There are two basic construction types used in photomultiplier tube designs: end-on

design and side-window design, both of which are illustrated in Figure 15-10. End-
on
design uses a semiopaque cathode that is incorporated into the glass end of the
phototube. This is done by fusing the cathode to the underside of the tube's glass
end
or by using an adhesive. Unfortunately, this type of construction has one serious
drawback: the head-on construction is more susceptible to stray magnetic fields
(see
the discussion above) than is the alternative construction method. However, end-on
construction does create better distortion-free signals at the anode, due to fewer
tight
turns in the paths needed in this type of construction. (This will be better
understood in
the discussion below concerning side-window construction.) Because of the
straighter
paths employed, the anode's electron collection efficiency is be
Sensors and actuators
Transducers can be categorized by which direction information passes through them:

A sensor is a transducer that receives and responds to a signal or stimulus from a

physical system.[3][4][2] It produces a signal, which represents information about
the system, which is used by some type of telemetry, information or control system.
An actuator is a device that is responsible for moving or controlling a mechanism
or system. It is controlled by a signal from a control system or manual control. It
is operated by a source of energy, which can be mechanical force, electrical
current, hydraulic fluid pressure, or pneumatic pressure, and converts that energy
into motion. An actuator is the mechanism by which a control system acts upon an
environment. The control system can be simple (a fixed mechanical or electronic
system), software-based (e.g. a printer driver, robot control system), a human, or
any other input.[2]
Bidirectional transducers convert physical phenomena to electrical signals and also
convert electrical signals into physical phenomena. An example of an inherently
bidirectional transducer is an antenna, which can convert radio waves
(electromagnetic waves) into an electrical signal to be processed by a radio
receiver, or translate an electrical signal from a transmitter into radio waves.
Another example is voice coils, which are used in loudspeakers to translate an
electrical audio signal into sound and in dynamic microphones to translate sound
waves into an audio signal.[2]
Passive vs active sensors
Passive sensors require an external power source to operate, which is called an
excitation signal. The signal is modulated by the sensor to produce an output
signal. For example, a thermistor does not generate any electrical signal, but by
passing an electric current through it, its resistance can be measured by detecting
variations in the current or voltage across the thermistor.[5][2]
Active sensors, in contrast, generate an electric current in response to an
external stimulus which serves as the output signal without the need of an
additional energy source. Such examples are a photodiode, and a piezoelectric
sensor, thermocouple.[6]