Distribution Planning Manual

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DISTRIBUTION PLANNING MANUAL
INDEX Page
1. Introduction 3
2. Definitions 4
Part 1
3 General Policies and Planning criteria 6
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Planning Criteria
3.3 Standard Practices
3.4 Demarcation of Responsibilities
3.5 Planning Tools
4. Planning Methodology 17
Initiation of project
Financial appraisal of distribution projects
Part 2
5. Distribution System Layout and Operation 27
- Voltage levels
- Neutral conditions
- Network configurations
- Protection (fault clearing) criteria
- Automation
- Voltage regulation
6. Distribution System Component Design 33
Lines 33
- HV lines
- MV lines
- LV lines
Transformation Substations 36
- Transformer loading
- Primary
- Satellite
- Secondary
7. Project appraisal 40
- Documents
- Tools
8. Network pe rformance 44
9. Network docume ntation 47
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Part3
APPENDICES Page
A1 Economical/Financial Analysis Techniques

(Project Appraisal Framework From CPD)
A2 Quality of supply
A3 Load characteristics and forecasting
A4 Distribution network voltage performance
A5 Load flow calculations
(volt drop & losses/fault level calculation & limitations)
A6 Distribution Planning Software
(Load flow/Short Circuit Calculations)
A7 Distribution Network Performance Targets
A8 Overvoltages
A9 Gap-arrester device
A10 Firm capacity policy
A11 Negative sequence problems
A12a Line/conductor parameters
A12b 11 kV Conductor Size Selection Guide
A13 Cable parameters
A14 Glossary for Distribution system Terminology
A15 Economic conductor sizes for cables
A16 LV Reticulation Design/Guide
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DISTRIBUTION PLANNING MANUAL

1. INTRODUCTION
Scope of the Distribution Planning Manual is to give basic information to

planning engineers of ZESA Areas for the network planning process.
The Manual gives common criteria for extension, reinforcement, maintenance and
operation of the distribution network, in order to reach the objectives of providing
safe and reliable power supply.
Experience and knowledge of distribution networks is essential for distribution

network planning. This planning manual will not enable inexperienced engineers
(e.g. those fresh from college) to plan distribution networks. Experience and
knowledge of distribution systems will enable planners to identify meaningful and
realistic reinforcement options as well as quantifying benefits that will be realized
in implementing proposed reinforcements.
The manual has been split into three parts as follows: -
Part 1-Planning Policies and Methodology:

This deals with the core planning activities.
Part 2-Distribution Engineering Concepts related to Planning :

This is a summary of Engineering concepts applicable to the Authority
Distribution network.
Part 3-Appendices
This contains common engineering concepts related to network planning
which are normally found in textbooks and manuals used by other utilities.
The Distribution Planning Manual shall be the main reference document for
planning distribution system up to and including 33kV. The main document for
planning networks rated above 33kV shall be the Transmission Planning
Manual. However the Distribution Planning Manual will serve as a supporting
document for providing Engineering concepts.
3
2. DEFINITIONS
The definitions are terms that are commonly used in this manual as shown below.
However other terms and definitions commonly used in Distribution are as per
Appendix A14.
2.1 Distribution System

A distribution system is that part of the network between bulk power source and
the customers’ service switches (in most cases up to and including the tariff
meter). This includes the following components: -
Sub-transmission system
Distribution substations
Distribution or primary feeders
Secondary circuits (low voltage-230/400 volts)
Service connections (cable, meter and ZEDC main breaker)
2.2 Low Voltage (LV)- Voltage below 1 000V
2.3 Medium Voltage (MV)- Voltage above 1 000V up to and including 40kV
2.4 High Voltage (HV) - Voltages above 40kV up to and including 150kV
2.5 Extra High Voltage (EHV) - Voltage above 150kV
2.6 Sub - trans mission system

HV networks designed and operated to transmit electrical power to supply point.
Sub-transmission and primary distribution functions are frequently overlapping.
2.7 Transmission system

HV networks designed and operated to transmit electrical power from generation
plants to bulk supply points and for HV network interconnections.
2.8 Primary distribution system

HV networks designed and operated to distribute electrical power to primary
substations and large customers.
2.9 Primary substation (PS)

Substation with HV/MV transformation (e.g. 132/33kV, 132/11kV, 88/33kV,
88/11kV, 66/11kV)
2.10 Satellite substation (SL)

Substation with MV/MV transformation (e.g. 33/11kV, 33/2.2kV)
2.11 Secondary substation(SS)

Substation with MV/LV transformation (e.g. 33/0.4 kV, 22/0.4kV, 11/0.4kV)
4
2.12 Secondary distribution system

MV networks designed and operated to distribute electrical power to satellite
substation, to secondary substations and to medium size customers.
2.13 LV distribution system

Network system coming out from secondary substation and distributing electrical
power to L.V. users.
2.14 Meshed network configuration

In a meshed configuration each substation is connected to the network by at least
two lines.
2.15 Radial network configuration

In a radial configuration each feeder leaving a substation is not electrically
connected to other feeders (this configuration is like one of the branches of a
tree).
2.16 Circuit breaker

A switch to open an electric circuit under short-circuit current (automatic circuit
breaker)
2.17 Load break switch

A switch to open an electric circuit under maximum load conditions (e.g.
sectionaliser). It can be motorized or manual.
2.18 Isolator
Switch to open an electric circuit under no- load conditions (only transformer
magnetizing currents or line capacitance currents can be opened).
2.19 PSIP (Public Sector Investment Program).
2.20 ACE (Application for Capital Expenditure)
2.21 Authority (In this case refers to ZESA)
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Part 1
3 GENERAL POLICIES AND PLANNING CRITERIA
3.1 INTRODUCTION
There are three main types of network planning in power distribution. These are:
a) Long Term Planning

Long range planning is strategic planning which deals with future major
investment and the main network configurations.
In order to get a network that is well suited for future needs in the long run it is
necessary for a long term rebuilding and extension plan for the networks. Every
change in the network should be adapted to this plan. The long term planning
covers master plan studies.
b) Short Term Planning

Emergency re-enforcement planning can be referred to as Operational Planning.
In short term planning, projects from long term planning are evaluated in detail
and the actions to be determined are decided. New and urgent projects not
foreseen in the long-term plan must be realized in this phase. Short term planning
is also normally referred to as System Planning.
c) Eme rgency Reinforce ment Planning

Emergency re-enforcement planning can be referred to as Operational Planning.
This is normally carried out to address urgent loading and or voltage problems as
well as replacement of old and or dangerous equipment. Use of voltage regulators
generally falls under emergency reinforcement. Works related to emergency
reinforcement are usually carried out under maintenance budgets.
3.2 PLANNING CRITERIA
3.2.1 General criteria
The following criteria shall be used for planning distribution networks. The
criteria are worked out in light of new developments in distribution systems
worldwide and the need to improve return on investments.
When planning extensions or reinforcements of the distribution network, both to

serve new areas or to meet new power requests in already served areas, particular
attention shall be given in order to:
- Satisfy the customer requirements in the best way and in the sho rtest time;
in line with economical and technical available resources.
6
- Avoid over dimensioning of programmed installations, in particular of the

components that can be easily replaced;
- Try to avoid building installations where reinforcements and extensio ns

will be necessary after only a few years (continuous works on the network
in operation will be costly and will result in outages).
Some of the techniques to be applied in order to fulfil the above mentioned

requirements are listed below:
- Perform a careful analysis extended to the last 3-4 years of the rate of load
increase in the areas where the distribution network shall be developed.
- Carry out the best guess of the activities foreseen in the areas of interest,
taking into account all the available information on development, with
relevant timing.
- Take into consideration the geographical and topological characteristics of

the areas, to help as far as possible the guess.
- Plan the distribution network to fulfil the final requirements of the areas
under development, however start building gradually the required
installations for a timing supply of increasing loads.
- Build the network for the final voltage level, but operate temporarily part
or all the new installations at a lower voltage level.
- Capital expenditure should be deferred as far as possible.
Using all or some of the above criteria, it is possible to delay many investments,
without penalizing the customers.
For more detailed technical items, network planning should be based on:
- Load forecasts
- Plans for exploitation
- Changes in overlying network
- Values of calculated short-circuit currents
- Values of calculated load current and voltage drops
- Voltage, current and power readings (collected by SCADA, monthly
readings, statistical data).
- Inspection reports on status of installations
- Network performance parameters
- Fault statistics
7
The planning horizon shall be 25 years. However individual reinforcement

proposals could be selected to cater for shorter periods. No reinforcement
proposals should cater for less than 5 years load growth.
3.2.2 Detailed Crite ria
From a customer’s point of view a power supply should meet the following
criteria: -
Reliability: - The supply system shall have minimum outages

Quality: - The supply network shall have minimum vo ltage drops and
fluctuations. There shall be no harmonics and the phase voltages shall be
balanced.
Reliability: - The planning criteria will define the general reliability level and
standard of quality of supply. Where individual customers demand higher levels
of reliability and quality of supply, planners should take their demands into
consideration as much as possible. Customers will meet the full additional costs
of improved reliability and quality of supply above the general criteria. The
Authority’s 40 % contribution shall not apply to costs related to improved
reliability and quality above that stated in the Planning Criteria.
The detailed requirements for reliability and quality of supply are in Appendix
A2. These are summarized below for ease of reference.
a) Quality of supply
i ) Voltage drop
The voltage levels shall be maintained within  10% of nominal for HV and MV
levels. The declared standard low voltage shall be 230/400V. For 400/230V
levels, the voltage shall be maintained within  6% of nominal. The voltage range
declared to all customers shall be within  10% of nominal.
ii) Harmonics
The Total Harmonic Distortion shall not exceed 2.5 % at low voltage, 2 % at
medium voltage and 1.5 % at sub transmission voltage.
iii) Voltage Unbalance
The negative sequence shall not exceed 2%
8
iv) Voltage Flicker
The tolerable flicker shall be given by:
% sudden voltage variation = 4.5 - log10 N

where N = Number of sudden load changes per hour.
However very heavy flicker is allowed if it is infrequent.
b) Supply Availability ( reliability)
This is defined as the total outage time in minutes per year and is often referred to
as average customer minutes lost per year. The reliability leve ls are as shown on
table 1 below.
Table 1:Powe r Supply Reliability Levels
URBAN NETWORKS
CUSTOMER Low 11 kV 33 kV 132 kV
VOLTAGE LEV EL Voltage
OUTAGE PERIOD 13.14 11.86 7.32 2.80

(hours/ yr)
OUTAGE PERIOD 789 711 439 168
(minute s/yr)
RURAL NETWORKS
CUSTOMER Low 11 kV 33 kV 132 kV
VOLTAGE LEV EL Voltage
OUTAGE PERIOD 42.20 36.76 23.22 5.20

(hours/ yr)
OUTAGE PERIOD 2532 2205 1393 312
(minute s/yr)
3.3 STANDARD PRACTICES
Standard distribution voltages are 0.4kV, 11kV, 33kV, 88kV and 132kV. The
88kV voltage is being gradually phased out in favour of 132kV.
3.3.1 Planning polices
a) Firm Capacity Policy:
This is detailed in Appendix A10. In general firm capacity shall not be provided
for secondary substations (11/0.4kV and 33/0.4kV), satellite substations and rural
9
substations with demand less than 5MVA. Firm capacity shall generally be
provided in Urban Satellite substations (33/11kV) and Primary Substations
(132/33kV). Firm capacity shall generally not be provided on overhead line
circuits.
b) Losses
Losses shall be evaluated using energy production costs not average tariff.
Programs that address loss reduction shall be implemented where justifiable.
Losses shall be limited to a maximum of 3% peak on a feeder. The Distribution

losses should generally not exceeded 10% (132kV Customer meter). Economic
Conductor sizes shall be used as per Appendix A15.
c) Reliability
Costs of outages in the Economic appraisals shall be evaluated at the economic

cost of unserved energy about 1 USD for Domestic Customer and 2.0 USD per
kWh for the productive sector.
d) Feeders
Table 1b: Minimum conductor sizes for new feeders
Description OHL Size Cable Size

Rural 11kV Circuits 50mm2 A CSR
Urban 11kV Circuits 100mm2 ACS R 185mm2 Al
Rural 33kV Circuits 50mm2 A CSR for T-Offs
To satellite substations 100mm2 ACS R (main feeders)
Urban 33kV feeders 175mm2 ACS R 185mm2 Cu
e) Use of Voltage Regulators
Use of voltage regulators is only recommended as a ''fire fighting tool'' to address

urgent voltage problems as a temporary expedient for addressing network voltage
problems. Networks that experience voltage problems often have high percentage
losses and this calls for meaningful long-term solutions such as new substations
and/or re-conductoring of feeders.
f) Use of Capacitors
Capacitors should only be used after analysis of load and voltage problems. The
size or rating to be installed requires calculations.
10
g) Loads
The standard power factor to be used unless verified, by load survey equipment,
shall be as in Table1C below.
Table 1C: Recommended Powe r Factors
Description PF
Rural Networks 0.85
Urban Residential 0.95
Other Urban loads 0.9
The After Diversity Maximum Demand for Residential Consumers shall be as

shown in Fig 1C below.
Fig. 1C: ADMD (Residential Consume rs)
Description ADMD(kW) Annual Energy

Consum ption (kWH)
High Density Area 1.5 4000
Medium Density Area 2.5 8000
Low Density Area 4.0 12000
3.3.2 Construction Practices
a) Lines-Medium Voltage
Overhead lines shall be constructed as follows:-
i) Rural-Lines
These shall be on single pole and pin insulator for conductor sizes up to
and including 100mm2 ACSR. An Earthwire shall only be installed where
earth problems exist resulting in protection maloperation. When required
the earthwire will be below the phase conductor.
For conductor sizes above 100mm2 ACSR, the lines shall be on H poles
and supported by disc insulators. Earthwire will only be used where
earthing problems exist, and will be installed below the phase conductor.
Covered conductors shall be used where vegetation is a problem.
11
ii) Urban Areas
Generally, covered conductor when available, shall be used in future, as

these improve safety are vandal proof and minimize wayleave
requirements.
The lines shall be on concrete poles. Woodpoles shall not be used in

Urban Areas. Earthwire shall be installed only where earthing problems
exist. The Earth conductor shall be bare ACSR instead of galvanized steel
and shall be installed below the phase instead of above the phase
conductors. The earth wire rating shall be at least 50% of the phase
conductor rating, subject to a minimum of 25 mm2 ACSR.
iii) Sub-trans mission Lines (HV Lines)
The lines shall be on steel lattice towers with conductor sizes 175mm2
(lynx) and or 350mm2 (bison) ACSR. The lines will have an overhead
Earthwire.
In Urban Areas the lines shall be of compact design with post insulators at
intermediates and constructed to blend with the surrounding.
b) Satellite Substations (33/11kV)
i) Rural
These shall be built to accommodate two 5MVA OLTC transformers.

Firm capacity shall not be provided. A second 5MVA substation shall be
installed only when demand exceeds 5MVA subject to ability of the 11kV
network to distribute the anticipated load with consequent voltage
problems and excessive losses taken into account.
Use of large transformers for Rural networks is discouraged. The 3MVA

transformer will be phased out, as it is too small, the possibility of
utilizing 5MVA transformers is under consideration.
ii) Urban
These shall be built to accommodate 2x16/25MVA transformers. The

transformer rating shall be 16MVA with forced cooling. Firm capacity
shall generally be provided unless the interconnecting 11kV circuits are
able to meet at least 50% of the load, or where over 50% of load is
domestic.
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Configuration of circuits
a) Low Voltage
Low voltage circuits should be built as radial without provisions for back
feeding except in Central Business Districts and other Areas where
security of supply is critical.
b) Medium Voltage
Meshed networks shall be constructed and generally operated radially, in

Urban Areas. Medium voltage networks performing sub-transmission
functions could be operated meshed (e.g. Harare and Bulawayo - 33kV
feeders).
c) Transformers
Transformers should generally not be operated in parallel so as to

minimize fault currents.
3.4 Responsibilities
To avoid confusion and duplication of functions it is very essential to clearly

define the responsibilities of Areas and Head Office Distribution in relation to
planning. This is in line with the policy of decentralization.
3.4.1 Head Office Distribution Functions
(i) Checking project documents prepared by Areas for viability and

conformity to technical standards.
(ii) Preparing project documents for soliciting funds for approved
reinforcement projects.
(iii) Preparing specifications for and adjudication of Tenders for construction
of major distribution projects.
(iv) Obtaining wayleaves for major lines.
(v) Co-ordination and updating of Distribution Standards
Areas shall be responsible for the day to day planning of the networks up to
132kV in Harare and 33kV in all other Areas. However, where major
reinforcement plans affect more than one Area, the planning shall be undertaken
by Head Office Distribution in conjunction with the affected Areas.
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Procedures for handling ACE’s
The recommended procedure for handling ACE's is as shown below.
A. 11kV Custome r Driven Projects
a. Custome r Services Section shall process all proposed 11kV projects with total
proposed installed capacity equal to and below 500kVA and whose project values
are within the General Manager’s approval limits as per administration notes, viz.,
(i) Checking that all necessary documents are attached (physical maps,
updated single line diagrams, wayleaves, quotation and contract papers)
(ii) Checking correctness of calculations and costs
(iii) Project appraisals
(iv) Passing such ACE’s
(v) Distribution and circulation of ACE’s. (Top copy of approved ACE
together with all attachments shall be forwarded to Drawing Office).
b. Planning Section shall process all proposed 11kV projects with total installed
capacity above 500kVA and all projects whose value is more than the General
Manager’s approval limits as per administration notes viz.,
(i) Checking that all necessary documents are attached (physical maps,
updated single line diagrams, wayleaves, quotation and contract papers)
(ii) Checking correctness of calculations and costs
(iii) Project appraisals and documentation
(iv) Passing such ACE’s
(v) Distribution and circulation of ACE’s. (Top copy of approved ACE
together with all attachments shall be forwarded to Drawing Office).
B. 11kV Internal Reinforcement Projects
Planning Section shall process all 11kV internal reinforcement ACE’s

irrespective of cost and installed capacities.
Non-reinforcement ACE’s shall be processed by Customer Services Section in
accordance with A.1. above.
C. 33kV Projects
Planning Section shall process ACE’s for both customer driven and internal
reinforcement projects at 33kV voltage, irrespective of costs and installed
capacities.
14
D. Rural Electrification (RE) Projects
It is the responsibility of Customer Services Section to ensure that ACE’s for

Rural Electrification Master Plan projects are raised.
(i) Custome r Services Section shall process all RE ACE’s.

(ii) Custome r Services Section shall consult Planning Section before
forwarding ACE’s where the total installed capacity is above 500kVA
regardless of value.
E. Records
Planning Section and Customer Services Section shall keep a record showing a
list of ACE’s processed each month. The records will assist in measuring growth
trends and will be invaluable for load forecasting and other purposes.
3.5 Planning Tools
In order to be able to realize the above described calculations it is obvious that the
planner needs to have access to calculation tools. Today such tools are easily
available as various computer software prod ucts. Network calculation programs
are valuable tools for checking the status of the existing network and for
investigating new possible network solutions. The layout of new networks can
also easily be optimized with the help of optimizing programs. Planning tools are
detailed below.
a) Compute r hardware &

Planning software – PSSU, PSS/ADEPT,PSS/E and
Transmission 2 000 -Cyme
b) Network Docume ntation
(i) Diagrams
(ii) Area Of supply maps
(iii) Equipment Parameters
(iv) Load Readings
(v) Fault Statistics
c) Statistical Metering
d) Computer Statistical Metering
(i) A PC with at least 16 Mb Ram and 1.2Gb Hard Disc Drive

(ii) A printer
(iii) A plotter is only required at the Area Office
(iv) Digitizing table (only at the Area Office)
15
e) Computer Software
The following programs are required

(i) Microsoft Windows 95,97, 98 and 2000
(ii) Microsoft Word for Reports
(iii) Microsoft Excel for economic & financial appraisals as well as load
forecast.
(iv) Transmission 2000, PSS/ADEPT and PSS/E for load flow studies on Main
sub-transmission down to 33kV feeders and some 11kV feeders.
(v) PSSU- generally for 11kV and low voltage feeders
(vi) Cyme is also available for load flow and short circuits on 11kV feeders.
However PSSU is preferred as it is more user- friendly, but has no
digitizing facilities.
SCADA
The planning will also be facilitated if the existing networks are well documented
on maps and preferably also in computer databases. The latter really facilitates the
use of the network calculation programs.
16
4 PLANNING METHODOLOGY
Initiation of Projects
Every project is initiated out of some desire of changes in the networks. The
desires can often have a character of necessary demands. The desires can come
primarily from the following categories:
- Customers
- Landowners
- Central/local authorities
- Operation or maintenance engineers
- Private Developers
The customers could put forward the following desires:
- Extension of existing supply

- New supply
- Extension from single to three phase supply
- Change of service line
- Better quality of the supply
The landowners could put forward the following desires:
- Moving of construction
- Changing of overhead lines to underground cables
The central or local authorities could put forward the following desires or
demands:
- Fulfillment of safety regulations, rules, laws etc

- Realization of development plans
The operation and maintenance engineers could put forward the following desires:
- Improvements of the quality and/or the security of the supplies

- Reinforcements due to overloads of lines or apparatuses
- Reinforcements due to unannounced increase of loads
- Actions after inspections
The desire for change in the network makes it necessary to control the existing
network and to do something about the possible shortages. The problem that
causes rebuilding or extension of the networks co uld be divided into the following
categories:
17
- New exploitation: caused by external orders or moving. It is most

essential to decide how the network shall be designed.
- Voltage quality: caused by problems to fulfil the voltage norms.
- Regulations: caused by problems to fulfil the safety regulations.
Loads: caused by problems with overloaded lines or apparatus. It is

recommended to have Design criteria with the economic and maximum
allowable loads for:
- transformers
- cables
- overhead lines
- apparatus
etc
Mechanics: caused by mechanical problems in the network. This is often

initiated by inspections.
Some key points for the network planning:
- Always study alternative solutions, even for small projects
- Use fantasy and imagination
- Find the various possibilities and probabilities.

Describe them in the planning documents.
- The planning documents should be the basis for the decision to be

taken.
Some success elements in the network planning are :
- Right timing of the actions
- Right dimensioning
- Complete documents
- Suitable methodology
- Reliable load data
18
- Good calculation tools
- Complete design criteria
The more policies and design criteria that are defined and decided the more
delegation of the decisions is possible. This also facilitates planning work.
It is essential to have a well-developed methodology in network planning. Some

general points that should be followed in the planning could be:
(i) Define the problem

(ii) Evaluate the problem
(iii) Suggest actions to be taken to solve the problem
(iv) Divide the actions into steps/stages
(v) Suggest a time schedule for the realization of the actions
(vi) Compare the suggested actions with other actions in order
to define priorities for the actions
(vii) Co-ordinate the actions with other works/actions to be done
(viii) Follow- up the actions after they have been realized.
Planning Process
The Planning process presented here could be used as a scheme for network
planning and for standardization of the layout of the presentation of results in the
network planning report.
(1) Proble m:
Describe the main network problem that needs a solution. What has initiated this
network study?
(2) Planning Conditions:
Describe any special conditions for this study such as;

 Acceptable voltage drop
 Quality of supply requirements
 Planning period
 Interest rate
(3) Earlier Treatment:
Present any existing long range plans, resulting from earlier investigations and
earlier decisions that affects the studied area.
19
(4) Load Development:
Present the load development during the last five years, load forecasts for the next
five, ten or twenty years, plans for new exploitation or new industries etc within the
studied area.
Are there any disturbing loads (large motors, arc furnaces, welding plants, large
variable speed drives, etc)?
Are there any reactive load problems within the area?
Might reactive power compensation be needed?
(5) Existing Network:
Describe the layout of the existing network with its lines and substations. Present
network maps and substation diagrams.
Are there any general problems in the network?
(6) Existing Normal Feeding:
Describe the connection of the network during normal feeding situations.
Present, for the planning period, the status of the network as far as voltage drops,
loading transformers and lines are concerned.
(7) Existing Reserve Feeding:
Describe the connection of the network during reserve/emergency feeding

situations.
Present, for the planning period, the status of the network as far as voltage drops,
loading of transformers and lines are concerned.
(8) Quality of supply:
Present the quality of supply situation in the network. This should be based on
fault rate statistics, description of particular outages in the network and customer
complaints. Describe problems with voltage variations and harmonics.
20
(9) Safety of Ope rations:
Describe possible problems related to safety regulations. This could for instance be
related to the tripping criteria.
(10) Overlying Network:
Describe any plans for the overlying network that will affect the studied
distribution network.
Present possible actions to be taken to solve the network problems and:
 Time schedule for the actions

 Load currents and voltage drops under normal and reserve feeding conditions
 Fault current under normal and reserve feeding conditions
 Losses under normal feeding.
(11) Alternative Solutions:
Several possible solutions shall be studied and more than one possible alternative
solution shall be presented.
Try to achieve long range solutions with gradual extensions.
Try to avoid sub- optimal solutions.
Try to use some sort of computer program for the network calculations.
(12) Costs:
It is essential to study all costs that will occur during the total expected lifetime for
the construction (line, transformer, and substation). The difference between the life
cycle cost and the investment cost can be considerable.
Calculation of the life cycle cost assumes knowledge of investment costs, interest
rate, expected lifetime, operation and maintenance costs and costs of losses.
The life cycle costs must be presented for all possible new or reinforced network
solutions.
A reliability analysis should if possible be done for the studied alternatives. It can
also be accompanied with a valuation of the possible outages in the studied
alternatives.
(13) Proposal:
Present a comparison between the alternative solutions and propose one solution.
21
Fig 1: A typical flowchart for Planning
Decide Study Boundaries and Base

Year of Studies
Collate Plant and System Data
Build
Collect load data and process load
PSSU,PSS/ADEPT,PSS/ E
factors and LLF
T2000 model for existing
system
Formulate design standards Collect cost data and build cost

using optimisation database
techniques
PSSU /PSS/ADEPT,PSS/ E, T2000 Increase load for each key

Studies: Global year, according to load
Overview (132/ 33kV only) at forecasts.
periodic intervals (say 5 yrs)
Large scale development plan,

identifying alternatives and timing
For each alternative :
Apply design standards and do step

by step* analysis for whole system,
following the major develop ments. * Step can be a number of
Note losses and cost to imple ment years at a time. If so,
each option interpolate losses.
Next alternative :
Construct a cost stream for each

alternative and compare the Net
Present Values to select least cost
option.
22
4.2 Financial and Economic Appraisal of Distribution Projects
The Economic and financial appraisals have to be carried out in line with Project
Appraisal Document – Appendix A1.
Distribution network planners have to analyze various options of reinforcing the

network and carry out financial appraisals so as to determine the best option of
reinforcing the network. The aim of financial appraisals of distribution projects is
to achieve the following: -
a) Help network planners to select the most cost effec tive reinforcement
schemes.
b) Help network planners to prioritize on distribution projects.
A Company has always limited resources, which shall be used in the best possible
way to achieve the best possible result.
Investments in electrical production, transmission and distribution have a very

long technical lifetime. It is therefore important to regard future technical
conditions in the best possible way and to use calculation methods that give a
good picture of the economic future.
When calculating the economy for a new investment it is evidently very important
to make proper assumptions about how long the investment can be used.
For distribution, the investment cost spreading over the years will be generally
performed according to the following periods:
- Civil work and buildings 20 -50 years

- Distribution installations
Lines 25-45 years
Cables 35 years
Electro-technical components 25 years
If major uncertainties are present, the investment costs should be spread over
shorter periods. The techniques that can be used for the economical analysis are
given in Appendix A1.
No major reinforcement or network extension work is to be carried out without an

approved Project Document and ACE. The project should also appear in the
Current PSIP. Smaller actions should be realized as planned maintenance.
23
As we are short of generation, improving the efficiency of the distribution

network through loss reduction is very vital. The techniq ues to achieve this are
described in Appendix A5.
In Financial or Economic appraisal of loss reduction measures we have to use the

marginal cost of generation which is currently 36c/kWh.
It is desirable to have a network that is very reliable. However customer

maximum outages can not be specified at the moment. Reliability should be
improved where economically justified using the following assumptions.
(a) Cost of unserved energy at 3.0 USD per kWh for most loads except
residential.
(b) Cost of unserved energy at 1 USD per kWh for residential load.
(c) The life cycle costs must be presented for all possible new or reinforced
network solutions.
(d) A reliability analysis should if possible be done for the studied

alternatives. It can also be accompanied with a valuation of the possible
outages in the studied alternatives.
24
4.3 PROJECT DOCUMENTS
Project Documents have to be prepared for any proposed reinforcement.

The information on the Project Document will contain the following:-
(a) Write up of justification, including scope

(b) The loading and position of the load to be supplied. The anticipated loading
after five years as depicted by the load forecast.
Note:- Any system reinforcement for either loading or voltage drop
problems has to be justified by the current and possible load demand to be
supplied.
(c) A run down of the alternative supply options considered and respective costs.
An annotation of the summary of the chosen alternatives.
(d) A scaled map indicating the position of loads and feeders within a 50km
radius of the proposed alternatives.
(e) A diagrammatic indicating the main components of the alternative.
(f) An indication of the construction components to be put up.
(g) An indication of the relevant protection, indication and tripping supplies for
the alternatives.
(h) A program indicating who carries out the design and construction work, in
what year and on whose budget it will be.
Note:- (1) With the current problems experienced in obtaining financing for
project work it is important to give any project three to five years
before it is carried out. Thus the need for forward planning is
emphasized.
(2) In order for a project to go ahead it must have been approved in the
Public Sector Investment Program (PSIP) currently in operation,
otherwise no funding will be possibly available for it.
(i) A chart indicating the voltage profiles and losses before and after the optimum
alternative as considered as is applicable. Where the Area Office has given
Districts the go-ahead to connect any consumers requiring a given
capacity, manual methods of checking feasibility for that given load
should be given to the Districts such that any suspicious loading is not
connected at random leaving the system overloading or with voltage drop
problems.
Determination of what projects to include in the next five-year development

program is accomplished by using the benefit-cost ratio analysis and choosing the
projects that have the highest benefit-cost ratio from a ZESA point of view.
25
The planning will also be facilitated if the existing networks are well documented
on maps and preferably also in computer databases. The latter really facilitates the
use of the network calculation programs.
26
PART 2
5. DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM LAYOUT AND OPERATION
5.1 Voltage levels
The electrical distribution is facilitated by three electrical systems:

 The primary (HV) distribution system (having also sub-transmission
functions).
 The secondary (MV) distribution system
 The LV distribution system.
The primary distribution system, supplied by the 420kV, 330kV, and 220kV
transmission and sub-transmission systems, consists today of networks at 66kV,
88kV, 110kV and 132kV. However, the final aim is to reach only one primary
distribution voltage level at 132kV.
The HV distribution system is supplying the secondary distribution system at

primary substations and the large size customers (generally above 5MVA).
The secondary distribution system consists today of networks at 33kV, 22kV and
11kV. The possibility of having only one MV level is under consideration.
The MV distribution system is supplying, secondary substations, the LV

distribution system and the medium size customers (generally from 100kVA to 5
MVA).
For the time being and in order to defer as much as possible capital expend iture,
supplies through 33/0.4kV transformers will be provided wherever possible.
On the rural network new loads exceeding 1MVA should be quoted from the
33kV network in preference to 11kV system.
Supplies for non-standard voltages exceeding 300kVA should be quoted as bulk

with consumers providing their own step down substations.
All other supplies exceeding 1MVA for rural and 2MVA for urban should be
quoted as bulk HV with consumers providing their own step-down substations.
The main LV distribution is generally carried out with four conductors (3 phases
and neutral) at a nominal phase-to-phase voltage of 400V.
Single-phase customers are supplied phase-to-neutral at 230V.
27
5.2 Neutral conditions
Neutrals of HV networks (420kV, 330kV, 220kV, 132kV, 110kV, 88kV and

66kV) are all solidly connected to the earth grid of substations.
Neutrals of 33kV, 22kV and 11kV networks are generally earthed at primary
substations. If earth current exceeds 1400A, then the neutral is earthed through a
liquid resistor to limit earth fault current to 1400A.
LV neutrals can also be solidly earthed. It is a good practice not to connect the
LV neutrals to the earth grid of secondary substations in rural areas, in order to
avoid possible overvoltages to consumer appliances in case of an earth fault in the
substation unless the earth resistance is < 1 ohm.
The general use of the connection of the neutral to the earth has the advantage of
limiting the 50Hz sustained overvoltages generated by phase-to-earth faults and
make it easy to detect faulty lines. However, it brings earth fault currents at the
same order of magnitude of short circuit currents.
In order to drastically reduce the earth fault current, the possibility of operating
MV rural networks with isolated neutral will be evaluated.
5.3 Network configurations
HV (transmission, subtransmission and primary distribution) networks are

generally meshed. This network configuration has the advantage of offering the
best reliability in supplying primary substations and main consumers (the fault on
a line will not generally lead to primary substation or main load de-energization).
On the other hand, the operation of the network will be more complex, the line
protections will be more sophisticated and costly and the short-circuit levels will
be higher. A careful selection, based on load flow studies of open points can limit
the short-circuit current without a significant decrease in reliability.
Urban MV networks have a meshed configuration, but they are generally operated
radially. Due to the complexity of urban HV networks, this kind of service will
avoid many difficulties in operation and risk of overloads. Protection techniques
and fault detection are easier. Moreover, if an MV line has to be put out of
service, there is the possibility of supplying the loads with another line. MV
network automation can drastically reduce duration of outages and use of
personnel.
When an MV network is operated meshed, their functions are mainly primary

distribution.
28
Rural MV networks have generally a radial configuration. Also in this case,

network automation can be a valid help in reducing the number of customers
involved in an outage.
29
5.4 Protection (fault clearing) criteria
Network components should be adequately protected against overvoltages and

overcurrents, moreover fault location should be facilitated. Overcurrents can be
caused by overvoltages and vice-versa. In the following, the protection from
overvoltages and overcurrents will be dealt with separately, for the sake of
simplicity.
5.4.1 Protection against overvoltages
Overvoltage origin and shape are given in Appendix A8.
The main equipment for protecting network components against overvoltages

exceeding insulation level are surge-arrestors and spark-gaps. The simpler, more
reliable and cheaper way of protecting an HV substation is to install spark-gaps,
calibrated at the BIL for the substation equipment, at each overhead line entrance,
and surge-arrestors as close as possible to the transformer terminals.
HV insulation strings of overhead lines are generally protected with appropriate

(spark-gap type protection).
In a secondary substation, the protection can be limited to spark-gaps in areas

with low lightning activity. The use of gap-arrester devices (GAD in Appendix
A9) can be very attractive. This combines the reliability of spark-gaps and the
efficiency of arrestors.
5.4.2 Protection against overcurre nts
Overloads and faults can generate overcurrents that may be dangerous to the
equipment if lasting too long. Therefore, the network should be equipped with
devices capable of interrupting the current flows at the appropriate time.
Overcurrent calculation and limitation methods are given in Appendices A5 and

A6.
The main devices used to interrupt overcurrents are circuit-breakers and fuses.
Circuit-breakers are used at any voltage level. They are generally operated by
relays that will send the tripping signals to circuit breakers with appropriate
timing according to the levels of fault currents.
Relays have at least two triggering current levels:
 An overload level that will open with a delay of a few seconds;
30
 A short-circuit level that will open immediately (taking into account relay
time and breaker operating time.) An average figure for clearing time is 0.16
seconds.
Particular relay functions are available for detecting phase-to-earth faults. Relays
and relevant functions are different in the case of earthed or unearthed neutral and
in the case of meshed or radial operation.
5.5 Voltage regulation
Voltage regulation may have different aims on transmission and distribution

systems.
The only common aim is to keep the voltage under the maximum values for the
insulation of equipment and over minimum values in order not to increase the
Joule (I2 R) losses.
In transmission and subtransmission networks, voltage regulation is aimed at

controlling the active and reactive power flows. In distribution networks, voltage
regulation is focussed to guarantee a pre-determined voltage variation range at
customer terminals ( 10%). For the LV customers, (i.e. customers that generally
do not have voltage regulating equipment), the range of voltage variation will be
 6%.
The generally available equipment for voltage regulation in a distribution system

is as follows:
 On-load voltage regulators of MV/MV transformers

 No-load tap for voltage regulation on MV/MV and MV/LV transformers.
An appropriate use of shunt compensation is of the utmost importance for voltage

regulation.
For very long MV lines, series compensation can also be taken into consideration.
However, the system complexity and the relevant costs may be high.
The general criteria for voltage regulation is as follows (see Appendix A4 for
more detail):
1) High voltage is normally regulated, taking into account the needs of

transmission and of the HV customers, in the range  10% of the nominal voltage.
31
2) MV is regulated using on- load voltage regulators of HV/MV on MV/MV

transformers. It would be a good practice to regulate the MV at the substation
busbar in order to have a voltage higher than the nominal for the high load periods
and lower than the nominal in the no/low load periods.
As can be seen from Appendix A4, reactive power flow is quite important in
determining voltage drops. Therefore, it is good practice to reduce as far as
possible reactive power flows by installing shunt capacitors close to reactive
loads, reducing both voltage drop and Joule (I2 R) losses.
Reactive loads in a distribution system are mainly transformers and motors.
The best compensation policy would be to install capacitors at HV/MV and

MV/MV transformers and at custom plants. Moreover, the shunt capacitors
should be taken out of service during periods with low or no loads (e.g. nights).
32
6 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM COMPONENT DESIGN
Distribution systems have to work more efficiently and this implies that the
ratings of equipment, which depend on ambient temperatures, have to be correctly
assessed.
All equipment such as transformers, lines and cables has two ratings of winter and
summer ambient temperatures.
Table 2: Ambient Temperature Ratings
Description Temperature
Rating (Deg. Celsius)
Summer 35
Winter 25
6.1 Lines
6.1.1 HV Lines
With the aim of having only one primary distribution voltage level, all new or
fully reconstructed HV lines will be at 132kV level (145kV maximum voltage for
equipment, 650kV BIL).
Overhead 132kV lines will be generally constructed on steel lattice towers (self-
supporting or guyed V design). Wooden poles could be exceptionally used for
smaller conductors. Problems with wayleaves might make it necessary to increase
the utilization of compact design lines; their cost is about 25% higher, but
certainly lower than cable solutions.
Conductors to be used are Bison 350mm2 , for the main lines, and Lynx 175mm2 .
These are ACSR conductors, the size given is the nominal aluminium cross
sectional area. For all new lines the thermal rating shall be based on conductor
temperatures of 650 C. Fig. 3 below shows conductor ratings at 65 0 C.
Fig. 3 Conductor Ratings (also see Table 4)
Conductor Name Conductor Summer Rating Winter Rating

Size
Bison 350mm2 646A 786A
Lynx 175mm2 433A 521A
33
N.B. The winter rating is about 120% of the summer rating.
6.1.2 MV Lines
The possibility of having only one MV level is under consideration, therefore all
new and fully reconstructed MV lines (33kV, 22kV and 11kV) will have the
following minimum insulation level
 50 Hz wet withstand voltage: 50kV

 Impulse (1.2/50 microseconds) withstand voltage: 170kV
These conditions can be met by using insulator strings composed of 3 suspension

units (for larger conductor sizes) or rigid pin insulators (for smaller conductor
sizes).
All main MV lines shall have conductor sizes of at least 100mm2 ACSR.
Small tee-offs to consumer substations will have conductors sized on the user
power.
Woodpole rural lines shall be 50mm2 ACSR conductors for feeders and 25mm2
for tee-offs.
Conductors’ thermal ratings at 650 C conductor temperature (or 50 0 C for smaller

conductor) are given in the following table.
Table 4: Conductor Sizes and rating
Conductor
temperature 500 C 650 C
2
Size (mm ) 25 50 70 75 100 150 175
TYPE Gopher Rabbit Horse Racoon Dog Wolf Lynx Panther
Rating (A) 91 207 301 257 296 396 433 471
Rating (A) 127 245 359 306 353 476 521 568
%
WINTER/SUMMER
RAT ING 140 119 119 119 119 120 120 121
For lines rated at 500 C conductor temperature, the winter rating is about 140% of
summer rating; while for lines rated at 650 C the winter rating is about 120% of
summer rating.
In conductor dimensioning, load current shall be taken into consideration as well

as fault current levels and relevant clearing times.
34
MV overhead line poles can be self-supporting or guyed. The shapes may be

roughly divided into three types (see Fig 1);
Type T: The pole is generally in wood or in concrete, rarely in steel (which

is applicable only if high mechanical performances are required).
The cross-arm is in steel.
It is widely used in rural electrification for its low cost. It can be

used with ACSR conductors up to 100mm2 .
Type H: The poles are in wood or concrete, while the cross-arm is in steel.
It is used for conductor sections higher than 100mm2 .
Type I: The majority of the poles of this type are completely manufactured
in concrete.
It would be a good practice to have removable cross arms.
This type of pole can be manufactured for any conductor size and
for rigid or suspension insulators. For the same mechanical
characteristics, its cost is generally higher than with type T and H
poles. The use may be justified in narrow wayleaves.
The use of earth-wire on MV lines is not recommended, due to their poor

lightning protection characteristics at this voltage level and to the fact that a wire
breaking may cause a fault and/or very unsafe operating conditions of the line.
If the earth-wire is necessary to connect earth grids, it would be advisable to use

counterpoise stringed under the line conductors.
In general, MV lines are three-phase. However, single-phase MV lines in rural

areas with low load density might sometimes be the best solution.
If single-phase (phase-to-phase) is chosen to supply an area or an MV customer, it

is important to analyse carefully the future load development. It might be suitable
to build the line in such a way that a second or third phase can later be added.
The use of underground cables shall be limited to the cases where it is

impracticable to build overhead lines (e.g. very highly populated urban areas).
When adopting these solutions, a careful cost analysis shall be carried out.
Mostly XLPE insulated copper and aluminium cables are used.
35
As for overhead lines, particular consideration should be given to the short-circuit

levels and relevant clearing times when dimensioning cable sizes.
The use of MV aerial bundled conductor is under consideration.
6.1.3 LV lines
LV lines are generally three-phase and neutral, while the connections to small
consumers are single-phase, taken from one phase conductor and the neutral.
When deriving single-phase connections from a three-phase line, particular
attention shall be paid in distributing loads to avoid risks of unbalance between
phases. (see Appendix A2 for further details on voltage unbalance)
Single-phase low voltage feeders in rural areas with low load density can often
be the most suitable solution. Also in this case, it is important to analyze
carefully the load development.
Wood or concrete poles are used for overhead lines. All new LV overhead
lines shall be with aerial bundled conductors, with 8m wood poles in rural
areas and 8m concrete poles in urban areas.
6.2 Transformation Substations
6.2.1 Transforme r Loading
All ratings of transformers are based on an ambient temperature of 350 C. The

winter loading gives a rating of 110% of summer rating. The transformer ratings
are based on an oil temperature rise of 55 0 C and winding temperature rise of
600 C. Allowance shall be made for short time overload on transformers
depending on load cycle as shown below.
Transformers supplying domestic loads can be loaded up to 125% (i.e. 25%

overload) during winter.
36
Table 5: SHORT TERM LOAD CAPABILITY OF TRANSFORMERS

(Load at other times is 90% of rated capacity)
Ambient
Temp 0 C 15 20 25 30 35 40
Loading
time
hrs/day Permissible loading/Rated power (%)
0.50 150 150 150 150 150 138
1.00 150 150 150 150 150 130
2.00 150 149 147 140 132 116
3.00 145 142 139 132 125 111
4.00 140 135 130 124 118 107
6.00 132 128 123 118 112 103
8.00 128 124 119 114 109 101
12.00 123 119 115 110 105 99
In order to achieve the least cost technically feasible development and at the same
time to balance the cash flow as much as possible, a transformer rotation program
shall be used. This means that transformers are upgraded to bigger sizes in
several stages, rather than being upgraded to the final size in a single step.
Protection on interconnectors and transformer units should be revisited to ensure

they can accommodate the increased loads during abnormal feeding conditions.
6.2.2 Primary substation
When new primary substations are needed it is necessary to perform detailed

investigations with network calculations and economic analysis. The overlying
network must also be taken into consideration and network calculations should
also be done for that network.
New substations should be established in stages.
Increase of the loads in the distribution networks leads to a need for controlling
the transformer loads in the affected primary substation. If overload is feared it is
necessary to make a relatively detailed analysis of the characteristic of the load
before a proposal of a possible extension of the transformer capacity is given.
A new transformer should manage at least five years or longer if economic

analysis shows this. The transformer losses must be taken into consideration.
Firm capacity shall be provided according to the firm capacity policy document
Appendix A10.
37
6.2.3 Satellite Substations
The Authority has various Satellite Substation designs and layouts in use. The
layout to be adopted often depends on the load, required security of supplies and
also the location of the substation.
All Satellite substations shall be designed to facilitate easy uprating to 2 x15MVA.
Where the short circuit level is less than 6kA, autoreclosers shall be installed as
feeder breakers. Otherwise circuit breakers should be used.
Indoor Switchgear is only to be provided where it is not possible to install outdoor

switchgear.
Cases exist where supplies are required at Growth Points. Due to the high cost of
33/11kV substations, poor viability of such projects, and limited capacity of the
11kV network, supplies to consumers should be provided through 33/0.4kV
transformers without the need of constructing a 33/11kV step-down substation.
Capital expenditure in constructing new satellite substations could be deferred by

initially constructing 33kV lines energized at 11kV and then erecting the required
step-down substations when it is financially viable and when resources permit.
33/11kV NTC transformers are not suitable at points where voltage drops exceed
5%. If the 33kV point voltage is less than 105% of normal, on- load-tap-changing
transformers should be installed.
On feeders picking up rural loads, sensitive earth fault protection shall be

specified.
For satellite substations, firm capacity is to be provided according to Firm

Capacity policy document Appendix A10.
All MV circuit breakers should be integrated with the SCADA system so as to be

remotely controllable.
Multiple MV sections should be generally operated with the section breakers

open, to reduce the amount of load affected in the event of a fault.
6.2.4 Secondary substations
The transformer size in secondary substations should be chosen according to

economic criteria.
38
This means that normally the load capacity of the transformer shall be used fully
within the thermal limits. The temperature of the environment at the time of
maximum load and the power factor should be taken into account to evaluate the
possible load capacity of the transformer.
Thus transformers in secondary substations should not be over dimensioned.

When transformers are changed the new transformers should manage the load for
at least five years. If extension of the transformer capacity in existing secondary
substations is not sufficient or suitable, new secondary substations may be
necessary.
The optimal distance between secondary substations depends on many factors,

e.g. type of settlement, the extent of use of air-conditioning or electric heating and
the distribution between underground or overhead lines. It is possible to give
general policies for this, but a judgement, or better still, an optimization must be
done on a case to case basis. The tripping conditions and the permitted voltage
drop will often limit the range of a secondary substation.
In secondary substations up to 300kVA, transformers are to be pole- mounted,

where possible, with LV protection and metering (see table…); over 300kVA, the
transformer shall be ground- mounted and protected by D- fuses for transformer
sizes up to 1MVA. Substations with transformers greater than 1MVA shall be
protected by auto-reclosers, where the fault level is less than 6kA, and by breakers
where the fault level exceeds 6kA. The Authority will install HV metering and
the consumer will take supply from the transformer LV bushings.
Wherever possible the Authority should endeavour to provide HV bulk supply.
39
7 PROJECT APPRAISAL
7.1 Documents
Project Documents have to be prepared for any proposed reinforcement.

The information on the Project Document will contain the following:-
(a) The loading and position of the load to be supplied. The anticipated loading
after five years as depicted by the load forecast.
(b) A run down of the alternative supply options considered and respective costs.
(c) An annotation of the summary of the chosen alternatives.
(d) A scaled map indicating the position of loads and feeders within a 50 km
radius of the proposed alternatives.
(e) A diagrammatic indicating the main components of the alternative.
(f) An indication of the construction components to be put up.
(g) An indication of the relevant protection, indication and tripping supplies for
the alternatives.
(h) A program indicating who carries out the design and construction work, in
what year and on whose budget.
NB: (1) With the current problems experienced in obtaining financing for
project work it is important to give any project three to five years
before it is carried out. Thus the need for forward planning is
emphasized.
(2) In order for a project to go ahead it must have been approved in the
Public Sector Investment Program (PSIP) currently in operation,
otherwise no funding will be available for it.
(i) A chart indicating the voltage profiles and losses before and after the optimum
alternative is considered as is applicable. Where the Area Office has given
Districts the go-ahead to connect any consumers requiring a given capacity,
manual methods of checking feasibility for that given load should be given to
the Districts such that any suspicious loading is not connected at random,
overloading the system or creating voltage drop problems.
The Distribution Service Section at Head Office will prepare the tender documents
if work is to be carried out by a contractor.
Determination of what projects to include in the next five-year development

program is accomplished by using the benefit-cost ratio analysis and choosing the
projects that have the highest benefit cost ratio from a ZESA point of view.
40
7.2 Planning process chart
The process chart presented here could be used as a scheme for network planning
and for standardization of the layout of the presentation of results in the network
planning report.
(1) Problem
Describe the main network problem which needs a solution. What has initiated this
network study?
(2) Planning Conditions
Describe any special conditions for this study, such as:
 Acceptable voltage drop

 Quality of supply requirements
 Planning period
 Interest rate
(3) Earlie r Treament
Present any existing long range plans or results from earlier investigations and
earlier decisions that affects the studied area.
(4) Load Development
Present the load development during the last five years, load forecasts for the next
five, ten or twenty years, plans for new exploitation or new industries etc within the
studied area.
Are there any disturbing loads (large motors, arc furnaces, welding plants, large
variable speed drives, etc)?
Are there any reactive load problems within the area?
Might reactive power compensation be needed?
(5) Existing Network
Describe the layout of the existing network with its lines and substations. Present
network maps and substation diagrams.
Are there any general problems in the network?
41
(6) Existing Normal Feeding
Describe the connection of the network during normal feeding situations.
Present for the planning period the status of the network in as far as voltage drops,
loading transformers and lines.
(7) Existing Reserve Feeding
Describe the connection of the network during reserve/emergency feeding

situations.
Present for the planning period the status of the network in as far as voltage drops,
loading of transformers and lines.
(8) Quality Of Supply
Present the quality of supply situation in the network. This should be based on
fault rate statistics, description of particular outages in the network and customer
complaints. Problems with voltage variations and harmonics should be desc ribed.
(9) Safety Of operations
Describe possible problems related to safety regulations. This could, for instance,
be related to the tripping criteria.
(10) Overlying Network
Describe any plans for the overlying network that will affect the studied
distribution network.
(11) Alternative Solutions
Present possible actions to be taken to solve the network problems including:
 Time schedule for the actions

 Normal load currents and voltage drop
 Reserve load currents and voltage drop
 Fault current under normal and reserve feeding conditions
 Losses under normal feeding.
Several possible solutions shall be studied and more than one possible alternative
solution shall be presented.
Try to achieve long range solutions with gradual extensions
42
Try to avoid sub-optimum solutions.
Try to use some sort of computer program for the network calculations.
(12) Costs
It is essential to study all costs that will occur during the total expected lifetime for
the construction (line, transformer, substation). The difference between the life
cycle cost and the investment cost can be considerable.
Calculation of the life cycle cost assumes knowledge of investment costs, interest
rate, expected lifetime, operation and maintenance costs and costs of losses.
The life cycle costs must be presented for all possible new or reinforced network
solutions.
A reliability analysis should, if possible, be done for the studied alternatives. It can
also be accompanied by a valuation of the possible outages in the studied
alternatives.
(13) Proposal
Present a comparison between the alternative solutions and propose one solution.
7.3 Tools
In order to be able to realize the above-described calculations necessitates access to

calculation tools by the planner. Today such tools are easily available as various
computer software products. Network calculation programs are valuable tools for
checking the status of the existing network and for investigating new possible
network solutions. The layout of new networks can also easily be optimized with
the help of optimizing programs. Planning tools may include the following:-
(1) Plant and circuit ratings

(2) Loads - monthly readings
(3) Transformer plant and circuit impedance
(4) System schematic showing switches
(5) Geographic network plans 1:50000
(6) Transformer (losses and tap range) and switchgear data
(7) System fault statistics - for reliability estimates
(8) Hand calculator
(9) Computer (limited)
The planning will also be facilitated if the existing network is well documented on maps
and preferably also in computer databases. The latter really facilitates the use of the
network calculation programs
43
8 NETWORK PERFORMANCE
8.1 Distribution System Pe rformance Indices
Our objectives are to provide a safe and reliable power supply system at minimal
cost. We have to define certain indices to indicate how well we are achieving
these objectives. The following are the indices:
a. Maximum voltage drop
This must be defined for each feeder. Sound planning requires a maximum
design value of 10%. However at some substations the sending end
voltage is about 10% above nominal and the minimum contracted value
with consumers is 10% below nominal. This gives a maximum of 20%
voltage drop.
b. Percentage loss
This index defines the efficiency of the distribution system. This is

defined as the percentage energy loss and will be computed from load
flow studies.
c. Percentage loading
This is the ratio of peak load to rating. This indicates the capacity of the
network to cope with additional loads and also the effectivene ss of the
design. A low value indicates an unnecessary over-design and a high
value (more than 90%) indicates imminent loading problems.
d. Fault level/load ratio
This indicates the robustness of the system. A weak system will have a
low ratio and it will be difficult to provide adequate protection co-
ordination as in cascaded regulators. At a 33/11kV substation the ratio is
obtained by dividing the fault level on 11kV busbar with the total
substation MD. Ratios above zero are quite acceptable.
e. Service continuity
This is measured as total duration of failure in electrical supply to a

customer in hours per year. A certain amount of the total duration is due
to faults (non-programmed interruptions) and the rest is due to
programmed works on or near the electrical installation.
A good average value is 5 hours per year for non-programmed
interruptions. In some networks, this value has to be settled at 15
hours per year.
44
f. Number of faults pe r 100km per year
The following outage/failure rates should be maximum values to be

experienced on the network:
 H.V. Lines - 5 faults per 100km per year
 33kV Lines - 15 faults per 100km per year
 11kV Lines - 21-30 faults per 100km per year
 Bare LV lines - 140 faults per 100km per year
 Cables:- Generally 2 faults per 100km per year.
Pole mounted distribution transformers not protected by surge

diverters - 38 failures per 1000 installed transformers per year.
Pole mounted transformers protected by surge diverters - about 10

failures per 1000 transformers installed per year.
 Power transformers 10 failures per 1000 transformers per year.
Higher failure rates could indicate aging and poor maintenance, which requires
thorough investigation and planning for asset replacement.
Generally firm capacity shall not be provided for overhead line circuits. Firm
capacity shall be provided in line with the policy document on firm capacity. (see
Appendix A10).
8.2 Technical quality of electrical service
The electrical service at consumer's terminals, in addition to continuity already

discussed, shall have the following defined characteristics.
 Voltage: Nominal level  10% (  6% for low voltage)

 Frequency: 50Hz  2.5%
NB: According to our ZESA Customer Charter:

“Variations from the nominal values will occur but we will endeavor to ensure that
such deviations are not outside the limits of 210 volts to 240 volts (single phase) in the
case of supply voltage and +/- 1.5% for the frequency”.
Voltage disturbances (like short duration interruptions, voltage dips, transient

overvoltages, voltage spikes, voltage imbalance, flicker and harmonics) should be
kept within acceptable limits.
45
A more detailed disturbance description, measuring methods and limits are given
in Appendix A2
8.3 Readings
The following information should be monthly submitted to the Area

Engineer/Planners to facilitate network maintenance and reinforcement planning:
a. LV lines - max Amps

Voltage at feeder ends
b. Secondary substations - LV Voltage
- MD Amps
- Total delivered energy (kWh)
- tap position
c. Satellite substation - MD Amps
- 33kV and 11kv busbar voltage
- 11kV MD Amps
- Max and min tap positions
- Total delivered energy (kWh)
d. Primary substations - MV lines max Amps
- MV busbar max. and min voltage
- Max. and min tap positions
- Total deliver energy (kWh)
8.4 Studies
Studies have to be carried out to check capacity of network to meet load increases
and confirm voltage problems. Low voltage complaints by consumers should be
investigated as soon as possible – “we will endeavour to investigate such
complaints and respond within seven days, provided the complaint is directed to
the office nearest to the problem area.” – is what our ZESA Customer Charter
says!
Where the need for reinforcement exists, various options should be put forward.
Financial analysis has to be carried out to determine the best scheme. The network
has to be reinforced to provide adequate capacity for at least five years.
8.4.1 Basis for Reinforcement
If the voltage drop on the 11kV network exceeds 15% on the existing rural
network, plans for reinforcement should be effected. However new plans should
be designed on a maximum of 10% voltage drop.
46
9 NETWORK DOCUMENTATION
General
A certain amount of technical documentation is required to erect, operate and

maintain any kind of plant or network. In general, the documentation may be
divided into instructions, drawings, maps, lists and test certificates.
The item designation on signs and labels is the link between the network and its
documentation.
The technical documentation may be divided into different disciplines, depending

on the type of plant or network, for example.
 Civil Works
 Primary Distribution, mechanical
 Primary Distribution, electrical
 Secondary Distribution
 LV network
 Auxiliary Power
 Telecommunication
 Spare Parts, Tools etc.
9.1 Purpose of the Technical Documentation
The main purpose of the technical documentation is to serve the personnel

involved in erecting and operating the plant or network. The stages of a plant or
network may be divided into:
 Planning
 Design
 Construction
 Commissioning
 Operating and maintenance
 Repair
 Extension.
And in extreme cases:
 Dismantling and demolition
9.2 Documentation
The main part of the technical documentation is produced to erect a nd test the
plant or network. However, it shall be used for a long time afterwards during
operation, maintenance, repair, planning of further extension etc. The
documentation may also be very useful for training personnel.
47
9.3 Formula Require ments
It is practical to establish standards for such things as binders, file

dividers, drawing size at an early stage during the planning of a plant or
network. All applicable regulations and requirements shall be considered
when preparing forms for test certificates.
9.4 Need of Information
It is a fact that the quality of a decision concerning, for instance, a new

substation, depends very much on the quality of the documentation that
the decision is based on.
In principle the need of information is the same in a small utility as in a

big one.
This does not mean that a small utility has the same need for an advanced
documentation system as a big utility.
Information, which a big utility must document carefully and in such a

way that many people can retrieve it, is, in a small utility, information that
is obvious and that all staff takes for granted.
In all utilities information is needed. The difference is not the need of

information but the way to handle it.
9.5 Information Analysis
It is an important matter to produce the technical documentation and it

requires proper planning and follow- up.
It is easy to list all kinds of requirements on the technical documentation.

However it should always be kept in mind that it will cost money to fulfil
the requirements. Thus only necessary data shall be documented.
Example: To do a load- flow calculation you must have data of the

voltage level at the feeding point, data of cables and
overhead lines, data of apparatus, load statistics and so on.
The required level of detail in the documentation depends also on the value of
having the documentation ready compared to the cost of collecting data every
time it is needed.
Example: For data which is seldom used it may be better economy to

collect the data in the field every time you need it.
48
A general rule concerning the suitable level of detail in the documentation can not
be given. It is better to start on a low level and to increase the amount of data
when it is required.
The analysis for the information needed can be based on the following
relationship:
Event-Activity-Decision-Action
Avoid basing the information analysis on a certain organizational structure. Try

instead to let it emanate from the following basic activities of power utilities.
Planning and design

Construction
Operation and maintenance
Within the framework of these activities possible events should be listed.
Prepared lists with basic events within the utility shall be used for the information
analysis. This aims at giving a picture of the technical activities. Detailed
information will assist in events and activity analysis.
Examples of groups of information
 Loads
 Fault statistics
 Cable and overhead lines
 Apparatus
 Power transformers
 Current transformers
 Circuit breakers
 Substations
For every group of information and every item the different data needed should be
specified in detail.
The total need of information for the utility should thus be defined for every
single activity.
In principle such an analysis should result in a report of the demands of

information from the system, that is to say the required output.
By preparing such a data output specification the demands of the documentation

and the necessary data input are also defined.
49
An information system cannot of course give any information if it does not have
any input.
DOCUMENTATION
INPUT OUTPUT
CALCULATIONS
This relationship is basic in order to decide the demands of the documentation

system. The documentation shall be stored in such a way that it is always
available to the personnel that needs it.
The documentation has to be maintained as the network itself. Changes in the

network, (small or big), have to be entered into the documentation.
The central parts of a system of technical documentation must be the data, which
describes the characteristics of the network.
The technical documentation can be divided into:
(1) Construction Documentation
List of apparatus, cables and overhead lines

Maps
Single- line diagrams
Drawings
(2) Operational Documentation
Load statistics
Fault statistics
50
9.5 Time and Resource Planning
The production of the technical documentation is an important matter, which

requires proper planning, and follow up during the entire planning and
construction time of a plant or network. The plant or network must be finished
before extensive parts of the documentation can be produced, for example test
certificates, operation manuals and as built drawings.
The time required for the finalization of the technical documentation shall be
included and taken care of in the overall time planning of the complete plant or
network.
It may be easy to list all kinds of requirements on the technical documentation.

However, you should always bear in mind that it will be costly to fulfil them.
Thus, only the necessary requirements shall be listed.
The number of copies shall always be limited to a minimum and it shall be noted
that a different number of copies are required during the different stages of a
project.
There is always a responsibility in receiving the documentation of a plant or a

network. The documentation has to be maintained as the plant or network itself.
Changes of the plant or in the network, small or big ones, have to be included in
the documentation.
At such moments, you appreciate that the number of copies is kept to a minimum.
The documentation shall be stored in such a way that it is always available to the
personnel who needs it.
9.6 Project Procedures
Technical documentation in the form of drawings, manufacturer’s documentation,

test procedures etc, is used to execute the work in a project. The production of the
technical documentation can be essentially facilitated by proper handling of this
documentation.
A turnkey project is often organized by an Employer, an Engineer, and a

Contractor who has several Sub-contractors and Suppliers.
Co-ordination is required to achieve a good result in the end, as many parties are
involved.
The production and issue of the technical documentation by the Contractor is

subject to the approval by the Engineer according to the procedures of the
contract. All technical documentation shall be checked on site by the contractor
51
to check its relevancy in relation to the completed installation and the subsequent
approval by the Engineer.
Consistent and well-defined language shall be used throughout the execution of

the contract. Multiple names and coding of the same items shall be avoided.
9.7 Project Docume ntation
It is recommended that for each system of a plant or a network, comprehensive

information for all pieces of equipment, apparatus and components involved shall
be compiled. All such documentation shall be in the same language and shall in
principle only cover pieces of equipment or apparatus that will actually be
delivered or is delivered. The Documentation shall include main data sheets and
technical information.
9.7.1 Main Data Sheet
It is recommended that one main data sheet is made for each manufacturer
involved in the deliveries to the plant or the network. The sheet may contain the
following information:
 The addresses including telephone and telex numbers as applicable to

the manufacturer, his agent in the country of the plant and
recommended service stations in this country or neighboring countries.
 Items delivered by the manufacturer
 Technical information supplied by the manufacturer, reference
numbers and titles of leaflets, instructions, test records, drawings etc.
9.7.2 Technical Information
It is recommended that the following technical information be compiled for each

piece of apparatus and components in the plant or network. It shall be noted that
there must be a reason for each information requirement. The requirements shall
not be carried out too far as they may then cause additional costs and delays to a
project.
It shall be noted that some of the required documents may be combined or omitted
especially regarding uncomplicated parts of equipment.
(1) Description
 Type designation
 Main data
52
 Gross weight and dimensions

 Electrical and mechanical diagrams
 Pictures, drawings
 General arrangement of equipment
 Possible environmental influence, noise, chemical pollution.
(2) Ope rational Instruction
 General directions for use

 Safety requirements for personnel and for the protection of systems and
equipment
 Pre-start check
 Start and shut down instructions
 Operational control
(3) Maintenance Instructions
 Detailed maintenance instructions with recommended servicing schedules.

 Lubrication recommendations.
 Cleaning procedures.
 Estimated man-hours for maintenance.
(4) Repair and Installation Instructions
 Operator's fault finding instructions.

 Detailed repair instructions for replacement of faulty parts with
subsequent testing instructions.
(5) Illustrated Parts Lists
 Parts' lists showing the parts with ordering references.

 Recommendations of spare parts.
(6) Tools
 List of tools required for operation, maintenance and repair.
53
9.7.3 Drawings
It is essential to establish standardised formats and numbering of the drawings at

an early stage.
Drawing are generally issued several times during a project for different purposes,
for instance planning, design, construction and finally to show the as-built
situation.
Graphical symbols for diagrams should be standardised on all types of electrical

diagrams and maps. It is an advantage to use international standardised symbols
because diagrams supplied by the manufacturers usually use this.
9.7.4 Lists
Several lists are made during a project. Among the most important ones are
inventory lists, lists of tools and spare parts lists.
Tools may be divided into ordinary tools and special tools.
Spares may be divided into emergency spares, consumable spares and

maintenance spares.
9.7.5 System Instructions
It is recommended that system instructions are made for a plant or a network or

systems in the plant. They shall include all information required for operation,
maintenance and repair of the plant or network. In principle, all the information
listed under "Technical Information" above for pieces of equipment are also valid
for the complete system.
9.7.6 Test Certificates
The test certificates may have a legal value and a technical value later on for
adjustments and tests of the plant.
The test certificates could be divided into type tests, routine tests and trial running
tests.
The type tests and routine tests are mainly performed at the different
manufacturers' premises.
The ‘trial running’ tests are made at the site when the plant is commissioned. At
these tests it may be practical to do the final checking of the operation instructions
54
and the as-built drawings. The main purposes of the ‘trial running’ tests are to
check that the performance of the plant fulfils the requirements of the contract.
9.7.7 Network Maps and Single-line Diagrams
As a network information system, maps and diagrams are of particular

importance. Different types of maps and diagrams are needed for presentation of
the network and the substations at the various voltage levels. The choice of
suitable types of maps depends among other things on the availability of
background maps and whether the maps are updated manually on film or paper or
in a computerized mapping system.
Two main policies can be defined for the maps:
A The exact position of cables, poles etc measured in the field,

the maps are then based on these co-ordinates.
A condition is that the quality of the background map is very good.
A computerized mapping system is required in order to take full advantage
of this system.
B More approximate position of the cables, poles etc. The network is drawn
on the available background maps.
The maps consist of both small scale key maps with a limited amount of details,
for instance general overview maps, and large scale maps with a high degree of
detail, for instance a map of low-voltage network. In an urban underground
network it is often required to mark the position of each single cable on a large-
scale position map.
The scale of the map is usually different for urban and rural areas. In urban areas
the scale is often 1:400 - 1:2000. While in rural areas it can be 1:5000-1:50000.
The information will be more complete if the maps also contain information about
the cables and overhead lines as well as type of line, conductor cross-section and
conductor material.
With too much information on the maps there is a great danger that the maps will
be hard to understand. One alternative is to have separate line lists.
Single- line diagrams will give an overview of the network structure i.e. how the
network is connected.
The maps and the single-line diagrams should be prepared in such a way that they
will be easy to change and easy to copy.
55
In order to minimize the risks of misunderstanding it is better to use standardised

symbols on the maps and the diagrams. The symbols shall be:-
Simple
Distinct
Adjusted to national (or international) standards
It is usually not sufficient to document the technical information just on maps and
diagrams. Information about the network should also be documented in paper
lists with proper classification. They should be structured in such a way that it is
easy to find the required data. It must also be easy to change data as well as to
add data. A good rule is to have one list per network.
9.8 Computerized Systems
9.8.1 General
A documentation of high quality (correct data) is essential in order to get a good

base for technical and economical decisions. When a computerized system is
going to be used, it is very important that all data entered into the data base is
correct, especially the parameters. Not only the data that should be entered into
the data base, but all maps and diagrams should also be updated. In order to be
able to make calculations all consumer loads must be connected to the correct
modes in the network.
The updating comprises two sequences:
Sequence 1: Collection of data in the field and entering it into the database and
drawing of maps and diagrams.
Sequence 2: Maintenance of the documentation during rebuilding changes and

erection of new networks.
9.8.2 Updating Sequence 1
Before collection of data in the field starts a suitable designation system for
apparatus (such as pillars, poles, substations, etc) must be established.
The designation system should be the same for the computerized system, maps
and diagrams as well as for the apparatus in the real network, e.g. circuit breakers
should have the same marking in the switchgear as on the substation and in the
computer data base.
It is preferable to mark the apparatus in the network during the collection of data.
As help, already existing maps, diagrams and cable locators may be used.
56
Maps and diagrams should be drawn at the same time as the computerized system
is updated.
9.8.3 Updating Sequence 2
The documentation must be carefully followed-up during the whole lifetime of

the network. All information must be up to date otherwise it has very limited use
and it is better to have no information at all than false information.
Before any work is to be carried out, thorough calculations should be done.

Afterwards a field survey is carried out and a map and a list of necessary material
is set up.
The field survey should include information about the type of substations to be
used, fuses, cables at which points the customers are connected, location of cable
pillars etc.
A work order is issued to the supervisor who is responsible for the work.
Everything, that is not carried out exactly in accordance with the survey, should
be carefully noted and this information should be brought back to the person who
is responsible for the documentation.
9.9 Personnel
9.9.1 Personnel for Collection of Data
(1) Competence
These should be persons with a good knowledge of power distribution and how
the network is connected and are able to read maps and diagrams. They should
also be able to use cable locators.
The persons must have a very good experience of the material used in the
network.
(2) Training
Personnel should be trained on how to fill in the forms for the computerized
system.
57
9.9.2 Personnel for ente ring of data
(1) Competence
These should be Technicians with a good knowledge of how the network is

connected and its construction.
(2) Training
They should be trained on how to enter and change data in the computerized
system.
9.9.3 Drawing office personnel
(1) Competence
These should be persons with a good knowledge of diagram technique and how
the network is connected.
(2) Training
They should be trained on how to use the computerized system as an information

system.
58

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C:\Users\Sabao\AppData\Local\Microsoft\Windows\Temporary Internet Files\Content.Outlook\OHRL1IYM\DIST RIBU.

DISTRIBUTION PLANNING MANUAL

9. Network docume ntation 47

A1 Economical/Financial Analysis Techniques

DISTRIBUTION PLANNING MANUAL

Scope of the Distribution Planning Manual is to give basic information to

Experience and knowledge of distribution networks is essential for distribution

The manual has been split into three parts as follows: -

Part 1-Planning Policies and Methodology:

Part 2-Distribution Engineering Concepts related to Planning :

2.1 Distribution System

2.2 Low Voltage (LV)- Voltage below 1 000V

2.5 Extra High Voltage (EHV) - Voltage above 150kV

2.6 Sub - trans mission system

2.7 Transmission system

2.8 Primary distribution system

2.9 Primary substation (PS)

2.10 Satellite substation (SL)

2.11 Secondary substation(SS)

2.12 Secondary distribution system

2.13 LV distribution system

2.14 Meshed network configuration

2.15 Radial network configuration

2.16 Circuit breaker

2.17 Load break switch

2.19 PSIP (Public Sector Investment Program).

2.20 ACE (Application for Capital Expenditure)

2.21 Authority (In this case refers to ZESA)

3 GENERAL POLICIES AND PLANNING CRITERIA

a) Long Term Planning

b) Short Term Planning

c) Eme rgency Reinforce ment Planning

3.2 PLANNING CRITERIA

3.2.1 General criteria

When planning extensions or reinforcements of the distribution network, both to

- Avoid over dimensioning of programmed installations, in particular of the

- Try to avoid building installations where reinforcements and extensio ns

Some of the techniques to be applied in order to fulfil the above mentioned

- Take into consideration the geographical and topological characteristics of

- Capital expenditure should be deferred as far as possible.

The planning horizon shall be 25 years. However individual reinforcement

3.2.2 Detailed Crite ria

Reliability: - The supply system shall have minimum outages

iii) Voltage Unbalance

The negative sequence shall not exceed 2%

iv) Voltage Flicker

The tolerable flicker shall be given by:

% sudden voltage variation = 4.5 - log10 N

b) Supply Availability ( reliability)

Table 1:Powe r Supply Reliability Levels

OUTAGE PERIOD 13.14 11.86 7.32 2.80

OUTAGE PERIOD 42.20 36.76 23.22 5.20

3.3 STANDARD PRACTICES

3.3.1 Planning polices

a) Firm Capacity Policy:

Losses shall be limited to a maximum of 3% peak on a feeder. The Distribution

Costs of outages in the Economic appraisals shall be evaluated at the economic

Table 1b: Minimum conductor sizes for new feeders

Description OHL Size Cable Size

e) Use of Voltage Regulators

Use of voltage regulators is only recommended as a ''fire fighting tool'' to address

Table 1C: Recommended Powe r Factors

The After Diversity Maximum Demand for Residential Consumers shall be as

Fig. 1C: ADMD (Residential Consume rs)