Anger - Wikipedia

25/06/2018 Anger - Wikipedia
Anger
Anger or wrath is an intense negative emotion. It involves a strong
uncomfortable and hostile response to a perceived provocation, hurt or
threat.[1] Anger can occur when a person feels their personal boundaries
are being or are going to be violated. Some have a learned tendency to
react to anger through retaliation as a way of coping. Raymond Novaco of
University of California Irvine, who since 1975 has published a plethora of
literature on the subject, stratified anger into three modalities: cognitive
(appraisals), somatic-affective (tension and agitations), and behavioral
(withdrawal and antagonism).[2] William DeFoore, an anger management
writer, described anger as a pressure cooker: we can only apply pressure
against our anger for a certain amount of time until it explodes.[3]
Anger is an emotional reaction that impacts the body. A person

experiencing anger will also experience physical conditions, such as
increased heart rate, elevated blood pressure, and increased levels of
adrenaline and noradrenaline.[4] Some view anger as an emotion which
triggers part of the fight or flight brain response.[5] Anger is used as a
protective mechanism to cover up fear, hurt or sadness. Anger becomes The ancient hero Achilles is the
the predominant feeling behaviorally, cognitively, and physiologically classic example of a man driven
when a person makes the conscious choice to take action to immediately purely by anger.
stop the threatening behavior of another outside force.[6] The English term
originally comes from the term anger of Old Norse language.[7] Anger can
have many physical and mental consequences.
The external expression of anger can be found in facial expressions, body language, physiological responses, and at
times public acts of aggression. Facial expressions can range from inward angling of the eyebrows to a full frown. [8]
Some animals, for example, make loud sounds, attempt to look physically larger, bare their teeth, and stare.[9] The
behaviors associated with anger are designed to warn aggressors to stop their threatening behavior. Rarely does a
physical altercation occur without the prior expression of anger by at least one of the participants.[9] While most of
those who experience anger explain its arousal as a result of "what has happened to them," psychologists point out that
an angry person can very well be mistaken because anger causes a loss in self-monitoring capacity and objective
observability.[10]
Modern psychologists view anger as a primary, natural, and mature emotion experienced by virtually all humans at
times, and as something that has functional value for survival. Anger is seen as a supportive mechanism to show a
person that something is wrong and requires changing. Anger can mobilize psychological resources for corrective
action. Uncontrolled anger can, however, negatively affect personal or social well-being[10][11] and impact negatively on
those around them. It is equally challenging to be around an angry person and the impact can also cause
psychological/emotional trauma if not dealt with. While many philosophers and writers have warned against the
spontaneous and uncontrolled fits of anger, there has been disagreement over the intrinsic value of anger.[12] The issue
of dealing with anger has been written about since the times of the earliest philosophers, but modern psychologists, in
contrast to earlier writers, have also pointed out the possible harmful effects of suppressing anger.[12] Displays of anger
can be used as a manipulation strategy for social influence.[13][14]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anger 1/21
Contents
Psychology and sociology
Neuropsychological perspective
Differences between related concepts
Characteristics
Passive anger
Aggressive anger
Assertive anger
Six dimensions of anger expression
Causes
Cognitive effects
Expressive strategies
Coping strategies
Cognitive behavioral affective therapy
Suppression
Dual thresholds model
Neurology
Physiology
Philosophical perspectives
Antiquity
Control methods
Medieval era
Control methods
Modern times
Religious perspectives
Judaism
Christianity
Catholic
Protestant
Hinduism
Buddhism
Islam
Divine retribution
See also
References
Further reading
Psychology and sociology
Three types of anger are recognized by psychologists:[15]
1. Hasty and sudden anger is connected to the impulse for self-preservation. It is shared by human and other
animals, and it occurs when the animal is tormented or trapped. This form of anger is episodic.
2. Settled and deliberate anger is a reaction to perceived deliberate harm or unfair treatment by others. This form
of anger is episodic.
3. Dispositional anger is related more to character traits than to instincts or cognitions. Irritability, sullenness, and
churlishness are examples of the last form of anger.
Anger can potentially mobilize psychological resources and boost determination toward correction of wrong behaviors,
promotion of social justice, communication of negative sentiment, and redress of grievances. It can also facilitate
patience. In contrast, anger can be destructive when it does not find its appropriate outlet in expression. Anger, in its
strong form, impairs one's ability to process information and to exert

cognitive control over their behavior. An angry person may lose his/her
objectivity, empathy, prudence or thoughtfulness and may cause harm to
themselves or others.[10][16][17] There is a sharp distinction between anger
and aggression (verbal or physical, direct or indirect) even though they
mutually influence each other. While anger can activate aggression or
increase its probability or intensity, it is neither a necessary nor a sufficient
condition for aggression.[10]
Neuropsychological perspective
Extension of the Stimuli of the Fighting Reactions. At the beginning of life
the human infant struggles indiscriminately against any restraining force,
whether it be another human being or a blanket which confines his
movements. There is no inherited susceptibility to social stimuli, as distinct The Anger of Achilles, by Giovanni
from other stimulation, in anger. At a later date the child learns that certain Battista Tiepolo depicts the Greek
hero attacking Agamemnon.
actions, such as striking, scolding, and screaming, are effective toward
persons, but not toward things. In adults, although the infantile response is
still sometimes seen, the fighting reaction becomes fairly well limited to stimuli whose hurting or restraining influence
can be thrown off by physical violence.[18]
Differences between related concepts
The words annoyance and rage are often imagined to be at opposite ends of an emotional continuum: mild irritation
and annoyance at the low end and fury or murderous rage at the high end. Rage problems are conceptualized as "the
inability to process emotions or life's experiences"[19] either because the capacity to regulate emotion (Schore, 1994)[20]
has never been sufficiently developed or because it has been temporarily lost due to more recent trauma. Rage is
understood as raw, undifferentiated emotions, that spill out when another life event that cannot be processed, no
matter how trivial, puts more stress on the organism than it can bear.
Anger, when viewed as a protective response or instinct to a perceived threat, is considered as positive. The negative
expression of this state is known as aggression.[21] Acting on this misplaced state is rage due to possible potential
errors in perception and judgment.
Examples
Expressions of anger used negatively Reasoning

Over-protective instinct and hostility To avoid conceived loss or fear that something will be taken away.
Entitlement and frustration To prevent a change in functioning.
Intimidation and rationalization To meet one's own needs.
Characteristics
One simple dichotomy of anger expression is passive anger versus aggressive anger versus assertive anger.
These three types of anger have some characteristic symptoms:
Passive anger
Passive anger can be expressed in the following ways:
Dispassion, such as giving someone the cold shoulder or a fake smile, looking unconcerned or "sitting on the
fence" while others sort things out, dampening feelings with substance abuse, overreacting, oversleeping, not
responding to another's anger, frigidity, indulging in sexual practices that depress spontaneity and make objects of
participants, giving inordinate amounts of time to machines, objects or intellectual pursuits, talking of frustrations
but showing no feeling.
Evasiveness, such as turning one's back in a crisis, avoiding conflict, not arguing back, becoming phobic.
Defeatism, such as setting yourself and others up for failure, choosing unreliable people to depend on, being
accident prone, underachieving, sexual impotence, expressing frustration at insignificant things but ignoring
serious ones.
Obsessive behavior, such as needing to be inordinately clean and tidy, making a habit of constantly checking
things, over-dieting or overeating, demanding that all jobs be done perfectly.
Psychological manipulation, such as provoking people to aggression and then patronizing them, provoking
aggression but staying on the sidelines, emotional blackmail, false tearfulness, feigning illness, sabotaging
relationships, using sexual provocation, using a third party to convey negative feelings, withholding money or
resources.
Secretive behavior, such as stockpiling resentments that are expressed behind people's backs, giving the silent
treatment or under-the-breath mutterings, avoiding eye contact, putting people down, gossiping, anonymous
complaints, poison pen letters, stealing, and conning.
Self-blame, such as apologizing too often, being overly critical, inviting criticism.
Aggressive anger
The symptoms of aggressive anger are:
Bullying, such as threatening people directly, persecuting, insulting, pushing or shoving, using power to oppress,
shouting, driving someone off the road, playing on people's weaknesses.
Destructiveness, such as destroying objects as in vandalism, harming animals, child abuse, destroying a
relationship, reckless driving, substance abuse.
Grandiosity, such as showing off, expressing mistrust, not delegating, being a sore loser, wanting center stage all
the time, not listening, talking over people's heads, expecting kiss and make-up sessions to solve problems.
Hurtfulness, such as violence, including sexual abuse and rape, verbal abuse, biased or vulgar jokes, breaking
confidence, using foul language, ignoring people's feelings, willfully discriminating, blaming, punishing people for
unwarranted deeds, labeling others.
Manic behavior, such as speaking too fast, walking too fast, driving too fast, reckless spending.
Selfishness, such as ignoring others' needs, not responding to requests for help, queue jumping.
Threats, such as frightening people by saying how one could harm them, their property or their prospects, finger
pointing, fist shaking, wearing clothes or symbols associated with violent behaviour, tailgating, excessively blowing
a car horn, slamming doors.
Unjust blaming, such as accusing other people for one's own mistakes, blaming people for your own feelings,
making general accusations.
Unpredictability, such as explosive rages over minor frustrations, attacking indiscriminately, dispensing unjust
punishment, inflicting harm on others for the sake of it, using alcohol and drugs,[22] illogical arguments.
Vengeance, such as being over-punitive. This differs from retributive justice, as vengeance is personal, and
possibly unlimited in scale.
Assertive anger
Blame, such as after a particular individual commits an action that’s possibly frowned upon, the particular person
will resort to scolding. This is in fact, common in discipline terms.
Punishment, the angry person will give a temporary punishment to an individual like further limiting a child’s will to
do anything they want like playing video games, no reading, etc, after they did something to cause trouble.
Sternness, such as calling out a person on their behaviour, with their voices raised with utter
disapproval/disappointment.
Six dimensions of anger expression

Anger expression can take on many more styles than passive or aggressive. Ephrem Fernandez has identified six
bipolar dimensions of anger expression. They relate to the direction of anger, its locus, reaction, modality, impulsivity,
and objective. Coordinates on each of these dimensions can be connected to generate a profile of a person's anger
expression style. Among the many profiles that are theoretically possible in this system, are the familiar profile of the
person with explosive anger, profile of the person with repressive anger, profile of the passive aggressive person, and
the profile of constructive anger expression.[23]
Causes
People feel angry when they sense that they or someone they care about has been offended, when they are certain
about the nature and cause of the angering event, when they are convinced someone else is responsible, and when they
feel they can still influence the situation or cope with it.[24] For instance, if a person's car is damaged, they will feel
angry if someone else did it (e.g. another driver rear-ended it), but will feel sadness instead if it was caused by
situational forces (e.g. a hailstorm) or guilt and shame if they were personally responsible (e.g. he crashed into a wall
out of momentary carelessness). Psychotherapist Michael C. Graham defines anger in terms of our expectations and
assumptions about the world.[25] Graham states anger almost always results when we are caught up "... expecting the
world to be different than it is".[26]
Usually, those who experience anger explain its arousal as a result of "what has happened to them" and in most cases
the described provocations occur immediately before the anger experience. Such explanations confirm the illusion that
anger has a discrete external cause. The angry person usually finds the cause of their anger in an intentional, personal,
and controllable aspect of another person's behavior. This explanation, however, is based on the intuitions of the angry
person who experiences a loss in self-monitoring capacity and objective observability as a result of their emotion.
Anger can be of multicausal origin, some of which may be remote events, but people rarely find more than one cause
for their anger.[10] According to Novaco, "Anger experiences are embedded or nested within an environmental-
temporal context. Disturbances that may not have involved anger at the outset leave residues that are not readily
recognized but that operate as a lingering backdrop for focal provocations (of anger)."[10] According to Encyclopædia
Britannica, an internal infection can cause pain which in turn can activate anger.[27]
Cognitive effects
Anger makes people think more optimistically. Dangers seem smaller, actions seem less risky, ventures seem more
likely to succeed, and unfortunate events seem less likely. Angry people are more likely to make risky decisions, and
make more optimistic risk assessments. In one study, test subjects primed to feel angry felt less likely to suffer heart
disease, and more likely to receive a pay raise, compared to fearful people.[28] This tendency can manifest in
retrospective thinking as well: in a 2005 study, angry subjects said they thought the risks of terrorism in the year
following 9/11 in retrospect were low, compared to what the fearful and neutral subjects thought.[29]
In inter-group relationships, anger makes people think in more negative and prejudiced terms about outsiders. Anger
makes people less trusting, and slower to attribute good qualities to outsiders.[30]
When a group is in conflict with a rival group, it will feel more anger if it is the politically stronger group and less anger
when it is the weaker.[31]
Unlike other negative emotions like sadness and fear, angry people are more likely to demonstrate correspondence bias
– the tendency to blame a person's behavior more on his nature than on his circumstances. They tend to rely more on
stereotypes, and pay less attention to details and more attention to the superficial. In this regard, anger is unlike other
"negative" emotions such as sadness and fear, which promote analytical thinking.[32]
An angry person tends to anticipate other events that might cause them anger. They will tend to rate anger-causing
events (e.g. being sold a faulty car) as more likely than sad events (e.g. a good friend moving away).[33]
A person who is angry tends to place more blame on another person for their misery. This can create a feedback, as this
extra blame can make the angry person angrier still, so they in turn place yet more blame on the other person.
When people are in a certain emotional state, they tend to pay more attention to, or remember, things that are charged
with the same emotion; so it is with anger. For instance, if you are trying to persuade someone that a tax increase is
necessary, if the person is currently feeling angry you would do better to use an argument that elicits anger ("more
criminals will escape justice") than, say, an argument that elicits sadness ("there will be fewer welfare benefits for
disabled children").[34] Also, unlike other negative emotions, which focus attention on all negative events, anger only
focuses attention on anger-causing events.
Anger can make a person more desiring of an object to which his anger is tied. In a 2010 Dutch study, test subjects
were primed to feel anger or fear by being shown an image of an angry or fearful face, and then were shown an image
of a random object. When subjects were made to feel angry, they expressed more desire to possess that object than
subjects who had been primed to feel fear.[35]
Expressive strategies
As with any emotion, the display of anger can be feigned or exaggerated. Studies by Hochschild and Sutton have shown
that the show of anger is likely to be an effective manipulation strategy in order to change and design attitudes. Anger
is a distinct strategy of social influence and its use (i.e. belligerent behaviors) as a goal achievement mechanism proves
to be a successful strategy.[13][14]
Larissa Tiedens, known for her studies of anger, claimed that expression of feelings would cause a powerful influence
not only on the perception of the expresser but also on their power position in the society. She studied the correlation
between anger expression and social influence perception. Previous researchers, such as Keating, 1985 have found that
people with angry face expression were perceived as powerful and as in a high social position.[36] Similarly, Tiedens et
al. have revealed that people who compared scenarios involving an angry and a sad character, attributed a higher social
status to the angry character.[37] Tiedens examined in her study whether anger expression promotes status attribution.
In other words, whether anger contributes to perceptions or legitimization of others' behaviors. Her findings clearly
indicated that participants who were exposed to either an angry or a sad person were inclined to express support for
the angry person rather than for a sad one. In addition, it was found that a reason for that decision originates from the
fact that the person expressing anger was perceived as an ability owner, and was attributed a certain social status
accordingly.[36]
Showing anger during a negotiation may increase the ability of the anger expresser to succeed in negotiation. A study
by Tiedens et al. indicated that the anger expressers were perceived as stubborn, dominant and powerful. In addition,
it was found that people were inclined to easily give up to those who were perceived by them as powerful and stubborn,
rather than soft and submissive.[37] Based on these findings Sinaceur and Tiedens have found that people conceded
more to the angry side rather than for the non-angry one.[38]
A question raised by Van Kleef et al. based on these findings was whether expression of emotion influences others,
since it is known that people use emotional information to conclude about others' limits and match their demands in
negotiation accordingly. Van Kleef et al. wanted to explore whether people give up more easily to an angry opponent or
to a happy opponent. Findings revealed that participants tended to be more flexible toward an angry opponent
compared with a happy opponent. These results strengthen the argument that participants analyze the opponent's
emotion to conclude about their limits and carry out their decisions accordingly.[39]
Coping strategies
According to Leland R. Beaumont, each instance of anger demands making a choice.[40] A person can respond with
hostile action, including overt violence, or they can respond with hostile inaction, such as withdrawing or stonewalling.
Other options include initiating a dominance contest; harboring resentment; or working to better understand and
constructively resolve the issue.
According to R. Novaco, there are a multitude of steps that were researched in attempting to deal with this emotion. In
order to manage anger the problems involved in the anger should be discussed, Novaco suggests. The situations
leading to anger should be explored by the person. The person is then tried to be imagery-based relieved of his or her
recent angry experiences.[12][41]
Conventional therapies for anger involve restructuring thoughts and beliefs to bring about a reduction in anger. These
therapies often come within the schools of CBT (or Cognitive Behavioural Therapies) like modern systems such as
REBT (Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy). Research shows that people who suffer from excessive anger often harbor
and act on dysfunctional attributions, assumptions and evaluations in specific situations. It has been shown that with
therapy by a trained professional, individuals can bring their anger to more manageable levels.[42] The therapy is
followed by the so-called "stress inoculation" in which the clients are taught "relaxation skills to control their arousal
and various cognitive controls to exercise on their attention, thoughts, images, and feelings. They are taught to see the
provocation and the anger itself as occurring in a series of stages, each of which can be dealt with."[12]
The Skills-deficit model states that poor social skills is what renders a person incapable of expressing anger in an
appropriate manner.[43] Social skills training has been found to be an effective method for reducing exaggerated anger
by offering alternative coping skills to the angry individual. Research has found that persons who are prepared for
aversive events find them less threatening, and excitatory reactions are significantly reduced.[44] In a 1981 study, that
used modeling, behavior rehearsal, and videotaped feedback to increase anger control skills, showed increases in anger
control among aggressive youth in the study.[45] Research conducted with youthful offenders using a social skills
training program (aggression replacement training), found significant reductions in anger, and increases in anger
control.[46] Research has also found that antisocial personalities are more likely to learn avoidance tasks when the
consequences involved obtaining or losing tangible rewards. Learning among antisocial personalities also occurred
better when they were involved with high intensity stimulation.[47] Social Learning Theory states that positive
stimulation was not compatible with hostile or aggressive reactions.[48] Anger research has also studied the effects of
reducing anger among adults with antisocial personality disorder (ASPD), with a social skills program approach that
used a low fear and high arousal group setting. This research found that low fear messages were less provocative to the
ASPD population, and high positive arousal stimulated their ability to concentrate, and subsequently learn new skills
for anger reduction.[49]
Cognitive behavioral affective therapy

A new integrative approach to anger treatment has been formulated by Ephrem Fernandez (2010)[50] Termed CBAT,
for cognitive behavioral affective therapy, this treatment goes beyond conventional relaxation and reappraisal by
adding cognitive and behavioral techniques and supplementing them with affective techniques to deal with the feeling
of anger. The techniques are sequenced contingently in three phases of treatment: prevention, intervention, and
postvention. In this way, people can be trained to deal with the onset of anger, its progression, and the residual
features of anger.
Suppression
Modern psychologists point out that suppression of anger may have harmful effects. The suppressed anger may find
another outlet, such as a physical symptom, or become more extreme.[12][51] John W. Fiero cites Los Angeles riots of
1992 as an example of sudden, explosive release of suppressed anger. The anger was then displaced as violence against
those who had nothing to do with the matter. Another example of widespread deflection of anger from its actual cause
toward scapegoating, Fiero says, was the blaming of Jews for the economic ills of Germany by the Nazis.[11]
However, psychologists have also criticized the "catharsis theory" of aggression, which suggests that "unleashing" pent-
up anger reduces aggression.[52]
Dual thresholds model

Anger expression might have negative outcomes for individuals and organizations as well, such as decrease of
productivity[53] and increase of job stress,[54] however it could also have positive outcomes, such as increased work
motivation, improved relationships, increased mutual understanding etc. (for ex. Tiedens, 2000).[55] A Dual
Thresholds Model of Anger in organizations by Geddes and Callister, (2007) provides an explanation on the valence of
anger expression outcomes. The model suggests that organizational norms establish emotion thresholds that may be
crossed when employees feel anger. The first "expression threshold" is crossed when an organizational member
conveys felt anger to individuals at work who are associated with or able to address the anger-provoking situation. The
second "impropriety threshold" is crossed if or when organizational members go too far while expressing anger such
that observers and other company personnel find their actions socially and/or culturally inappropriate.
The higher probability of negative outcomes from workplace anger likely will occur in either of two situations. The first
is when organizational members suppress rather than express their anger—that is, they fail to cross the "expression
threshold". In this instance personnel who might be able to address or resolve the anger-provoking condition or event
remain unaware of the problem, allowing it to continue, along with the affected individual's anger. The second is when
organizational members cross both thresholds—"double cross"— displaying anger that is perceived as deviant. In such
cases the angry person is seen as the problem—increasing chances of organizational sanctions against him or her while
diverting attention away from the initial anger-provoking incident. In contrast, a higher probability of positive
outcomes from workplace anger expression likely will occur when one's expressed anger stays in the space between the
expression and impropriety thresholds. Here, one expresses anger in a way fellow organizational members find
acceptable, prompting exchanges and discussions that may help resolve concerns to the satisfaction of all parties
involved. This space between the thresholds varies among different organizations and also can be changed in
organization itself: when the change is directed to support anger displays; the space between the thresholds will be
expanded and when the change is directed to suppressing such displays; the space will be reduced.[56]
Neurology
In neuroimaging studies of anger, the most consistently activated region of the brain was the lateral orbitofrontal
cortex.[57] This region is associated with approach motivation and positive affective processes.[58]
The PSI theory uses emotions as a guide for the memory to process, plan and initiate an action to fulfill a current need
[59]. There are 3 parameters that help in regulating the information process along with the behaviour tendencies (flight,
exploration, aggression, etc.) that show the individual how they should react [59].
Resolution level
Selection threshold
Activation
Resolution level
Situations can be associated in terms of breath and width so that information can be retrieved from the long-term
memory and the PSI system can get ideas that vary with depending on the information [59]. If the resolution level was
deep and wide more information could be retrieved, allowing the creation of more idea [59]. While if the resolution level
was short and narrow lesser information is extracted, therefore creating fewer ideas [59].
Selection Threshold
It allows the control of motivation, in way where you can focus on one motive or on a number at a given time [59]. This
is very dependent on the activation parameter [59]. The general threshold is around mid-level [59]. So, if the threshold
was high the PSI focuses on the current motive while other needs become irrelevant or possess little interest to the
individual at the time, but the individual will overlook all dangers and opportunities of the situation [59]. However, if
the threshold was lower, the individual will get distracted very easily and the motivations can vary at any given time
[59].
Activation
The level of competence is affected by the level of activation and can direct the individual to become ready for action or
not [59]. The general competence level is around mid-level [59]. With the activation on high the level of competence
drops so that the individual becomes more action ready [59]. So, when low the competence level is high, and the
individual is not as ready to jump into action [59].
Anger Regulation
The activation level will increase so that the individual becomes more action ready and, this in turn increases the
selection threshold causing the individual to focus solely on the trigger [59]. The resolution level will drop so that
perception and planning become low resulting in a quick action that may be risky and perhaps lead to aggression [59].
Physiology
Neuroscience has shown that emotions are generated by multiple
structures in the brain. The rapid, minimal, and evaluative processing of
the emotional significance of the sensory data is done when the data passes
through the amygdala in its travel from the sensory organs along certain
neural pathways towards the limbic forebrain. Emotion caused by
discrimination of stimulus features, thoughts, or memories however occurs
when its information is relayed from the thalamus to the neocortex.[27]
Based on some statistical analysis, some scholars have suggested that the
tendency for anger may be genetic. Distinguishing between genetic and
An angry exchange between two
environmental factors however requires further research and actual
people, as evidenced by their body
measurement of specific genes and environments.[60][61] language and facial expressions. To
hear the angry exchange, listen to
The external expression of anger can be found in physiological responses,
the audio below.
facial expressions, body language, and at times in public acts of
aggression.[8] The rib cage tenses and breathing through the nose becomes
faster, deeper, and irregular.[62] Anger activates the hypothalamic– 0:00 MENU
pituitary–adrenal axis.[63] The catecholamine activation is more strongly Audio file of an angry exchange at a
norepinephrine than epinephrine.[10] Heart rate and blood pressure protest.
increase. Blood flows to the hands. Perspiration increases (particularly
when the anger is intense).[64] The face flushes. The nostrils flare. The jaw
tenses. The brow muscles move inward and downward, fixing a hard stare on the target. The arms are raised and a
squared-off stance is adopted. The body is mobilized for immediate action, often manifesting as a subjective sense of
strength, self-assurance, and potency. This may encourage the impulse to strike out.[10]
Philosophical perspectives
Antiquity
Ancient Greek philosophers, describing and commenting on the uncontrolled anger, particularly toward slaves, in their
society generally showed a hostile attitude towards anger. Galen and Seneca regarded anger as a kind of madness. They
all rejected the spontaneous, uncontrolled fits of anger and agreed on both the possibility and value of controlling
anger. There were however disagreements regarding the value of anger. For Seneca, anger was "worthless even for
war." Seneca believed that the disciplined Roman army was regularly able to beat the Germans, who were known for
their fury. He argued that "... in sporting contests, it is a mistake to become angry".[12]
Aristotle on the other hand, ascribed some value to anger that has arisen
from perceived injustice because it is useful for preventing injustice.[12][65]
Furthermore, the opposite of anger is a kind of insensibility, Aristotle
stated.[12] The difference in people's temperaments was generally viewed as
a result of the different mix of qualities or humors people contained. Seneca
held that "red-haired and red-faced people are hot-tempered because of
excessive hot and dry humors."[12] Ancient philosophers rarely refer to
women's anger at all, according to Simon Kemp and K. T. Strongman
perhaps because their works were not intended for women. Some of them
that discuss it, such as Seneca, considered women to be more prone to
anger than men.[12]
The Fury of Athamas by John
Flaxman (1755–1826).
Control methods
Seneca addresses the question of mastering anger in three parts: 1. how to
avoid becoming angry in the first place 2. how to cease being angry and 3. how to deal with anger in others.[12] Seneca
suggests, to avoid becoming angry in the first place, that the many faults of anger should be repeatedly remembered.
One should avoid being too busy or deal with anger-provoking people. Unnecessary hunger or thirst should be avoided
and soothing music be listened to.[12] To cease being angry, Seneca suggests "one to check speech and impulses and be
aware of particular sources of personal irritation. In dealing with other people, one should not be too inquisitive: It is
not always soothing to hear and see everything. When someone appears to slight you, you should be at first reluctant to
believe this, and should wait to hear the full story. You should also put yourself in the place of the other person, trying
to understand his motives and any extenuating factors, such as age or illness."[12] Seneca further advises daily self-
inquisition about one's bad habit.[12] To deal with anger in others, Seneca suggests that the best reaction is to simply
keep calm. A certain kind of deception, Seneca says, is necessary in dealing with angry people.[12]
Galen repeats Seneca's points but adds a new one: finding a guide and teacher can help the person in controlling their
passions. Galen also gives some hints for finding a good teacher.[12] Both Seneca and Galen (and later philosophers)
agree that the process of controlling anger should start in childhood on grounds of malleability. Seneca warns that this
education should not blunt the spirit of the children nor should they be humiliated or treated severely. At the same
time, they should not be pampered. Children, Seneca says, should learn not to beat their playmates and not to become
angry with them. Seneca also advises that children's requests should not be granted when they are angry.[12]
Medieval era
During the period of the Roman Empire and the Middle Ages, philosophers elaborated on the existing conception of
anger, many of whom did not make major contributions to the concept. For example, many medieval philosophers
such as Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Roger Bacon and Thomas Aquinas agreed with ancient philosophers that animals cannot
become angry.[12] On the other hand, al-Ghazali (also known as "Algazel" in Europe), who often disagreed with
Aristotle and Ibn Sina (Avicenna) on many issues, argued that animals do possess anger as one of the three "powers" in
their Qalb ("heart"), the other two being appetite and impulse. He also argued that animal will is "conditioned by anger
and appetite" in contrast to human will which is "conditioned by the intellect."[66] A common medieval belief was that
those prone to anger had an excess of yellow bile or choler (hence the word "choleric").[12] This belief was related to
Seneca's belief that "red-haired and red-faced people are hot-tempered because of excessive hot and dry humors."
By gender
Wrath was sinful because of the social problems it caused, sometimes even homicide. It served to ignore those who are
present, contradicts those who are absent, produces insults, and responds harshly to insults that are received.[67]
Aristotle felt that anger or wrath was a natural outburst of self- defense in situations where people felt they had been
wronged. Aquinas felt that if anger was justified, it was not a sin. For example, "He that is angry without cause, shall be
in danger; but he that is angry with cause, shall not be in danger: for without anger, teaching will be useless, judgments
unstable, crimes unchecked. Therefore to be angry is not always an evil."[68]
The concept of wrath contributed to a definition of gender and power. Many medieval authors in 1200 agreed the
differences between men and women were based on complexion, shape, and disposition. Complexion involved the
balance of the four fundamental qualities of heat, coldness, moistness, and dryness. When various combinations of
these qualities are made they define groups of certain people as well as individuals. Hippocrates, Aristotle, and Galen
all agreed on that, in terms of biology and sexual differentiation, heat was the most important of the qualities because
it determined shape and disposition. Disposition included a balance of the previous four qualities, the four elements
and the four humors. For example, the element of fire shared the qualities of heat and dryness: fire dominated in
yellow bile or choler, meaning a choleric person was more or hot and dry than others. Hot and dry individuals were
active, dominant, and aggressive. The opposite was true with the element of water. Water, is cold and moist, related
closely to phlegm: people with more phlegmatic personalities were passive and submissive. While these trait clusters
varied from individual to individual most authors in the Middle Ages assumed certain clusters of traits characterized
men more than women and vice versa.[69]
Women
Scholars posted that females were seen by authors in the Middle Ages to be more phlegmatic (cold and wet) than
males, meaning females were more sedentary and passive than males.[69] Women's passive nature appeared "natural"
due to their lack of power when compared to men. Aristotle identified traits he believed women shared: female,
feminine, passive, focused on matter, inactive, and inferior. Thus medieval women were supposed to act submissively
toward men and relinquish control to their husbands.[69] However Hildegard of Bingen believed women were fully
capable of anger. While most women were phlegmatic, individual women under certain circumstances could also be
choleric.
Men
Medieval scholars believed most men were choleric, or hot and dry. Thus they were dominant and aggressive. (Barton)
Aristotle also identified characteristics of men: male, masculine, active, focused on form, potent, outstanding, and
superior. Men were aware of the power they held. Given their choleric "nature", men exhibited hot temperatures and
were quick to anger.[69] Peter of Albano once said, "The male's spirit, is lively, given to violent impulse; [it is] slow
getting angry and slower being calmed." Medieval ideas of gender assumed men were more rational than women.
Masculinity involved a wide range of possible behaviors, and men were not angry all the time. Every man's humoral
balance was different, some men were strong, other weak, also some more prone to wrath then others.[69]
Control methods
Maimonides considered being given to uncontrollable passions as a kind of illness. Like Galen, Maimonides suggested
seeking out a philosopher for curing this illness just as one seeks out a physician for curing bodily illnesses. Roger
Bacon elaborates Seneca's advices. Many medieval writers discuss at length the evils of anger and the virtues of
temperance. In a discussion of confession, John Mirk, an English 14th-century Augustinian writer, tells priests how to
advise the penitent by considering the spiritual and social consequences of anger:[12]
Agaynes wraþþe hys helpe schal be, Against wrath his help shall be,
Ʒef he haue grace in herte to se if he has grace in heart to see,
How aungelus, when he ys wroth, how angels, should his anger rise,
From hym faste flen and goth, flee fast from him and go
And fendes faste to hym renneth, and demons run to him in haste;
And wyþ fuyre of helle hys herte breneth, hell's fury burns his heart
And maketh hym so hote & hegh, and makes him so hot and high
Þat no mon may byde hym negh.[70] that none may stand him nigh.
In The Canon of Medicine, Ibn Sina (Avicenna) modified the theory of temperaments and argued that anger heralded
the transition of melancholia to mania, and explained that humidity inside the head can contribute to such mood
disorders.[71]
On the other hand, Ahmed ibn Sahl al-Balkhi classified anger (along with aggression) as a type of neurosis,[72] while al-
Ghazali (Algazel) argued that anger takes form in rage, indignation and revenge, and that "the powers of the soul
become balanced if it keeps anger under control."[73]
Modern times
The modern understanding of anger may not be greatly advanced over that of Aristotle.[12] Immanuel Kant rejects
revenge as vicious. Regarding the latter, David Hume argues that because "anger and hatred are passions inherent in
our very frame and constitution, the lack of them is sometimes evidence of weakness and imbecility."[15] Two main
differences between the modern understanding and ancient understanding of anger can be detected, Kemp and
Strongman state: one is that early philosophers were not concerned with possible harmful effects of the suppression of
anger; the other is that, recently, studies of anger take the issue of gender differences into account. The latter does not
seem to have been of much concern to earlier philosophers.[12]
The American psychologist Albert Ellis has suggested that anger, rage, and fury partly have roots in the philosophical
meanings and assumptions through which human beings interpret transgression.[74] According to Ellis, these emotions
are often associated and related to the leaning humans have to absolutistically depreciating and damning other
peoples' humanity when their personal rules and domain are transgressed.
Religious perspectives
Judaism
In Judaism, anger is a negative trait. In the Book of Genesis, Jacob condemned the anger that had arisen in his sons
Simon and Levi: "Cursed be their anger, for it was fierce; and their wrath, for it was cruel."[75]
Restraining oneself from anger is seen as noble and desirable, as Ethics of the Fathers states:
"Ben Zoma said: Who is strong? He who subdues his evil inclination, as it is stated, 'He who is slow to anger is better
than a strong man, and he who masters his passions is better than one who conquers a city' (Proverbs 16:32)."[76]
Maimonides rules that one who becomes angry is as though that person had worshipped idols.[77] Rabbi Shneur
Zalman of Liadi explains that the parallel between anger and idol worship is that by becoming angry, one shows a
disregard of Divine Providence – whatever had caused the anger was ultimately ordained from Above – and that
through coming to anger one thereby denies the hand of God in one's life.[78]
In its section dealing with ethical traits a person should adopt, the Kitzur Shulchan Aruch states: "Anger is also a very
evil trait and it should be avoided at all costs. You should train yourself not to become angry even if you have a good
reason to be angry."[79]
In modern writings, Rabbi Harold Kushner finds no grounds for anger toward God because "our misfortunes are none
of His doing."[80] In contrast to Kushner's reading of the Bible, David Blumenthal finds an "abusing God" whose
"sometimes evil" actions evoke vigorous protest, but without severing the protester's relationship with God.[81]
Christianity
Both Catholic and Protestant writers have addressed anger.
Catholic
Wrath is one of the Seven Deadly Sins in Catholicism; and yet the
Catechism of the Catholic Church states (canons 1772 and 1773) that anger
is among the passions, and that "in the passions, as movements of the
sensitive appetite, there is neither good nor evil." The neutral act of anger
becomes the sin of wrath when it's directed against an innocent person,
when it's unduly unbending or long-lasting, or when it desires excessive
punishment. "If anger reaches the point of a deliberate desire to kill or
seriously wound a neighbor, it is gravely against charity; it is a mortal sin."
(CCC 2302) Hatred is the sin of desiring that someone else may suffer
misfortune or evil, and is a mortal sin when one desires grave harm. (CCC
The Seven Deadly Sins and the
2302-03) Four Last Things, by Hieronymus
Bosch (1485). "Wrath" is depicted at
Medieval Christianity vigorously denounced wrath as one of the seven
the bottom in a series of circular
cardinal, or deadly sins, but some Christian writers at times regarded the images. Below the image is the
anger caused by injustice as having some value.[11][12] Saint Basil viewed Latin inscription Cave Cave Deus
anger as a "reprehensible temporary madness."[11] Joseph F. Delany in the Videt ("Beware, Beware, God is
Catholic Encyclopedia (1914) defines anger as "the desire of vengeance" and Watching").
states that a reasonable vengeance and passion is ethical and praiseworthy.
Vengeance is sinful when it exceeds its limits in which case it becomes
opposed to justice and charity. For example, "vengeance upon one who has
not deserved it, or to a greater extent than it has been deserved, or in
conflict with the dispositions of law, or from an improper motive" are all
sinful. An unduly vehement vengeance is considered a venial sin unless it
seriously goes counter to the love of God or of one's neighbor.[82]
A more positive view of anger is espoused by Roman Catholic pastoral

theologian Henri J. M. Nouwen. Father Nouwen points to the spiritual
benefits in anger toward God as found in both the Old Testament and New
Testament of the Bible. In the Bible, says Father Nouwen, "it is clear that
Angel with Temperance and Humility
only by expressing our anger and hatred directly to God will we come to virtues versus Devil with Rage and
know the fullness of both his love and our freedom."[83] Wrath sins. A fresco from the 1717
Saint Nicolas Orthodox church in
Georges Bernanos illustrates Nouwen's position in his novel The Diary of a Cukovets, Pernik Province, Bulgaria
Country Priest. The countess gave birth to the son she had long wanted, but
the child died. She was fiercely angry. When the priest called, the countess
vented her anger toward her daughter and husband, then at the priest who responded gently, "open your heart to
[God]." The countess rejoined, "I've ceased to bother about God. When you've forced me to admit that I hate Him, will
you be any better off?" The priest continued, "you no longer hate Him. Hate is indifference and contempt. Now at last
you're face to face with Him ... Shake your fist at Him, spit in His face, scourge Him." The countess did what the priest
counseled. By confessing her hate, she was enabled to say, "all's well."[84]
Protestant
Everyone experiences anger, Andrew D. Lester observes, and furthermore anger can serve as "a spiritual friend, a
spiritual guide, and a spiritual ally." Denying and suppressing anger is contrary to St. Paul's admonition in his Epistle
to the Ephesians 4:26.[85] When anger toward God is denied and suppressed, it interferes with an individual's relation
with God. However, expressing one's anger toward God can deepen the relationship.[86] C. FitzSimons Allison holds
that "we worship God by expressing our honest anger at him."[87]
Biblical scholar Leonard Pine concludes from his studies in the Book of Habakkuk that "far from being a sin, proper
remonstration with God is the activity of a healthy faith relationship with Him."[88] Other biblical examples of anger
toward God include the following:[89]
Moses was angry with God for mistreating his people: "Lord, why have you mistreated [lit. done evil to] this
people?" (Book of Exodus 5:22).
Naomi was angry with God after the death of her husband and two sons: "The Almighty has dealt bitterly with me.
The Almighty has brought calamity upon me" (Book of Ruth 1:20–21 abr).
Elijah was angry with God after the son of the widow died: "O Lord my God, have you brought calamity even upon
the widow with whom I am staying, by killing her son?" (1 Kings 17:20).
Job was angry with God: "You have turned cruel to me; with the might of your hand you persecute me" (Book of
Job 30:21).
Jeremiah was angry with God for deceiving his people: "Ah, Lord God, how utterly you have deceived this people
and Jerusalem." (Book of Jeremiah 4:10).
Hinduism
In Hinduism, anger is equated with sorrow as a form of unrequited desire. The objects of anger are perceived as a
hindrance to the gratification of the desires of the angry person.[90] Alternatively if one thinks one is superior, the
result is grief. Anger is considered to be packed with more evil power than desire.[91] In the Bhagavad Gita Krishna
regards greed, anger, and lust as signs of ignorance and leads to perpetual bondage. As for the agitations of the
bickering mind, they are divided into two divisions. The first is called avirodha-prīti, or unrestricted attachment, and
the other is called virodha-yukta-krodha, anger arising from frustration. Adherence to the philosophy of the
Māyāvādīs, belief in the fruitive results of the karma-vādīs, and belief in plans based on materialistic desires are called
avirodha-prīti. (Reference needed)
Jñānīs, karmīs and materialistic planmakers generally attract the attention of conditioned souls, but when the
materialists cannot fulfill their plans and when their devices are frustrated, they become angry. Frustration of material
desires produces anger.[92]
Buddhism
Anger is defined in Buddhism as: "being unable to bear the object, or the intention to cause harm to the object." Anger
is seen as aversion with a stronger exaggeration, and is listed as one of the five hindrances. Buddhist monks, such as
Dalai Lama, the spiritual leader of Tibetans in exile, sometimes get angry.[93] However, there is a difference; most often
a spiritual person is aware of the emotion and the way it can be handled. Thus, in response to the question: "Is any
anger acceptable in Buddhism?' the Dalai Lama answered:[93]
Buddhism in general teaches that anger is a destructive emotion and although anger might have some
positive effects in terms of survival or moral outrage, I do not accept that anger of any kind as (sic) a
virtuous emotion nor aggression as constructive behavior. The Gautama Buddha (sic) has taught that
there are three basic kleshas at the root of samsara (bondage, illusion) and the vicious cycle of rebirth.
These are greed, hatred, and delusion—also translatable as attachment, anger, and ignorance. They bring
us confusion and misery rather than peace, happiness, and fulfillment. It is in our own self-interest to
purify and transform them.
Buddhist scholar and author Geshe Kelsang Gyatso has also explained Buddha's teaching on the spiritual imperative to
identify anger and overcome it by transforming difficulties:[94]
When things go wrong in our life and we encounter difficult situations, we tend to regard the situation
itself as our problem, but in reality whatever problems we experience come from the side of the mind. If
we responded to difficult situations with a positive or peaceful mind they would not be problems for us.
Eventually, we might even regard them as challenges or opportunities for growth and development.
Problems arise only if we respond to difficulties with a negative state of mind. Therefore if we want to be
free from problems, we must transform our mind.
The Buddha himself on anger:[95]
An angry person is ugly & sleeps poorly. Gaining a profit, he turns it into a loss, having done damage with
word & deed. A person overwhelmed with anger destroys his wealth. Maddened with anger, he destroys
his status. Relatives, friends, & colleagues avoid him. Anger brings loss. Anger inflames the mind. He
doesn't realize that his danger is born from within. An angry person doesn't know his own benefit. An
angry person doesn't see the Dharma. A man conquered by anger is in a mass of darkness. He takes
pleasure in bad deeds as if they were good, but later, when his anger is gone, he suffers as if burned with
fire. He is spoiled, blotted out, like fire enveloped in smoke. When anger spreads, when a man becomes
angry, he has no shame, no fear of evil, is not respectful in speech. For a person overcome with anger,
nothing gives light.
Islam
Qur'an, chapter 3 verse 134 "The ones who spend in prosperity and adversity, repress anger, and pardon the people;
God loves the good doers." [Edip-Layth-Martha (Quran: A Reformist Translation)]
Anger (Arabic: , ghadab) in Islam is considered to be instigated by Satan (Shaitan).[96] Factors stated to lead to
anger include selfishness, arrogance and excessive ambition.[97] Islamic teachings also state that anger hinders the
faith (iman) of a person.[98] The Quran attributes anger to prophets and believers as well as Muhammad's enemies. It
mentions the anger of Moses (Musa) against his people for worshiping a golden calf and at the moment when Moses
strikes an Egyptian for fighting against an Israelite.[99] The anger of Jonah (Yunus) is also mentioned in the Quran,
which led to his departure from the people of Nineveh and his eventual realization of his error and his repentance.[100]
The removal of anger from the hearts of believers by God (Arabic: [[Allah| ‫ ]]ا‬Allāh) after the fighting against
Muhammad's enemies is over.[101][102] In general, suppression of anger (Arabic: , kazm) is deemed a praiseworthy
quality in the hadis.[102][103][104] Ibn Abdil Barr, the Andalusian Maliki jurist explains that controlling anger is the door
way for restraining other blameworthy traits ego and envy, since these two are less powerful than anger. The hadis
state various ways to diminish, prevent and control anger. One of these methods is to perform a ritual ablution, a
different narration states that the angry person should lie down and other narrations instructs the angry person to
invoke God and seek refuge from the Devil, by reciting I take refuge with Allah/God from the accursed Devil.
It has also been stated by the Imam Ali, the "Commander of the faithful" and the son-in-law of prophet Muhammad
that "A moment of patience in a moment of anger saves a thousand moments of regret." As well as "Anger begins with
madness, and ends in regret."[97]
Divine retribution
In many religions, anger is frequently attributed to God or gods. Primitive people held that gods were subject to anger
and revenge in anthropomorphic fashion.[105] The Hebrew Bible says that opposition to God's Will results in God's
anger.[105] Reform rabbi Kaufmann Kohler explains:[75]
God is not an intellectual abstraction, nor is He conceived as

a being indifferent to the doings of man; and His pure and
lofty nature resents most energetically anything wrong and
impure in the moral world: "O Lord, my God, mine Holy
One ... Thou art of eyes too pure to behold evil, and canst not
look on iniquity."
Christians believe in God's anger at the sight of evil. This anger is not The Great Day of His Wrath, by
inconsistent with God's love, as demonstrated in the Gospel where the John Martin (1789–1854).
righteous indignation of Christ is shown in the Cleansing of the Temple.
Christians believe that those who reject His revealed Word, Jesus, condemn
themselves, and are not condemned by the wrath of God.[105]
See also
Rage
Angry Cognitions Scale
Emotion
Angra Mainyu
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Further reading
Books
Theodore I. Rubin (1998). The Angry Book (https://books.google.com/books?id=hgCZETo8UAsC). Simon and

Schuster. ISBN 978-0-684-84201-1.
Harriet Lerner (2014). The Dance of Anger: A Woman's Guide to Changing the Patterns of Intimate Relationships
(https://books.google.com/books?id=hU-zAAAAQBAJ). HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-232852-6.
Monica Ramirez Basco (2000). Never Good Enough: How to Use Perfectionism to Your Advantage Without
Letting it Ruin Your Life (https://books.google.com/books?id=2pJrw2lGn7EC&pg=PR1). Simon and Schuster.
ISBN 978-0-684-86293-4.
Jesse Wright; Monica Ramirez Basco (2010). Getting Your Life Back (https://books.google.com/books?id=09BNHc
i_Q-kC). Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-1486-5.
Articles
Maintaining A Good and Healthy Anger (http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/003463730109800403)

Managing emotions in the workplace (https://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst?docId=5001520967)
Controlling Anger -- Before It Controls You (http://www.apa.org/topics/controlanger.html)
What Your Anger May Be Hiding - Leon F Seltzer Ph.D. (https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/evolution-the-self/
200807/what-your-anger-may-be-hiding)
The Interpersonal Effects of Anger and Happiness in Negotiations (http://home.medewerker.uva.nl/g.a.vankleef/be
standen/Van%20Kleef%20et%20al.%20(2004a%20JPSP).pdf)
Why are we angry? Interesting analysis on anger, rage and aggression (http://urujk.wordpress.com/2011/03/29/wh
y-are-we-angry)
Get mad and get more than even: When and why anger expression is effective in negotiations (https://scholar.goo
gle.com/scholar?hl=en&lr=&q=Get+mad+and+get+more+than+even%3A+The+benefits+of+anger+expressions&b
tnG=Search)
Anger and advancement versus sadness and subjugation: the effect of negative emotion expressions on social
status conferral (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=11195894&dopt
=Citation)
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Anger is an emotional reaction that impacts the body. A person

strong form, impairs one's ability to process information and to exert

Expressions of anger used negatively Reasoning

Six dimensions of anger expression

Cognitive behavioral affective therapy

Dual thresholds model

Both Catholic and Protestant writers have addressed anger.

A more positive view of anger is espoused by Roman Catholic pastoral

The Buddha himself on anger:[95]

God is not an intellectual abstraction, nor is He conceived as

77. Rambam, Hilchot de'ot 2

Theodore I. Rubin (1998). The Angry Book (https://books.google.com/books?id=hgCZETo8UAsC). Simon and

Maintaining A Good and Healthy Anger (http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/003463730109800403)

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anger&oldid=847000163"

This page was last edited on 22 June 2018, at 06:24 (UTC).

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