CHAPTER 3

SOLAR WATER PUMPING SYSTEM

3.1. A Typical of Solar-Powered Water Pump System

Photovoltaic (PV) panels are often used for agricultural operations, especially
in remote areas or where the use of an alternative energy source is desired. In
particular, they have been demonstrated time and time again to reliably produce
sufficient electricity directly from solar radiation (sunlight) to power livestock and
irrigation watering systems.

Figure 3.12. A typical solar-powered water pump system, which includes a solar array,
controller, pump, and storage tank
 A benefit of using solar energy to power agricultural water pump systems is
that increased water requirements for livestock and irrigation tend to coincide with the
seasonal increase of incoming solar energy. When properly designed, these PV
systems can also result in significant long-term cost savings and a smaller
environmental footprint compared to conventional power systems.
The volume of water pumped by a solar-powered system in a given interval
depends on the total amount of solar energy available in that time period. Specifically,
the flow rate of the water pumped is determined by both the intensity of the solar
energy available and the size of the PV array used to convert that solar energy into
direct current (DC) electricity.
The principle components in a solar-powered water pump system (shown in
Figure 3.12) include:
• The PV array and its support structure,
• An electrical controller, and
• An electric-powered pump
It is important that the components be designed as part of an integrated system
to ensure that all the equipment is compatible and that the system operates as
intended. It is therefore recommended that all components be obtained from a single
supplier to ensure their compatibility.
The following information is required to design a PV-powered pump:
(i) The site-specific solar energy available (referred to as “solar insolation”).
(ii) The volume of water required in a given period of time for livestock or
irrigation purposes, as well as for storage. A storage volume equal to a three-
day water requirement is normally recommended for livestock operations as a
backup for the system’s safety features and cloudy days.
(iii) The total dynamic head (TDH) for the pump.
(iv)The quantity and quality of available water.
(v) The system’s proposed layout and hydraulic criteria.
The following sections will first provide an introduction to the basic concepts
involved in solar-powered pump systems, then descriptions of and design
considerations for individual system components.
3.2. Pumping Mechanisms Used for Solar Pumps
Conventional water well pumps are designed to run at a constant speed from a
stable power source. However, the power from a solar array varies with the intensity
of solar radiation and with the angle of the sunshine on the array. The speed of a solar
pump varies accordingly. For this reason, some manufacturers have designed pumps
for solar power. From a mechanical point of view, these pumps fall under two
categories: centrifugal and positive displacement (volumetric).

3.2.1. Centrifugal Pumps

These pumps have one or more impellers that spin the water to subject it to
centrifugal force. To attain high lift, a centrifugal pump may have a multitude of
stages, each consisting of an impeller. Each stage adds to the pump’s lift capacity.
Centrifugal pumps may use over 20 stages to attain high lifts. Each stage adds
pressure but also imposes friction, resulting in an efficiency loss of about 5% per
stage. Centrifugal pumps with many stages can have poor energy efficiency and are
not always optimum for solar pumping.

Figure 3.13 Surface centrifugal pump.

Centrifugal pumps are most efficient for flow in excess of about 40 l/m and for
lifts less than 40 m. At lower flow rates and higher lifts, the efficiency is poor. At
reduced speeds such as those that occur during low-sun conditions, centrifugal pumps
lose efficiency in a disproportionate manner. For these reasons, positive displacement
pumps are used for most systems that require high lift, especially at modest volumes.

3.2.2. Positive Displacement Pumps

A positive displacement pump draws water into a sealed chamber and then
forces it out mechanically. A piston pump is a classic example. A solar pump may use
a diaphragm, instead, or a helical rotor that traps water in cavities that progress
upward as it turns. These pumps have high lift capacity and high energy efficiency.
They are optimum for lower flow rates (e.g., 50 l/m), especially when the lift exceeds
15 m.
Positive displacement pumps are used for most solar pumps in the power
range of 500 W (0.5 hp) or less. The efficiency and lift capacity of these pumps
remain high even at low rotational speeds, such as those that occur in a solar-direct
pump during low-light conditions. This is not true for centrifugal pumps.

Figure 3.14 Schematic of a positive displacement pump

3.2.3. Surface Pumps versus Submersible Pumps

A surface pump is one that cannot be submerged in water (see Figure 3.15). It
can be installed above the water source, but nature imposes a strict limit on the height
to which water can be drawn by suction. The pump must not be more than 3–6
vertical meters above the water source level. Otherwise, it will extract bubbles from
the water and will fail to pump. A surface pump can draw from a river, irrigation
ditch, pond, or water tank, but not from a deep well. It may be less expensive than a
submersible pump and more efficient for high-volume pumping. However, a
submersible pump is often simpler to install, better protected from the environment,
and less likely to be damaged from running dry (Figure 3.17).
Some solar submersible pumps use the same centrifugal mechanism as a
surface pump. Others use a positive displacement mechanism. Centrifugal
submersible pumps are the dominant technology for deep well pumping (see Figure
3.16). Solar pumps of this type are similar, except for the use of a specialized motor
and controller.

Figure 3.15. Diagram of a submersible centrifugal pump.

Figure 3.16. Diagram of a submersible centrifugal pump

 Figure 3.17. Grundfos submersible pump

Figure 3.17. Submersible ETA helical

rotor pump with controller

Figure 3.18. Diagram of a helical rotor pump.

 Figure 3.19. Submersible diaphragm pumps.

A diaphragm pump may be used when the initial cost must be minimal, when
the water volume requirement is very low, and when the future cost of pump
maintenance or replacement is acceptable.

3.2.4. Types of Motors Used with Solar Pumps

A PV array generates DC power at a power level that varies with the intensity
of the sunshine that falls upon it. To run a pump directly from this unique source of
energy requires a special kind of motor or motor/control system. There are two major
types of solar pump motors: brush-type motors and brushless motors. The brush-type
motor is the traditional DC motor technology that has been used in battery powered
applications for many decades. The “brushes” are small blocks of electrically
conductive carbon-graphite. They rub against the spinning part of the motor
(commutator) and conduct current into it. This causes the current to alternate (to
become AC) within the motor. This simple technology has two major disadvantages:
(1) The brushes wear out and must be replaced periodically, and
(2) the motor must be filled with air (not liquid) and must be 100% sealed
against water leakage.
These are major disadvantages for submersible pumps. Brush-type motors are often
used for surface pumps where they are kept dry and access is easy.
(a) Wound Field Motor

(b) Brushed Permanent Magnet Motor

(c) Brushless Permanent Magnet Motor

Figure 3.20. Construction of DC motors.

 The term brushless DC motor refers to a special type of AC motor driven by
an electronic controller that converts DC power into variable AC power. The
controller does the job of the brushes and commutator in a brush-type motor. The
brushless motor has two major advantages: (1) There are no brushes to wear, and (2)
the motor can be filled with oil or water. The safest solar submersible pumps use
water inside as a lubricant, eliminating potential oil contamination.
The use of an AC motor in a solar pump requires an inverter which introduces
additional costs and some energy losses. Hence AC motors have not been seriously
suggested for low power (less than 250W) applications where the increased cost may
be a significant proportion of the overall cost. AC motors are generally less efficient
than DC motors but special improved efficiency models are now available for use in
solar powered systems.

3.2.5. Solar Pump Controllers

There are two types of solar pump controllers for both motor types as brush
type motor and brushless type motor.
A positive displacement pump requires a surge of current for start-up and must
come up to speed against the constant pressure imposed by the water in the pipe. A
PV array may not be sized large enough to produce the required starting surge,
especially in low-light conditions, when it produces reduced current. A linear current
booster (LCB) can be used to reduce the voltage from the PV array while it boosts the
current. This starts the pump motor and prevents it from stalling during low-light
conditions. A brush-type centrifugal pump is often supplied without an LCB because
it starts easily and its current draw diminishes with speed. An LCB controller will
increase its efficiency during low-sun periods, but the performance gain is relatively
small.
A brushless motor controller contains a special type of inverter (a device that
converts DC to AC). It performs the LCB function and matches the motor speed to the
available power. The three-phase AC power is optimum for starting and running the
motor at high efficiency. The controller varies the motor speed by varying the
frequency of the AC power. A brushless pump is normally sold with a controller that
is engineered specifically for it.
 Figure 3.21. Typical pump controller with over current protection for PV water-
pumping system

3.2.6. Pump Selection

The process of selecting a pump is critical to the success of a project. A solar
pump must use energy efficiently because the PV array that powers it is the most
expensive part of the system. Centrifugal and volumetric pumps offer different
characteristics for different ranges of application. The pump selection process can
appear complicated due to the multitude of technologies available and the many
models available. For help in selecting the best type of pump for a given application,
refer to Figure (3.22) and Table 3.4.

3.2.7. Installation, Operation, and Maintenance

Good operation and maintenance practices are important to ensure the long-
term reliability of a PV water-pumping system. Although a well designed and
installed PV pumping system is safe, reliable, and requires little attention, there may
be times when basic maintenance is required, especially for the pump.
The operator should know how to run the system and perform routine
maintenance and operation procedures, such as system shut-off/start-up procedures.
All of this information should be included in an operation and maintenance manual
from the original system provider. The operator should understand the expected
system output in cubic meters per day, the flow rate on a sunny day, and the
significance of indicator lights, as well as basic array, wiring, and pump features.
Table 3.4. Pump Characteristics
Type of Advantages Disadvantages
solar pump
-Simple, one moving part -Poor efficiency at low
Submersible -Regular maintenance not required volumes (<30 L/m)
centrifugal -Efficient at high flow rates -Lift capacity is greatly
-Good tolerance for moderate amounts reduced at slow speeds
of sand and silt (during low-sun conditions)

Submersible -Simple, one moving part

helical rotor -Regular maintenance not required
-Highly efficient at low to medium
flow rates(4–50 L/m)
-Maintains full lift capacity even at
low speed
-Good tolerance for moderate amounts
of sand and silt
Diaphragm -Low initial cost -Requires regular preventive
submersible -Efficient at very low flow rates (4–20 maintenance
L/m) -Poor tolerance for sand and
-Maintains full lift capacity even at silt
low speed
Surface -Low cost -Suction limit is about 6 m
centrifugal -Efficient for low lift and very high -May be damaged by
flow rates running dry if itloses prime
-Easy to inspect and maintain due to -May be damaged by
surface location freezing in cold climates
-Good tolerance for moderate amounts
of sand and silt
 Figure 3.22. Approximate pump selection based on lift and volume requirements.

3.3. Subsystem Configuration

There are several different system configurations that are suitable for use with
solar power, and it is important to choose the right one for each application.

3.3.1. Submerged Multistage Centrifugal Motor Pump Set

This type is probably the most common type of solar pump used for village
water supply. The advantages of this configuration are that it is easy to install, often
with lay-flat flexible pipework and the motor pumpset is submerged away from
potential damage. Either AC or DC motors can be incorporated into the pumpset
although an inverter would be needed for an AC system. If a brushed dc motor is used
then the equipment will need to be pulled up from the well (approximately every 2
years) to replace brushes. If brushless dc motors are incorporated then electronic
commutation will be required. The most commonly employed system consists of an
AC pump and inverter with a photovoltaic array of less than 1500Wp.
 Figure 2.23. Submerged Multistage Centrifugal Motor Pump Set

3.3.2. Submerged Pump with Surface Mounted Motor

This configuration was widely installed with turbine pumps in the Sahelian
West Africa during the 1970s. It gives easy access to the motor for brush changing
and other maintenance. The low efficiency from power losses in the shaft bearings
and the high cost of installation has been disadvantages. In general this configuration
is largely being replaced by the submersible motor and pumpset.

Figure 3.24. Submerged Pump with Surface Mounted Motor

3.3.3. Reciprocating Positive Displacement Pump
The reciprocating positive displacement pump (often known as the jack or
nodding donkey) is very suitable for high head, low flow applications. The output is
proportional to the speed of the pump. At high heads the frictional forces are low
compared to the hydrostatic forces often making positive displacement pumps more
efficient than centrifugal pumps for this situation. Reciprocating positive
displacement pumps create a cyclic load on the motor which, for efficient operation,
needs to be balanced. Hence, the above ground components of the solar pump are
often heavy and robust, and power controllers for impedance matching often used.

Figure 3.25. Reciprocating Positive Displacement Pump

3.3.4. Floating Motor Pump Sets

The versatility of the floating unit set, makes it ideal for irrigation pumping for
canals and open wells. The pumpset is easily portable and there is a negligible
chance of the pump running dry. Most of these types use a single stage submersed
centrifugal pump. The most common type utilises a brushless (electronically
commutated) dc motor. Often the solar array support incorporates a handle or 'wheel
barrow' type trolley to enable transportation.
 Figure 3.26Floating Motor Pump Sets
3.3.5. Surface Suction Pump Sets
This type of pumpset is not recommended except where an operator will
always be in attendance. Although the use of primary chambers and nonreturn valves
can prevent loss of prime, in practice self-start and priming problems are experienced.
It is impractical to have suction heads of more than 8 metres.

Figure 3.27. Surface Suction Pump Sets

3.3.6. Sub-system Efficiency

Table 3.5 shows typical sub-system types for alternative pumping applications.
For system sizing purposes, and hence economic evaluation, it is important to know
the daily energy efficiency and the peak power efficiency of the systems involved.
 Typical values obtained from tests undertaken for the UNDP/World Bank
Solar Water Pumping Project are given in Table 3.5. The energy efficiencies are based
on the total output from the array (including that below the pumping threshold
irradiance levels) and hence are dependent on the solar irradiance profile for the day.
Table 3.5. State of the Art for Motor/Pump subsystems.
Typical Subsystem Typical System
Daily Energy Peak Power
Lift Sub-system Type Efficiency Efficiency
Average Good Average Good

2 meter -Surface Suction or floating

units with submerged suction 25% 30% 30% 40%
utilizing brush or brush-less
permanent magnet DC motors
and centrifugal pumps

-Floating DC units with

submerged pump
7 meter -Submerged pump with 28% 40% 40% 60%
surface mounted motor, brush
or brush-less permanent
magnet DC motors single or
multi-stage centrifugal pumps

-AC or DC submerged multi-

20 meter stage centrifugal pump set, or 32% 42% 35% 45%
-Submerged positive
displacement pump with DC
surface motor

3.4. Typical Water Pumping Applications

 Solar pumps are most cost effective for applications with low power
requirements, of the order of a few hundred watts. Fortunately this constraint is well
matched to the majority of water supply needs in developing countries. A photovoltaic
(PV) pumping system consists of a PV array powering an electrical motor which
operates a pump. The water is pumped up through a pipe and into a storage tank. The
energy solar pumps are used principally for two applications. These two applications
have very different demand patterns.

3.4.1. Village Water Supply (Including Livestock Watering)

Villages need a steady supply of water whereas crops have variable water
requirements during the year. During rainy seasons (which also coincides with the
period of lowest solar radiation), the reduced output of the pump can be offset by
capturing the rain water from the PV array is therefore converted into the
potential energy of the pumped water. This gets rid of the need for battery storage
of the generated electricity, because excess water pumped during the period of high
insolation will be stored for the period of low insolation.

Figure 3.28 Village Water Supply

A solar pump for village water supply is shown schematically in Figure (2.24).
With village water supply, a constant water demand throughout the year occurs,
although there is need to store water for periods of low insolation (low solar
radiation).

3.4.2. A Solar Irrigation System

A solar irrigation system Figure (3.25) needs to take account of the fact that
demand for irrigation water will vary throughout the year. Peak demand during the
irrigation seasons is often more than twice the average demand. This means that solar
pumps for irrigation are under-utilized for most of the year. Attention should be paid
to the system of water distribution and application to the crops. The system should
minimize water losses, without imposing significant additional head on the pumping
system and be of low cost.

Figure 3.29 Solar Irrigation System

3.5. Solar-Powered Water Pumping System Configurations

There are two basic types of solar-powered water pumping systems;
(i) battery-coupled Solar Pumping Systems and
(ii) direct-coupled Solar Pumping Systems
A variety of factors must be considered in determining the optimum system for a
particular application.
3.5.1. Battery-Coupled Solar Pumping Systems
Battery-coupled water pumping systems consist of photovoltaic (PV) panels,
charge control regulator, batteries, pump controller, pressure switch and tank and DC
water pump (Figure 3.30). The electric current produced by PV panels during daylight
hours charges the batteries, and the batteries in turn supply power to the pump
anytime water is needed. The use of batteries spreads the pumping over a longer
period of time by providing a steady operating voltage to the DC motor of the pump.
Thus, during the night and low light periods, the system can still deliver a
constant source of water for livestock. The use of batteries has its drawbacks. First,
batteries can reduce the efficiency of the overall system because the operating voltage
is dictated by the batteries and not the PV panels. Depending on their temperature and
how well the batteries are charged, the voltage supplied by the batteries can be one to
four volts lower than the voltage produced by the panels during maximum sunlight
conditions. This reduced efficiency can be minimized with the use of an appropriate
pump controller that boosts the battery voltage supplied to the pump.

Figure 3.30 Battery-coupled Solar Water Pumping System

(a) System Component of Pump Controller

The primary function of a pump controller in a battery-coupled pumping
system is to boost the voltage of the battery bank to match the desired input voltage of
the pump. Without a pump controller, the PV panels’ operating voltage is dictated by
the battery bank and is reduced from levels which are achieved by operating the pump
directly off the solar panels. For example, under load, two PV panels wired in series
produce between 30 to 34 volts, while two fully charged batteries wired in series
produce just over 26 volts. A pump with an optimum operating voltage of 30 volts
would pump more water tied directly to the PV panels than if connected to the
batteries. In the case of this particular pump, a pump controller with a 24-volt input
would step the voltage up to 30 volts, which would increase the amount of water
pumped by the system.

(b) System Component of Charge Control Regulators

Solar panels that are wired directly to a set of batteries can produce voltage
levels sufficient enough to overcharge the batteries. A charge control regulator should
be installed between the PV panels and the batteries to prevent excessive charging.
Charge controllers allow the full current produced by the PV panels to flow into the
batteries until they are nearly fully charged.
The charge controller then lowers the current, which trickle charges the battery
until fully charged. The regulator installed should be rated at the appropriate system
voltage (i.e., 12-volt, 24-volt, etc.) and the maximum number of amperes the solar
panels can produce. The regulator should be installed near the batteries, in accordance
with the manufacturer’s instructions. This usually requires only four connections: the
PV panel “POS” and “NEG” terminals and the battery “POS” and “NEG” terminals.
In addition to overcharging protection, a low-voltage or battery state-of-
charge control is required to prevent deep-discharge damage to batteries. The low-
voltage relay acts as an automatic switch to disconnect the pump before the battery
voltage gets too low. The relay is activated and switches when battery voltage drops to
“low-voltage” threshold, and de-activates and switches back when the battery voltage
rises to “reconnect” threshold. Most suppliers of PV equipment offer a charge control
regulator that combines both overcharge protection and low-voltage disconnect to
protect the batteries.

(c) Batteries
The solar cells are devices that merely convert solar energy into a DC voltage.
Solar cells do not store energy. To store energy beyond daylight, the DC voltage is
used to charge an appropriate set of batteries. The reserve capacity of batteries is
referred to as the system autonomy. This varies according to the requirements of
specific applications. Batteries in applications that require autonomy form a critical
component of a solar power system. Battery banks in photovoltaic applications are
designed to operate at deep-cycle discharge rates and are generally maintenance-free.
When calculating battery ampere-hours and storage capacity, additional debating
factors, such as cloudy and sunless conditions, must be taken into consideration.
The most common batteries used in stand-alone PV systems are lead-acid
batteries. The familiar deep-cycle, marine-grade battery is a good example. They are
rechargeable, easily maintained, relatively inexpensive, available in a variety of sizes
and most will withstand daily discharges of up to 80 percent of their rated capacity. A
new type of lead-acid battery “gel cell” uses an additive that turns the electrolyte into
a non-spill able gel.
These batteries can be mounted sideways or even upside down if needed
because they are sealed. Another type of battery using nickel cadmium (NiCd) plates
can be used in PV systems. Their initial cost is much higher than lead-acid batteries,
but for some applications the life-cycle cost may be lower. Some advantages of NiCd
batteries include their long-life expectancy, low maintenance requirements and their
ability to withstand extreme conditions. Also, the NiCd battery is more tolerant to
complete discharge. It is important to choose a quality battery rated at a minimum of
100 amp-hour storage capacity.
Shallow-cycle (car batteries) should not be used for PV applications. These
batteries are lighter, less expensive and are designed to produce a high-current, cold-
cranking amperes for a short period. The battery is then quickly recharged. Generally,
shallow-cycle batteries should not be discharged more than 25 percent of the rated
battery capacity. Battery banks are often used in PV systems. These banks are set up
by connecting individual batteries in series or parallel to get the desired operating
voltage or current. The voltage achieved in a series connection is the sum of the
voltages of all the batteries, while the current (amps) achieved in series-connected
batteries is equal to that of the smallest battery.
For example, two 12-volt batteries connected in series produce the equivalent
voltage of a 24-volt battery with the same amount of current (amps) output as a single
battery. When wiring batteries in parallel, the current (amps) is the sum of the currents
(amps) from all the batteries and the voltage remains the same as that of a single
battery.
 Batteries must be protected from the elements. Batteries should be buried
below the frost line in a watertight enclosure or placed in a building where the
temperature will remain above freezing. If the batteries are buried, select a well-
drained location. Batteries should never be set directly on concrete surfaces, as self
discharge will increase, especially if the concrete surface gets damp.

3.5.2. Direct-Coupled Solar Pumping System

In direct-coupled pumping systems, electricity from the PV modules is sent
directly to the pump, which in turn pumps water through a pipe to where it is needed
(Figure 3). This system is designed to pump water only during the day. The amount of
water pumped is totally dependent on the amount of sunlight hitting the PV panels
and the type of pump. Because the intensity of the sun and the angle at which it strikes
the PV panel changes throughout the day, the amount of water pumped by this system
also changes throughout the day. For instance, during optimum sunlight periods (late
morning to late afternoon on bright sunny days) the pump operates at or near 100
percent efficiency with maximum water flow. However, during early morning and late
afternoon, pump efficiency may drop by as much as 25 percent or more under these
low-light conditions. During cloudy days, pump efficiency will drop off even more.
To compensate for these variable flow rates, a good match between the pump
and PV module(s) is necessary to achieve efficient operation of the system. Direct-
coupled pumping systems are sized to store extra water on sunny days so it is
available on cloudy days and at night. Water can be stored in a larger-than-needed
watering tank or in a separate storage tank and then gravity-fed to smaller watering
tanks. Water-storage capacity is important in this pumping system. Two to five days’
storage may be required, depending on climate and pattern of water usage. Storing
water in tanks has its drawbacks.
Considerable evaporation losses can occur if the water is stored in open tanks,
while closed tanks big enough to store several days water supply can be expensive.
Also, water in the storage tank may freeze during cold weather Direct-coupled
pumping systems are sized to store extra water on sunny days so it is available on
cloudy days and at night. Water can be stored in a larger-than-needed watering tank or
in a separate storage tank and then gravity-fed to smaller watering tanks. Water-
storage capacity is important in this pumping system.
 Two to five days’ storage may be required, depending on climate and pattern
of water usage. Storing water in tanks has its drawbacks. Considerable evaporation
losses can occur if the water is stored in open tanks, while closed tanks big enough to
store several days water supply can be expensive. Also, water in the storage tank may
freeze during cold weather.

Figure 3.31. Direct-coupled Solar Pumping System

The efficiency of a direct-coupled water pumping system is sensitive to the

match between the pump and the PV system. PV panels produce a fairly constant
voltage as the light intensity changes throughout the day; however, amperage changes
dramatically with light intensity. During low-light levels, such as early morning and
late evening, the PV array may be producing 30 volts at 1 amp. The pump motor
needs current to start; however, it can run on a lower voltage. A pump controller’s
circuitry trades voltage for current, which allows the pump to start and run at reduced
output in weak-sunlight periods. Matching pump motor performance to the available
sunlight with a properly sized controller can increase the amount of water pumped in
a day by 10 to 15 percent.

3.6. Installing the System of Mounting PV Panels

Whether using a fixed or tracking array-mounting angle is important for
maximum water production. The general principle is simple; the array should be
angled directly at the sun at solar noon. The rays of sunlight should be perpendicular
to the surface of the array. The PV panels should be mounted facing due south in a
location where they receive maximum sunlight throughout the year. Panels facing 30
degrees away from south will lose approximately 10 to 15 percent of their power
output. When choosing a site, it is essential to avoid trees or other obstructions that
could cast shadows on the solar panels and reduce their output. This is especially true
during the winter when the arc of the sun is lowest over the horizon.

Figure 3.32 Shows How the Tilt Angle is Measured

Solar panels produce the most power when they are pointed directly at the sun.
The tilt angle is the angle between the plane of the solar panel surface and the ground.
For maximum energy collection, the panel surface should be perpendicular to the sun.
The desired tilt angle can be selected using the following general rules for optimum
summer or winter use:
Summer Use: tilt angle = 25 degrees Winter Use: tilt angle = 45 degrees
For installations where the solar panels are permanently mounted, they should
be tilted for maximum winter output. As a rule, if the power output is sufficient in the
winter, it will be totally satisfactory during the rest of the year.
Locating the PV modules close to the water source is important to keep
voltage loss in the system wiring to a minimum. A fence around the PV modules is
required to protect the PV panels from damage due to animals. After installation, the
area inside the fence must be maintained. Shading from weeds or a single tree branch
can limit power output.
The position of the sun changes with the seasons of the year. The tilt angle of
the array cannot be perfect for all seasons. Some users are able to change the angle of
their array a few times during the year to increase water output. At any time of the
year, output can be maximized by adjusting the array to directly face the sun at solar
noon. Here are some simple rules for tilt angle based on the latitude of the location:
(i) Arrays mounted at [latitude + 15 degrees] will maximize output in the winter.
Output during the peak of summer will be diminished by about 13%.
(ii) Arrays mounted at [latitude – 15 degrees] will maximize output in the
summer. Output during the peak of winter will be diminished by about 13%.
(iii) Arrays mounted at [latitude] will usually maximize yearly output.
Output during the peak of summer and winter will be diminished by about 4%.
(iv)Arrays should never be mounted horizontally. A minimum angle of 10 degrees
is recommended to prevent dirt build up on the solar modules. Wet and humid
locations should use a minimum of 15 degrees to prevent the growth of mold
and fungus.

Figure 3.33 Solar panel tilt angles: winter tilt with more angles from horizontal [left]
and summer tilt with less angle from horizontal [right]
(Source: “Renewable Energy Primer-Solar.”)

3.7. Installing the System of Wiring

Selecting the correct size and type of wire, when connecting the pump to the
batteries or solar panels is increased the performance and reliability of the system. If
possible, keep the PV panel and pump sets within 100 feet of each other. At this
distance, a 12 gauge wire is sufficient to keep the voltage loss in most 24-volt systems
to roughly 3 percent. Larger diameter wires will be required at distances greater than
100 feet to keep the voltage loss in the system to a minimum. A voltage drop of only 5
percent translates to a 7.5 percent power loss at the pump. The use of direct-burial
wire (UF) simplifies installation, since the wire can be buried under the water pipe in
the same trench without conduit. Make all connections in water-tight junction boxes
and attach all wires to support structures with wire ties. Use PVC conduit to protect
the wires anytime they are above ground.
Solar water pumping systems attract lightning because of the excellent ground
they provide. If possible, do not locate the pump system, which includes the PV array,
wiring and pump, on high ground. Ground the PV panel frame and all equipment
boxes to metal well casings or to a driven ground rod. You might have to install
lightning rods on higher terrain around the pump if lightning is a problem.

3.8. Water Delivery System

The pump can be operated using either a standard pressure switch and
recharged pressure tank commonly used with home well pumps or an electronic float
switch. The recharged pressure tank prevents the continuous on/off cycling of the
pump when cattle drink from a nearly full watering tank. When the float valve closes
in a recharged pressure tank system, the pump continues to run until the pressure tank
is charged with water at the preset off-pressure. As the level in a near-full tank
fluctuates when animals are drinking and the float valve opens and closes, water is
supplied from the charged pressure tank and the pump does not cycle. When animals
drink enough to lower the water level and the float valve remains open, the pressure
tank water charge is exhausted and the pressure switch then turns on the pump.
A check valve placed in line upstream from the pressure switch location
prevents the water line from draining when the pump is not operating. Electronic float
switches can be used to turn the pump on and off when the livestock watering and/or
storage tank is low or full. Control wires from the livestock watering tank and/or
storage to the pump controller must be run to make the system operate.
In most applications, the flows associated with low-volume pumping systems
can be handled in 3/4-inch, schedule 40 PVC pipe; however, the use of 1-inch,
schedule 40 PVC pipe is recommended to keep friction losses negligible. Friction
losses throughout the system can significantly increase the total head and thus reduce
the amount of water that can be pumped. Cattle watering tanks should be installed on
heavy use areas to prevent erosion and mud problems from developing around the
watering tank.
3.9. Design Process
The following twelve steps can be used in the design process for a PV-
powered water pump system. These steps will help you ensure that the system
functions properly and that water is supplied for the operation in the amounts and at
the locations required.

(a) Step 1 – Water Requirement

The first step in designing a solar-powered water pump system is to determine
the overall water requirement for the operation. This can be done in part by using the
average water requirement values for various crops and livestock that are listed in
table. Local conditions should be taken into consideration. Also note that the
operation’s water requirement will vary throughout the year.

(b) Step 2 – Water Source

The configuration of the water system will be defined primarily by the type of
water source used, as well as by the local topography and the location(s) of the
delivery point(s). The water source may be either subsurface (a well) or surface (a
pond, stream, or spring).
If the water source is a well, the following items will need to be determined:
(i) The static water level,
(ii) The pumping rate and associated drawdown (along with any seasonal
variation), and
(iii) The water quality.
Information on water levels and well production can be obtained from the well
log. The drawdown value obtained from the well log should be used to determine the
production potential of the well to ensure that the well will be able to supply the
operation’s estimated water needs. If the well log indicates an excessive drawdown
during the given testing time, the well may not have the capacity to meet the water
demands of the project. If the capacity of the well is in question, a complete well test
should be performed and the drawdown levels measured for different flow rates. The
expected pumping levels should be determined in areas where water table fluctuations
occur throughout the year. An alternate water source should be located if there is a
potential for an existing well to run dry during critical watering times.
 For surface water sources, such as a stream, pond, or spring, the following
need to be determined, taking seasonal variations into account:
(i) The water availability,
(ii) The pumping levels, and
(iii) The water quality, including the presence of silt and organic debris.
With a surface source, the water availability and water level can vary
seasonally. In particular, the amount and quality, additionally, when a surface water
source is used, proper screening of the pump intake is necessary to ensure that debris
and sediment from the surface water body are not pumped into the system.

(c) Step 3 – System Layout

The third step in the system development process is to determine the layout of
the entire system, including the locations and elevations of the following components:
(i) Water source
(ii) Pump
(iii) PV panels
(iv)Storage tanks
(v) Points of use (i.e. water troughs)
(vi)Pipeline routes
It is also important to consider potential vandalism and theft when locating PV
panels and pump systems. Unfortunately, since most solar panel systems are located
in remote areas on open landscapes, the risk of vandalism and/or theft can be
significant. If possible, panels, tanks, and controllers should be located away from
roads and public access, as well as where features in the landscape (rolling hills,
escarpments, wind blocks, etc.) can provide a maximum of shielding from public
view. The use of trees, bushes, or other types of vegetation for shielding is acceptable.
However, care should be taken to situate the panels far enough to the south
and west of tall trees and other types of vegetation to reduce the potential for their
obstruction by shadows during peak solar insolation hours.

(d) Step 4 – Water Storage

A water storage tank is normally an essential element in an economically
viable solar-powered water pump system. A tank can be used to store enough water
during peak energy production to meet water needs in the event of cloudy weather or
maintenance issues with the power system. Ideally, the tank should be sized to store at
least a three-day water supply. Multiple tanks may be required if a very large volume
of water is to be stored.
The area where the tank is to be placed must be stripped of all organic
material, debris, roots, and sharp objects, such as rocks. The ground should then be
leveled. Six inches of well-compacted ¾ -inch leveling rock underlain by a geotextile
fabric should be provided as a base for the water tank. If an elevated platform or stand
is required to provide adequate gravity-induced pressure for the water delivery system
to operate, the platform or stand will need to be evaluated by a qualified engineer.
An above-ground tank should be constructed out of structurally sound, UV-
resistant material to maximize its lifespan. If it will be used in areas where freezing
temperatures are encountered, care should be taken to frost-proof the entire water
delivery system. Tanks and pipes should be drained prior to the first freeze, and pipes
should be buried below the frost line for added protection.
A buried tank is naturally shielded from UV light, and it provides protection
from frost and vandalism. When using a buried tank, however, adequate drainage
must be provided around the tank. In addition, its design must be analyzed for
floatation to ensure that the tank will not become buoyant.

(e) Step 5 – Solar Insolation and PV Panel Location

Appropriate data should be used to determine the amount of solar insolation
(peak sun hours) available at the site. An on-site investigation is recommended for
sites where solar insolation data are lacking or questionable. The investigation should
be conducted by a qualified specialist and include data verifying the actual solar
insolation at the site.
In order to maximize the solar-powered system’s energy production, the panels
should be south facing with no significant shading in their vicinity in order to achieve
full sun exposure. However, partial shading (e.g., shadows from tall trees) in the
distance during the early morning or late afternoon may be unavoidable. The effects
of any shading present should be considered when determining the amount of
available solar energy. Also consider the potential effects that the slope and aspect of
future shading due to continued tree growth may have. The solar array should be
placed as close to the pump as possible to minimize the electric wire length (and thus
any energy loss), as well as installation costs.
(f) Step 6 – Design Flow Rate for the Pump
The design flow rate for the pump is calculated by dividing the daily water
needs of the operation by the number of peak sun hours per day (determined in Step
5). For example, for a daily water requirement of 1,310 gallons/day and a solar
insolation value of 7.2 kWh/m2/day, or 7.2 hr/day:

(g) Step 7 – Total Dynamic Head (TDH) for the Pump

The TDH for a pump is the sum of the vertical lift, pressure head, and friction
loss. Friction losses apply only to the piping and appurtenances between the point of
intake (inlet) and the point of storage (i.e. the storage tank or pressure tank). Flow
from the storage tank to the point of use (i.e. the trough) is typically gravity fed.
Therefore, friction losses between the storage tank and the point of use are
independent from the pump and do not need to be accounted for when sizing the
pump.

(h) Step 8 – Pump Selection and Associated Power Requirement

The pump should be selected using pump performance curves and Step 11, to
ensure that the pump can deliver the required flow (Step 6) against the known TDH
(Step 7). The peak power requirement for the pump can be determined from these
curves for a given flow rate and TDH (pumping head) to help make the appropriate
pump selection, as well as the appropriate PV panel selection (Step 9).
The system designer may need to research the different solar-powered pumps
available on the market at the time of the system development as solar-powered
pumps are a dynamic and growing field that changes rapidly. The manufacturer’s
specification sheet contains the necessary information to select the correct pump.
Note, however, that the type of information provided may be subject to change as
solar technology improves and evolves.

(i) Step 9 – PV Panel Selection and Array Layout

Once the peak power requirement (Step 8) for the selected pump is known,
this value can be used to select the solar panel or array of panels required to supply
that power. When multiple panels are required, they must be wired in series, parallel,
or a combination of series-parallel to meet both the voltage and amperage
requirements of the pump. The power output of the individual panels can be added
together to determine the total power they produce.

(j) Step 10 – PV Array Mounting and Foundation Requirements

Hardware for mounting panels to a post is normally provided by the supplier.
If no supplier mount is provided, contact a qualified engineer for design details. If a
panel or array of panels is to be mounted on an existing structure, that structure must
first be analyzed to ensure that it has the structural integrity necessary to withstand all
local wind, snow, and ice conditions once the panel(s) are mounted.

(k) Step 11 – Water Flow Rates and Delivery Point Pressure

The entire system, including the PV panels, pump, pipe, and any storage tanks,
must be analyzed to ensure that the design flow rates can be delivered to the delivery
point(s) at the required pressure(s) in order to properly operate the valves (e.g., a float
valve).

(l) Step 12 – Summary Description of the System

The designer should provide a descriptive summary of the completed system
to the landowner/contractor that includes the following information:
(i) All system components and their specifications.
(ii) System operating characteristics, such as required voltages, amperages,
wattages, etc.
(iii) Special considerations required in the system design, including
environmental factors.

3.10. Important Issues in Designing Solar Water Pumping System

The first thing in designing a solar pumping system is the daily watering
requirement. Unlike grid tied watering systems, which are designed to operate on
demand, solar pumping systems are designed to provide a certain quantity of water
each day. Water is pumped during the peak sun hours and is generally stored in a tank
until needed for use. The amount of water needed for a 24 hour period is known as
the daily water requirement, and will generally be measured in LPD (Liters per Day)
or GPD (Gallons per Day). Table 3.a describes the approximate daily water
requirement, based on the number of people or animals that will be needing water.
Table 3.a. Approximate Water Requirement
Usage Usage
Liters Per Day Gallons Per Day
Each Person, (Consumption & Hygiene) 284 75
Each Milking Cow 133 35
Each Cow/ Calf Pair 38 - 114 10 - 30
Each Horse, Dry Cow, or Beef Animal 38 - 76 10 - 20
Each Sheep 8 2
Each Hog 15 4
100 Chickens 15 4

It is important to note that the daily water requirement will fluctuate between
the warmer and colder months, hence the range provided in the table above. These
tables are an approximation of course, there are numerous other resources available
online which estimate these values. Storage tanks are used to hold the water until
needed for use, and depending on the nature of the application, it should be able to
store three to five times of daily water requirement. Some agricultural systems may
need to hold as much as 10-14 times the daily water requirement, depending on the
climate specific to their geography.

3.10.1. System Characteristics

In a pumping system, the objective is either to transfer a liquid from a source
to a required destination, e.g. filling a high level reservoir, or to circulate liquid
around a system, e.g. as a means of heat transfer in heat exchanger. A pressure is
needed to make the liquid flow at the required rate and this must overcome head
losses in the system. Losses are of two types: static and friction head. Static head is
simply the difference in height of the supply and destination reservoirs, as in Figure
3.a (a). Static head is independent of flow and graphically would be shown as in
Figure 3.a (b).
 Figure 3.a. Illustration for (a) Static Head and (b) Static Head vs Flow

Friction head (sometimes called dynamic head loss) is the friction loss, on the
liquid being moved, in pipes, valves and equipment in the system. Friction tables are
universally available for various pipe fittings and valves. These tables show friction
loss per 100 feet (or metres) of a specific pipe size at various flow rates. In case of
fittings, friction is stated as an equivalent length of pipe of the same size. The friction
losses are proportional to the square of the flow rate. The friction loss for some pipe
fittings and Sch 40 PVC pipes are shown in Table 3.b and 3.d. A closed loop
circulating system without a surface open to atmospheric pressure, would exhibit only
friction losses and would have a system friction head loss vs. flow curve as Figure
3.b.

Figure 3.b. Friction Head vs Flow

Table 3.b. Friction Loss for Fittings in Equivalent Meters
Type of Fitting and Application Diameter of Pipe Fitting
0.5 0.75 1.0 1.25 1.5 2.0
Equivalent Pipe Length (in meters)
Insert Coupling 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9
Threaded Adapter (plastic to thread) 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9
90 Standard Elbow 0.6 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.2 1.5
Standard Tee (Straight) 0.3 0.6 0.6 0.9 0.9 1.2
Standard Tee (90 Flow) 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 3.3
Gate Valve 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.6 0.6
Swing Check Valve 1.5 2.1 2.7 3.7 4.0 5.2

Most systems have a combination of static and friction head and the system
curves for two cases are shown in Figures 3.c (a) and 3.c (b). The ratio of static to
friction head over the operating range influences the benefits achievable from variable
speed drives.

Figure 3.c. Illustration for System with: (a) High and (b) Low Static Head

Static head is a characteristic of the specific installation and reducing this head
where this is possible generally helps both the cost of the installation and the cost of
pumping the liquid. Friction head losses must be minimized to reduce pumping cost,
but after eliminating unnecessary pipe fittings and length, further reduction in friction
head will require larger diameter pipe, which adds to installation cost.

Table 3.b. Friction Loss for Sch 40 PVC Pipe in Meters

Flow in liter Diameter of the pipe in millimeters
Loss in meters of head per one meter of pipe
per minute
15.8 mm 20.9 mm 26.6 mm 35.1 mm 40.9 mm 52.5 mm
5 0.0058
10 0.021 0.0053
15 0.0044 0.011
20 0.076 0.019 0.0057
25 0.11 0.041 0.0086
30 0.16 0.054 0.012
35 0.21 0.069 0.016
40 0.086 0.021 0.0055
45 0.10 0.026 0.0069
50 0.14 0.031 0.0084
60 0.19 0.043 0.012
70 0.058 0.016 0.0073
80 0.074 0.02 0.0093
90 0.092 0.025 0.012
100 0.11 0.03 0.014 0.0047
125 0.17 0.046 0.021 0.0071
150 0.064 0.03 0.01
175 0.085 0.04 0.013
200 0.11 0.051 0.017
225 0.14 0.064 0.021
250 0.17 0.077 0.026

3.10.2. Pump operating point

When a pump is installed in a system the effect can be illustrated graphically
by superimposing pump and system curves. The operating point will always be where
the two curves intersect as shown in Figure 3.d.
 Figure 3.d. Pump Operation Point

3.10.3. Performance of Solar Water Pumps

The performance of some commercially available solar water pumping
products is shown in Figure 3.e. It can be seen that solar pumps are available to pump
from anywhere in the range of up to 200m head and with outputs of up to 250m 3/day.
The product of head and output is defined as m 4. DC pumps normally have m4 value
below 1500-2000. Many systems water pump using solar energy with m 4 above 2000,
but AC pumps and inverters are getting into much larger systems.
Solar pumping technology continues to improve. In the early 1980s the typical
solar energy to hydraulic (pumped water) energy efficiency was around 2% with the
photovoltaic array being 6-8% efficient and the motor pump set typically 25%
efficient. Today, an efficient solar pump has an average daily solar energy to hydraulic
efficiency of more than 4%. Photovoltaic modules of the monocrystalline type now
have efficiencies in excess of 12% and more efficient motor and pump sets are
available. A good sub-system (that is the motor, pump and any power conditioning)
should have an average daily energy throughput efficiency of 30-40%.
 Figure 3.e. Characteristics of Solar Water Pumping Products

3.10.4. Power and Energy for Solar Water Pumping

The starting point for any assessment of water pumping is the relationship
between energy and water requirements. The pumping (or hydraulic) enemy required
to deliver a volume of water is given by the formula;
W  ρgQH

Where
W = the required hydraulic energy in Joules (J)
Q= the required volume of water in cubic meters (m3)
H =the total head in meters (m)
ρ = the density of water (1000 kg/m3)
g = the gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s)
With Q in cubic meters and H in meters the pumping energy is
 9.81QH
W MJ
1000
The power required to lift a given quantity of water depends on the length of
time that the pump is used. Power is the rate of energy supply, so the formula for
hydraulic power is similar obtained from the formula for energy by replacing volume
with flow rate (Q), in cubic meters per second.
P  ρgQH Watts
If the flow rate (Q) is in litres per second then the hydraulic power is:
P  9.81QH Watts
Energy (W) is the more important characteristic of water pumping since it is
energy that has to be paid for in the form of diesel fuel, human labor, animal
feedstock, or solar pump size. The equivalent power requirement only determines how
quickly the required quantity of water is delivered and the rate at which the energy is
used.
The head (H) has proportional effect on the energy and power requirement
with the result that it is cheaper to pump water through lower heads. It consists of two
parts: the static head, or height through which the water must be lifted, and the
dynamic head which is the pressure increase, caused by friction through the pipe work
,expressed as an equivalent height of water. The static head can be easily determined
by measurement and there are formulae for calculating the dynamic head. The latter
depends on flow rate, pipe sizes and pipe materials. The smaller the pipes and greater
the flow rate, the higher the pressure required to force the water through the pipes.
The energy flow diagram for solar water pumping system is shown in Figure 3.f.

Figure 3.f. Schematic of a Pumping System Showing Energy Flows