflected.
mine. Most of the detector is below ground (green)

Another common problem is that a fast alpha particle may appear similar to a slow dark matter
particle (thought to be much heavier) in terms of energy and momentum. This problem may be
overcome by having a strong magnetic field which deflects charged particles like alpha
particles [fig.9]. Dark matter particles are neutral so they are not deflected in the same way.

5
 Direct Production of Dark Matter Particles

All of the above experiments and technologies attempt to detect dark matter particles which
just happen to float into a detector and collide with the nuclei of its atoms despite the fact that
such particles are weakly interacting. However, the success rate is likely to be very low and
there has not been much success to date with such approaches (it was always going to be hard).

A novel approach to this problem is

to try and directly produce these dark
matter particles in a particle
accelerator despite such particles
being heavy relative to other known
particles (as we have been unable to
produce them yet and also because
this is what current theories predict).

Illustration: Norman Graf, SLAC

Clearly, technological progress is
necessary for this approach to work.
However, the Large Hadron Collider
at CERN, when it eventually comes
online, should be able to produce the
particles responsible for the dark
matter phenomenon. This should
provide a huge burst of dark matter
particles from the energetic
collisions. Hopefully, the numbers of
such particles produced would be
high enough that a sensitive detector
would be able to detect them. It is
highly unlikely that the particles are
unstable as they would not amount to
such a large proportion of the
universe’s mass and energy content if
they were. These particles would
have characteristic signatures very
Figure 10 A simulation of a dark matter particle different to those of other known
event in which a dark matter particle is produced particles, mainly because of their
mass. Although some known particles
inside a particle accelerator and the expected signal
are quite heavy relative to protons and
neutrons, they are all unstable and rarely reach the detectors. Even if they did, the
characteristics of the resulting signal would likely be unique [fig.10].

Thus, some approaches attempt to detect dark matter particles floating through space and some
attempt to detect dark matter particles produced in high energy particle collisions in a particle
accelerator. Both approaches are complementary as the properties of dark matter found by
currently operating detectors may guide the experimental setup used at the LHC and vice
versa. Current detectors also have the significant advantage of being able to tell us what the
speeds of naturally occurring dark matter particles typically are, thus telling us their
temperature. As there is little interaction with ordinary matter and none with electromagnetic
radiation, there is no known mechanism by which the temperatures of these two types of

6
matter would be equalised. The temperature of dark matter could thus be very different to that
of ordinary matter, with significant implications for our current understanding of the universe
and galaxy formation (very hot dark matter particles can not even be clumped together by
gravity, much like an atmosphere of a planet could be boiled off by extreme heating). Besides,
competing theories predict different such temperatures so such observations may help to
distinguish between them. The kinetic energy of a dark matter particle produced in a particle
accelerator would bear no resemblance whatsoever to the kinetic energy of such a particle in
nature. So there is definitely no ‘superior method’ as they all have various shortcomings and
unique advantages as well as costs and times for completion (which may be worth the wait).

Dark matter remains as ‘dark’ as

ever or, in other words, unknown.

NASA/ESA/Hubble Cosmic Evolution Survey (COSMOS)

However, we have come an
enormous way since the 1933
discovery of large amounts of dark
matter in terms of understanding
some of its properties. Although
there has been little success
experimentally in attempting to
detect or produce dark matter,
there has been a great deal of
success in terms of astrophysical
observations. These have
culminated in the 3D model of the
distribution of dark matter in the
universe based on Hubble data
(2D and also back in time) and the
CMB measurements mentioned
earlier which give us a very
accurate idea of its total amount.

In addition to these
experimental successes, there
has also been a lot of progress
in terms of formulating new
theories that incorporate an
undiscovered stable particle Figure 11 The distribution of dark matter in part of
that could account for dark the universe over time using data from the Hubble
matter (unstable particles Space Telescope. Dark matter has grown increasingly
would decay too quickly to clumpy in recent times due to the pull of gravity
contribute enough mass). As
mentioned, supersymmetry and other theories like Modified Newtonian Dynamics (changing
the laws of gravity for the tiny accelerations experienced by stars in galaxies due to the large
distances) may all explain dark matter. Those involving actual particles like superstring theory
and the supersymmetric standard model have culminated in the diagram showing how a dark
matter particle being produced in a particle accelerator would appear to the detectors.

As a result of all these technologies and approaches, there is hope that we will find out the true
nature of dark matter and its properties in the near future. This would help us understand more
fully the process of galaxy and cluster formation and evolution. It would also represent a giant
leap forward in our understanding of the composition and evolution of the universe. IB