guitar construction from guitar review no. 28 “82.00Published and copyrighted 1965 by The Society of the Cassie Guitar (a non-profit membership corporation), 409 East Soth Street, New York 22, N.Y. Editor: Vladimir Bobri Associate Editors: Gregory d’Alessio, Franz C. Hess Contributing Editors: Suzanne Bloch, Jack Duarte, Eithne Golden, Carl Miller, Martha Nelson, John C. Tanno Layout: V. Bobri, George Giusti Typography: F. C. Hess ‘Aadvertising: Michael J. Kelly Circulation: L. Trett “The Gultar Review is tssued irregularly... it is sold in volume form and can be ordered serially by ether three or six consecutive issues. svascntrrioxs: No. 25.30 Six consecutive issues « $8.00 ‘Three consecutive issues In) $40 Single copies SS $200 ‘Available back numbers 2 $2.00 CONTENTS: Cover Design Articles The Guitar Maker and His Techniques Vladimir Bobri HE. Huttig Il A Brief Discussion of the Construction and Assembly of Guitars by Non-Spanish Luthiers John C. Tanno “inion xed te pu scorn mvIFG ve sod lee pail eyed eee Ee grad ac or lmase seen ae Tyee whee cote oe asda camp cone a nie cone opyiahed by HE SOCIETY OF THE CLASSIC GUITAR In presenting to our readers the article me cuiTan MAKER AND mis recsimques, by H. E, Huttig Il, the Editors of rus ‘ourrax neview hope that it will be of help fo the beginner as well as to the accomplished artist in acquiring a clearer tunderstanding of the construction of the guitar. Such Knowledge in the case of the beginner will help him avoid the costly disappointment of acquiring an inferior instru- iment and will certainly help performing artists in selecting ‘an instrument ofthe finest construction as far as traditional methods are concerned; or in giving definite specifications when ordering a new one from a luthier. The steady upsurge ofthe guitar during the past ten years hhas made more poignant the need for continuing laboratory research by scientists and luthiers particularly in that aspect of the guitar construction which invotves relative sonority of woods and in establishing the best dimensions of the {guitar tone chamber. Some notable research on the sonority Of violins kas been conducted and the results were pub lished by Carleen Maley Hutchins in her article The Physics of Violins, which appeared in Scientific American, Novem ber 1962. Similar investigations devoted to the guitar are Tong overdue. The Editors wish to thank Mr. Huttig for offering his knowledge and experience to our readers in this extensive work; for his patience in reworting the original draft of the article several times, and for his friendly cooperation. To Mr. Tohin C. Tanno goes credit for the major part of the section on Tone Production, the unit on “A Brief Discussion of the Construction and Assembly of the Guitar by Non- Spanish Luthiers,” a large part ofthe information contained in the footnotes, and the expansion of bibliographic refer- ‘ences, This blend of knowledge and experience has made the article doubly valuable. We also extend our gratitude to Mauricio Benedetti for inaginative and well composed photographs; fo Titi Ams- deo, Miguel Company, José Rubio and Manuel Velazquez for helping us to photograph various stages of guitar con- struction; t0 Chico Taylor for the drawing of the exploded view of the guitar; and to Antonio Petruccelli for illustra tions and diagrams based on sketches by Mr. Hutt Viadimir Bobri, EditorTHE GUITAR MAKER AND HIS TECHNIQUES BY H. E. HUTTIG II Author's note in acknowledgement... ‘Aside from brief college courses in my remote youth, I Ihave had no preparation to be a writer. I gave to Editor V. Bobri a few rough notes on the subject of the above ttle which I had prepared for The Society of the Classic Guitar in Miami, and he was kind enough to suggest that these crude beginnings had some merit and that they should be expanded into an article for rue Guitan review. My prime qualification for writing such an article was that | loved the {uitar, not only in the hands of a master performer, but also from the standpoint of the history and the development of the construction ofthe instrument Unforunately, loving the instrument, haunting luthiers shops, and probing into devious byways where guitare right be found or might be in the process of being bualt— these things do not make an articulate writer from a mere aficionado. However, the problem of my shortcomings in Iiterary skill was soon solved by enlisting the aid of John Tanro, a highly qualified writer and long standing member of The Society of the Classic Guitar. Mr. Tanno was gra cious enough to engage inthe task of re-working the rhe- torical structure of the article as wel as adding many val able references and much erudition of his own. I take this opportunity fo express my thanks to him for his patience fand skill in developing the article. toe ® ‘The purpose of this article is to set forth some criteria whereby laymen and aficionados of the classic guitar may be guided in their judgement and understanding of the true ‘merits of an instrument. We will discuss components of the guitar, such as the head, tuning mechanism, nut, neck, fin- gerboard, body, top, bouts, back, bridge, saddle, blocks, hhead and heel blocks, linings and bindings, longitudinal cross strats, fan bracing ofthe top, marquetry and pufing, finish, endpepering we vais staging and dnc We wll consider materials, workmanship, bnish,acion and timbre involved in the construction ofa guitar We will discuss all these things, but never for one mo- sent do we suggest thatthe reader use the facts prevented herein asa set f plans and procdare whereby he ean make his own gitar. Rather, hope fo hep him appreae, evaluate, and estimate with confidence and authority any gular that might come to his stention for whatever reason, For the sake of consistency, and to avoid meandering and confison, we wil limit our dscusion fo the classic guitar ts developed by Antonio Torres Jurado (1817-1892), car enter by trad, who took to guitar making about the year Taso. Lutiere since that time have patterned thelr guitars after the principles lid down by Tore, the mame by wich he is more commonly known, and the Torres instrument more closely approximates present day standards than carier narow-bodied guitar’ The guar has ax strings, a relatively fat top and Back, a round sound hoe an abroad fretbord In general, the Torres guitar has the following d- Sound:-chest or boty length 18:7/8 inches Seale length: (distance from nut to bridge 25-21/22 inches Width ofthe fingerboard atthe nat inches Width of the body atthe Bust (per bout) 10-1/2 inches Width ofthe body at the hips (loer bout) 13-13/16 inches Width ofthe body at the waist (narrowest part) 9 inches Depth of the body atthe mallet part 3/2 inches Depth ofthe body atthe widest part 3.22/32 o4 inches These seem to be modern basic dimensions; however, ‘contemporary craftsmen, ever experimenting, sometimes change these dimensions.GENERAL DISCUSSION OF PRINCIPLES AND MATERIALS TONE PRODUCTION In order for the reader to appreciate and understand the principles involved in the construction of a truly beautiful, rich-sounding guitar, itis necessary to know something of hhow musical sound is produced. The characteristic guitar tone is conditioned by the following considerations: 41. Acoustical properties of guitar woods 2. Shape and size of the body; thickness or thinness of ‘wood used; type and details of strutting; assembly of body 3.Size, shape and length of the neck and fingerboard 4. Tuning head and mechanism 5, Accurate system of fretting. 6. Carefully designed bridge and nut 7. Length, thickness, density, tension of the strings 8. Vibration ratios of the strings, (eg. proportion of the ‘umber of vibrations made by two strings in the same time). This may be illustrated numerically as follows: Unison ratio: Lat Octave ratio: 1 th rat 23 4th ratio: 34 Major 6th ratio: 335 Major 3rd ratio: 45 ‘Minor 3rd ratio: 5:6 Minor 6th ratio 58 ‘These vibrations, transmitted to the bridge, cause the top to vibrate:hd itis the resultant vibrations of the air within the sound box that cause the sound. All parts of the guitar vibrate in proportional extent. a. The effect of “depression,” (e.g. the act of pressing the string onto the fingerboard which increases its tension el eer tae eee rote to some extent). Some luthiers compensate for this depression by lengthening the fingerboard to a very small degree? b. This problem of “vibrating strings” isnot new. Nu- merous works of the ancients from Aristoxenus and Euclid down to Ptolemy and Capella indicate their con- ccem and desire to improve their stringed instruments. J. Murray Barbour, in Tuning and Temperament (Michi- gan State College Press, 1953) states: “Historically, the vibrating string has been the tool of the theorist in conjur- ing up the plethora of tunings and temperaments; itis in- teresting to note that while the string was the core of acoustical analysis in antiquity (such as the theories of Pythagoras, Aristoxenus, Ptolemy, Gafurius, Salinas, Zar- lino and Ramos, to mention only a few) an actual study of the laws of vibrating strings was not undertaken until 1636, when Pere Mersenne published his Harmonie Universelle.” In this fanious treatise, Mersenne postulated four basic laws of acoustics which formed the nucleus of further study. ‘These laws are quoted below: 1 The number of vibrations per second is proportional to the length of the string. 2. The number of vibrations per second is proportional to the square root ofthe tension to which the sting is sub- jected 3. The number of vibrations varles inversely as the thick- ness of the string. 4. The number of vibrations is inversely proportional to the square root of its density. “OF these four laws, the ancients made use of only the first, These four laws can be expressed mathematically by the following formula: f = n/2L 'T/m, where “is the frequency: “‘n” is the numerical coefficient of the partial (first node of vibration, n= 1, second, n = 2, ete); "L" is, the length of the string in centimeters; “"T” is the linear tension in dynes; and ”m” is the mass ofthe string per unit length, in grams per centimeter.” (Chaeles A. Culver, Musi- cal Acoustics, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc, New York, 1956). Herman L. F. Helmholtz, in On The Sensation of Tone (Dover Publications Inc., New York, 1954), says: “The next question which comes to mind is how does the string vibrate? This isa complex concept which relies upon three additional aspects of a string. These factors are: 1. The place where the string is excited 2. The nature ofthe excitation 3. The design of the instrument on which the string is mounted. “To begin with the first factor, the place where a string is struck determines which overtones will be produced. A string which is excited seldom vibrates in a simple mode with a node on each end, It is a well established fact that a string vibrates segmentally, and that secondary nodes form along the string, which ‘produce various harmonics. The second consideration is that of how the string is ex- cited, the method used in the guitar.” This method is explained by John Tanno as follows: ‘When a string is plucked, the finger, before quitting it, removes it from its position of rest throughout its whole length. A discontinuity in the string arises only by its form- ing a more or less acute angle at the place where it wraps itself about the finger or point. The angle is more acute for a sharp point (nail ofthe finger in guitar playing) than for the finger, (fleshy tip of the finger in the non-nail style of playing). Hence the sharp point produces a sheiller tone with a greater number of high tinkling upper partial, than the finger. But in each case the intensity of the prime tone exceeds that of any upper partial.” ‘The sound of the guitar is produced in exactly the same ‘manner as the sound of a hii speaker in an enclosure is produced. In both cases there isa diaphragm which is made to vibrate, setting up waves in the air. In the case of the speaker, a group of sound waves comes off the outside face of the diaphragm; the other set bounces around inside the enclosure and comes out through the vent hole. The loud speaker diaphragm is made to vibrate by an electric magnet. The soundboard of the guitar corresponds to this dia~ phragm. It is made to move by the vibrating pull of the Strings on the bridge. A portion of the sound of the guitar comes from the outside of the guitar top. A second portion comes from the sound waves formed on the inside of the body coming out of the sound hole. If these sets of waves‘come out in unison, the sound is nearly doubled. If the size land shape of the body is such that the waves do not come fut in unison, the sound is blurred and decreased, From the foregoing, it can readily be seen that the configuration of the body and the sound hole are of utmost importance in the construction of a guitar. Tk is evident that the inside of the body should be as smooth and free of roughness as possible since polished surfaces reflect sound while rough surfaces absorb and im- pede i. Sound waves like light waves, can be directed or Focused. This fact must be taken into account when design- ing the body and properly locating the soundhole. In addi- tion to the sound produced by the vibrations of the guitar top, there are sounds caused by the strings vibrating in the air. Thisis true of the string being played and also of strings set in motion by sympathetic vibrations. At the same time there are sounds produced by resonant portions of the body other than the spruce top. Even the neck and peg-head vi- bate and perhaps add slightly to the sound. However, ac- cording to Torres’ theory,! the vibrating spruce top pro- ‘duces all the sound and itis not essential for the back and sides to be resonant. It is more likely, however, that certain resonant effects from the sides and back ada to the richness of tone. Johann Gottfried Scherzer (1843-1870)," a Viennese luthier, attempted to prove this theory by building a guitar with a double back, the inner layer being free to vibrate and not muffled by the clothing of the player. The attach- ments for violin which are fastened to the under side and kkeep the instrument from resting on the player's shoulder follow the same concept.® An editorial by Wilfrid M. Ap- pleby entitled “Fantasia” (Guitar News No. 60, July-Au- gust 1961) tells of a guitar made from a horse's skull? A guitarlike instrument is made in Mexico from the shell of {an armadillo. In Puerto Rico, the national instrument is the cuatro Its sound box and neck are carved in one piece from a solid block of flamboyan wood. (They were made this way formerly.) (Fig. 2) Primitive Cuatro Collection V. Baby THE BODY: VOICE AND SOUL OF THE GUITAR The first consideration in the design and construction of the sound-box is to produce the utmost in volume and ‘quality of sound. The next feature of importance must be that of providing strength to support the top and neck so as to resist the pull of the strings. The body (and the entire instrument) should be made as light in weight as possible. Lastly, the body should be beautiful in the selection of the wood and in the detail of finishing, A fine luthier strives to attain maximum lightness, strength, and rich sonority in his guitars. ‘The shape of the outline of the body is of great impor- tance, and though deceptively simple in appearance, itis actually a matter of considerable subtlety and requires the ‘utmost in artistry to achieve a really satisfactory result. A large book could, and should, be written on the various patrones of fine luthiers. The patrén refers to size and sil- hhouette of the guitar In this field, the Spanish constructors are the unquestioned masters and are superior to any but the finest makers to be found in any part of the world. It is, difficult to believe the difference that a slight change in the ‘curves of a guitar’s outline can make. Major failings of poor outline are a square-shouldered look and too deep an in- ward curve atthe waist. The view looking at the guitar from the side should present a well proportioned ratio of depth to the other dimensions of the body. The back should be slightly crowned and should be somewhat shallower at the neck-end than at the other end. This taper usually starts at the waist and makes the sides 4 to Ys of an inch shal- lower at the neck end. In general, a shallow body produces a brilliant tone in the treble range, while a deep body favors the bass range. However, size and depth alone do not pro- duce a great tone. It isthe total design of the body which will either augment or actually cancel some of the sound rade by the vibrations of the top. To reiterate, the primary function of the soundboard is to receive the vibrations of the strings and magnify the volume of sounghby means of its larger resonating body than that of the strings. While itis tue that the ir insd@ the soundbox vibrates and amplifies the original vibrations ofthe strings, the increased air volume does not necessarily produce greater tone vol- ‘ume. Carrying power and resonance are determined by the shape and size of the sound chest and the sound hole in relation to the diaphragm formed by the spruce top. An- other factor involved in carrying power and resonance is the consistency of the wood used forthe top as well as the ‘way in which it has been calibrated and strutted. WOODS USED IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE BODY For centuries guitar makers the world over have made use of a variety of wood in the construction of their guitars. Some may be mentioned: jacaranda, rosewood (eeveral varieties), coral, maple, cedar, ebony (several varieties), satinwood, cypress, walnut, mahogany, pearwood, box: ‘wood, sycamore, a veneer of rosewood or ebony on pine (the luthiers Luis Panormo—e 1784-c 1862, and René-Fran- Gos Lacote—1785-1855?, used veneered woods in some of their guitars). Spruce, pine, and larch have been used for the tops ‘Modern luthiers consider rosewood the finest material for the sound boxes ofthe guitar. There are several varieties from India, Africa, and South America, The South Ameri~ can variety is known as palo santo, It is also known as pali= sander. Itis a hard wood and quite dense. The color varies from a dark reddish brown, with very dark stripes, to dark 3purple. A very fine variant from Brazil, jacaranda, is very hard and ean be rubbed to a high polish. Rosewood has a tendency to develop cracks if exposed to sudden tempera- ture changes. Maple is the preferred wood of luthiers in the middle and northern countries of Europe where the in- fluence of the violin makers is strong. Makers in Spain and Latin America prefer rosewood, walnut, and mahogany for concert guitars. Spanish cypress (cypress sempervirens) and sycamore are generally used for flamenco guitars. It is thought that these woods (cypress and sycamore) produce a more brilliant (or “feminine” sound so dear to the heart of the true flamenco) tone than the darker colored hard- woods. The world’s supply of very fine woods is rapidly dis- appearing. Ebony and rosewood are so scarce that they are now reserved for only the most expensive instruments. Walnut and mahogany are more plentiful, but they, too, are becoming searce in their finer grades. Consequently, manufacturers of less expensive guitars, and others, are turning to the use of plywood in guitar construction. The ‘idle and inside plies can be of cheap wood with the out- side ply of a thin veneer of fine wood. Plywood, though quite strong and almost crack-proof, even when used for the back and sides has a detrimental effect on the tone. Plywood for the top of the guitar is absolutely fatal to the tone, since the plies of wood are glued together with the grains running indifferent directions, and the vibrations are dampened, producing a tone which is dull and of short duration. ‘The back of the sound box is usually made of two pieces of the same material, and prepared as follows: a plank, about 3% of an inch thick, a little wider than one-half the ‘widest point of the body, is sawed through edgewise and the two halves opened out so that the grain of both sides match each other, with the direction of the grain going from top to bottom. They form the halves of the back, which ae later glued together and then cut to the maker's patrén. ‘A thin strip of wood of contrasting color or a strip of puefling is often set between the joint of the two halves of the guitar back to decorate it. The luthier usually prepares several backs at a time, matching the grain of the halves, ‘and holding them in position by binding them to cross battens (strips of wood) with heavy cord and wooden ‘wedges. Guitars are seldom built singly. The traditional Spanish maker never builds less than two at a time, since there is considerable set up time involved for each different operation. The sides or bouts (avos, in Spanish) are made from fitches (strips) about 4” x 30” of the same wood as the back. The wood is planed to slightly over 1/16” in thick- ‘ness and care is taken to insure consistency of measurement throughout the length so that the bends (contour-shape of the sides) will be uniform. Spanish luthiers utilize an oval shaped metal pipe for bending the bouts.* The pipe is fas- tened upright over a box containing live charcoal and acts ‘asa chimney, becoming quite hot in the process. The mois- tened wood strips are bent by pressing them against the hheated metal. Care is taken that the bends fit the pattern (patrén) for the guitar's final shape, since the Spaniards rarely use any moulds to control the shape of the bouts. ‘The bouts are now sorted into sets and wrapped up thor- ‘oughly in twine, being sprung inward slightly so that they. will not straighten out while awaiting assembly. ‘The corners inside the guitar where the top and back join the sides are reinforced as follows: the joint of the sides to the top almost always has separate wooden blocks called tontellones. (Fig. 2) Among different guitars the spacing BABB a. of these blocks varies anywhere from 34 of an inch apart to actually touching each other. Although the making of individual blocks involves more work, some luthiers prefer it because it reduces the weight of the wood used and per- mits the top of the guitar to vibrate more freely when played. Another form of blocking, used in finer instru- rents, isthe strip of spruce or pine which is sawed almost through, at intervals of Y4 inch euts. This provides enough flexibility to follow the contours of the sides or curves. This style of reinforcement is called fentellones de cintilla. These forms of reinforcement may be found even in the least ex- pensive guitars. In modest instruments, the joint of the sides to the back utilizes a continuous flat wooden strip about 3/16 by ¥ inches in cross section called the cenefa in very fine instruments, tentellones de cintilla are used. Separate fentellones are never used at the joint of the back with the body. The famous German guitar maker, Hermann Hauser, uses a continuous quarter-round strip, extremely ‘well finished, atthe joint of the sides to the back. The sides of the guitar are sometimes reinforced across the grain on the inside by pilaretes. These are small half- round columns, the flat side being glued to the inside of the side and the ends forming supports for the cross braces. Speaking ofthe cross braces under the spruce tops, the true classic instrument has them on either side of the sound hole. There may be an additional brace between the sound hole and the neck joint. Cross braces under the top in the area of the bridge are fatal to the tone and volume and are found only on poorly designed instruments. The area of the spruce top from the sound hole to the bridge end forms the vibrat- ing diaphragm that produces the major part of the sound. It is properly braced by a series of delicate wood strips (spruce or pine) glued underneath, starting at the sound hole cross brace and fanning out at angles to the axis of the guitar. This is called fan strutting or the harmonic bars. In Spanish luthiers slang itis called a cadena: the chain. ‘Many makers have experimented with the arrangements of the fan struts," but the classic arrangement developed by Torres (Fig. 3) has remained the standard and is still found on the greatest guitars. The cross braces supporting the back of the guitar are not as vital to sound production as those in the top, in their spacing and number. A fine in- cater MEY LET eR oe Foe rey nica ihe tare in cross section and made as delicately as possible and still provide strength enough to support the slightly arched back Of the instrument, The selection of the finest spruce for the guitar top is of utmost importance. The best quality for this purpose comesfrom the mountainous regions of central Europe near the timber line. The grovth is slow and the annular rings are thin so that when the logis sawn, the very narrow grain is revealed. (Any wood with more than 10 rings to the inch is not used for tops. Since this wood is scarce and the demand greatly exceeds the supply, the standing trees must be uarded against thievery. A good tree will produce over a thousand dollars worth of spruce tops. The luthier receives his spruce in rough-savn pieces in sets of two halves with matching grain. He selects the spruce, first by its appearance and next by flexing the Pieces, holding the edges with the thumbs and index fingers and gently bending the halves across the grain. Wood with a certain springiness produces a brilliant tone and is served fr flamenco guitars. Very finely grained spruce wit a peculiar resiliency (known to experienced luthiers) wil make a great concert tone.!! Some blanks of beautiful grain and general appearance are too flexible tobe of use for fine tops. These are used for modest instruments of are cut up for use as bracing or reinforcements. Aged wood that has been permitted to expand and contract withthe changes of the seasons is much less likely to crack than wood which is recently cut and built into an instrument, ‘fin guitar top is made from two matching halves the narrowest grain at the joint. It will be extremely thin, Sometimes les than 1/16 of an inch in the vicinity of the bridge. When a smal electric bulb is inserted inside a guitar, its light will pass through the spruce top, revealing the pattem of the fan strutting and also any patches or repairs that may exist. The light should be used with caution and not permitted to remain inside more than a minute, or its heat may cause damage. A very thick spruce top or a ply- ‘wood top will nt allow any light to pass through, fa.3 Man early observed that the vocal chords activated the air in his vocal chamber and that by controlling the shape and size of the opening, by means of his lips, he was able toemit various sounds, He eventually looked t his environ- ment for an extension of this concept and discovered it in the eat, in caves and caverns, and much later in musical instruments of all kinds. The “ground-sither” of Uganda, ‘Africa, isan example. A hole is dug in the earth, acting as 4 resonator over which is stretched a cord supported by forked twigs pounded into the earth. The cord is struck wath twigs producing » drumming sound, The Jews harp is another example There have been many experiments with the shapes and sizes of soundholes throughout the centuries in wich the guitar was developing, The early F-hole concept in the Buitar’s development was short lived and was replaced with the centrally located round hole. The only plucked string instruments on which the F-hle can be tolerated are certain plectrum guitars, mandolins, and the like, in which the steel strings produce considerable volume of sound and high frequency overtones, so that making the instrument heard is no problem. Soundholes have been cut in various shapes, such as ovals, triangles, curved elipses (like a smiling mouth), three overlapping circles, et. Early lutes, viuelas, and guitars are seen with round soundholes fitted with a decorative rosette or grille work, carved of wood. Nonetheless, the great master constructors all adhere to the round open soundhole. It is mathematically perfect and logical It makes beautifl complement to the flowing curves ofthe outline of the instrument. Removal of any portion of the spruce top tends to weaken it proportionally. However, the round hole weakens the top the least, and still pives the required aR Da a= Tore Eeeso Panoeme Bouchet During the time of Femando Sor (178-1839), guitar tops, backs, and sides were much thicker. Philip J. Bon The Guitar and Mandolin, London, 1954, says of Sor: “The {guitars of that period were made of thick wood, but Sor ‘required instruments made for him to have the sounding board, ribs and back, made of very light and thin wood, supported by bars inside to withstand the tension of the. strings. He studied to improve the construction of the in- strument, its position, fingering, and the best manner of setting the strings in vibration in order to produce the best quality of tone, He devised a new form of bridge which was applied to several guitars made in London and St. Peters burg and the rules formulated by him for the neck and fin- gerboard are today still used in construction of the finest instruments.”” eordobs Yecobi Ty ‘Amadeo area of opening. In addition, itis the easiest shape to cut, and facilitates the cutting of the recesses for the surround- ing inlay work. ‘The prime function of the soundhole is to make possible the proper transmission of the vibrations from the interior of the soundchest. The circular shape of the soundhole “rose” ensures prolonged vibration, so essential in the classic guitar. The manner in which the strings of an in- strument are set in motion often determines the choice of shape and design of the soundholes. For example, in the violin the holes are placed at the sides of the central point cof the soundboard to allow it to vibrate freely without aft vibrations because the sound caused by the vibrating s can be prolonged by means of bowing as long as the par- ticular note is desired; and herein lies one of the essential, 5differences between instruments that are bowed and those that are plucked. PEGHEAD ‘The peghead may be a carved extension of the same piece cof wood which forms the neck, but more usually it is made of several pieces spliced together. Some of the older luthi- fers, particularly those influenced by violin makers, used a separate piece of wood, fastening it to the back with a V- shaped joint. A standard Spanish approach is to fill out the thickness of the peghead with a wedge-shaped piece of ‘wood, glued underneath. A veneer of contrasting, colored hardwood is usually applied to the top face for decoration and for reinforcement. The decorative shape at the end of the peghead varies with makers and in some cases serves as an identifying hallmark. (Fig. 4) The slot cut-outs for met 1c 4 string rollers are made in various shapes, ending in square or aval cut, or a combination of both. Pegheads are usually decorated on the face by contrasting veneers in one of several layers; by wood marquetry,*® inlays of ivory, ‘mother-of-pearl, or floral designs cut in deep relief. In gen- tral, the peghead should be designed to allow the strings to pass easily from the rollers to the nut and to permit quick dnd easy changes. The shape of the cut-out at the end should be graceful and satisfying in outline." TUNING MECHANISMS ‘There are two traditional methods of adjusting the tension con the strings: by hardwood tuning pegs or by metal tun- ing machines. Both methods have been used concurrently. However, up to the end of the eighteenth century tuning pegs were nearly always used, whereas today metal tu machines are almost universally used on the classic guitar. ‘The use of machine heads necessitates elongated openings in the peghead to accommodate the string rollers, which pass parallel to the face of the fretboard. The most desir- able materials for the rollers are bone or plastic. Some ex- pensive machine heads are fitted with mother-of-pearl keys, which, though handsome, are inclined to work loose and develop noises due to vibration. Keys are generally light cream or white colored plastic, and may be round, rec- tangular, crescent or butterfly shaped. (Fig. 5) On the aT. better sets, the shafts pase clear through the keys and are ‘eted on the ends. Sie plates of machineheads are pated Stel brass, ov German sliver Some are embossed and the finest ae engraved. Machine herd worms and gests should be lightly lubricated with vaseline or beeswax for best re- sul and longest life, The machine heads should work tasily and be fee ofall Ioseness that might cause nose from vibrations, Before lenving the sebject of machine heads and the poghead area, few more types must be men- tloned. One enol isa patented German machine head of bras with round bone keys thas a feature by which the roller shafts can be disconnected from the worm and gear By means of “lath” thus making t possible to quickly ‘wind the strings by hand-—a big advantage inthe days of Int stings when string failures were frequent. The only Example ofthis machine seen by the writer was fitted toa TelesforoJulve guitar. (Fig 6) fa. 6 [A different type of machine head was made of silver in the form of a scroll, with all the tuning keys on one side. It was in vogue among the Viennese guitar makers in the ‘middle ofthe nineteenth century and can be found on some of the guitars of Johann Georg Staufer, the celebrated Viennese luthier (18007-18507). (See page 9). The writer hhas seen one example on an early guitar made by C. Martin (1796-1873), who had formerly been a foreman in Staufer’s workshop. Later examples of the René-Frangois Lacote (¢ 1785-1855) guitars show yet another style of machine head, which is practical and beautiful. The gearing mechanism is com- pletely enclosed and hidden in recesses in the wood of the peghead. Nothing protrudes on the peghead sides. Both ‘mechanism and keys are located in the back. (Fig. 7) NUT a7 This is the small notched bar over which the strings pass as they leave the peghead. Vihuelas, lutes, and early guitars tused wood for this purpose, as do some guitars today. The rut concept was known and used in ancient times. One such instrument, which Curt Sachs termed “a half-tube zither,” ‘was in use in China about 1100 nc. It was a bamboo slab in which the strings were cut loose from the bamboo stem insuch a way that they were not entirely severed, and held away from the stem by means of a wooden nut” There are many other examples of its use: for example, the “Sousa” and “Bowl-lyre” of Uganda, Africa; the Assyrian “Bow-lute”; in fact, nearly every. stringed instrument knoven to man makes use of the nut principle. The nut of the guitar is generally made to ft snugly ina groove at the top ofthe fretboard and is not glued or fastened, but is held in place by the pressure of the strings. The strings pass through its notches to retain an even spacing. The depth of the notches determines the height of the strings above the upper frets. Too much height makes the strings dificult to press doven to the frets; too little results in the vibration ofthe strings against the frets and a buzzing sound. Ivory, bone, ebony, mother-of-pearl, or plastic can be used for the construction of the nut. Juan Pages (?-1625)"” in some of is guitars, used pure silver for the nut. Other luthiers Of that period used silver at times. Ivory is perhaps the finest material, but ordinary bone is excellent. Ebony, either alone or overlaid with mother-of-pearl s sometimes seen. If overlaid with mother-of-peas, there is a tendency for the glue joint to loosen and cause a buzzing sound Plastic is at best a poor substitute and should be discarded in favor of real bone or ivory The design of the nut varies but slightly. Some fine luthiers set it ata sight cant toward the fingerboard, The nut determines the top end of the vibrating string length. Some north European guitars have a supernumerary fret about ¥4 of an inch below the nut. This fret determines the top end of the vibrating string length and the nut be- hind it merely acts as a guide to Keep the strings properly spaced. This arrangement may be seen on some of Hermann, Hlauser's (1882-1952) guitars dated 1928. The Clifford Essex Ltd. guitar has a nut designed by luthier Marco Roccla ‘which combines in one nut a notched bar for the spacing of the strings and a fret-like bar over which the strings pass. (Fig. 8) NECK fa.8 The neck, on which the fretboard is superimposed, is the portion ofthe guitar extending away from the body, termi- nating in the peghead. Subjected to the heavy pull of the strings, it may warp after a period of time. Various methods axe used to prevent this warping A laminated neck, for example, has been tried. This is rade of several layers of wood of different hardness and grain pattern glued together. The joints are at right angles tothe fretboard. The laminated neck is common on German guitars, but to the write’ knowledge Vicente Tatay is the only Spanish luthier using it. One American firm pre- stresses the center ply of the lamination to resist the pull of the strings, (eg, itis put under tension in the opposite direction of the pull of the strings, somewhat like an in- verted bow and held in that position daring assembly of the neck. [tis glued, along with the other plies ofthe neck, thus giving rigidity and added strength to resist the pull of the strings, or so itis believed. In the writer's opinion this is a fallacy of design and not necessary, since wood after it hhas been glued together will normally take a permanent set and will remain in the shape to which it was forced. ‘The laminated neck is acceptable, but less desirable than a solid one from a standpoint of appearance and tradition. Routing grooves inside a solid neck also has been tried. ‘This not only reduces the weight of the instrument but also gives rigidity to the neck in the same manner that an architectural column is made more rigid by giving ita uted shape rather than a smooth cylindrical one. The hollow neck may have some merits, and the writer is presently ex- rimenting with it 'Gome makers we metal teaston mie als inside the neck —a system orginally developed to strengthen the nar- row neck and fingerboard of the plectrum guitar. Some makers of classic guitars use a routed neck with a duralumi- rum T-shaped extrusion fitted into the neck and covered by the fretboard, while others insert a steel tension rod through a long hole drilled through the length of the neck. ‘Added tension to the rod may be given by tightening a nut located in the middle of the peghead. The advisability of inserting any metal device in the neck ofthe guitar is ques- tionable. It is the opinion of the writer that none of these methods is appropriate on a fine classic guitar, and further~ more that f the neck is well made of selected wood no = inforcement will be needed. The complete opposite of the efforts of some constructors to:make the necks rigid was the invention of the removable neck. This type neck was popular around the end of the last century with German, French, and Russian makers. The neck and fretboard were made as an assembly separate from the body of the guitar. The heel of the neck was in- serted into a recess in the end of the body and was fastened in place by a single screw tightened by a key. In some cases the fretboard did not touch the body at any point but was cantilevered like the fingerboard of a violin. It was nearly impossible to make the neck absolutely tight on the body with such an arrangement. Vladimir Bobri, in his article “Gypsies and Gypsy Choruses of Old Russia” (curran nr- vr No. 20) sayer “This Feature was expecially liked by Gypsy guitarists, since it afforded a certain amount of play between the neck and sound-box, which permitted the gui- tara to shake the guitar after striking. chord, producing a peculiar tone somewhat like that of a Hawaiian guitar.”* ‘The shape of the cross section of the guitar neck, the carving of the transition from where the neck flows into the peghead, and the shape of the heel where the neck is fastened to the body will tell you a great deal about the quality of an instrument and the artistry of its maker. In northern Europe, none but the finest craftsmen can produce neck that is truly satisfying in appearance and comfort of handling, On the other hand, the cheapest commercial grade guitar made in Spain (or by descendents of Span- jards) may havea beautifully shaped and well proportioned neck. The mass-produced, factory-made instrument usually fails to equal the handmade one in this regard. For ease of playing, the neck and fretboard must be two inches or more in width at the nut, In general, the thinner the neck under the fretboard, the easier it will be to play. ‘The preferred shape is that of one-half a rather flattened 7oval. (Fig. 9) Any poorly fashioned neck—and especially the thick squarish neck of some cheap guitars—presents a great difficulty even for a skillful performer and is an absolute stumbling block for a beginner. FRETBOARD 0.9 ‘The fretboard is a flat piece of wood glued to the top of the neck and extending over the body to the sound hole. It may be made of ebony, rosewood, maple, pearwood, walnut or hard mahogany (listed more or less in order of preference). Ebony, dramatically black, is hard enough to hold the frets well and to resist wear from the fingers and nails of the left hand. Lately becoming scarce, ebony is cur- rently used only on very expensive instruments. Rosewood is nearly as fine and a great deal less expensive. The use of birch or pearwood dyed black to simulate ebony is seldom successful, for itis virtually impossible to make the black dye penetrate the wood, and when wear occurs the original color will show through. There are many beautiful tropical woods of extreme hardness which have never previously been utilized for fretboards. One of these, palo rojo, is just coming into use by Spanish luthiers FRETBOARD DESIGN “The end of the fretboard nearest the sound hole is shaped in various ways. On ancient instruments the fretboard was O Early French Spanish 1. European ‘lush with the top and stopped at or before the edge of the body. The guitar made by Carlo Guadagnini in 1812, page 8, shows how the spruce top was carried up to the ninth and tenth fret on the fingerboard. Perhaps the most elegant design (and the simplest) is to extend the fretboard to the Sound hole and cut it to the contour of the hole, leaving the round opening complete, The frets are carried out as, far as possible, the twentieth fret being cut out in the riddle of the curve in the sound hole. Sometimes an ex- tension of the fretboard protrudes over the sound hole and carries the twentieth and twenty-first frets for the two treble strings. Some European guitars have the fretboard cut off on a long taper starting atthe twelfth fret and form- ing a truncated angle at the sound hole. (See guitar by Johann Georg Staufer on page 9). Cheaply made instra- ments tend to have fewer frets, sometimes no more than seventeen or eighteen. Guitar by Carlo Guadognini, 1812, Turin, aly Collection V. Bobs, New York» Photograph Soul MarantzGuta by Johann George Staufr, 1830, Vienna Reproduced from The Story ofthe Spanish Guitar (A. P. Sharpe) by permission ofthe publahers: Cliford Exsex Music Coy Uy, ens ercta FRETS (On very ancient instruments, the frets themselves were formed by gut strings tied around the neck. They may stil be seen on contemporary Mexican vihuelas. Later, frets were made of ivory of bone strips set into the wood of the fretboard. Occasionally you will stil see a lute with frets of these materials. Modern guitars utilize a metal wire of brass or preferably German silver with a T-shaped cross section, The foot, or upright ofthe T, is pressed into a slot cut in the fretboard. fs most essential thatthe spacing of the frets be perfect or the scale will not be accurate. The twelfth fret must be located exactly in the center of the vibrating string length and should always fall just at the joint of the neck and body. The fis fet is spaced from the rut a distance roughly equal to one-ighteenth of the vibrating string length. The second fret is spaced one- eighteenth of the remaining distance, and s0 on. (This sys- tem, the one most generally used, of calibrating the frets, is referred to a5 “the rule of 18”). The classic vibrating String length set by Torres is 650 mm. This converts to slightly less than 25% inches. The writer has seen a maxi- mum of 26 inches and the usual measure is 25-13/16 inches on present day fine instruments, The longer string produces a rich bass range that cannot be obtained with Short strings, although the treble may be slightly less bel- liant. The shorter lengths require a closer fret spacing and generally produce a more brliant treble range kis imperative thatthe fretboard be absolutely Bat and the tops of the frets perfectly level. If they are not level, higher frets will cause a buzzing sound when the fingers are played above them; for example, ifthe fourth fret is too high, notes played on the third fret will buzz. The tops of the frets may be lightly filed to coreect minor inequalities. The fretboard may be sanded between the fret. Some boards show a slight recess due to sanding and some an- tique instruments were deeply scalloped between the frets (Fig. 10) a design stil to be found on some lute. Occasion- aC WAU fa. 10 ally a fretboard is seen that may be slightly convex— that is, the frets curve and are higher in the middle, This con- verity, its thought, tends to facilitate the execution of the bbarré. Actually, contrary to the intentions of the designers, the reverse is true, because the convex fingerboard makes the execution of the barré more difficult. The standard flat fingerboard should be preferred. POSITION MARKERS ‘To mark certain playing positions, dots, diamonds, flowers, and butterflies have been made of mother-of-pearl and ivory to be inlaid in the fretboards, There is no definite rule for placing them, but the fifth fret is usually marked and then the seventh and ninth, Position markers are an anachronism oon a classic guitar. They detract from the purity of design and prove an eventual hindrance rather than a help to the advanced player. To the beginner, they act as a crutch and interfere with the training of the left hand in accurately ‘gauging fret distances,ASSEMBLY OF THE GUITAR Before going into the assembly of the guitar, it would be well to explain how the luthier determines the shape and size of the guitar. The luthier begins his calculations by first establishing the vibrating string-length. Over a period ‘of many years it has been found, through trial and error, that 25% inches is the preferable string length for the guitar. While a longer string might give a stronger bass ange, the distance the string vibrates sideways becomes greater, thus forcing the maker to raise the stings farther from the fretboard, and this in turn makes playing more difficult. Yet, if shorter string-Lengths are chosen, the trebles become more brilliant and the action easier; but the bass is no longer rich enough for a concert artist. Let us suppose that the luthier has chosen a string-length of 25% inches. He now proceeds to lay out a straight line about 314 feet long, and marks off the string length, This done, he divides the length in half and makes a mark; this ‘willbe the location of the twelfth fret and will also serve to delineate the upper edge of the soundbox, or soundchest. The remaining portion of the line (that which falls in the area ofthe sound box), eg., the end, will mark the location of the bridge bone. The frets are now laid out by formula (see page 9 for explanation) and projected to the 18th or 19th fret, and sometimes 20th fret. The last Fret marks the top edge of the sound hole, The luthier is well aware that the tra tional round sound hole of 34% inches in diameter will pro- duce the best tone and, therefore, describes this size sound hole with a compass, one edge of which is placed at the last fret and the other edge some 5 or 6 inches from the mark of the bridge bone. Using the compass, and at the same distance, he measures from the bridge bone to locate the end of the sound box. In other words, he places the bridge very nearly in the center of the space between the end of the sound box and the bottom edge ofthe sound hole. Thus, all the measurements along the axis of the instrument have been determined. To find the location of the waist, he divides the length of the sound box in a ratio of 7 to 12. That is, in a box 19 inches long, the waist (the narrowest part) would fall 7 inches below the top edge of the box. To obtain the widest fact, Ia barriga* he doubles the foregoing measure (2 x7 inches) getting 14 inches. The width of the upper bouts, or shoulders, can be equal tothe distance from the edge of the soundhole to the tal end of the guitar, or about 11 inches. The waist is somewhere in the neighborhood of 9 inches With the dimensions established, the luthier draws the shape of the body free hand, adjusting the curves until he hhas a satisfactory outline.” The luthier is now ready to make the template (pattern) of the guitar top. This he rakes out of cardboard, folded down the middle and cut through the double thickness so that both sides of the patrén will be exactly alike when the pattern is opened. He then lays this pattern on the spruce top and draws the ‘outline of the guitar and at the same time marks the center point for the soundhole. He does not, however, mark the bridge bone location; this has been used as a reference 10 point in preparing the design, but it will not be accurate ‘enough for the actual bridge location. He then proceeds to sav out the outline of the guitar and using a circle cutter, makes four concentric circula cuts (these will form the channels for the insertion of mar quetry to decorate the rosette) around the place where th soundhole will be cut out. A chisel is used to remove the ‘wood betvveen these cuts to form two channels with a band of wood left in between. The bottoms of the channels are moistened with glue and vari-colored strips of wood intro duced to make the boundaries of the soundhole decoration, When the glue has dried and the strips are firmly in place the center band of wood is eut away and sections of mar juetry are fitted and glued in place. Another form of deco Fation is made by filing the center channel with sil putty made of a mixture of glue and ebony dust: Into this mother-of-pearl decorations are pressed. It is a fairly vali generality that the finer the guitar, the more delicate the wood marquetry. Incidentally, an instrument adorned with mother-of-pearl is seldom a great concert instrament. It is interesting to note, until recent years, flamenco guitars gen- erally had the sound holes decorated with concentric cicles ‘of colored wood, no marquetry being used. Lately, this tradi tion has been broken, and more precocity is being exhibited, not only in the decoration of flamenco instruments but also in the complexity of music performed on them. THE UNIQUE ART OF THE SPANISH LUTHIER The Spanish luthier bulls the guitar face down on a fat mould board, slightly hollowed to control the arch of the spruce top and the relationship of the neck to the body. ‘The neck is lightly fastened to the almost completed spruce top and is clamped face down on the mould board. The bouts (eras in Spanish) are fitted and clamped in place verti cal to the spruce top. Next the triangular reinforcing blocks or fentellones are set in place in heavy glue. A reinforcing piece, the culata, is placed inside where the bouts join at the tail of the guitar. The pilaretes are glued in as swell as the flat wooden strip or tentellones de cintilla at the edge where the back will be fastened. The cross braces are put in place and the back laid in position in the moist glue. At this point the whole assembly is tightly bound with soft, but very strong cord, the turns being passed round and round until the guitar appears to be in a cocoon. When the glue has set, the cords are removed and the top and back trimmed tothe contours ofthe sides. Grooves are cut along the edges, and the bindings and purflings?” glued in place. Nest th toatl tr ver Cree on th ps head are glued on. The neck is then carved to its finished form by means ofa special knife sometimes made from the blade of an old-fashioned straight razor. A cutting guide is clamped over the fretboard and the save cuts are made to receive the-frets Placing the frets on the fretboard must be done with care and exactitude. The upright portion ofthe T fret is Bist ser- rated by short, sharp taps with the chsel-edge of a hammer, or other sharp-edged tool. This is best done by laying the rounded portion of the fret-wire on a flat iron metal, and tapping along the entire length of the fret-wire, making the In the thie’ Shop Photograph by Chaves van Maanon from the forthcoming book "The Venehing Cafe (itl, Brown)serrations about Y% of an inch apart, Sometimes the ser- rated edge is coated with glue before tapping it into posi- tion, not necessarily to hold it in place, but to fill in any spaces in the slot, When all the frets are placed, a steel rule is placed across them to check high and low places, and ad- justments are made accordingly. Then all frets are lightly ‘emery-clothed and smoothed. BRIDGE Only after the fretting (and usually after the varnishing, ‘which wil be discussed later) isthe bridge set in place. The Bridge must be located with precision, as it affects the ac- curacy ofthe notes produced. It must be placed so that the distance from the bone bridge-sadale to the twelfth fret is exactly equal to the distance from the twelfth fret to the ut “Today we have two types of bridges: those in which the strings ae secured with pins and those with the stings tied on. The tied version has come to be known as the Spanish bridge, because, with but few exceptions, the Spanish makers have always used it. All fine concert guitars have the Spanish bridge. Guitar bridges are made of hard wood, preferably rose- ‘wood. Ebony, being more britle, is considered less desir- able although the reverse is true where the fretboard is Concerned, It may be that a stronger glue bond is obtained between rosewood and spruce than between ebony and spruce. ‘The portion ofthe bridge where the strings are tied may be edged with bone or ivory to prevent cutting ofthe wood by the tension of the strings. Marquetry or mother-of- pearl may be used to decorate the bridge surface. Flamenco guitars may have a thin plague of ivory or plastic covering the whole top of the bridge surface where the strings are tied Great care must be exercised by the luthier in gluing the bridge to the guitar top. The wood surfaces must be seru- pullously clean and the fi of the bridge tothe slightly arched Contour of the top must be perfec. It is common practice to roughen the wood in this area with the blade of a toothing plane to make the glue adhere better. The finest guitar Inakers have always used animal glue of the type that is prepared in a double boiler and applied hot. Although not waterproof, this glue makes a strong resilient bond. Recent Scientific research has shown that there are certain moulds whose spores can live in animal glue and can survive high temperature. When these are present they eventually de- stroy the glue. For this reason, since about 1958 some of the leading piano manufacturers, including Steinway, have been changing from animal glue to synthetic glue. There are now several luthiers making fine guitars utilizing plastic base synthetic glue either for the bridge alone or for the entire instrument. Ths is certainly a healthy trend, since a bridge properly applied with a glue such as Weldwwood never come off during the life of the instrument. Further- sore, the bridge is actually part of the bracing of the top land helps prevent spiting of the spruce as long as the glue joint is intact. “There are two schools of thought regarding the advisa- bility of using synthetic glue for parts of the guitar other a than the bridge. One contention is that its super perform- ance as an adhesive agent makes it virtually impossible to undo parts that might need repair. The other contention is that the guitar built with synthetic glue will simply need fewer repairs, since most repairs become necessary because the original animal glue has failed Forward of the place on the bridge at which the strings are fastened, is the saddle. It is made of bone or ivory and Set smugly in a slot in the bridge itself. Some lutes and an- tique guitars utilize a piece of fret-wire as a saddle. Manuel Lopez" working at Juan Mercadal's** suggestion, made bridges in which the bone saddle passed clear through the wood of the bridge and rested on the spruce top. This seems to give better sound transmission from the strings to the sounding board. (Fig. 11) Types of Bridges aa Pin Type Spanish Manuel Lope fa. Some German and Italian guitar makers set the saddle or an angle to the edge of the bridge, that is, not at righ ‘angles to the strings. This makes the vibrating length of th bass strings greater than that of the treble strings. Thi practice is of value on an instrument intended for heav) steel strings, since the bass strings will sound sharp musi cally when pressed down to the frets unless compensated (Ona classic guitar, with gut or nylon strings, this Feature not needed and will detract from the purity of design. Many a guitarist has experienced the sad moment of dis covering that the bridge has come loose from the sound board of his guitar. When you consider that a set of string stretched to concert pitch exerts a pull of several hundre pounds, and to this permanent tension is added rapid vi bratory motion when the strings are played, it is remark able that any bridge can remain attached to a guitar to Deyond the first tuning, ‘An obvious way to prevent the bridge from coming of would be to pass the strings over the bridge and exten them to the end of the instrument, fastening, them to a ta piece. This is the method used on steel-strung instrument like mandolins, banjos, bandusrias, and plectrum guitar Unfortunately, this method of fastening the strings do not give good results when applied to a classic guitar strun with gut or nylon strings. The Spanish bridge seems to b ‘more effective in directly transmitting the vibrations of th strings to the soundboard,NECK “The manner in which the neck is fastened to the body is extremely important. On a true Spanish guitar the neck ex tends into the body and terminates in one or two foot-like extensions. The wood of the bouts (or sides) ends in deep Ssaw-cuts in the sides of the neck. A neck constructed in this way cannot be removed without dismantling the entire gui- tar. It has the advantage of being very strong, bu itis dif- ficult to make and to repair. Its a design entirely unsuited to production methods and is seldom seen on any but hand- trae Spanish guitars, Nearly all non-Spanish makers use another method, which isto build the body and neck sepa- rately, The two are joined together by a V-shaped dovetail, the recess being cut in the reinforcing block in the body. Thisis a great deal easier to make, and if properly executed, is almost as strong a8 the Spanish neck. A variation of this method involves a flat joint of the end of the neck, and the sutside of the body. This is found only on the poorest of instruments. The glue joint on this lst attachment is some- times strengthened by a large metal screw applied from the inside ofthe body. By way of recapitulation, the neck should be at least two inches wide atthe narrowest point. It should be relatively thin and comfortably formed. The twelfth fret should be located at the joint of the neck and the body, and there rust be no position markers. The frets should be low, dead evel, and ee of roughness and sharp corners, The strings should be just high enough so that they do not buzz on the frets when strongly played. FINISH ‘The wood surfaces must be smooth before the finish is applied, Luthiers use a scraper made of thin tool steel, such asa piece cut from a discarded saw blade. These scrapers are rectangular but with slightly curved cutting edges. They fare ground on a bevel of about 45 degrees and after the ccutting edge has been sharpened on a honing stone, the ‘edge is turned by burnishing with a hard steel bar. This forms a minute hook which produces a very fine smooth cut. The scraper is used to remove all minor roughness from the wood prior to the sanding process. The sanding is ‘thorough; papers of several degrees of fineness of grit are ‘used. Wood filler is applied to all surfaces except the spruce top and the top of the fret board. The spruce has a closed grain and does not require paste filler. The top surface of the fret board is properly left unfinished, though some con~ structors may wax it lightly with bee's wax to give the ebony a dull polish. "The finest guitars have a so called French polish. To pro- duce this, white lake shellac is dissolved in alcohol and ap- Give u plied with a pad made of cotton waste and lint-free cotton Cloth. As the pad or muteca is rubbed in a figure-eight pat- fern over the wood, a polished surface begins to form. A few drops of olive ol are then applied tothe surface to act as a lubricant. The process requires considerable skill and patience and it may take several days to finish a guitar by this method Tastruments finished by brushed varnish or by sprayed lacquer suffer a loss in tone, as the layer is too thick and the vibrations of the spruce top are hampered. Be wary of the claim of some factories that their guitars are hand pol- ished. This may only mean that the instrument has been rubbed with polishing compound after being sprayed with lear lacquer. On the other hand, there are now several Synthetic French polish preparations which are applied with pad and which are equal tothe flake-shellac-alcohol mix- ture as a guitar nish toe From the foregoing one becomes aware that the art of classic guitar making is most subtle and exacting. Although the major emphasis of this article has been concerned with details of workmanship and materials, itis obvious that a fine guitar must first ofall possess certain qualities of tone. The fone must be strong, mellow, tender, sustained or sing- ing, e.g having the longest possible continuity of sound. It ust lend itself to making good vibratos, legatos, and porta- ‘mentos. It must have melodiousness and depth. ‘Al the efforts of the guitar builder, his attention to the shape, the materials, the method of construction, are for the purpose of producing an instrument beautiful to look at and tasy to play, but primarily with these qualities of tone. The “appearance of the contemporary guitar reflects our preoccu- pation with functionalism: it is almost austere. Gone are the ‘txtraordinary decorations and ornamentations of the renais ‘sance and baroque periods. Only in designs of the peghead land decorations around the soundhole does the maker per- ‘mit himself to indulge in slight fancy of ornamentation. Te is hoped, in presenting this work, that certain land: marks have been established for the recognition of a wel ‘ade instrument, The newcomer to the guitar will have ‘wide choice open to him, as an increasing number of gooe instruments are being imported from Spain and from Lati ‘America as well as from Germany, and there are in additior many domestic guitar makers who are prodiicing excellen instruments of concert caliber. Armed with the informatior presented here, the recent aficionado can have more confi Hence in his ability to select for himself the guitar that wil bbe his future companion and friend. Libography and Footnotes on page 2<— finger boardv‘A Variton of Fan Stuting (Robert Bouchet 1964) : ‘Shatched by José Rubio» Drawn by Irving SloanePhotogragh Mauro. Benedetti— — mi = a sssPhotograph Maurie BenedettiGenerally, the following steps in the construction and a sembly of the guitar are representative procedure by non- Spanish luthiers, This information should assist the reader in gaining a better knowledge and understanding of the art ‘of guitar making. The steps in construction and assembly are given below in chronological order. 1. The design or body shape is arrived at, and templates are made, 2, The mould is constructed in two halves and held in place by end battens of wood by means of screws. Steps 3 through 13 can be done with the assembly held in the mould 3. The sides are made from strips of rosewood (previ- ously discussed) which are shaped by means of a bending iron, and when the sides are dry, the tops and bottoms are cut square, The sides are put into the mould and held in place by light cross braces of scrap wood wedged in place. “4 End blocks, cut from spruce wood, are cut. The top block grain runs vertical for rigidity; the bottom block grain runs horizontally to provide strength to the base. The blocks are glued in place, forming the reinforcements at the neck end and atthe tal where side pieces are joined. 5. The linings are made and fitted to the bottom and top ledges of the sides. The top lining is made of spruce blocks. 6. Before fitting the bottom lining, both sides ofthe guitar at the upper bout should be slightly tapered towards the top block, starting at the upper curve of the waist; then the lining is shaped and glued. Its imperative that the top and bottom blocks are perfectly level with the sides of the gitar, 7. The rosewood back is made of two matched pieces so that the grains of the pieces run from top to bottom. The cutlne is drawn from 3 template. 8. The cross struts are cut, shaped, and glued to the back. Then the center strut putin place and glued to the back to seal the center joint 9. The back is fitted on the mould and the recesses cut in the lining strip for the ends of the cross struts to fit without being forced 10, The soundboard is made of two pieces glued together with the narrowest grain to the center, When dry, itis Sanded to thickness. The hole oF rosette is cut, inlays lad, and side purfing glued in, When dry, the soundboard is then sanded level 28 A BRIEF DISCUSSION OF THE CONSTRUCTION AND ASSEMBLY OF GUITARS BY NON-SPANISH LUTHIERS BY JOHN C.TANNO 111, The underside of the soundboard is then strutted and the fan-struts are glued in place. 12 The top is now ready for fitting. Recesses are cut in the top lining for the ends of the main cross-struts. 13, The back and front are ready for gluing. The grain of the top and bottom blocks is sealed with glue and when dry, sanded level, The back is glued to the sides and when dry, the top is glued on. 114. The rough shape of the neck is cut from one piece of wood, then finished to size, The head of the neck is cut to its finished shape and faced with ebony or rosewood. Holes for the machine-head rollers are cut; and finally the head is shaped to the desired pattern. 15. The finisted fretboard is cut out of ebony or rose- ‘wood, and the fret positions determined and marked, using, the rule of 18, but not cut at this time because cutting the slots now would cause the fingerboard to buckle and make gluing difficult 116. The dovetail of the neck is prepared at the end of the neck, and a corresponding tapered slot in the top back of the body. 17. The banding or binding on the front and back edges of the guitar body are fitted, followed by the purfling on the top and back. '18. The neck is joined to the body and glued in place. 19, The fingerboard is now glued to the neck. The fet slots are cut after the fingerboard is fitted to the neck. After the glue dries, the frets are fitted, adjusted, and smoothed with emery cloth. 20, The next operation is the fitting of the tuning mecha- 21. The guitar at this point is set aside, while the bridge, ivory saddle and the cut are made. Next, the six holes for the strings are cut in the bridge. 22, The guitar is now ready for polishing, except the face of the fingerboard. Before the actual French polish is ap~ plied, the corzect position of the bridge is determined and. lightly marked on the top, and then a piece of masking tape, the exact size of the bridge, is placed where the bridge will ‘eventually be glued on. The guitar is now polished. 23. When the guitar is dry, the bridge tape is removed and the bridge and nut are installed. 24. The strings are fitted and the keys adjusted and the {guitar comes to life.A COMPARISON OF CONSTRUCTION METHODS Building a guitar by the non-Spanish method is easier in some respects than working by the Spanish method. The sound chest and neck can be very neatly completed before they are assembled together, which makes working on them a great deal more convenient. Also the shape of the curves ofthe sides is controlled by the mould and less skill is re- quired than in the Spanish method in which no mould for the outline is used. Flowever, the outline mould provides a pitfall forthe careless craftsman. That is, ifthe sides do not fit the curves of the mould perfectly and they are forced into place, they will always be under tension. This will de- tract from the instruments tone by hampering the vibra- tions and will have a tendency to contribute to structural failures later. The way the neck 1s joined to the sound chest in this method is never quite as strong and rigid as inthe Spanish method in which the neck passes through into the interior of the instrument. Any flexing atthe joint of the neck to the sound chest provides a directly proportionate loss of tone since apart ofthe energy developed by the vibrating strings is taken away from the bridge and is lost in producing a movement of the neck. The amplitude of this movement is 0 slight that it cannot be seen; but the loss of tone is quite evident to the eat. A device to increase the loudness of guitar is described by Bernard Lee in the March/April 1962 issue of Guitar News. This consists of a weight of about 414, ‘ounces affixed tothe peg head to damp the unwanted move- ment ofthe neck and to let more ofthe energy ofthe strings bbe applied to the bridge. BIBLIOGRAPHY Wilfrid Appleby, Editorial: Fantasia. Guitar News, No. 60, July- ‘August 1961, Viadimir Bobri, Gypsies and Gypsy Chorusee of Old Russi, Guitar Review No, 20,1986, New York Philip J. Bone, The Guitar and Mandolin, London, 1954 Michael E. Fisher, String Science, BMG, October 1956; London, England Dionisio Gracia, The Sonority of the Guitar, Guitar News, No. 26, August-September, 1955, Cheltenham (Glos) England. ‘Theodorus Hofmeister, Je, Torres, the Creator of the Modern Guitar, Guitar Review No. 16, 1954, New York Dr, Otto Hurm, Fihrer durch dao Kunsthietorische Museu, Net, Vienna, 1958, Sir James Jeans, Science and Music, University Press, 1937, ‘Cambridge, England Nicolai Petrovich Makaroff, The Memoirs of Makaroff (Trans- lated from the Russian by Vladimir Bobri and Nara Ulrich) Guitar Review Nos. 1,2, 3,4 and 5; 1946, 1947 and 1948, New York Guillermo Flores Mendez, Constructores de Guitarras Finas en ‘Mexico, Carnet Musical, January 1954 Richard Mufoz, Teenologia de la Guitarra Argentina, Buenos ‘Aires, Argentina, 1952 Dominick A. Passarell, Passarclli Guitar, The Music Trades, ‘December 1931, New York Antonio Petruccelli, Drawing of the Schertzer Guitar, Guitar Review, No.3, Page 8, 1947, New York. Domingo Prat, Diccionario de Guitarristas, Casa Romero y Fer- nandez, 1984; Buenos Aires, Argentina Emilio Pujol, Escuela Razonada de la Guitarra, Ricordi, 1952, "New York Jullus Schlosser, Unsere Mustkinstrumente, 2922, Kunstverlag, ‘Anton Schroll & Co., Vienna A.P. Sharpe, The Story of the Spanish Guitar, London, 1959 J. K, Sutcliffe, Vibrating Strings, Guitar News, No. 21, 1954, Cheltenham (Glos) England (also Nos. 18 and 19) John Whitaker Tanno, The Acoustics of Strings ax Related to the Guitar (An unpublished paper, Arizona State University, ‘Tempe, Arizona; 1961) ‘Thomas Perronet Thompson, Instructions To My Daughter— For Playing on the Enharmonic Guitar, London: printed by Richard Taylor, Red Lion Courts, Feet Street; for Goulding & Dalman, 20 Soho Square, 1629 Klaus P. Wachsmann, The Primitive Musical Instruments, from ‘Musical Instruments Through the Ages, edited by Anthony Baines, Galpin Society. Penguin Books, 1961 FOOTNOTES 1 J. K. Sutelife, in his article, Vibrating Strings, Gultar News No, 21, 1984, says: "The Fundamental mechanical action linking string to resonant (properly termed Resorant-Cavity) is the Focking motion through that small bt important piece of hard- ‘wood known as the Bridges the string, in action, applying wltra- "apid oscillations to it in the direction of the length of the in- strument. The short, stif leverage ofthe bridge, assisted by the struting is responsible for transmitting these oscillations to the sound board (properly termed Diaphragm). 2 For a detailed discussion of this interesting subject, consult Sutelige’s articles in Gultar News, Nos. 18, 19 and 21, 1954 Also, Michael F. Fisher's article String Science in BMG, Oct. 1956, Another fine treatise is Thomas Perronet Thompson's [n= structions To My Daughter For Playing On The Enharmonic Guitar, London, printed by Richard Taylor, Red Lion Coucts, Fleet Street, for Goulding and D’alman, 20 Soho Square, 1829. 3 John Whitaker Tanno, The Acoustics Of Strings As Related To The Guitar. (An unpublished paper, Arizona State Univer- sity, Tempe, Atizona: 1861). 4 Theodorus M, Hofmeister, Torre, the Crestor of the Modern Guitar (Guitar Review, No. 16, 1954), says: "Torres constructed his guitars in two distinet epochs, the fest from about 1850 to 1869 and the, second from approximately 1880 to 1892, To ‘demonstrate that the whole secret of tone production was de- Pendent on the fop alone, he constructed a guitar, the rest of ‘which was made of papier maché. Guitarist who played on this Instrument proclaimed it as possessing an extraordinary tone.” ‘This guitar, incidentally, ig still in existence and may be seen in ‘The Museo Municipal i Barcelona. 5 Domingo Prat, in his Diccionario De Guiterristas, p. 387, ‘mentions a famous luthier by the name of Juan Godofredo Scherzer, who was residing in Vienna in 1843. Although the In the last name is omitted, itis no doubt the same ives the date of his death as January 13, 1970. No birth date is given. In his memoirs, Nicolai Petrovich Makaroff (41810-1890), (Guitar Review, Nos. 2,3, and 5; 1946, 1947 and 148) tells of his experiences with Schertzer, but does not men- tion his first name, birth date and date of his death, Schertzer was awarded first prize In the contest, sponsored by N. P. Maka- ‘of in Brussels, 1856. Schertzer's guitar has nine stings and two ‘ecks. The traditional neck is fretted for six strings, the other, an auxiliary neck is unfretted, for the open bash strings. The Walst ofthis guitar is quite deep, or pronounced. (Guitar Review No, 3, 1947, p. 8, shows a beautiful drawing by Antonio Petruc- 2930 Peghead of Gute by gar Monch 1952, Catlection V. Basi, Now York Photograph Saul Martz cell, ofthis gultar—front and profil) Schertzer also made fen cell of tal Sine guitars. Some specimens are extant, There ar ni eeaeum of Music in Vienna. Another in the pos: is one in the MilAtoxandrow and one in the Conservatory of =xion Of Ay guitars were well made and possessed « Stone, Brussels: Hs SiGchertaee was quite an jmnovator and exper Fich sof teniiar construction, In one of his guitars, made for ented Beliaroauced two fong iron rods, placed lengthwise Makarot, estrument, which, Makaroff claimed, "selleved the inside te ed from the burden of carcying the full tension of quniing bots top of the guitae, which previously had been re the stings Thi tremendous tension, was nove completely free strained by is Splaina the strength and richness of tone which SANRUT [Guitar Review No. §, 1988). {6 Dionisio Aguado (1784-1849), celebrated guitarist and com: «ion he gular invented a tripodion to serve similar Fun, Pose Widied of a three-legged stand somewhat similar 19 Mion. It convimari stand, but sturdier. twas adjustable and the modern loos to the Tight of the performer who sat jn 2 stoed om the frock Arms, affixed tothe supporting shaft ofthe halt ot ofthe potion of the guitar at approximately the same triped pee the right thigh supports the guitar in the tral age at wi laying today, This freed the player of the neces: tional st ts he guitar and made possible the production of Sy ol te yale of tone, Fernando Sor (1779-3839), Aguade’s 2 eres tary, thought well ofthis invention to the extent that Faeroe use in his guitar method. (Guitar Review No. 13, he advised te teetch of Aguado seated with his tripodion) +7 This editorial rst appeared in Gultar News No. 1 June-July 7 Ths editorial pated in Guitar News No 60. The skull-gultat 108 a errade from the skull of a horse which wae killed refered te of Boyne, Irland, and was exhibited at Windsor Castle in 1896, «Richard Mufioz, author of Teenofogia de la Guitarsa Anger & Richa iho spent many years in scientific study and reseatcy fin 1952 we dp found Argentinian larch most satisfactory for Of musa oot fe claim it is far superior to either pine oe the earn one-duration, elasticity, comprehensive and tensile Spruce I efor intensity, ts at feast equal t0 pine Te toe nye Tijuana, Mexico, highly recommends Japa neater or guitar tops He claims this wood is well grains nee Pra fe degree of fesincy, and ie much better tha Poseees ere, which he feels is too heavy. German gut German eprace apruce from Bohemia. Often they are hard Dressed fo find suitable materials essed to Bo ce and Hungarian fir are considered best fo coe To ebtain long, close-grainied-flbered wood for 1 Sounatate tical, From = large numberof spruce tops selects top is mot sic ultar, only a very small percentage, cut to th for toe cen are available and suitable for good tops 4 Some luthiers make a bending iron out of a length of bra 2 Some chs heated ether by gas or elctiity By meant ot {abla oveyor inserted in it intrir, The tubing it mount Sn metal frame. Seta amt heating device, sometimes employed by am 1A Takers consists simply of a piece, of metal tabi ‘Gur Bilger the working end ofan electric soldering 10m 40 Dionisio Gracia: The Sonority of the Guar, Guitar Nes 20 Dion Cremer 2085-8. Gracia says: Tm my Set No.2 A rte intemal constuction, 1 made 3 for better sono) periments, A method of construction finite number espa, usally glued to the soundboard ied ni rom bur ont Peas im the al SO separated (a rd have more freedom to vibrate, I anal the sgundbog rate were arranged paral othe stn 11 The luthier with scientific inclinations will test his mater 11 The lather fer to determine flexibility, elasticity and sou ith She back and top may be congenially tuned. Some do aot ea fa tuning fork, olners by touch and sense of in born of skill and long experience,12 Musical Instruments Through the Ages edited by Anthon Baines; Pelican Books 1961,“ cad 13 Marquetry is made by gluing strips of various colored wood together in bunlles like telephone wire cables to the thickness Aesized. They are then eut off in sections across the grain 14 Vladimir Bobri, Editor of re curran neview says: “Among contemporary designs of the peghead, the one made by Edgar Minch (1907- Vis outstanding in its elegance, (Fig. 22) The slot cut-outs are very wide, making the rollers easily accessible for tying the strings. The top and bottom of the cutouts are of an oval shape, graceful and functional. ‘The choice of the ma~ hineshead to also.a happy one, since the side plates are of a Simple scalloped desiga, permitting the metal plate to be cut Gown to-a bare minimum, making the whole peghead lighter. ‘The simplicity of its outline also allows the plate to be easily countersunk in the sides of the peghead, giving a neater and slimmer appearance. The soberly applied dark veneer on to top and underside of the peghead alco enhances the general effect. In addition, one has to mention a master of the 19th centary, Panormo (c1784-¢ 1862), who evolved the most pleasing and su- perior design of the peghead. (Fig. 13) 15 Klaus P. Wachsmann, The Primitive Musical Instruments, from the book Musical instruments Through the Ages edited by Anthony Baines, Galpin Society; Penguin Books, 1961. 16 Juan Pages left Cadiz, Spain and went to Havana, Cuba About 1800, He lived and built some guitars in Havana until his eath in 1825, according to David Gillman, a Canadian, au- thority, There ie an example of hie guitare buile during the Cadiz spoch dated 1792, in the Museo Municipal in Barcelona. Mr. Gillman owns a guitar built by Pages in the Havana epoch. It Is not dated. 17 The more expensive plectrum guitars are equipped with a patented device on the top of the guitar and manipulated by the Fight hand to produce the vibrato effect referred to, by alter- nately increasing and reducing the tension of the strings thus “producing a peculiar tone.” 18 The widest part of the guitar, called the “hips” fs called la barriga—the belly in Spanish. in English, 19 A good luthier is quite familiar with most patrones of great {guitar makers and is aware of the peculiarities of each maker's Instrument. However, he does not sock to imitate, but to secure the most beautiful shape and the best tone ranges, staying, how ver, well within the boundaries of tradition and avoiding any radical departures or freakishness. 20 Parfing is the generic name for the art of ornamenting and ‘rimming borders, inthis case, the outer edge OF the sound box, the rosette the face of the tuning head, the back of the guitar, neck, ete. Purling on the guitar generally, is of three types, ‘marguetry (footnote 13) used around the sound hole, on tops of bridges and clsewhere; bindings, or filets (thin strips of spruce, pine, rosewood, maple or ebony), used around the side edges of the sound box; and third, strips of alternating ebony and holly inlaid inside the fletes or used in the joints of the back of the {ultar, around the outline of the spruce top, sometimes follow Ing both edges of the bindings. Early in this century some very fine muitars were fitted with celluloid bindings but i is now cus tomary to avoid any plastic or synthetic decoration. The only exception ie the use of white or clear plastic tapping plates (goipeadores) on good flamenco guitars. 21 Manuel Lopez (1910-1957), famous Spanish luthier, whom the weiter visited in Old Havana in 1946, 22 The writer was Introduced to Juan Mercadal in 1946 by Manuel Loper. Mercadal was a brilliant, youthful, concert gu tarist. Lopez arranged the visit to his home in Guanabacoa, across the harbor om Havana. Juan vas in his twenties at the time and now resides in Miami and is parsing an increasingly successful concert career aghetd of Guitr by Panormo Collection W. M, Appleby, Cheltenham (los), England Drawing by Petrccall 31 fg. 13SUPPORTING SOCIETIES ‘THE SOCIETY OF THE CLASSIC GUITAR -. Bobi, President» Gregory e'Alesso, Vice-President Martha Nelson, Secretary « Lou's Gi Yaga East stn Street, New York 22, AMERICAN GUITAR SOCIETY ‘Secretry,Vahdah Ole Bickford ‘2031 Holly Win Terace, Haywood, Loe Angeles 28, California ‘THE WASHINGTON GUITAR SOCIETY ‘Sophocles Papas, Executive Secretary exe "a stoet HW, Washington 36, D.C. ‘THE GUITAR GUILD obard A. Pers, President + 357 Westminster St, Province 3, R.! ‘THE GUITAR SOCIETY OF TORONTO ce kowrner, President» Audroy Ellard, View-Presient ictantin Young. soeretary » Ron Butir, Treasurer it petorigg Avenue, Trento 12, Canada CLASSIC GUITAR SOCIETY OF CARMEL “Tera pritten, Eee. Director James Zener, Pres semper vice pens Margaret Gerber See-TTeas Dolores & tn stveet, carmel, California CLASSIC GUITAR SOCIETY OF CENTRAL FLORIDA ae Mark, President « Har Kiotz, Vice-President ait arnlacaba, secretary » Carl Jacobs, Treasurer Man Laken Avena, Orlando, Florida 32608 CLASSIC GUITAR SOCIETY OF MICHIGAN ron Schwert, President» Catt Gerstein, 1st Vice-President Ron Sear, a vice resident» Bob Anderson, Teasuret ro hn cen oe Sa, wich ‘THE INTERMOUNTAIN GUITAR SOCIETY TH uigent +1268 Garotte St, Salt Lake City, Utah 64116 Musi for Clsste Gta, Ay SEGOVIA Arangements, Musi from sbrond sat to cn oat CELESTA PUB. CO. 409 €, 50 St New York 22, WY

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