Bulletin of The Seismological Society of America. Vol. No. 6, Pp. 1811-1841. December, 1964

Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America. Vol. 54, No. 6, pp. 1811-1841.
December, 1964
T O T A L E N E R G Y A N D E N E R G Y S P E C T R A L D E N S I T Y OF E L A S T I C
WAVE R A D I A T I O N F R O M P R O P A G A T I N G FAULTS
BY N . A. HASKELL
ABSTRACT
Starting with a Green's function representation of the solution of the elastic field equations
for the case of a prescribed displacement discontinuity on a fault surface, it is shown that a
shear fault (relative displacement parallel to the fault plane) is rigorously equivalent to a
distribution of double-couple point sources over the fault plane. In the case of a tensile fault
(relative displacement normal to the fault plane) the equivalent point source distribution is
composed of force dipoles normal to the fault plane with a superimposed purely compressional
component. Assuming that the fault break propagates in one direction along the long axis of
the fault plane and that the relative displacement at a given point has the form of a ramp time
function of finite duration, T, the total radiated P and S wave energies and the total energy
spectral densities are evaluated in closed form in terms of the fault plane dimensions, final
fault displacement, the time constant T, and the f~ult propagation velocity. Using fault pa-
rameters derived principally from the work of Ben-Menahem and ToksSz on the K a m c h a t k a
earthquake of November 4, 1952, the calculated total energy appears to be somewhat low and
the calculated energy spectrum appears to be deficient at short periods. It is suggested that
these discrepancies are due to over-simplification of the assumed model, and that they may be
corrected by (1) assuming a somewhat roughened ramp for the fault displacement time func-
tion to correspond to a stick-slip type of motion, and (2) assuming that the short period com-
ponents of the fault displacement wave are coherent only over distances considerably smaller
than the total fault length.
INTRODUCTION
Knopoff and Gilbert (1960) have used a Green's funct!on integral representation
of the solution of the elastic wave equations in an infinite medium to discuss the
radiation pattern of first motions from a moving fault. In the present paper we
shall employ the same approach to calculate the total radiation from a moving
fault of finite length.
In the compact tensor notation of de Hoop (1958) the elastic displacements,
ui(xl, x~, x3, t), in a volume, V, bounded by a surface, S, are given by
u ~ ( x ~ , x2 , x3 , t )
(1)
where
x , , x2, xa - Cartesian coordinates of point at which ui is to be evaluated
}1, }2, }3 = Cartesian coordinates of the point of integration in V and on S.
L = body force per unit volume
Cjk ,pq = p(,~ - 2 ~ 2 ) ~ j ~ + p~(~-~sk~ + ~k~j~)

1811
1812 BULLETIN OF THE SEISMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA
o = density
OL = compressional wave velocity
= shear wave velocity
61i = lifi =j, = 0ifi#j
nk = unit outward normal on S
Gij is an operator which transforms a given function, @(~1 , ~2, ~3, t) into
G~j[~o(~, t)] = ( 74 t o ) - 1
f (3~,i'yj - 6 ~j)r - 3
fr/~
r[a
~(f., t -- t ' ) t ' dt
(2)
2 --1
q- ~'i%'(a r) ~(~, t -- r / a ) - - (~'i 3'~ -- ~i3) (~2r)-~(~, t - r/~)}
where
r = distance from (~1, ~2, ~3) to ( X l , X2, X3)
3"i = ( x i - ~i)/r.
In order to represent a physically realizable transient source in an infinite region

we may consider the surface S to consist of an external and an internal part. The
external part may be allowed to recede to infinity, where it contributes nothing to
the solution at any finite time. The internal part is contracted until it includes only
the region around the source within which the strains exceed the limits of applica-
bility of linear elastic theory. The only body force acting is gravity, which does not
contribute directly to the transient solution. Indirectly, the gravity field may make
a significant contribution in some cases if the motion at the source is such that work
is done either by or against gravity, i.e., if the center of gravity of the non-linear
source region is either lowered or raised, as for example, in the case of the collapse of
an explosion induced cavity or in some cases of dip-slip faulting. However, we shall
not attempt to consider such cases in the present paper, and we therefore drop the
volume integral in equation (1). The remaining surface integrals are then to be
extended over the boundaries of the non-linear region, which we shall assume to
have the form of a plane slab whose thickness is less than the wave length of the
shortest elastic waves that contribute appreciably to the radiated energy. The
assumed shape of a cross section of this region is illustrated in figure 1. The assump-
tion that the slab is thin implies that we may neglect the contribution of the edge
Surfaces and consider only the integrals over the large flat surfaces labelled S + and
S-.
Since the tensor of elastic coefficients, cjk.pq, is constant, it may be placed after the
operator Gij in the integrand of the first surface integral of equation (1). We m a y
ENERGY OF ELASTIC WAVE RADIATION 1813
then write
cjk,pq(Oup/OQ) = p( a 2 -- 2¢/2)6jkEpp + 2p132ejk= T ~k (3)
where eCk is the strain tensor and Tjk is the stress tensor, evaluated at the point
( ~ , ~2, ~.~). The unit normal vector nk is also constant with respect to the operator
G~ so that the first surface integral in equation ( 1 ) may be written as
f fs G,j[Tjk]nk ds = f fs G~i[F~]ds (4)
where F~. = T~knkis the force per unit area that the material in the non-linear region
inside S exerts on the material in the elastic region external to S. The integral in (4)
can be written as
f f~ G~j[Fj]ds= f~+ G~flFj+] ds + f ~_ G~i[Fff]ds
[,l'-
I'n's_i-i" ,I
°
FIG. 1. Cross section of source region.
where F~+ is the force per unit area exerted across the S + surface and F f f is similarly
referred to the S - surface. If the separation is small, it is difficult to imagine how
any process such as fracture, plastic flow, or phase transition occurring in the non-
linear region could produce forces, Fj + and F f f that are not equal in magnitude and
opposite in sign. In the initial state of static equilibrium they are necessarily equaI
and opposite, and even during the process of faulting it would be expected that
departures from this condition could exist only for times comparable to those re-
quired for P or S waves to travel the distance between S + and S-. As stated pre-
viously, we regard the energy associated with the corresponding frequencies as
negligible. Therefore we set F f f = - F j +, and the integrals of equation (5) cancel.
We are then left with only the last surface integral in equation (1), which may be
written in the form
u,(x, ,) = (0/0xo) -ff+ c, ,oG,,Injl , + d8 (6)
where Dj = uj + -- uj- is the relative displacement on the S + surface with respect to

the S - surface, and n~+ is the unit normal directed from the S + toward the S - sur-
face. It may be noted that it is entirely irrelevant whether we consider the relative
offset, D j , to be produced by an actual discontinuity at a fracture surface within S,
as indicated by the solid line in Figure 1, or regard it as a result of continuous plastic
deformation within S, as indicated by the dotted curve.
1814 B U L L E T I N OF T H E S E I S M O L O G I C A L S O C I E T Y OF A M E R I C A
Since the limits of integration do not depend on the variables xl, the differential
operator in equation (6) may be taken inside the integral sign and the indicated
differentiation carried out explicitly. The result is
u , ( x , t) = - 232)r~+.]/Iiq,q[nj]-~-pl~2(nq+Miq,q[Dj]
(7)
+ n~+Miv.q[Dq])} ds
where the operator M i j , q is defined by
(
Mo,q[~(~, t)] = (4~-p) l~[15~i~s~q -- 3(6~j3'q + &q'rj + ~q'r~)]r -4
rr/~
• J ~ / ¢ ( ~ , t -- t')t' dt' + [6"Yi'Yj'Yq -- (~ij "Yq "-~ ~iq~Yj "7- ~jq~Yi)l(olr)--2~(~, t -- r/a)
(s)
- [6w~j~q - (2~,:~-~ + ~ . ~ + ,~j~.,)](~r)-~,(~, t - r/3)
+ "~',,.~-~do?r)-l,~(~/, t - r/~) - ['~s~ - ~s~q](~r)-~4(~, t - r/~)'~

)
The dot superscript is used to indicate the time derivative.

If we define the radiated energy of a source as that energy that would be trans-
nfitted to infinity if the given source were embedded in an infinite, lossless medium,
the only terms of equations (7) and (8) that are relevant in computing that energy
are the far-field terms that are proportional to r -~ that is, those resulting from the
last two terms in equation (8). Carrying out the substitution and taking the time
derivative we obtain for the particle velocity, ~ ,
47r~i(x, t) : -- ff + (ar)-l[(1 -- 2(fl/a)2)'yinj +
+ 2(3/a)2"),i~,¢'yqnq+][)/~, t -- r / a ) ds + +(3r)-l[2.yi.yj.rqnq+f)j(~,t - r/~) (9)
-- ~q(nq+ff)i(~, t -- r/B) + ni+ff)q(~, t - r/3))] ds
We shall assume that the fault displacement vector, D~(~, t), has the form of a
wave propagating in one dimension with velocity v. Three linearly independent cases
m a y be distinguished, (1) a longitudinal shear fault in which the displacement is
parallel to the direction of fault propagation, (2) a transverse shear fault in which
the displacement lies in the fault plane and normal to the direction of propagation,
(3) a tensile fault in which the displacement is normal to the fault plane. The
first case would be represented by pure strike-slip motion on a horizontally propagat-
ing fault, and the second by the horizontal propagation of pure dip-slip motion. The
third case, which does not appear to have been considered in recent fault-plane
studies, might be realized in nature by the opening of a fissure by the injection of
magma or magmatic gases. Also, since real fault surfaces are not perfectly plane, a
relative displacement parallel to the fault surface must result in a small component
of displacement normal to the fault surface. An analogous artificial source could be
the opening of radial tension cracks about an explosion cavity (Kisslinger, Meteker,
McEvilly 1961 ). In anticipation of results to be obtained later, it may be mentioned
that cases (1) and (2) are equivalent to moving point sources of the double couple
type, while case (3) is equivalent to a moving point source composed of a superposi-
tion of a pure dilatation and a force dipole normal to the fault plane.
LONGITUDINAL SHEAR FAULT
Let the (xl, x2) plane be the fault plane, with the positive xa axis normal to the
fault plane on the S + side, and let the positive x~ axis be parallel to the common
direction of fault displacement and propagation. Then n~+ = -~ia and D~ = &ID.
In this case equation (9) becomes
2( lw f + (ar) _1 ",'~'hyaO(~, t -- r / a ) ds
..
(10)
The integrands in equation (10) are exactly the same as those that one would ob-
tain by considering the fault plane to be covered with a distribution of double couple
sources, the common moment of the component couples having an areal density
M(~, t) = pB~D(~, t).
In accordance with the definition of radiated energy previously given, we may
consider the point of observation, x to be sufficiently remote that the radial distance,
r, and the direction cosines, % are constant over the area of the fault to any desired
degree of approximation. We further assume that the fault plane is rectangular
with length L in the direction of propagation and width w in the transverse direction.
We also suppose that the dependence of D on the transverse coordinate does not
vary with time. Equation (10) may then be written as
47r/3r~i(x, t) = 2(fl/a) a yiyl~'au'/~ + (--2y.,yfya + Ta6,l + "y16~a)wI~ (11)
where
L
(~2)
L
/) is the displacement averaged over the width of the fault and ~ = &. Introducing a
spherical coordinate system (r, 0, ~) with polar axis in the direction of fault propaga-
tion,
"Y1 = COS 0
~'2 = sin 0 cos ~ (13)
~'3 = sin 0 sin
the corresponding components of the particle velocity, u~, ~0, ~ become
4~r~rit~ = (3/a)3wI. sin 20 sin
41rl~rito = wIa cos 20 sin ~ (14)
47r~rit. = wI~ cos 0 cos 9.
TOTAL RADIATED E N E R G Y
The total radiated energy, E, may be written as the sum of the P-wave energy,
E . , and shear wave energy, Ea, where
2~r ~rf+~
Ea=Pafo fo ~_~ ~tr2dtr2sinOdOd~
(15)
= (pw2/167r~)(f~/a)5 f0 sin2 20 sin 0 _
f7 Ia 2 dt dO
2*r 7rf +oo
E~ = p~ fo fo -~ (it°2 + its2) dtr2 sin O dO cl~
(16)
= (pw2/16~-~) fo (c°s2 20 + cos 2 O) sin 0 I~ 2 dt dO
If we write "h(o~) for the Fourier transform of a component of the particle velocity
~(t)
¢~(w) = ~ e-i'~tie dt (17)
the spectral energy density of the total P and S wave energies may be correspond-
ingly expressed as
e~ = 2pc~ [ 6~ sin 0 dO d~
fo2~fo ~ ]2r2
(18)
= (Pw"/8~a)(~/°~)~fo sin" 2o sin oIL 12 do
21r ~v
e0 =- 2p~3 fo fo (I Uo [2 _~_ 1~¢ ]2)r2 sin O dO d~

(19)
Ir
= (Pw2/S~rS) fo (e°s2 20 A- cos2 O) sin 015 ]2 dO
By virtue of the identity

Qo
f:'~a2 at = (2~)-1f: " i~12d~= 2fo la[ =dr
where v = 2trio is the frequency, we have

~o
E.,o = fo ~"'~(~) a~ (20)

and the total energy may be evaluated either in the time domain from equations
(15) and (16) or in the frequency domain from equations (18), (19), and (20).
In order to represent the fault displacement as a wave propagating with velocity,
v, we write
b ( t , t) = F(t)G(t - Uv) (21)
where the function G(t) is assumed to satisfy the initial and final conditions
G=O, t<0
(22)
G-)l, t-+
and F ( t ) expresses the variation (if any) of the final fault displacement along the
length of the fault. In the present paper we shall consider only the case F ( t ) =
const. = Do. The integral 14 then becomes
L
I . = Do fo ~(t -- (r/a) - (t/v)) dt (23)
Since we are assuming r to be very large, we m a y write r = ro -- t cos 0 in the argu-

ment of the integrand and obtain
L
I , = Do fo O(r - tq~/c~) dt (24)
where
"~ = t -- ro/a
q, = a -- cos 0
a -- a/v
Changing to x = r - }q./a as the variable of integration we find

~
I . = (aDo/q.)
f 1"--qaL/o~
~ ( x ) dx = ( a D o / q . ) [ O ( r ) - G(r - q.L/a)] (25)
1. 2 = (aDo/q.)2[G2(r) -t- 02(r - q . L / a ) -- 2 0 ( r ) 0 ( r -- q.L/c~)] (26)
Since
and
£" 02(r -- q . C / a ) dr =
F" ¢o
G2(x) dx
we have
f_2= 1. 2 dt = 2 ( a D o / q . ) 2 I f 2 ~ G2(r) dr - f _ ~ O ( r ) G ( r - qaL/o~) dr I (27)
A similar expression also holds, of course, for the integral of I~2 with ¢~replacing a.
Equation (27) expresses the radiated energy in terms of the autocorrelation of
O(t).
It is now necessary to choose an explicit form for the displacement time function
G(t). For the sake of simplicity in this initial treatment of the problem we shall
take it to be a ramp function of finite duration, T, that is
,<0
G(t) = T 0 <- t <- T (28)
t>T
From their determination of the initial phase versus frequency of the long-period
surface waves from the K a m c h a t k a earthquake of November 4, 1952, Ben-Menahem
and Toks6z (1963) deduced a G(t) for this earthquake of the form
G(t) = 1 - e-tIT t >= 0 (29)
with the exponential time constant, T, having a value of about 22 sec. The Fourier
transform of the ramp function (28) is
~(~) = (1/~2T)(e - i ~ T - 1)
whose phase angle is ~ = - 0 r / 2 ) -- o~T/2. The corresponding expressions for the

E N E R G Y OF E L A S T I C W A V E R A D I A T I O N 1819
exponential function (29) are
~(o~) = [i~(1 + iwT)] -1
= - - (~r/2) - - tan-l~T
In Figure 2 the observed values of 9(~), in circles, tabulated by Ben-Menahem and

ToksSz for the Kamchatka earthquake are compared with the values computed for
I I I I I I i I i
-0.1
e = G2('E-W)
x x = Rz { E - W )
- 0.2 x x
x
G* x X xe
OxoXx xXX X ® %
i~- O-3 _ ox 2x :
.J
(J
Q:
"e-
O,4
x GO
0
0 ~ . A M P T= 3 0 s e c
0.5
-0.6
I I I I I I I I
2 4 6 B I0 12 14 16 18
FREOUENCY {MILLICYCLES)
FIG. 2. Phase angle of displacement time function, Kamchatka earthquake,

after Ben-Menahem and ToksSz.
the ramp source function with T = 30 sec. and the exponential function with
T = 22 sec. Aki (1962) has estimated that present knowledge of phase velocities
limits the accuracy of determinations of the phase of the source time function to
about ± ~ circle. With this lack of accuracy it seems clear that the available long-
period phase data is inadequate to determine the time function with any degree
of precision and there is as much justification for choosing the finite ramp function
as any other function that satisfies the general requirement of being step-like if
viewed at sufficiently low frequencies. The discontinuities in G(t) at t = 0 and T
are, of course, physically unrealistic. However, if we imagine the corners of the
ramp function to be rounded off in a time interval <<T, only the very high frequency
components of the energy spectrum will be affected. As we shall see presently,
propagation of the fault has the effect of applying an attenuation factor propor-
1820 B U L L E T I N OF T H E S E I S M O L O G I C A L S O C I E T Y OF A M E R I C A
tional to 1/o~2 at high frequencies, so that the effect of the sharp corners is suppressed
to a large extent even without the rounding-off assumption•
Adopting the ramp function form for G(t) and substituting in equation (27), we
have
f~= 02(r) dr = l I T
and
f:= ~T-2(T- [q.L/a[); ]q.L/a[ < T

0 ( r ) 0 ( r -- q . L / a ) dr = [0; Iq.L/,~ I > T
so that
f~¢ 1. 2 d t = \2(aDo)2/Vq2;
f2°LLD°2/T2[qa]; ]qaL//°~[ < TTI
[q. L / a [ >
(30)
Substituting this and the equivalent integral with f~ replacing a in equations (15)
and (16),
E,. = ( pw2Do2L/87rT 2) (~/a)4Ol(a, aT~L)

(31)
E~ = (p w2D o2L /8rrT 2)02(5, ~ T / L )
where
~01
01 (a, a T / L ) = J0 sin2ta
--1 2cos
sin
0 OO dO q- (aT~L) fe, ~---eosO)-)
sni2 20 sin O2do (33)
io2 (cos 2 20 q- cos20) sin 0

02(b, S T / L ) = o l b -- cos el dO
(34)
+ ( ~ T / L ) fo "~2(c°s220(b--
+ cos
c°s20)20) sin 0 dO
In these expressions
01 = {°1 s- (a -- o~T/L);
a T / L < a -- 1
a - - 1 < ceT/L < a--k 1
ceT/L > a q- 1
(35)
(0 ; flT/L < b - 1
02 = cos l ( b - b - 1 < < b + 1 (36)
; ~T/L > b + 1
Similar expressions have also been derived for the exponential time function, but
will not be considered here, since the results do not differ significantly from those
to be obtained with the ramp time function.
Recent theoretical work by Mansinha (1964) on the velocity of propagation of

cracks indicates that in a homogeneous medium the velocity of either shear or ten-
sion cracks is less than the shear wave velocity. For a medium with Poisson's
ratio = 1/4, Mansinha gives for the maximum velocity of shear fracture, v = .775~
The corresponding minimum value of b is 1.290 and of a, 2.234. Presumably, in an
inhomogeneous medium, ~ crack propagating in a high velocity layer could extend
into an adjacent lower velocity layer, and its apparent velocity along the boundary
might be supersonic with respect to the shear wave velocity in the slower medium.
However, we shall not attempt to consider such additional complications and ac-
cordingly we assume that a > b > 1 and the integrands of equations (33) and (34)
have no singularities. A change of the variable of integration to y --- a - cos ~ and
y -- b -- cos t~reduces these integrals to elementary forms.
01(a, a T ~ L ) = 4 fa cl y-l[(a - y)~ -- (a - y)4] dy

--1
~a+l
(37)
q- 4 ( a T ~ L ) j y -2 [(a _ y)2 _ (a _ y)4] dy
cl
O~(b,~T/L) = fb -1
c2 y-l[4(b -- y ) 4 _ 3(b -- y ) 2 + 1] dy
b-i-1
(38)
+ (fiT/L) f y-214(b _ y)4 _ 3(5 -- y)2 ~_ 1] dy
~v 2
where
[a-- 1; aT/L < a-- 1

cl = ~ a T / L ; a- 1 < aT/L < a+ 1
[a 3- 1; a T / L > a --~ 1
(b - 1; flT/L < b-- 1

c2 = ~fiT/L; b- 1 < fiT/L < b + 1
~b + 1; fiT/L > b + 1
Further evaluation of these and similar integrals that occur in connection with the
other types of fault displacement will be found in the Appendix. The total radiated
energy, E = E~ + E~ is
E = (pw2Do~L/8~rT~)O(a, b, L, T ) (39)
where
O(a, b, L, T ) = (f/a)4Ol(a, a T ~ L ) + 02(b, fiT~L) (40)
I,:nopoff (1958) has given an expression for the total energy released by the forma-
tion of a long longitudinal shear fault in a homogeneous shear strain field by calcu-
lating the difference in the static elastic strain energy before and after the formation
182~ BULLETIN OF THE SEISMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA
of the fault. His equation for the total available energy is
J = ~rp~2D,~2L/8
where D~ is the maxinmm displacement at the center line of the fault. Knopoff's
static theory leads to an expression for the variation of the displacelnent across the
width, w, of the fault
D = D~[1 -- (2y/w)2] ~/~
where y is the lateral distance from the center line. The Do in equation (39) was de-
fined as the average displacement across the width and we therefore have
Do = 7rDm/4. In terms of Do the available strain energy is then
J = 2pfl2Do2L/~ - (41)
Since the total energy radiated dynamically cannot be greater than the available
strain energy, comparison of equations (39) and (41) gives a minimum value of the
time constant T.
2
Tmia = w 2 0 / 1 6 ~ 2 (42)
Before proceeding with a discussion of the energy spectrum, it is of some interest to

calculate the seismic energy release of a typical large earthquake according to
equation (39) and compare it with currently accepted ideas of energy and magni-
tude. For this purpose we choose the Kamchatka earthquake studied by Ben-
Menahem and Toks6z (1963) and adopt their value for the fault length, L = 700
km. The focal depth of this earthquake was estimated at 60 km by Hutchinson
(1954), and since it generated at tsunami, it is likely that the fracture extended to
the ocean floor. The depth distribution of aftershocks (B£th and Benioff, 1958) is
also consistent with the assumption that w ~ 60 kin. From consideration of the
available elastic strain energy and the width of the aftershock zone B£th and
Benioff estimated that the average displacement on the fault was Do = 5m. Assum-
ing that the fault propagation was controlled mainly b y the elastic wave velocities
near the top of the mantle, we choose a = 8.0 km/sec, and ~ = a V ~ --- 4.619
km/sec., p = 3.0 gm/cm. 3 Then from equation (42) and the numerical values of
the functions 01 and 02 given in equations (A6) and (A8) of the Appendix, we find
Tmln = 0.2097 sec. The initial phase data of Ben-Nienahcm and Toks6z suggests
that the actual value of T is more like 30 sec, and a value of this order is more
nearly in accordance with general experience of the duration of strong motion at
short distances. If T = 30 sec, a T / L < a -- 1 and ~ T / L < b -- 1, and equations
(A6) and (A8) of the Appendix are the appropriate expressions for O1, and (~:.
From equation (39) we then find
I7.13 X 10~4 ergs for T = 0.2097 sec

E = [4.98 X 10~2ergs for T = 30sec
The Richter magnitude of the Kamchatka earthquake has been given as

M = 8.25, which corresponds to an energy between 6 )< 1023 and 1.3 X 1024 ergs
depending upon which of the various current energy-magnitude relationships is
assumed. DeNoyer (1959) calculated the energy of this earthquake from the Wood-
Anderson seismograms at Berkeley and obtained a total energy of about 5.9 X 1023
ergs without correction for transmission losses. In spite of the great uncertainty in
the assumed geometric and temporal parameters of the earthquake and in the esti-
mates of the total energy, it seems likely that a real discrepancy exists. The assump-
tion of a few tenths of a second for the duration of the motion at the source gives a
reasonable value for the energy but seems much too short in view of the observed
duration of strong motion in the epicentral region of large earthquakes. On the other
hand a value of T of the order of 30 sec., appears to give too low an energy release.
We shall consider some possible modifications of the source model that may re-
solve this difficulty after first deriving the spectral energy distribution that results
for the present simple model.
TOTAL ENERGY SPECTRUM

Returning to equation (24), the Fourier transform of I , is
L(~)= Do - (ro/a) - }q~,/a) dt d}
= Do I ~ ' e - i ~ ( ' o + ~ q . ) " f ~ e - i ~ # ( x ) d x d }
,~ aL
= Do ~(~)e -~:~°/~ Jo e-~°/~ dE
where~(o~) is the Fourier transform of ~(t). Carrying out the integration over
we have
T_~(~) = LDoe -i(x~+'~°/") ~ ( ~ ) X ~ -1 sin X~ (43)

where
X,~ = ~L(a -- cos O)/2a (44)
Equation (43) is identical with an equivalent expression previously derived by Ben-

Menahem (1961) for a moving point source. Substituting (43) into equation (18)
and the equivalent exprbssion for in into equation (19), we find
~o(o~) = ( J L 2 D o 2 / 2 ~ ) ( ~ / o ~ ) ~ J~l 2 B,(~) (45)
~ ( ~ ) = (pw2L2noZ/2~rfl) I~l 2 Bz(w) (46)

where
BI(~) = fOqr sin 3 0 cos: 0X, -2 sin2 X, dO (47)

B2(~) =
(1)( (cos ~ 20 -4- cos 2 0) sin 0X~-2 sin 2 X~ dO (48}
and, for the r a m p form of the displacement-time function t h a t we have adopted,
i ~ ;2 = 4T-2 sin s ( w T / 2 ) (49)+
- - .,~.,-
-!
I0
tO-2
-ENVELOPE
io-3
] I I I I r Ilfl I I I II IIII I I I I'JI

t°-J ~ P~ =-WL/co to too
FIG. 3. The function BI(~) versus p. = ~L/o~.

T h e substitution sin 2 X , = (1 - cos 2X~)/2, followed b y a change of the variable
of integration f r o m 0 to y = a - cos 0 reduces the integrals (47) and (48) to t h e
forms
a-~l
Bl(~o) = ( 2 / p . 2) f~_l [(a -- y)2 _ (a -- y)4]y-2(1 -- cos p,~y)dy (50),
B:(~o) = ( 1 / 2 p ] ) fb+t [4(b - y)4 _ 3(b - y)2 -4- 1]y-2(1 - cos p~y) dy (51)
,]b--1
where p , = ~L/a and p~ = wL/~. The evaluation of these and related integrals is
given in the Appendix.
The factors B1 and B2 are plotted as functions of p~ and p a respectively in figures 3
a n d 4. With / ~ I ~ given by equation (49), and choosing flT/2L = 0.1, aT/2L =
I f [ I II1[ l I I I IIII I I I I I IIII I I I

\
~\,
i 0 -I _
\\\
\
IO "2 _
B2Ko) -
i 0 ~;
NVELOPE
jo-~
Io - 5 f I Jill t I f ]Jill I j I III

o.I 1.0 I0 I0
PB = w L / B
F I G . 4. T h e f u n c t i o n B 2 ( w ) v e r s u s pp = wL/~.
0.1732 (which would correspond to T = 30.31 sec. for the K a m c h a t k a earthquake)

the spectral energy densities e, and e~ in units of 2p(wLDo)2/~rNT2, calculated from
equations (45) and (46), are shown as functions of p~ on a log-log scale in figure 5.
T h e total energy density is shown oil a linear scale in figure 6.
The m a x i n m m in the spectral energy density occurs at a value of p~ approxi-
m a t e l y equal to 7. With L = 700 km, /~ = 4.619 km/sec., the corresponding fre-
quency would be about 7.4 millicycles, or a period of about 135 sec. This appears to
1826 BULLETIN OF T H E SEISMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF A M E R I C A
be much too low a frequency for the maximum energy density, even for a very large
earthquake. I n fact, if the spectrum were actually of the form shown in figure 6, it
would be difficult to understand how DeNoyer's integration of short-period Wood-
Anderson records could have yielded more than a minute fraction of the total energy.
One possible way out of this difficulty immediately suggesss itself. The actual fault
displacement-time function must be much more irregular than the straight ramp
function that we have assumed. Presumably in the real case a stick-slip, or chatter-
,o-
I I I I I III I I I I I IIII I I IIII~
i 0- 2
io- 3 _-
O,I 1.0 ~] I O %'~ I00
PB
FI~ ' 5. Total energy spectral densities for P and S waves; ramp time function,
~ T / L = 0.2.
ing type of motion occurs, and a more realistic representation would be a somewhat
roughened ramp function. As an approximation to such a function we shall consider
a ramp modulated by a sine wave
[0 t <0
G(t) = ~T-l[t - (T/2n~r)sin (2nTrt/T)] 0 < t < T (52)
[1 t> T
where n is an integer. The corresponding velocity and acceleration are
= T-~[1 -- cos (2n~rt/T)] 0 <- t < T

= (2nTr/T 2) sin ( 2 n r t / T ) 0 <- t < T
The amplitude of the modulation has been so chosen that G never becomes negative,
which seems a reasonable restriction to place on a stick-slip type of mechanism.
With this type of time function the integrals f I=2 dt and f 1~2 dt as given by equation
20
I I I I i i
18
16
14
12
%
-- 10
0 I0 20 30 40 50 60 ?0
FIG. 6. T o t a l e n e r g y s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y , r a m p t i m e f u n c t i o n , f ~ T / L = 0.2.
(27) can be evaluated in closed form, but the expressions are cumbersome and it
does not appear to be possible to carry out the next step of integration over the
angular variable 0 in any simple analytic form. We shall therefore onfit the calcu-
lation of the total energy by integration in the time domain and go directly to the
spectral energy density as given by equations (45) and (46). The Fourier transform
of G(t) is now
~(~o) = T - l [ 1 - (~oT/2~rn)2]-l(1 - - e -i'°r) (53)

T h i s differs f r o m t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g expression for t h e r a m p f u n c t i o n o n l y b y t h e

presence of t h e f a c t o r 1 - ( x T / 2 ~ n ) 2 in t h e d e n o m i n a t o r . I t h a s e x a c t l y t h e s a m e
d e p e n d e n c e of p h a s e angle o n frequency, a n d is t h e r e f o r e e q u a l l y c o n s i s t e n t w i t h
t h e l o n g - p e r i o d p h a s e d a t a . * F r o m e q u a t i o n (53)
I G 12 = 4 sin" (o~T/2)/T2[1 - (o~T/2n~r)2] 2 (54)
F o r ~ << 2n~r/T, this expression differs v e r y s l i g h t l y f r o m t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g v a l u e

for t h e r a m p function. H e n c e t h e low f r e q u e n c y p e a k in t h e e n e r g y s p e c t r u m is
e s s e n t i a l l y u n c h a n g e d . T h e m a i n effect of a d d i n g t h e s i n u s o i d a l m o d u l a t i o n is t o
a d d a n o t h e r m a x i m u m to t h e s p e c t r u m in t h e n e i g h b o r h o o d of t h e p r i n c i p a l m a x i -
m u m of [ ~ [2, which occurs a t w~ = 2nTr/T. T h e e n e r g y s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y for t h e case
I0
I I I I I I i I I
8 --
4 --
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 I O0 I I0 120 130
FIG. 7. Total energy spectral density, modulated ramp time function, f~T/L = 0.2, n = 3.
n = 3 is i l l u s t r a t e d in F i g u r e 7, in w h i c h all o t h e r p a r a m e t e r s a r e t h e s a m e as t h o s e
a s s u m e d for t h e r a m p f u n c t i o n used in c o m p u t i n g figure 6. A t ~=, ] G 12 has t h e
value
2 = 2 = 2 (55)
F r o m e q u a t i o n ( A 2 8 ) , t h e high f r e q u e n c y a s y m p t o t e s of t h e f u n c t i o n s B I ( ~ ) a n d
B2(~) are
BI(~) ~ 2K,(a)/pa 2
* The fact that the two G(t) functions that we have used here have exactly the same phase
vs frequency relationship is in apparent contradiction with the use by Ben-Menahem and
ToksSz (1963) of the Kramers-Kronig dispersion relations to obtain the time function from the
phase function. The Kramers-Kronig theorem is applicable only if it is assumed that G(t) is an
analytic function for all t > 0. The functions that we have considered are not analytic at t = T
and the theorem is therefore not applicable in this case. Since we cannot give a complete causal
description of what happens in the non-linear source region, there seems to be no reason for
restricting G(t) to be analytic.
E N E R G Y OF E L A S T I C W A V E R A D I A T I O N 1829
B:(¢o) ~ 2K~(b)/p~ 2
Thus
B ( ~ ) = (~/a)~Ba(w) --~ B2(~)
---+ (2/p~2)[(fl/a)~K~(a) -k K2(b)] (56)

= 1.5068(~/L~) 2
and
I G I. 2 B ( w . ) --~ 1.5068(fl/2L) 2 (57)

Thus the height of the high frequency peak added to the energy spectrum by the
assumed sinusoidal modulation of the ramp time function is independent of n, pro-
vided that n is large enough to place this peak in the region where B(~0) is adequately
approximated by the first term of its asymptotic expansion. Since we have taken
f l T / 2 L = 0.1, we have p~(~0n) = 10nTr, and this condition is nearly fulfilled even
for n -- 1.
By visual comparison of the area under the curves of figure 6 and 7 it can he seen
that the relatively high frequency energy added by the modulation is only a fraction
(about 50 %) of the energy content of the low frequency peak. The assumption of
a sinusoidal modulation is probably not a very realistic representation of stick-slip
irregularities in the motion. However, the assumption of an irregular, aperiodic
modulation of the same root-mean-square velocity should add a comparable amount
of energy, but spread it over a broader frequency band instead of concentrating it
chiefly in the neighborhood of the frequency n / T . It thus appears that the super-
position of a reasonable degree of roughness on the basic ramp time function does
not increase the total energy by a large factor, though it can cause a significant rela-
tive increase in the high frequency part of the energy spectrum.
COHERENCE OF FAULT DISPLACEMENT

One source of the difficulty in obtaining a reasonable amount of radiated energy
at short periods is the co-2 asymptotic decrease of the B(o~) functions at high fre-
quencies. The occurrence of this factor can be attributed to destructive interference
of the high frequency components from adjacent segments of the fault plane. Such
interference effects can arise only if there exists a determinate phase relationship
between adjacent segments, and the existence of such a relationship is implicit in
our assumption that motion on the fault can be represented as a wave propagating
coherently over the full length of the fault. In view of the usual small scale in-
homogeneity of rocks and the probable existence of inhomogeneities in the initial
static stress field, this assumption is certainly open to question. Although the
achievements of the coherent wave model in accounting for the characteristics of the
long-period radiation from large earthquakes (Benioff, Press, and Smith (1961),
Press, Ben-Menahem, and Toks6z (1961), Ben-Menahem and Toks6z (1962,
1830 BULLETIN OF T H E S E I S M O L O G I C A L S O C I E T Y OF A M E R I C A
1963a, 1963b)) indicate that this representation is applicable to the very low fre-
quency components of the smoothed mean motion, it seems very unlikely that the
superimposed irregularities can be treated as coherent over very large distances. It
is more probable that they are due to localized blockages, or stick-slip mechanisms,
that result in motions that can be correlated only over limited segments of the fault.
We are thus led to consider the case in which the fault displacement is represented
as a coherent wave only over segments of the fault of length l~, and the radiation
from adjacent segments is assumed to be statistically independent, or incoherent,
so that the energies are additive.
Assuming the same ramp time function for each individual segment, the total
energy radiated by the ith segment is given by equation (39)
E~ -= (pw2Do21~/S~rT2)O(a, b, l~, T ) (ss)

If l~ is small enough so that equations (A5) and (A7) apply, 0 has the constant value
1.8245, and since ~--~il~: = L, the total energy is
E = 1.8245pw2Do:L/8~rT 2 (59)
On the assumption that the motion is coherent over the full length, L, the cor-
responding expression is
E = 3.0136([3T/L) (pw2Do2L/8~rT 2)
(60)
= .60272 ( pw2Do2L/8~T ~)
for the case f l T / L = 0.2, which was used in computing the spectra shown in Figures
5 and 6. The assumption of partial incoherence has thus increased the total radi-
ated energy by a factor of about 3.
The contribution of a coherent segment of length li to the energy spectrum is,
by equations (45) and (46),
e¢ = (pw2Do21~2/2~r~)l ~ 12B ( p ~ ) (61)
where B ( p ~ ) = ( ~ / o ~ ) S B l ( p a i ) + B2(p~), and the functions B1 and B~ are computed

for arguments p,,~ = o~ll/a and p~ -- o~lJ~. Assuming that the lengths Ii do not vary
greatly from some mean value, 7, we have ~'~i Ii2 ~ lL, and the total energy spectral
density for the ramp time function becomes
e = }-~ e~ "~ (2pw~Do2L2/TrflT 2) ( l / L ) sin 2(~T/2)B(Tp~/L) (62)
The energy spectrum computed from equation (62) for the case IlL --- 0.2 is shown
in figure 8, all other parameters being the same as those used in computing figure 6.
It is seen that the assumption of a reduced coherence length has shifted the main
low frequency energy peak to a somewhat higher frequency and has considerably
increased the energy content of the next higher lobe in the spectrum.
If we now superimpose a sinusoidal modulation on the ramp time function of the

type given by equation (52), the discussions leading to the expression (57) for the
height of the spectral maximum introduced b y the modulation is unchanged, except
that the coherence length li replaces the fault length L. The factor ] 0 ]2 B(o~) for
a single coherent segment is therefore multiplied by ( L / l ) 2 on the average. When
the energies of the individual segments are added, the factor (l/L) that occurs in-
equation (62) is introduced, and the height of the spectral maximum in the neighbor
hood of o~ = 50n is therefore increased in the ratio L f i over the value that it would
have had on the assumption of coherence over the full length of the fault. Thus in
I I I I I I I I I
50
90
O
m
¢.O
I0
0 I0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 I00
%
FIG. 8. Total energy spectral density, reduced coherence length, i/L = 0.2.
the case assumed for illustrative purposes the height of the maximum shown in
figure 7 would be increased by a factor of 5. I t then appears that, by a combination
of superimposed roughness in the fault motion and a reduced coherence length, it
m a y be possible to construct theoretical models that will radiate realistic amounts of
short period energy as well as the very long periods associated with the smoothed
mean motion. Since no quantitative total energy spectra of large earthquakes are
available, we cannot, at present, be more specific about what ranges of the param-
eters L / l and n would be realistic.
The "coherence length", l, introduced here in a somewhat ad hoc manner, bears
some resemblance to the "mixing length" that has been used in the treatment of the
turbulent flow of fluids. As in the hydrodynamic case, a more fundamental approach
would be to recognize from the start that the details of the fault displacement func-
tion, D(}, t), may be too complex to be given a deterministic description, and there-
fore to treat D (~, t) as a semi-random function whose spacial and temporal correla-
tion properties are subject to constraints such that at very low frequencies it has the
characteristics of a step-like wave propagating at a definite velocity, while at higher
frequencies it becomes increasingly incoherent. An attempt to find an appropriate
statistical description is, however, beyond the scope of the present paper.
SCALING LAWS FOR SMALL EARTHQUAKES

In the case of earthquakes of small magnitude it is possible that the model of a
simple ramp time function with coherence over the full length of the fault will give
an adequate representation of the total energy and its spectral distribution. For
example, suppose we scale down the dimensions and times that we have assumed as
representative of the Kamchatka earthquake by a factor of 500, so that we have
L = 1.4 km, w = 0.12 kin, Do = 1 cm, T = 0.06 sec. The total energy according to
equations (31) and (32) will then be reduced by a factor of (500) 3 = 1.25 X 108
and will be about 4 X 101. ergs. Assuming the Richter (1958) energy-magnitude
relationship
log E = 11.4 + 1.SM (63)
this would correspond to an earthquake of Richter magnitude about 2.1. The maxi-
nmm in the energy spectrum shown in figure 6 would fall at a frequency of about
3.7 cps. Some total seismogram energy spectra for very small earthquakes presented
by Frantti (1963) suggest that the frequency of maximum energy density for earth-
quakes of this magnitude might tend to be somewhat higher than this (by a factor
of about 2 or 3), but this difference is well within the uncertainty of the assumed
dimensions and, in any case, could easily be explained by the likely assumption that
very small earthquake faults are more nearly equidimensional than large ones, so
that a typical L for a magnitude 2.1 earthquake would be smaller and the w larger
than the values we obtained by assuming geometrical similarity.
TRANSVERSE SHEAR FAULT

For a shear fault with displacement normal to the direction of fault propagation
we continue to let xl be the direction of fault propagation and set D~ = ~ D in
equation (9). The equivalent of equation (11) is then
4~-flr~i(x, t) = 2(13/a)3'yi'y2"Y3wjl¢, + (--23,.~3'23'3 + 3'36~2 + "Y26ia)wlt3 (64)
which becomes in spherical coordinates
47r~ri~r = ( f l / a ) 3 w I . sin 2 0 sin 2~
47r~rito = wIa sin 0 cos 0 sin 29 (65)
47r~rit~ = wI~ sin 0 cos 2~
As before, these expressions have the angular symmetry of a propagating double-

couple p o i n t source, b u t the plane of the couples is now n o r m a l to the direction of

fault propagation.
F o r the r a m p t i m e function the total P a n d S w a v e energies become
Eot ( pw2DoSL/8~rT 5) (f/a)4lD3(a, c~T/L)

(66)
E~= ( pw2DoSL/87rTS)O4(b, f T / L )
where
sin s 0 dO q- ( a T ~ L ) sin 5 0
Os(a, s T / L ) = Jo l a - cos o I fo lr~ (a 2 c ~ s 0) 5 dO (68)
fo °: sin s 0(1 d- cos 5 0) f0 ~ sin s 0(1 q- cos 5 0)

O4(b, BIT~L) = [~ - c o s ~ i dO -t- ( f T / L ) ~ (b -- cos 0) 5 dO (69)
T h e e v a l u a t i o n of these integrals is given in the Appendix.

T h e total energy spectral densities become
E~, = (pw2DoSi2/27rf)(f/a)5 [ ~ [2 B3(¢o)

(70)
~ = (JDoW/2,~f)[ ~ I~ B,(.,)
where
B3(¢o) = ( 1 / 2 p . ~) fo ~ sin~ 011 - cos p . ( a - cos 0)] dO (72)

(a ~ cos 0) ~
" sin s 0(1 + cos 2 0)[1 - cos po(b - cos 0)]

B4(¢o) = (1/2po 2)
f~0 (b -- cos 0) 5
dO (73)
Explicit expressions for these integrals are also given in the Appendix.
TENSILE FAULT
A tensile fault with displacement n o r m a l to the fault plane m a y be represented by

setting D~ = ~s in equation (9). This yields
4~frz~i(x, t) = ( f / ~ ) ' / i [ 1 -- 2 ( f / a ) 2 ( 1 -- 3's2)]wI, -t- 2"/s(&s -- ~i3's)wI~ (74)
or, in spherical coordinates
4~rfr~ = ( f / a ) w l , [ 1 -- 2 ( f / a ) 2 -I- 2 ( f / a ) 2 sin 5 0 sin 2 ~]
4rrfr~o = wlo sin 20 sin 2 ¢ (75)
47rfrit¢ = wI~ sin 0 sin 2~.

1834 B U L L E T I N OF T H E S E I S M O L O G I C A L SOCIETY OF AMERICA
If we ignore the effect of fault propagation (i.e., the dependence of I , and I8 on

0), these expressions have the angular symmetry of the radiation from a point
source formed by the superposition of a spherically symmetrical compressional
source and a force dipole normal to the fault plane. The effect of the compressional
source is represented by the term in ~r that is independent of the angular variables,
and the dipolar force component accounts for the term proportional to sin s 0 sin s ~.
If we introduce a polar coordinate system (0', e') with polar axis normal to the
fault plane, we have sin s 0 sin s ~ = cos e 0'. For physically realizable values of the
ratio (~/a)e the expression for the angular dependence of ~ has no roots, and a
source of this type has no nodal surfaces for P waves. Some of the earthquakes that
produce compressional first motion in all azimuths may therefore represent tensile
fractures. On the other hand, one could reverse the sign of the uniform compressional
component by adding a sufficiently strong spherically symmetrical implosive source,
thus producing a point source model having a conical nodal surface for P waves.
In this connection it is of some interest to recall that a number of the early Japanese
investigations of the first motions of P waves found cases in which the pattern
seemed to indicate the existence of conical nodal surfaces rather t h a n the more
usual case of orthogonal planes. 5/J[. Ishimoto (1932) presented a mathematical
point source model that produced conical nodal surfaces, and explained his model
in geophysical terms as representing the rupture of a magma chamber when the
vapor pressure of the volatile constituents of the magma reached a point exceeding
the lithostatic pressure. As we have just seen, the outward motion of the walls of a
fissure will not by itself produce a source with conical nodal surfaces for P wave
radiation, but the opening of a fissure extending outward from a magma chamber
will presumably result in a decrease in magmatic pressure, which would be equiva-
lent to superimposing an implosive source. Thus Ishimoto's explanation of his
mathematical model seems rather plausible.
Returning to equation (75), the total P and S wave energies for the propagating
tensile fracture with ramp time dependence are
E. = (pweDoSL/8~rTs) 05(a, aT~L) (76)
E~ = (pwSDoSL/STrTS)Oe(b, fiT~L) (77)
where
]0 °1 [2(1 -- 2c) e + 4c(1 -- 2c) sin e 0 + 3c2 sin 40]

05(a, aT/L) = [a -- cos O[ sin 0 dO
(78)
f ~ [2(1 -- 2c) e + 4c(1 -- 2c) sin 2 0 + 3cs sin a O]
+ (aT/L) sin 0 dO
Jo, (a - cos 0) s
~0~
~)6(b, ~T/L) = Jo (3 c°selb--0+cosl)o/Sin3 0 dO
(79)
+ (~T/L) fo '~ (3 cos e 0 -t- 1) sin 3
~-- cos 0) 2 OdO
and c = (fi/a) e. The spectral energy densities are
e, = (pweDoeLe/2~ra)l ~ leBs(~) (80)
efs = ( pweDoen2/2~rfi)l ~ [2B6(¢°) (81)
where
[2(1 -- 2c) e + 4c(1 --2 c) sin s 0 + 3ce sin t0]
• [1 -- cos p~(a -- cos 0)] sin 0 dO (82)
Bs(~) = (1/2p~ 2) i ~ (a -- COS 0) e
f ~ (3 cos e 0 + 1) sin s 0[1 -- cos p~(b -- cos 0)] dO

B6(¢o) (1/2p~ ~)
(b -- cos 0) 2
(83)
J0
Explicit expressions for the O and B functions will be found in the Appendix.
The ratio of P-wave energy to S-wave energy is, as one might expect, substantially
larger for the tensile type of fault than it is for either the longitudinal or transverse
shear types. For the various types of faults considered this ratio has the following
values:
Longitudinal shear fault
aT~L> a+ 1 and fiT~L> b+ 1

0 ~ , ~ [.01829 aT/L < a- 1 and fiT/L < b- 1
Transverse shear fault
Ea= (fl)4Os(a,aT/L) _~ .03652 aT/L > a+ 1 and fiT~L> b+ 1

E~ 04(b, fiT/L) /..02557 aT/L < a- 1 and fiT/L < b- 1
Tensile fault
E , _ 05(a,o~T/L) _ ['3154 a T / L > a + 1 and fiT/L > b + 1

E~ 06(b, fiT/L) ~..2140 a T / L < a - 1 and fiT/L < b - 1
where the numerical values given correspond to the limiting cases given in the
Appendix, with the assumption that (a/fi) 2 = 3.
Nearly all estimates of P to S-wave energy ratios at large distances that have been
published (e.g. DeNoyer (1959)) have lead to considerably larger values of the
ratio t h a n those given here for either type of shear fault. Part of the difference,
perhaps most of it, may be explained in terms of S to P energy conversion at crustal
boundaries and the free surface, and a higher absorption coefficient for S waves than
for P waves. However, since a major shear fault is unlikely to be a perfect plane, it
is probable that shear faulting is accompanied by at least a small component of
displacement normal to the fault plane due to imperfect fit between the opposite
faces of the fracture. As indicated above, this normal component of displacement
produces an initial P to S energy ratio about 10 times as large as the ratio for a
pure shear fault displacement. T h u s the addition of a small normal c o m p o n e n t

could contribute appreciably to the total p r i m a r y P wave energy.
A P P E N D I X : E V A L U A T I O N OF ~) AND B INTEGRALS
B y a change of the variable of integration f r o m 0 to y -- a - cos 0 or y = b -- cos 0

as the case m a y be, all of the integrals designated b y 0 in t h e b o d y of this paper
m a y be expressed in the form
k
-1
O(b, tc) -- -1 y ( a o + a~y--p a2y 2 + asy 3-~ a4y 4) dy
b÷1 (A1)
+ k f y-2(a0 + aly + a2y 2 + asy 3 .-P a4y 4) dy
,,'b
where we have written ]~ for a T / L or ~ T / L , b for either a or b, a n d the various co-

efficients, a0 • • • a4 depend on the particular angular function u n d e r consideration.
E v a l u a t i o n is t h e n straight forward and, for the case b -- I < /~ < b + 1, leads to
O(b, k) -- a0 In ( k / ( b -- 1)) ~ - a l k l n ( ( b + 1 ) / k ) ~ - k [ ( a 4 / 3 ) b 3
+ (a4 -{- as/2)b 2 + (a4 + as Jr- a2)b -~ (a4/3) ~- (a3/2) + as + al
--ao/(b + 1)]- (a2/2)k 2 - (a3/6)k 3 - (a4/12)k 4 - (a4/4)b 4 (i2)

+ (a4 - a3/3)b s - [(3a4/2) - a3 + a2/2]b 2 + (a4 - as + as - al)b
- (a4/4) ~- (a3/3) - (a2/2) + al + ao.
F o r the case k > b -~ 1 only t h e first integral occurs, with u p p e r limit = b + 1

and O reduces to the constant value
O(b, k)k>b+~ = a0 In [(b + 1 ) / ( b -- 1)] + 2a4b 3

+ 2a3b 2 + 2(at --p a2)b .-P 2[(a~/3) -~ a~]
F o r t h e case ]c < b - 1 only the second integral occurs, with lower limit -- b - 1
a n d 0 becomes
O(b, k)k<b-1 = k{al In [(b -~ 1 ) / ( b -- 1)] + 2a4b2 --p 2a3b

(A4)
+ (2a4/3) + 2a2 + 2ao/(b 2 - 1)}
F o r the specific function O1, the coefficients a~ are
a0 -- --4a2(a 2 -- 1), al -- 8a(2a 2 -- 1), a2 = - - 4 ( 6 a 2 -- 1),
a~ = 16a, a4 = --4.
T h e l i m i t i n g cases t h e n r e d u c e to
O1(a, k)k>~+l = 4a[2a 2 -- ( 4 / 3 ) -- a(a 2 -- 1) In [ ( a + 1)/(a - - 1)]]

(A~)
= .5237
01(a, /c)k<~_~ -- 4 k [ ( 4 / 3 ) - - 8a 2 -~- 2 a ( 2 a 2 - - 1) In [(a nu 1 ) / ( a - - 1)]]

(A6)
~- .28124k
F o r t h e f u n c t i o n O2 t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g coefficients a r e
ao = 4 b 4 - 3b 2 + 1, a~ = -2b(8b 2 - - 3), a2 = 3 ( 8 b 2 - - 1)
aa = -16b, a4 = 4
a n d t h e l i m i t i n g cases are
02(b, k)k>b+l = ( 1 0 b / 3 ) -- 8b 3 + (4b 4 - - 3b 2 -~ 1) In [(b -t- 1 ) / ( b -- 1)]

(A7)
= 1.7663
02(b, ]C)k<b-~ = k [ - - ( 1 0 / 3 ) ~- 2 4 b 2 -I" 2[(4b 4 - - 3b 2 -k 1 ) / ( b 2 -- 1)]
-- 25(852 - - 3 ) In [(b -/- 1 ) / ( b -- 1)]] (AS)

= 2.9595k
where the numerical values given have been calculated assuming Mansinha's
m i n i m u m v a l u e s , a = 2.234 a n d b = 1.290.
I n t h e ease of t r a n s v e r s e s h e a r f a u l t i n g t h e a~.'s for t h e f u n c t i o n O~ a r e :
a0 = ( a ~ - - 1) ~, al = --4a(a 2 -- 1), a~ = 2 ( 3 a 2 - - 1), a3 = --4a, a4 = 1
a n d t h e l i m i t i n g cases are
0 3 ( a , ]~)k>a~-I--~-2a[(5/3) - - a 2] --~ (a 2 -- 1) 2 In [(a + 1)/(a -- 1)]

(hg)
= .49218
0 3 ( a , k)k<~_l = k[Sa 2 -- (16/3) -- 4a(a 2 -- 1) In [ ( a -t- 1 ) / ( a -- 1)]]

(AlO)
= .23442k
F o r Ok we h a v e
a0 = --(b 4- 1), a, = 4 b 3, a2 -= - 6 b ~, a3 = 4b, a4 = -1

a n d t h e l i m i t i n g cases a r e
04(5, k)k>b+l = 2 b ( b 2 + 1 / 3 ) - - (b ~ -- 1) In [(b + 1)/(b -- 1)]

(All)
= 1.4974
04(b, k)k<b-1----4k[b a In [(b q- 1 ) / ( b -- 1)] -- 2b 2 -- 2/3]

(A12)
= 1.7644k
I n t h e case of t e n s i l e f a u l t i n g t h e a~'s for t h e f u n c t i o n O~ are :
a0 = 2 ( 1 - 2c) 2 - - 4c(1 - - 2 c ) ( a 2 - 1) -b 3c2(a ~ - 1) 2

al = 8ac(1 - 2 c ) - 1 2 a c 2 ( a ~ - 1)
a2 -- 6c2(3a 2 - 1) - 4c(1 - - 2c)
as = -12ac 2
a4 --- 3C2.
L i m i t i n g cases a r e
05(a, k)k>a+l
---- 2 a c ( 4 -- 3c -- 3a2c) + [2(1 -- 2c) 2 -- 4c(1 -- 2 c ) ( a 2 - - 1)

(A13)
+ 3c2(a ~ - 1) 2] i n [(a + 1)]/(a - 1)]
05(a, ]~)k.<a-1
= k[4ac(2 - - c - - 3a2c) In [(a -[- 1 ) / ( a - - 1)] - - 16c(1 - - c) (A14)
+ 24a2c 2 -{- 4 ( 1 -- 2 c ) 2 / ( a 2 - - 1)]
F o r a m e d i u m w i t h a P o i s s o n ' s r a t i o of 1/4, c = 1 / 3 a n d t h e s e r e d u c e to
Os(a, k)k>a+l --- ( 2 a / 3 ) ( 3 - - a s)
~-(1/9)[2--4(a 2-1)+3(a ~- 1)2]ln[(a+l)/(a-- 1)] (A15)
= .65508
O~(a, k)k<~_l = ( k / 9 ) [ 4 a ( 5 - - 3a 2) In [(a + 1 ) / ( a - - 1)]
-- 32 + 24a 2 + 4 / ( a 2 - - 1)] (A16)
-- .324961c
E N E R G Y OF :ELASTIC W A V E R A D I A T I O N 1839
For O6 the a~'s are
a0 = - - ( b 2 -- 1)(3b 2 -~ 1), al = 4b(3b 2 - 1), a2 = - - 2 ( 9 b 2 -- 1),
a3 = 12b, a4 = --3
a n d the limiting cases are
O6(b, ]~)k>b+l = 2b(3b 2 -- 1) -- (b 2 -- 1)(3b 2 ~- 1) In [(b + 1 ) / ( b -- 1)]

(A17)
= 2.0768
O6(b, ]C)k<b--1-= k(4b(3b 2 - 1 In [(b + 1 ) / ( b -- 1)] -- 24b 2]

(A18)
= 2.6305k
M a n s i n h a ' s t h e o r y leads to a lower limiting p r o p a g a t i o n velocity for a tensile

fracture t h a n for a shear fracture. H o w e v e r , we h a v e retained the s a m e values of
a a n d b in c o m p u t i n g the numerical values of 05 a n d 06 as were used in c o m p u t i n g
the shear fault cases.
B y the s a m e change of the variable of integration all of the integrals designated
b y B m a y be expressed in the f o r m
B(b, p ) = ( 2 / p 2 ) [ K ( b ) -- J ( b , p)] (A19)
where p stands for either ¢oL/a or ~L/~, and
K(b) = ~b-~ y (% + a l y + a2y 2 -]- aay --~ a4y ) dy (A20)
J ( b , p) = ~b-~ y (ao ~- a l y + a2y 2 -~- a~y 3 a4y 4) cos py dy (A21)
T h e integral K ( b ) is simply ( 1 / 4 ( b -- 1))O(b, b - 1), and need not be discussed

further. T h e integral J ( b , p) m a y be e v a l u a t e d in t e r m s of cosine and sine integral
functions, a n d is given b y
4J(b, p ) -- [p-2{2a4(b + 1) -~ a3} -- ao/(b -~ 1)] cos p ( b + 1)
-- [p-2{2a4(b - 1) --]- a3} - ao/(b - 1)] cos p ( b -- 1)
-~ [a~{(b + 1): - 2p -2} + a3(b + 1) + a2]p-~ sin p ( b + 1)

(A22)
-- [a4{(b -- 1) 2 -- 2p -2} + a3(b -- 1) + a2]p -~ sin p ( b -- 1)
-t- al[Ci{p(b + 1)} -- Ci{p(b - 1)}]
-- aop[S~{p(b + 1)} -- S i { p ( b -- 1)}]

F o r small values of p a more convenient expression for numerical c o m p u t a t i o n m a y

be derived b y expanding cos p y in a power series in p y and integrating t e r m b y
term, with the result
B ( b , p ) = Ao -- A l p 2 + A2p 4 - A3p 6 + 0 ( p s) (A23)

where
Ao = (1/2)[ao -~- bai + ( 1 / 3 ) ( 3 b 2 -~- 1)a2 -/- b(b 2 -Jr- 1)a3 + ( 1 / 5 ) ( 5 b 4 + 10b s + 1)a4]
A~ = ( 1 / 4 ! ) [ ( 1 / 3 ) ( 3 b 2 + 1)a0 + b(b 2 + 1)a~ + ( 1 / 5 ) ( 5 b 4 -/- 10b 2 -[- 1)a2
+ ( b / 3 ) ( 3 b 4 + 10b 2 + 3)a3 ~ - ( 1 / 7 ) ( 7 b 6 + 35b 4 + 21b 2 + 1)a4]
A2 = ( 1 / 6 ! ) [ ( 1 / 5 ) ( 5 b 4 + 10b 2 -[- 1)a0 ~- ( b / 3 ) ( 3 b 4 + 1052 + 3)a1
+ ( 1 / 7 ) ( 7 b 6 ~- 35b 4 + 21b 2 + 1)a2 + b ( b 6 + 7b 4 + 7b 2 + 1)a3
~- ( 1 / 9 ) ( 9 b s -/- 84b 6 + 126b 4 -[- 36b 2 + 1)a4]
A3 = ( 1 / 8 ! ) [ ( 1 / 7 ) ( 7 b 6 + 35b 4 ~- 21b 2 ~- 1)a0 + b(b 6 ~- 7b 4 + 7b 2 + 1)a~
+ ( 1 / 9 ) ( 9 b s -[- 84b 6 ~- 126b 4 + 36b 2 + 1)a2
~- ( b / 5 ) ( 5 b s ~- 60b 6 + 126b 4 ~- 60b 2 ~- 5)a3
-b ( 1 / 1 1 ) ( 1 1 b TM ~- 165b s + 462b 6 + 330b ~ ~- 55b 2 -[- l)a4]
F o r large values of p the following a s y m p t o t i c expression for the C~ and S,. functions
are convenient.
S i ( x ) --~ (~r/2) - x - l I P ( x ) cos x ~- x - I Q ( x ) sin x] (A24)
C i ( x ) --* x - 1 [ P ( x ) sin x - x - ~ Q ( x ) cos x] (A25)

where
P(x) = 1 - ( 2 ! / x 2) + ( 4 ! / x 4) - ( 6 ! / x 8) -[- . . . (A26)
Q(x) = 1 - ( 3 ! / x 2) + ( 5 ! / x 4) - ( 7 ! / x 6) -t- " ' . (A27)
F o r p greater t h a n a b o u t 50 the oscillatory part, J ( b , p ) , becomes small c o m p a r e d
to K ( b ) , and for most purposes we m a y set
B(b, p) ~ 2K(b)/p ~ . (A28)

REFERENCES
Aki, K.
1962. "Accuracy of the Rayleigh Wave Method for Studying the Earthquake Mechanism,"
Bull. Earthquake Res. Inst., Tokyo Univ., 40: 91-105.
B£th, M. and H. Benioff

1958. "The Aftershock Sequence of the Kamchatka Earthquake of November 4, 1952,"
Bull. Seis. Soc. Ant., 48: 1-15.
Benioff, H., F. Press, and S. Smith
1961. "Excitation of the Free Oscillations of the Earth by Earthquakes," Jour. Geophys.
Res., 66: 605-619.
Ben-Menahem, A.
1961. "Radiation of Seismic Surface Waves from Finite Moving Sources," Bull. Seis. Soc.
Soc. Ant., 51:401-435.
Ben=Menahem, A. and M. N. ToksSz
1962. "Source Mechanism from the Spectra of Long-Period Seismic Surface Waves. 1. The
Mongolian Earthquake of December 4, 1957," Jour. Geophys. Res. 67: 1943-1955.
1963a. "2. The Kamchatka Earthquake of November 4, 1952," Jour. Geophys. Res., 68:
5207-5222.
1963b. "3. The Alaska Earthquake of July 10, 1958," Bull. Seis. Soc. Am., 53: 905-919.
DeHoop, A. T.
1958. "Representation Theorems for the Displacement in an Elastic Solid and Their Appli-
cation to Elastodynamic Diffraction Theory." Thesis, Technische Hogeschool, Delft.
DeNoyer, J.
1959. "Determination of the Energy in Body and Surface Waves, Pt. I I , " Bull. Seis. Soc.
Am., 49: 1-10.
Frantti, G. E.
1963. "Energy Spectra for Underground Explosions and Earthquakes," Bull. Seis. Soc.
Am., 53: 997-1005.
Hutchinson, R. O.
1954. "The Kamchatka Earthquakes of November 1952," Earthquake Notes, 25; Nos. 3-4:
37-41.
Ishimoto, M.
1932. "Existence of a Quadrupole Source at the Seismic Focus According to the Study of
the Distribution of the Initial Movements of Seismic Shocks," Bull. Earthquake Res.
Inst., Tokyo, 10: 449.
KISSLINGER, C., E. Z. METEKER, AND T. V. McEvILLY
1961. "SH Waves from Explosions in Soil," Jour. Geophys. Res. 66: 3487-3496.
Knopoff, L.
1958. "Energy Release in Earthquakes," Geophys. Jour. Royal Astron. Soc., 1 : 44.
Knopoff, L. and F. Gilbert
1960. "First Motions from Seismic Sources," Bull. Seis. Soe. Ant. 50: 117-134.
Mansinha, L.
1964. "The Velocity of Shear Fracture," Bull. Seis. Soc. Am. 54: 369-376.
Press, F., A. Ben-Menahem, and M. N. ToksSz
1961. "Experimental Determination of Earthquake Fault Length and Rupture Velocity,"
Jour. Geophys. Res. 66: 3471-3485.
Richter, C. F.
1958. Elementary Seismology, p. 366. W. H. Freeman & Co., San Francisco
AIR FORCE CAMBRIDGERESEARCHLABORATORIES

L. G. HANSCOMFIELD
BEDFORD, MASSACHUSETTS
Manuscript received August 9, 1964.

Bulletin of The Seismological Society of America. Vol. No. 6, Pp. 1811-1841. December, 1964

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Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America. Vol. 54, No. 6, pp. 1811-1841.

x , , x2, xa - Cartesian coordinates of point at which ui is to be evaluated

}1, }2, }3 = Cartesian coordinates of the point of integration in V and on S.

L = body force per unit volume

Cjk ,pq = p(,~ - 2 ~ 2 ) ~ j ~ + p~(~-~sk~ + ~k~j~)

OL = compressional wave velocity

= shear wave velocity

61i = lifi =j, = 0ifi#j

nk = unit outward normal on S

r = distance from (~1, ~2, ~3) to ( X l , X2, X3)

In order to represent a physically realizable transient source in an infinite region

f fs G,j[Tjk]nk ds = f fs G~i[F~]ds (4)

f f~ G~j[Fj]ds= f~+ G~flFj+] ds + f ~_ G~i[Fff]ds

u,(x, ,) = (0/0xo) -ff+ c, ,oG,,Injl , + d8 (6)

where Dj = uj + -- uj- is the relative displacement on the S + surface with respect to

where the operator M i j , q is defined by

- [6w~j~q - (2~,:~-~ + ~ . ~ + ,~j~.,)](~r)-~,(~, t - r/3)

+ "~',,.~-~do?r)-l,~(~/, t - r/~) - ['~s~ - ~s~q](~r)-~4(~, t - r/~)'~

The dot superscript is used to indicate the time derivative.

47r~i(x, t) : -- ff + (ar)-l[(1 -- 2(fl/a)2)'yinj +

+ 2(3/a)2"),i~,¢'yqnq+][)/~, t -- r / a ) ds + +(3r)-l[2.yi.yj.rqnq+f)j(~,t - r/~) (9)

-- ~q(nq+ff)i(~, t -- r/B) + ni+ff)q(~, t - r/3))] ds

LONGITUDINAL SHEAR FAULT

47r/3r~i(x, t) = 2(fl/a) a yiyl~'au'/~ + (--2y.,yfya + Ta6,l + "y16~a)wI~ (11)

~'2 = sin 0 cos ~ (13)

~'3 = sin 0 sin

the corresponding components of the particle velocity, u~, ~0, ~ become

4~r~rit~ = (3/a)3wI. sin 20 sin

41rl~rito = wIa cos 20 sin ~ (14)

47r~rit. = wI~ cos 0 cos 9.

e0 =- 2p~3 fo fo (I Uo [2 _~_ 1~¢ ]2)r2 sin O dO d~

= (Pw2/S~rS) fo (e°s2 20 A- cos2 O) sin 015 ]2 dO

By virtue of the identity

where v = 2trio is the frequency, we have

E.,o = fo ~"'~(~) a~ (20)

b ( t , t) = F(t)G(t - Uv) (21)

I . = Do fo ~(t -- (r/a) - (t/v)) dt (23)

Since we are assuming r to be very large, we m a y write r = ro -- t cos 0 in the argu-

I , = Do fo O(r - tq~/c~) dt (24)

Changing to x = r - }q./a as the variable of integration we find

1. 2 = (aDo/q.)2[G2(r) -t- 02(r - q . L / a ) -- 2 0 ( r ) 0 ( r -- q.L/c~)] (26)

f_2= 1. 2 dt = 2 ( a D o / q . ) 2 I f 2 ~ G2(r) dr - f _ ~ O ( r ) G ( r - qaL/o~) dr I (27)

G(t) = 1 - e-tIT t >= 0 (29)

whose phase angle is ~ = - 0 r / 2 ) -- o~T/2. The corresponding expressions for the

exponential function (29) are

~(o~) = [i~(1 + iwT)] -1

In Figure 2 the observed values of 9(~), in circles, tabulated by Ben-Menahem and

FIG. 2. Phase angle of displacement time function, Kamchatka earthquake,

f:= ~T-2(T- [q.L/a[); ]q.L/a[ < T

E,. = ( pw2Do2L/87rT 2) (~/a)4Ol(a, aT~L)

io2 (cos 2 20 q- cos20) sin 0

Recent theoretical work by Mansinha (1964) on the velocity of propagation of

01(a, a T ~ L ) = 4 fa cl y-l[(a - y)~ -- (a - y)4] dy

[a-- 1; aT/L < a-- 1

(b - 1; flT/L < b-- 1

O(a, b, L, T ) = (f/a)4Ol(a, a T ~ L ) + 02(b, fiT~L) (40)

of the fault. His equation for the total available energy is

D = D~[1 -- (2y/w)2] ~/~

Before proceeding with a discussion of the energy spectrum, it is of some interest to

I7.13 X 10~4 ergs for T = 0.2097 sec

The Richter magnitude of the Kamchatka earthquake has been given as

TOTAL ENERGY SPECTRUM

L(~)= Do - (ro/a) - }q~,/a) dt d}