Structure of the human body and the skeleton. Blue A Head (caput) BB Thorax (thoracic cavity) C joints. Abdominal and pelvic cav In contrast to most other mammals the human body is adapted for bipedal locomotion. Three general prin- ciples in the architecture of the human organism are recognizable: 1. The principle of segmentation, which dominates in the trunk. The vertebral column and the thorax consist, of relatively equal, segmentally arranged clements. 2. The principle of bilateral symmetry. Both sides of the body are separated by a midsagittal plane and resemble each other like image and mirror-image. 3. The principle of polarity between the head at one end of the body and the lower extremities at the other. As the center of the information system the head contains the main sensory organs and the brain, ‘The head has predominantly spherical form while the extremiti consist of radially formed skeletal elements, the number of which increases distally. A. The skull consists of to parts: 1. a cranial part containing mainly the brain and the sensory organs and 2. a facial part which contains the nasal and oral cavity and the chewing apparatus. The cranial cavity is con- tinuous with the vertebral canal which contains the spinal cord B. The thorax contains the respiratory and circulatory organs (lung, heart, ete.) but also some of the abdomi- nal organs which are located underneath the diaphragm. C. The abdominal cavity contains the organs of metabolism such as the liver, the stomach and the intestinal tract as well as the excretory and genital organs (kidney, uterus, urinary bladder, etc.). The latter are located primarily in the pelvie cavity with the exception of the testes. 1 Cranial part 10 Radivs | Pa} of the skull 11 Gjigg | forearm 3. Vertebral column 12 Pelvis (cervical part) 13° Wrist (Carpal) | ang 4 Claviele 14 Fingers (phalanges) |"! 5 Scapula 15 Thigh (femur) 6 Ribs 16 Patella and knee joint 7 Sternum 17 Tibia |, 8 Arm (humerus) 18 Fibuta | 9 Vertebral column 19 Tawsals | goog ‘Gumnber part) 20° MetatarsalsMedian section through the trunk (female) Sternum Right ventricle of heart Diaphragma Liver Stomach ‘Transverse mesocolon ‘Small intestine Uterus Urinary bladder Pubic symphysis Left atrium of heart Caudate lobe of liver (Omental bursa or lesser sac Conus medullaris Pancreas ‘Cauda equina Intervertebral dises (lumbar vertebral column) at 24 2 26 2 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 3. Anal canal i tl il Positon of the inner organs of the human body (anterior aspect) —_ The main cavities of the body and their contents. Sacral promontory Sigmoid colon Anus Head (neurocranium) with brain Ascending colon Appendix Facial region (viscerocranium) with oral and nasal cavities Trachea and larynx Thorax with the lungs Heart Surface projection of the diaphragm Spleen Descending colon Testisition of the inner organs of the human body pect), organs are removed The three main cavities of the body and their contents. tration of the main cavities of the body. rocranium) withthe br id masa Ay Cranial cavity 1 Head ( Ay Vertebral eanal 2 Faci By Thoracic cavity B, column (cervical part) D_ Diaphragm 9 Stomach Ascending colon qd 11 Transverse colon Planes of the body Lines of direction 12 Ureter 1 Transverse plane ant, =anterior 13 Appendix: 2. Frontal plane inf = inferior 14 Small intestine 3. Sagittal plane (midsagittal) tat lateral 15 Ovary, uterine tube med. = medial 16 Rectum post. = posterior 17 Uterus sup. = superior 18Skeleton of a female adult (anterior aspect)16 Skeleton of a 5-year-old child (anterior aspect) The zones of the cartilaginous growth plates are seen (arrows), In contrast to the adult, the ribs show a predominantly horizontal position Ai Head Frontal bone skeleton Occipital bone Parietal bone Orbit Nasal cavit Maxilla 2 Ma ible Trunk and thorax. ‘Vertebral column Cervical vertebrac Thoracic vertebrae Lumbar vertebs Sacrum Coceyx Thorax Ribs Costal cartilage Infrasternal angle Appendicular skel Upper limb and shoulder girdle Chiviele Seapula Humerus Radius Ulna Carpal bones Metacarpal bones Phalanges of the hand Lower limb and pelvis ium Pubis Ischium Symphysis pubis Femur Tibia 3 Fibula Patella Tarsal bones Metatarsal bones 7 Phalanges ofthe foot CaleaneusOssification of the scapula (left: anterior aspect, right: posterior aspect). Ossification of the hip b (left: medial aspect, right: lateral aspect) 1 Bone tissue (vertebral body) 2. Carita (lateral epiphysis) 3. Intervertebral dises ous tissue cation of the sacrum (anterior aspect) Note the five vertebral bones, which are still separated from each other, 1 Subscapular fossa 2 Coracoid process 3. Glenoid fossa 4 Actomion 5. Spine of scapula 6 Infraspinous fossa 1 Cartilage of the iliac erest 2 Hum 3. Cartilage 4 Pubis 5. Ischium 6 Acetabulum 1 Bon (center of ossification) Vertebral arch (not completely united) 3. Cartilaginous tissue Cateral epiphysis) 4, Sacral canal Ossification of the sacrum (posterior aspect).of the femur (lef ww of the femur). Ai 4 Phalanges Tibia Fibula1 Metaphysis 2. Spongy bone 3. Medullary cavity in the diaphysis $ Compact bone 5 Nuttient canal 6 Diaphysis Epiphyseal line (remnants of the epiphyseal plate) 8. Epiphysis (head of the femur) 9. Fovea of head 10 Trabecuiae of spongy bone LL Neck of 12 Greater trochanter 13. Lesser trochanter 14 Articular surface 15 Periosteum 16 Skin 17 Vastus medialis muscle 18. Sartorius muscle 19 Femoral artery and vein 20 Great saphenous vein 21 Gracilis muscle 22. Adductor longus muscle 23 Adductor magnus muscle 24 Semimembranosus muscle 25. Semitendinosus muscle 26 Rectus femoris muscle 27 Vastus lateralis muscle 28 Femur and medullary cavity 29 Vastus intermedius muscle 30. Sciatic nerve 31. Biceps femoris muscle 32. Spongy bone trabeculae containing bone marrow 33 Compact bone 34 Osteon with Haversian lamellae 35. Periosteum 36 Blood vessels and nerves for periosteum and bone Femur of the adult. Left: the periosteum and the nutrient vessels are preserved. Right: coronal section of the proximal and distal epiphyses to display the spongy bone and the medullary cavity ion through the proximal end ‘Three dimensional representation on the trajectorial teristic lines of the femoral head (according to B. Kummer) Coronal se of the adult femur, revealing the char: ajectorial structure of the spongy bone.MR-Image of the thigh (axial section through the middle of the left thigh, the same level as the CT-Image). ‘The bones of the skeletal system consist of two different parts, the spongy and the compact bone. The spongy bone trabeculae are highly adapted to mechanical forces revealing a trajectorial structure. The intertrabecular spaces are filled with bone marrow, the site of blood formation. The appearance of bones, muscles and soft tisssues is quite different in CT and MR-Amages. The CT-images relate well to radiographs in that areas of great absorption such as bones are white, and those with little Coronal section through the proximal epiphysi adult tibia. Note the zone of dense bon: former epiphyseal plate (dotted line), ‘CTAmage of the section through the middle of the left thigh (axial section). Note the differences between the CT- and MR-Image (see text below), absorption such as fat appear black. In contrast, the intensity of signals in MR-Images, obtained without X-rays but by magnetic forces, is different so that dense areas of bones appear black and soft tissues such as bone marrow and fat appear white (for comparison see above figures). A highly innervated periosteum is an essential structure for bone nutrition, blood supply, growth and bone repair. Structure of bones of the skeletal system (after Benninghoff). Note that the compact bone reveals a lamellar structure with Haversian lamellae and canals.cruciate ligaments (cut). Quadriceps tendon cut and patella reflected distally Coronal se Anterior a Sagittal section through the lower limb and the foot. Femur 10 Tibia Anterior cruciate ligament 11 ‘Tibial collateral ligamen Lateral meniscus cartilag + Patella 3 Articular caps 5 Posterior cruciate ligament 14 Tendon of long head 6 Posterior meniscofemoral of biceps brachii muscle ligament 7 Medial meniseus 8 Fibular collateral ligament 9. Fibula nt (anterior view). The anterior part of the 19 Tau 20 Inte 21 Navicular bon 22. Medial cunciform bone