A hydrocarbon replacement model for the Zambian Copperbelt
deposits
Robert J Scott David Selley
Centre for Ore Deposit Research Centre for Ore Deposit Research
University of Tasmania, Hobart University of Tasmania, Hobart
robert.scott@utas.edu.au d.selley@utas.edu.au
David Broughton
Department of Geology and Geological
Engineering
Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO
itsusinus@cs.com
David Cooke Ross Large
Centre for Ore Deposit Research Centre for Ore Deposit Research
University of Tasmania, Hobart University of Tasmania, Hobart
d.cooke@utas.edu.au ross.large@utas.edu.au
SUMMARY
A systematic relationship between the distribution
grossly stratiform Cu-deposits, basin architecture, and
facies associations in the Zambian Copperbelt (ZCB)
suggests the deposits formed at sites of former significant
accumulations of both mobile and/or in situ
hydrocarbons. Deposits occur within a 200 m
stratigraphic window containing the first laterally-
extensive, fine-grained, originally organic-rich strata
within the host Katangan Supergroup. Arenite-hosted
deposits occur within, or immediately overlie confined or
peripheral portions of sub-basins formed during the
initial stages of sedimentation and are overlain by
relatively impermeable strata; sites with classical
hydrocarbon trap geometries. Direct evidence for the
former presence of hydrocarbons (e.g. pyrobitumen) is
lacking in the ZCB, however anomalously light carbon
isotopic signatures for both vein and matrix carbonate,
spatially associated with the ores, are interpreted to
record the oxidation of organic matter synchronous with
ore formation.
Antithetic distributions of (early diagenetic) wall-rock
anhydrite and sulfides at many ZCB deposits suggest
sulfur in the deposits was largely sourced and reduced in
situ. A local source for migrated hydrocarbons and
evidence that extensive in situ thermochemical sulfate
reduction accompanied or preceded ore formation
requires pre-mineralisation burial of the host rocks to
depths approaching or exceeding the maximum preserved
thickness of the Katangan succession in the ZCB. This
indicates Cu-mineralisation occurred late in the
depositional history, perhaps during initial stages of basin
inversion at the onset of onset of Lufilian orogenesis after
~600 Ma, but prior to significant folding of the host
succession.
Key words: Zambian Copperbelt, sediment-hosted
stratiform copper deposits, hydrocarbons,
thermochemical sulfate reduction.
AESC2006, Melbourne, Australia.
Stuart Bull
Centre for Ore Deposit Research
University of Tasmania, Hobart
s.bull@utas.edu.au]
Murray Hitzman
Department of Geology and Geological
Engineering
Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO
mhitzman@mines.edu
Peter McGoldrick
Centre for Ore Deposit Research
University of Tasmania, Hobart
p.mcgoldrick@utas.edu.au
INTRODUCTION
Known copper deposits in the Zambian Copperbelt (ZCB)
account for 46% (~90 Mt Cu) of the total production and
reserves of the Central African Copperbelt, the largest and
highest grade known sediment-hosted copper province on
Earth. The ZCB deposits are hosted by the Neoproterozoic
Katangan Supergroup, a relatively thin, moderately to highly
deformed succession of marginal marine and terrestrial meta-
sedimentary rocks, deposited in an intra-continental rift or
passive margin setting between ~877 and ~600 Ma (Selley et
al. 2005). The Katangan Supergroup consists of the Lower
and Upper Roan Groups, Mwashia Group and the Lower and
Upper Kundelungu Groups, and has an entire preserved
thickness of less than 5 km in the ZCB. The majority of the
ZCB deposits are broadly stratiform and hosted by either
argillites (70% of ore) or arenites (30% of ore) of the Lower
Roan Group.
The origin of the ZCB deposits has been the subject of
conjecture for over 70 years. Syn-orogenic and shear zone-
hosted models for at least some deposits have recently been
proposed (Molak, 1995; McGowan et al., 2003). However,
the gross geometry of the deposits indicates most clearly
formed prior to significant folding of the host successions
during the ~590–500 Ma Lufilian Orogeny. Accordingly
syngenetic to early diagenetic models have dominated
published work on the ZCB deposits since the 1950s.
Our petrographic and geochemical studies in the ZCB suggest
copper deposition was synchronous with intense potassium
metasomatism of argillaceous rocks (e.g. Selley et al., 2005).
However, while potassium metasomatism affected almost the
entire Lower Roan throughout much of the ZCB (including
rocks at stratigraphic levels well above the copper deposits),
the major copper deposits all occur at or close to the level of
the Copperbelt Orebody. Member of the Lower Roan Group
(and correlates east of the Kafue Anticline). Although the
dolomitic shale and siltstone facies of the Copperbelt Orebody
Member forms the major ore host, all major lithofacies in the
Lower Roan (i.e. clean to argillaceous sandstone and
conglomerate, siltstone, shale and even massive carbonates)
1
Hydrocarbon replacement model for the ZCB deposits Scott, Selley, Bull, Broughton, Hitzman,
Cooke, Large & McGoldrick

are at least locally mineralized, indicating sulfide distribution

was not controlled by facies type alone. Here we argue, as
previously postulated by Annels (1979) and McGowan et al.
(2003), that the localization of ore reflects the former
distribution of significant accumulations of both mobile and in
situ organic-derived reductants. Reduction of early diagenetic
anhydrite nodules and cements in the wall-rocks (± sulfate in
the ore fluid) by organic matter and hydrocarbons produced
reduced sulfur (or H2S) which stripped copper from the more
pervasively circulated oxidized ore fluid.
Figure 1. Schematic diagrams depicting idealised (a)
In this paper we outline key evidence supporting a present and (b) restored distribution and geometry of
hydrocarbon reservoir replacement model for the ZCB arenite-hosted copper deposits in the Lower Roan Group.
deposits. Although there is no direct evidence for the former Deposits are typically capped by less permeable strata
presence of significant hydrocarbon accumulations in the ZCB (shale, carbonate). “Footwall” deposits, below the level of
(e.g. preserved bitumen), this is explained by destruction of the argillaceous facies of the Copperbelt Orebody
organic matter during the mineralisation process (and Member, generally occur at the periphery of subbasins
associated hydrothermal alteration), as well as during formed during the earliest stages of Katangan
subsequent deformation and mid to upper greenschist facies sedimentation, while “hanging-wall” deposits were
metamorphism during the Lufilian Orogeny. Instead, our probably localised in broad low-amplitude flexures
arguments are based on the distribution of deposits with developed above the buried margins of the former
respect to basin architecture, petrographic features of the ores subbasins. From Selley et al. (2005).
and their host successions, and isotopic evidence supporting
oxidation of organic matter (and localised production of H2S) Evidence for the role of organic matter
during or prior to Cu-mineralisation.
It had long been speculated that the argillite-hosted orebodies
had higher organic carbon contents than adjacent strata and
EVIDENCE SUPPORTING A HYDROCARBON that this provided a reducing trap for copper precipitation (e.g.
RESERVOIR REPLACEMENT FOR THE ZCB Annels, 1974). However, Gustafson and Williams (1981)
DEPOSITS noted that argillites in the Copperbelt Orebody Member
typically have very low total organic carbon (TOC) contents
Basin Architecture (<0.1% TOC). Our studies indicate that barren or low-grade
fringe zones to some argillite-hosted orebodies have TOC
A hydrocarbon reservoir replacement model for the ZCB
contents up to 3.7%. Thus the low organic carbon contents of
deposits is suggested by the systematic relationship between
the ores may principally be due to destruction of organic
deposit distribution and basin architecture particularly for the
matter during the mineralising process.
arenite-hosted deposits. Most deposits occur within, or
immediately overlie confined or peripheral portions of the
Direct evidence for the former presence of hydrocarbons (such
sub-basins formed during the initial stages of Katangan
as preserved pyrobitumens) has not been recognized in any of
sedimentation (Figure 1). The Copperbelt Orebody Member
the ZCB deposits. However, carbon and sulfur isotopic data
transgresses (locally onlaps) this highly compartmentalised
and mineral assemblages associated with ores at many of the
network of fault-bounded sub-basins and contains the first
deposits provide indirect evidence for the involvement of
laterally-extensive, fine-grained, originally organic-rich strata
hydrocarbons in the mineralization process. In addition,
within the Katangan Supergroup. As such, it represents both
interstitial carbonaceous matter locally forms up to several
the first significant hydrocarbon source rock within the
percent of the arenite-hosted A-, B- and C-Orebodies at
Katangan succession and formed a regionally-extensive low-
Mufulira, and is concentrated in or adjacent to the areas of
permeability ‘seal’ to the underlying Lower Roan clastic units.
highest grade ore. The carbonaceous matter has been
previously been interpreted as a residue of former
Major arenite-hosted orebodies occur at sites that resemble hydrocarbon reservoirs (Annels, 1979).
physical traps for mobile reductants (hydrocarbons and H2S);
bound laterally by uplifted basement blocks and vertically by Carbon isotopic evidence for hydrocarbons
less permeable strata (Figure 1b). Where low permeability cap-
Interstitial carbonate cements and vein carbonate throughout
rocks (shales and carbonates) to these traps are anomalously thin
much of the Lower Roan in the ZCB (particularly associated
or absent (e.g. over basement highs) or breached by faults,
with the copper deposits have strongly depleted carbon
stacked ore horizons are locally developed. This configuration
isotope values (e.g. δ13C: –12 to –26‰, Figure 2). This light
is best explained by the vertical escape of hydrocarbons/H2S
carbon signature is most consistent with CO2 generated by
from primary reservoirs at lower stratigraphic levels. The bulk
either biogenic oxidation or catagenesis of organic matter (e.g.
of the ZCB ore is hosted by relatively organic-rich dolomitic
Ohmoto and Goldhaber, 1997). A similar conclusion was
shale and siltstone, for which an in situ organic reductant is
reached by Sweeney and Binda (1989), who interpreted the
implied. Even for these deposits, however, sulfides are
anomalously light carbon and oxygen isotopic signatures of
commonly concentrated into thin sandstone interbeds,
carbonate lenticles and layers in the Konkola ores to reflect
suggesting migrated (albeit very locally?) hydrocarbons were
oxidation of organic matter during mineralization.
also important (e.g. Annels, 1974).

AESC2006, Melbourne, Australia. 2

Hydrocarbon replacement model for the ZCB deposits Scott, Selley, Bull, Broughton, Hitzman,
Cooke, Large & McGoldrick

(a) 10
10 organic matter originally (e.g. Annels, 1979). Thus the
Neopr oterozoic
marine carbon ate presence of highly depleted carbon isotopic values for
55
interstitial carbonate cements in these units is best explained
00 by accumulation of migrated hydrocarbons. In this regard, it
is particularly noteworthy that the most depleted carbon
-5
-5 isotopic values within the Mindola Clastics Formation come
δ C (‰, P DB)

from geometric trap sites hosting sulfide deposits. However,

-10
-10
not all of the arenite-hosted deposits have strongly depleted
-15
-15 carbon isotopic signatures. This suggests that organic carbon
13

(i.e. migrated hydrocarbons) was either not present at the site

-20
-20
of these deposits or that it was diluted by addition of
-25
-25 isotopically heavier carbon from other sources. The former
implies another mobile reductant (e.g. sour gas) was present at
-30
-30
00 5
5 10
10 15
15 20
20 25
25 30
30 35
35
the trap site, while the latter is supported by post-ore albitic
alteration at the two deposits lacking the depleted carbon
δ O (‰, SMOW)
18

isotopic signature (e.g. Chambishi, Chibuluma).

(b) 25
>100 pp m Cu
Poorly mineralized, shale in the Kitwe Formation (above the
20 <100 pp m Cu level of the Copperbelt Orebody Member) displays a similar
strongly depleted carbon isotopic signature to the Ore Shale.
Neoprote ro zoic Thus while significant depletion in 13C interpreted most likely
freq uency

15 mari ne carbo nat es

reflects oxidation of former organic matter, and this process may
have occurred during copper mineralization, the light carbon
10
isotopic signature is not, by itself, indicative of ore formation.
The trend toward highly depleted carbon isotopic values for the
5 Lower Roan is thus interpreted to reflect mixing between a
major reservoir of oxidized organic carbon (in situ or migrated
0 organic matter) and a minor component of non-organic carbon.
- 25 - 20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10
δ C (‰, PD B)
13

Sulfur isotopic evidence for role of hydrocarbons

Figure 2. Carbon and oxygen isotope data from Roan and
Mwashia Group carbonates from the Zambian
Copperbelt. (a) Coupled depletion in both δ13C and δ18O
relative to Neoproterozoic marine carbonate is best
explained by the oxidation of organic carbon. (b)
histogram showing the range in carbonate δ13C values for
samples containing greater and less than 100 ppm Cu. Cu
mineralised samples show a clear bias towards low δ13C
values, suggesting the oxidation of organic carbon (e.g.
through reaction with anhydrite to produce H2S)
accompanied copper mineralisation. From Selley et al.
(2005).
Although metamorphic volatilisation and decarbonation can
produce coupled δ13C and δ18O depletions in carbonates, this
does not explain the trend to very low δ13C values observed in
the ZCB. Isotopic depletions related to metamorphism should
be similar for all carbonate in a given area. However,
unmineralized massive to microbially-laminated dolomites in
both the Copperbelt Orebody Member and the Upper Roan
Group retain typical Neoproterozoic marine carbonate
signatures (δ13C = +10 to –5 ‰ and δ18O = 19 to 26‰;
Jacobsen and Kaufman, 1999; Figure 2). Interaction with a
moderate to high temperature (e.g. 150 to 350°C) fluid can
also decrease δ13C and δ18O values for sedimentary carbonate
(e.g. Hitzman and Beatty, 1996). However such depletions
rarely exceed 5 to 8 ‰ for δ13C and 10 ‰ for δ18O.
Interaction with hydrothermal fluids is thus unlikely to
explain trends in the ZCB isotopic data, where depletions of
up to 30‰ in δ13C and 20‰ in δ18O occur (Figure 2).
Fluviatile arenaceous units of the Mindola Clastics Formation
as well as those hosting the Mufulira orebodies east of the
Kafue Anticline, are unlikely to have contained significant
AESC2006, Melbourne, Australia.
Sulfur isotope data from the ZCB, particularly for the arenite-
hosted deposits, can also be interpreted in terms of a
hydrocarbon-replacement model for the copper deposits.
Seawater sulfate or (evaporitic) anhydrite formed during early
diagenesis are the most likely sulfur sources for the ZCB
deposits. Partial to complete replacement of early diagenetic
anhydrite by carbonate and sulfides at several deposits, and
the grossly antithetic distributions of anhydrite and sulfide at
many ZCB deposits (e.g. Garlick and Fleischer, 1972;
Fleischer et al., 1976; Annels, 1974; 1989; Sweeny and Binda,
1989) suggest in situ reduction of wall-rock sulfate, provided
a major source of reduced sulfur for many of the copper
deposits (Annels, 1974; 1989; Sweeny and Binda, 1989).
Sulfur isotope values for anhydrite from the lower Katangan
Supergroup typically lie in the range 14–19‰, compatible
with Neoproterozoic seawater. Assuming an average
reservoir δ34Ssulfate value of 17‰, arenite-hosted deposits have
∆SO4-sulfides values 5 to 17‰ while fractionations for argillite-
hosted deposits range from 11 to 30‰ (Figure 3). The
contrasting sulfur isotope systematics suggest different
processes or sulfur sources were involved in the formation of
the argillite- and arenite-hosted deposits.
δ34S values for H2S produced by closed-system
thermochemical sulfate reduction due to interaction with
hydrocarbons should approach δ34Sreservoir sulfate where
thermochemical sulfate reduction proceeds to completion
(Orr, 1974). The generation of mature H2S-rich hydrocarbon
reservoirs prior to copper introduction may account for the
ZCB arenite-hosted systems with anomalously low degrees of
sulfur isotopic fractionation (e.g. ∆SO4-sulfides values of 5 to
6‰, Figure 3). Arenite-hosted deposits showing greater
excursions from Proterozoic seawater δ34S values are
interpreted to record either open system behaviour or
3
Hydrocarbon replacement model for the ZCB deposits Scott, Selley, Bull, Broughton, Hitzman,
incomplete reduction of wall-rock sulfur. Mineralogical
evidence (discussed below) supports the former presence of
H2S reservoirs at the giant Mufulira system. However, the
relatively large average ∆SO4-sulfides value of 16.6‰ and
particularly large range of δ34Ssulfide values (21.4‰) at this
deposit suggests that either thermochemical sulfate reduction
was incomplete (due either to sluggish reaction kinetics or the
large volume of in situ sulfate present), or that additional
sulfur was introduced at the time of sulfide precipitation.
Figure 3. Sulfur isotope data from the Zambian
Copperbelt deposits showing calculated fractionations
(∆SO4–sulfide) relative to the assumed average initial δ34S
(=17‰) composition of reservoir sulfate. Data sources: 1 =
Dechow and Jensen (1965), 2 = Sweeny and Binda (1989),
3 = D. Cooke (unpublished data, 2002), 4 = McGowan et
al. (2003). From Selley et al. (2005).
Higher and more variable average ∆SO4-sulfides values for the
argillite-hosted deposits are less diagnostic of sulfur source(s)
and sulfide precipitation mechanisms, compared to the
arenite-hosted deposits. The lowest ∆SO4-sulfides values for
argillite-hosted deposits (e.g. Chambishi SE) approach those
of the arenite-hosted deposits (Figure 3), while the lightest
values (Luanshya) are similar to those for diagenetic pyrite
from Nchanga, for which open-system bacterial reduction of
Precambrian seawater sulfate has been proposed (McGowan et
al., 2003). The similarity of δ34S values for diagenetic pyrite
at Nchanga and copper sulfides at Luanshya may indicate an
at least partial early diagenetic origin for some argillite-hosted
deposits, but could also be explained by replacement of early
diagenetic pyrite without further sulfur addition.
AESC2006, Melbourne, Australia.
Cooke, Large & McGoldrick
Mineralogical evidence for the nature of reductants
Most alteration styles in the ZCB, including those coeval with
copper mineralization, are regional in extent and are not
indicative of either proximity to ore, or ore forming processes.
In contrast, sericite development at the expense of detrital ±
secondary K-feldspar (and to a variable extent Ca- and Mg-
bearing phases) at several arenite-hosted deposits (most
notably Mufulira, Chibuluma, and Chibuluma West) is largely
restricted to, or centered on, the highest grade portions of
these systems (Darnley, 1960; Annels, 1979). These spatial
associations suggest that K-feldspar destruction was
intimately related to copper deposition at these deposits; in
stark contrast to the marked K-feldspar enrichment evident in
Cu-mineralized argillaceous rocks elsewhere the ZCB.
In each of the three grossly stratabound orebodies at Mufulira
(i.e. A-, B- and C-orebodies), dark-coloured, carbon-bearing,
sericitic quartzites (‘greywackes’ in the local mine
terminology) occur in the cores of the sericitized zones. The
carbonaceous matter forms filamentous coatings on detrital
grains and constitutes up to 3% of the rock (Figure 4). It has
previously been interpreted as an organic residue after
migrated hydrocarbons (Annels, 1979). Rocks surrounding
the sericitic zones at Mufulira typically contain lower grade
accumulations of copper sulfides, minor to abundant
carbonate and anhydrite, and in sandstone units, relatively
abundant detrital K-feldspar. Argillaceous rocks beyond the
peripheries of the sericite altered domains are also moderately
to strongly enriched in secondary K-feldspar. Collectively,
relations at Mufulira suggest that the ore fluid evolved to
lower pH, destabilising K-feldspar and carbonate, at the sites
of highest grade ore deposition. Preservation of interstitial
carbonaceous matter central to these zones suggests the
decrease in pH of the fluid was caused by interaction with
hydrocarbon reservoirs.
Precipitation of copper sulfides following interaction with H2S
liberates hydrogen ions and thus may drive the ore fluid to
lower pH. However, at most deposits in the ZCB, both K-
feldspar and/or carbonate are prominent constituents of the
copper ores, indicating copper deposition alone did not lower
pH sufficiently to destabilize these minerals. An alternative
explanation is the decrease in pH was caused by dissociation
of excess H2S within the hydrocarbon reservoirs (i.e. H2S not
consumed in sulfide precipitation) to form sulfuric acid. Given
the general abundance of anhydrite in rocks immediately
surrounding the Mufulira orebodies (up to 20–30 %, Fleischer
et al., 1976), and the well documented antithetic relationship
between anhydrite and copper sulfides at the deposit (Garlick
and Fleischer, 1972; Fleischer et al., 1976; Annels, 1974),
thermochemical reduction of in situ sulfate within the
hydrocarbon reservoirs is likely to have produced large
quantities of H2S. In addition, maturation of sulfur-bearing
organic compounds may have also added to the H2S content of
the hydrocarbon reservoirs.
4
Hydrocarbon replacement model for the ZCB deposits Scott, Selley, Bull, Broughton, Hitzman,
Figure 4. (a) PPL, (b) XPL and (c) REF
photomicrographs of carbon impregnated “greywacke” A-
Orebody, Mufulira deposit. Fine grained non-reflective
carbon (c) forms filamentous coatings on detrital grains in
high grade ore. Width of view is 5 mm, m = muscovite, Bn
= bornite, Cpy = chalcopyrite.
Implications of the model for the depth and timing of Cu
mineralisation
The recognition that arenite-hosted copper deposits in the
ZCB formed at the sites of major accumulations of migrated
hydrocarbons potentially places an important constraint on the
timing of deposit genesis. The restriction of major arenite-
hosted deposits to geometric trap sites within a 200 m wide
stratigraphic interval centred on the Copperbelt Orebody
Member (and direct correlates east of the Kafue anticline)
suggests that organic-rich rocks within this unit (e.g. the Ore
Shale) may have been a major source of mobile hydrocarbons
AESC2006, Melbourne, Australia.
Cooke, Large & McGoldrick
as well as providing the in situ reductant for the argillite-
hosted deposits. If this was the case, the host-rocks must have
been buried to at least the depths of the oil window (>2–3 km,
depending on geothermal gradient) prior to deposit genesis.
Estimates for the thickness of the Katangan succession in the
ZCB suggest burial to these depths did not occur until
deposition of the Upper Kundelungu group at ~600 Ma,
coincident with initial basin inversion and the onset of
Lufilian orogenesis.
We cannot preclude the possibility that the migrated
hydrocarbons were sourced from adjacent older, deeper parts
of the Katangan basin system, that had passed through the oil
window at an earlier stage in the basin evolution. However,
the evidence for extensive thermochemical reduction of wall-
rock sulfate (anhydrite) accompanying or as a precursor to
formation of many, if not all, arenite-hosted deposits suggests
the host rocks attained temperatures >120–140ºC prior to
deposit formation. Significant sour gas production at the
expense of anhydrite is only known from hydrocarbon
reservoirs deeper than 4,300 m (Worden et al., 1995).
CONCLUSIONS
Our analysis of district- and deposit-scale basin architecture,
petrographic features of the ores and their host successions,
and C–O and S isotopes of carbonates and sulfides,
respectively, suggests the distribution of copper deposits in
the Zambian Copperbelt was principally controlled by the
former distribution of substantial accumulations of organic-
derived reductants. Ore is largely concentrated within
dolomitic shale and siltstone units comprising the argillaceous
facies of the Copperbelt Orebody Member and for which an in
situ organic reductant is implied. Arenite-hosted deposits
occur in strata that are unlikely to have originally contained
significant organic matter but have highly depleted carbon
isotopic values for interstitial carbonate cements that are best
explained by accumulation of migrated hydrocarbons. The
arenite hosted deposits occur in sites with classical
hydrocarbon trap geometries; generally occurring at or above
the peripheries of subbasins formed during the earliest stages
of Katangan sedimentation and capped by less permeable
strata (shale, carbonate).
We cannot discount the possibility that copper mineralization
in the ZCB was a protracted process, and, at least for some
argillite-hosted deposits, may have commenced shortly after
deposition of the host successions (e.g. Konkola: Selley et al.,
2005). However a local source for migrated hydrocarbons and
the evidence that significant thermochemical sulfate reduction
accompanied or preceded formation of many of the ZCB
deposits requires pre-mineralisation burial of the host rocks to
depths approaching or exceeding the maximum preserved
thickness of the entire Katangan succession in the ZCB. This
implies the major phase of Cu-mineralisation occurred late in
the depositional history of the basin, perhaps during initial
stages of basin inversion, but prior to significant folding of the
host succession at the onset of onset of Lufilian orogenesis
after ~600 Ma (Selley et al., 2005).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Results presented here are outcomes of AMIRA-ARC Project
P544, jointly conducted by researchers from CODES at the
University of Tasmania and the Department of Geology and
5
Hydrocarbon replacement model for the ZCB deposits Scott, Selley, Bull, Broughton, Hitzman,
Geological Engineering at the Colorado School of Mines
(CSM). We acknowledge the financial support provided by
the Australian Research Council, financial and logistic support
provided by the 12 industry sponsors and Alan Goode
(AMIRA International) for his key role in project
management. In addition we thank CODES PhD students
Mawson Croaker and Nicky Pollington for their valuable
contributions to this study.
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