Science

 The systematic observation of natural events and conditions in order to discover facts about
them and to formulate laws and principles based on these facts.
 The organized body of knowledge is derived from such observations and that can be verified or
tested by further investigation.
 Any specific branch of this general body of knowledge such as biology, physics or astronomy.

Primary Aim: Collect facts and Data

Ultimate Purpose: Discern the order that exists between and amongst various facts
Characteristics:
 Empirical: Relies more on experience than authority, common sense or logic
 Objective: Some conclusion if some observations are made
 Self-Corrective: New evidence may contradict older ones
 Progressive: Because it is empirical and self-corrective
 Tentative: Doesn’t claim to have the whole truth. New information may obsolete old info
 Parsimonious: Simplest explanation to a phenomena
 Conceived with theory: Develop theories of how something works

Technology
 The process of which humans modify nature to meet their needs and wants
 Solve problems and enhance control over environment

Engineering
 The creative application of scientific principles to design or develop structures, machines,
apparatus or manufacturing process or wombs using them singly or in combination; or to
construct or operate the same with full cognizance of their design; or to forecast their behavior
under specific operating conditions; also respects an intended function, economics of operation
and safety of life and property.
 Science aims to understand the why and how of nature while engineering seeks the natural
world to meet human needs.
 Scientists study the world as it is and engineers create the world that has never been.

Research
 Systematic process of collecting and analyzing information to increase our understanding of a
phenomenon under study
 Systematic investigation to establish facts and reach new conclusions
 Careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in some fields of knowledge undertaken to
establish facts or principles
 Encompasses activities that increase the sum of human knowledge
Characteristics:
 Controlled: In exploring causality in relation of two variables the study must be set in a way to
minimize the effects of other factors affecting the relationship
 Rigorous: Ensure that the procedures followed to find answers to questions are relevant,
appropriate and justified.
 Systematic: Certain logic in undertaken steps
 Valid & Verifiable: Conclusions based on findings must be correct and verified by others
 Empirical: Conclusions based on hard evidence gathered through real life experiments and
observations
 Critical: Critical scrutiny of procedures used and the methods employed

Deduction:
 From the general to the more specific
 General principles and laws to individual examples (e.g.: type of reasoning for geometric proofs)
 Advantage: If terms are perfectly defined it produces absolute certainty
 Disadvantage: Difficult to find circumstances in which all terms and principles can be defined
perfectly

Induction:
 From the specific to the more general
 Individual examples to general principles and laws (e.g.: type of reasoning used in
experimentation)
 Advantage: Relatively easy to do
 Disadvantage: Never certain that all particulars were observed

Research and Development:

 Comprises creative work undertaken on a systematic basis in order to increase the stock of
knowledge including knowledge of non-culture and society and the use of this stock of
knowledge to devise new applications.
 Research phase: Basic science must exist to support the products viability and if the science
lacking it must be discovered.
 Development phase: if the science exist, the phase of turning it into useful product

Innovation:
 The introduction of something new, a new way of doing something, successful exploitation of
new ideas.
 Invention: An idea made manifest (First occurrence of an idea for a new product or process)
 Innovation: Ideas applied successfully (First attempt to carry it out into practice)
 Incremental Innovation: Where something is adopted or modified
 Radical Innovation: Which involves completely new ideas
Science vs. Technology
Science Technology
Object Unchangeable Changeable
Principle of Motion Inside Outside
End Knowing the General Knowing the Concrete
Activity Theoria: end in itself Poesis: end in something else
Method Abstraction Modeling Concrete
Process Conceptualizing Optimization
Innovation Form Discovery Invention
Type of Results Law Like Rule Like
Time Perspective Long Term Short Term

Aristotle:
 IPSE SPIXIT
 Problems can be solved by thinking about them but he never tested his ideas

Galileo:
 Often considered first true scientist because he did experiments

Ibn Al Haytham:
 Pioneer of modern scientific method
 Emphasis on experiment long before Galileo

Pure, Basic or Fundamental Research

 Driven by scientists curiosity or interest in a scientific question
 Involves development and testing theories and hypothesis that are intellectually challenging to
researcher but may or may not have practical application at the present time or in the future
 Frequently involves very abstract and specialized concepts (Not a jump in unknown, starts by
mistake sometimes or completely different problem)

Applied Research:
 Designed to solve practical problems of the real world rather than to acquire knowledge for its
sake
 Often involves the use of some technology in the development of new process or systems
 Frequently linked to R&D
Technology Readiness Level
 Development of technology follows different steps with different requirements

Pure Basic Research:

Experimental and theoretical work undertaken to acquire new knowledge without looking for long term
benefits other than the advancement of knowledge

Strategic Basic Research:

Experimental and theoretical work undertaken to acquire new knowledge directed into specified broad
areas in the expectation of useful discoveries. It provides the broad base of knowledge necessary for the
solution of recognized practical problems

Applied Research:
Original work undertaken primarily to acquire new knowledge with a specific application in view. It is
undertaken to determine possible uses for the findings of basic research or to determine new ways of
achieving some specific or predetermined objectives.

Experimental Development:
Systematic work using existing knowledge gained from research or practical experience that is directed
to producing new materials, products or devices to installing new process systems and serves to
improving sustainability of those already produced or installed.
Descriptive Research:
Attempts to describe a solution systematically or a problem, phenomenon, service…etc. or about the
significant aspects of the research domain.

Correlational Research:
To discover or establish the existence of a relationship or independence between two or more aspects
of a solution.

Explanatory Research:
Attempts to clarify or explain why and how there is a relationship between two aspects of a situation or
phenomenon.

Exploratory Research:
When the objective is to explore an area where little is known or to investigate the possibility of
launching a particular research study

Explicative Research:
About the behavior of a phenomenon

Predictive Research:
About the future

Prescriptive Research:
Involving, in addition to prediction, prescription and application of norms and processes

Types of Research Inquiry Mode:

1. Qualitative Strategies: Structured

To determine the extent of a problem, issue or phenomenon

 Survey Research: Studies samples

 Experimental Research: Determines impact or influences

2. Quantitative Strategies: Unstructured

To explore the nature of a problem, issue or phenomenon

 Ethnography: Studies an intact cultural group in a natural setting over a prolonged period of
time.
 Grounded Theory: Derives a general, abstract theory of process, action or interaction grounded
in views of participants
 Case Studies: Exploring in depth an event, activity, process or entity
  Phenomenological Research: Trying to understand the meaning of a phenomena as perceived by
the actors that liked it.
 Narrative Research: Based on the analysis of stories

3. Mixed Strategies:
 Sequential Mixed Modes: Elaborate on for expand the findings of one method with another
method
 Concurrent Mixed Methods: Merges quantitative and qualitative data in order to reach a
comprehensive analysis of the research problem
 Transformative Mixed Methods: Uses a theoretical lens to determine topics of interests and the
methods to apply

Well Formed Hypothesis:

In the form of a specific assertion that leads itself to mathematical proof or statistical comparison.

 The validation can be deterministic or stochastic

 Proof for validity is only possible in rare occasions where there is a correctness preserving set of
mathematical transformations that relates one measure to the other in all cases we provide
evidence for validation.

Null Form Hypothesis:

H is customary to present most hypothesis in null form.

 There is no significant statistical difference between measure A and A (Reaction time of 2

runners)
 If observed influential statistics very different, reject the hypothesis.

Cut off point:

Probability P that obtained data for a correct hypothesis. If probability is small, then the null hypothesis
is unlikely to be correct. The cut off point for this decision is (1-α). Hard Science: α~ 0.05 − 0.01. Social
Science: α~ 0.1 − 0.2

Error Type I:
Researcher rejects the hypothesis when it should actually be accepted. Its probability is equal to α.

Error Type II:

Researcher accepts the hypothesis when it should actually be rejected. Its probability is β.

 Decreasing α or β without increasing the rigor or validity of the data will automatically increase
one of them.
Validity:
Provide evidence of the validity of the hypothesis through: Observation, case study, correlation,
differentiation, experimentation (α increases respectively). Always use the more constrained level of
research activity (Principle)

Observation:
Least constrained not bound to a strong hypothesis. Subjects are observed in mutual self-lag so that
patterns or trends might be observed.

Case Study:
Researcher intervenes with the subjects functioning to some degree. For example by asking questions or
asking to perform certain tasks. Often used for software engineering and information systems.

Correlation:
Quantifying the relationship between two or more variables. (Years of experience with defects)

Differentiation:
Explicit comparison between two or more groups of subjects in terms of one concept of interest. All
constraints over all groups must be the same, except for the single concept of interest that defines each
group. The variable is called preexisting variable and is not under the control of the researcher.

Experimentation:
Subjects are assigned to groups without bias, so there is no preexisting variable. An explicit comparison
is then made between such groups.

Tests for Hypothesis Testing:

1. Tests to determine differences in population means: Simple T test, Correlated T test, ANOVA
2. Tests of goodness of fit: Chi Square test, Kdmogorov-Smirnoff test
3. Correlation: Pearson, Spearman, Kendall’s tau, Point based, Partial Correlation tests

Measurements and Metrics:

Measurement of phenomena as the basis for the scientific method (Measuring level of Nile 3000 BC)

 Quantification is the very basis of modern science

Measurement:
An empirical objective assignment of a number or symbol to an entity to characterize a specific attribute

Or: Dimension or quantity reckoned by the same standard.

 Symbolic system of ranking and comparison

 Aspect of interest is called attribute
 Mathematical system of ranking is called scale
  Action of producing this mapping is called measurement

A direct measurement is a quantification based on mapping into a numerical or symbolic value obtained
from a scale of a directly observed aspect of a phenomenon.

Types of Scales:
1. Nominal. Least Powerful: A simple mapping into a number of disjoint sets without regard to any
other relationships. This is a naming scale
2. Ordinal: A mapping based on rank value. This creates an ordered category.
3. Interval (T in Celsius): A mapping in which both the ordering and the distance between the
values of attributes can be deduced
4. Ratio (T in Kelvin). Most powerful: A mapping from the real world onto the set of real numbers.

Any phenomenon can be measured by any scale given understanding of the underlying principle. But try
to use the highest scale possible.

 Rule: The scale for an indirect measurement is only as strong as the weakest of the scale types
that compose it (speed: distance and time)

Desirable properties of a measurement:

Reliability, Effectiveness of range, Dimensionality, Validity, Consonance, Practicability

Reliability:
When two measures of the same entity made independently and in the same way are totally the same
then we have measurement reliability.

 There is Correlation Condition M1(A)-M2(A)=0

 Test Retest Reliability: Repeatability
M1 and M2 same type of measurement made by same experimenter at different times
 Inter-rater reliability: Reproducibility
M1 and M2 same type of measurement made by various experimenters at the same or different
times each yield same results
 Internally Consistent:
M, N…P are different types of measurements but of the same phenomenon but still agree within
themselves.

Reliability is a function of:

 Precision of the operational definition of the constant

 Clarity of the operational definition of the constant
 Care with which measure are carried out
 Number of independent observations

Effectiveness of range:
Are we using the right instrument: allowed interval, resolution, precision
Dimensionality:
Not only the scales but also the dimensions on the right and left hand side of the equation must be
identical.

Validity:
Degree of which any measurement approach or instrument succeeds in describing or quantifying what it
is designed to measure

 Representation Condition: Measurements must be accurate of the true behavior or property we

perceive in the real world as reflected in the entity measured.
 Relating measures: prediction models, assessment measures, assessment system, predictive
measures and prediction system
 Elements of a prediction system:
 Base measure: unite of measurement
 Target measure: object of the analysis
 Prediction model: to best predict the probability of outcome
 Prediction procedures: methods that allow us to link the measure with the object of analysis
 Measures do not only have to be valid in terms of the representation condition but also a model
in which terms of relationship that exist between them must be defined.

Consonance:
Measure and measurement must be aligned with project, process or product goals. In this way data will
not be open to abuse.

Practicability:
Collecting data and making measurements must be feasible (Automate the measuring process)

Desirable Properties of a measurement:

 Traceability- by calibration
 Repeatability= Precision
 Reproducibility
 Accuracy or certainty
 Measure of related uncertainty

The Scientific Method:

A method of inquiry based on empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific principles of
reasoning

1. Formulation of a question
2. Hypothesis
3. Prediction
4. Testing
5. Analysis
  Examine other people’s work on similar topics and do not start from scratch
 Do not repeat mistakes
 The hypothesis is an educated guess on how things work
 Experiments to test the hypothesis. Experiments have to be a fair test, by only changing one
factor at a time. Repeat the experiments to make sure and verify.
 Analyze your data and see if your hypothesis is true/false. Reconstruct it if false and go over the
process again.
 Communicate/Publish your results.

Engineering Design Process:

Systematic problem solving strategy with criteria and constrains used to develop possible solutions and
to narrow down to only one.

1. Define the problem

 Who needs what for which reasons
 Problems can be received from a client, inspired by experienced situation, out of specific
analysis of literature or real world
Engineering Problem Science Problem
Problem Statement Incomplete Succinct Problem Statement
No readily identifiable closure Identifiable closure
Solution neither unique not compact Unique solution
Solution needs integration of many Problem defined and solved with
specialties specialized knowledge

2. Do background research
 Learn from experience of others and don’t repeat mistakes
 Research in two major areas: User/customer, Existing Solutions
3. Specify requirements
 Important characteristics for example by examining features of a similar existing product
4. Create alternate solutions
 Many good solutions exist, consider more than only one
5. Choose the best solution
 Choose the one that best meets the stated requirements
6. Do development work
 Refine and improve
7. Build a prototype
 Operating and testing version of a solution
8. Test and redesign
 Multiple loops and circles around your final solution

Good Engineers:
 Place ethics and morals above all else
 Are team players
  Follow a deterministic design process
 Follow a schedule
 Document their work
 Never stop learning

Pasteur’s Quadrant:
A label given to research methods that seek to gain fundamental understanding of scientific problems
and eventually beneficial to the society

Research Quality:
R=Reliability of results, S=Scientific value, P=Practical Value

Q=Rx(S+P)

 Both scientific methods and engineering design can be used for basic and applied research
 Applied science is typically engineering which develops technology although there might be
feedback between basic science and applied science: R&D

Philosophy: Mother of all Sciences

Pilo+Sofia= Love of Wisdom

 Love of knowledge, body of knowledge

 Desire of knowing and explaining the universe and its reality. Focus on the concept of being as
first cause of all things.
 Investigate the being in all its multifaceted aspects.
 Determine human destiny
 Find the best way to fulfill it
1. Ask good questions
2. Label with an accurate language
3. Make useful qualitative models
4. Decompose (complexity reduction)
5. Perform good/accurate measurements
 6. Clarify, visualize and present the problem
7. Communicate
 While targeting specific and narrow issues, scientific results can help to solve high level
problems connected with the investigation and determination of being.

The Main Problems:

These problems are not independent. They all concur from different directions in the determination of
the being.

1. Gnoseological problems:
 Knowledge study, the study of knowledge in itself
 Four main sub-issues:
 Distinguishes between perceived and intellective knowledge
 Investigates their origin
 Establishes if it is possible to reach the truth
 Identifies the human limits
 Perceived knowledge: synthesis of impressions received by our senses regarding an object (tree)
 Intellective knowledge: mental process that allows us to catch the essence of such an object
(pine tree)
 Intellective knowledge not admitted by all philosophers since it is rather an opinion than
objective knowledge

2. Metaphysical problems:
 Beyond natural
 Study of the being beyond what is physically perceivable
 Metaphysical problems deal with the study of being so it is also known as ontological problems
 Two main approaches:
 Monism: Admit only one origin. The natural perceivable world coincides with the
transcendental
 Dualism: Nature and transcendental world are separated (religion)

3. Cosmological problems:
 World study
 The study of nature and all the things that can be perceived and experienced
 Inorganic vs. organic nature
 Materialism: Things are made of an eternal material. They obey only to cause effect
relationships
 Animism: a living material that animates and give purpose to all the things through an intrinsic
force
 Emanutism: All things come from the first reality or principle. The closer to the source the more
pure and perfect.
4. Psychological problems:
 Soul study
 Study of the human soul: its origin, nature, activities and destiny
 Rational psychology has two approaches:
 Materialism: Soul is made of the same material as the body, so it will endure the same
destiny
 Spiritualism: Soul id rational trigger from the absolute principle, the beginning of all things
 Experimental psychology: it is not about the soul but about sensations, feelings, passions and
desires

5. Theological problems:
 God Study
 The study of God as something that must be problem as something that must be proven
through empirical evidence rather than faith. So it has nothing to do with religion.

6. Moral problems:
 Ethical problem, values and behavior
 Studies the practical activities of human beings. Aim is good and right
 Physical= Pleasure
 Intellectual= truth
 Moral= overcome the passion to find the truth

7. Aesthetical problems:
 At first sight
 Studies of nature of beauty, natural and artificial
 Beauty as an objective feature in ancient times
 Subjective value of beauty in romanticism

8. Political Problems:
 Science of the state
 Studies the form of government and use of power towards citizens
 Legislative: Make the laws
 Executive: Apply the laws
 Judiciary: Enforce the laws

9. Sociological problems:
 Comrade study
 Study of the human society
 Comte: Social phenomena follow fixed laws and rules
 Three phases in evolution of human society
 Theological
 Metaphysical
 Positive
 Marx: Social theory is determined by the economic needs: production, distribution and
circulation of goods
 10. Economic problems:
 House Administration
 Studies the means of production in relation with capital and work
 Created by unbalance between needs and resources

11. Historical problems:

 History description
 Studies the historical events

12. Pedagogical problems:

 Studies of education
 Two approaches:
 Hetero education: teacher shapes the individual
 Auto education: teacher follows the natural inclination of the pupil

13. Epistemology:
 Theory of knowledge
 What is knowledge and how can it be acquired
 Propositional knowledge: 2+2=4 (knowledge that)
 Non-propositional knowledge: knowledge how
 Acquaintance knowledge: knowing a thing, place, activity…etc.

Beliefs:
A psychological state in which an individual holds a conjecture or premise to be true

Truth:
If something is actually known, then it cannot be false so truth can be defined as opposite of falsehood.

Truth bearers:
 Entity that is either true or false
 Propositions, statements, beliefs, intuitions, sentences, concepts, thoughts and judgments

Criteria for truth:

Authority, coherence, consensus gentium, consistency (mere, strict), correspondence, custom,
emotions, instinct, intuition, majority rule, naïve realism, pragmatic, revelation, time, tradition.

 Tenacity: it has always been so

 Intuition: I feel it is so
 Authority: they say it is so
 Rationalism: it makes sense for it to be so
 Empiricism: data suggests it to be so
 Science: it can be demonstrated to be so
- Naturalistic observation
- Case study method
 - Correlational research
- Differential research
- Experimental research
 Knowledge is a justified true belief

Gettier’s Problem:
Smith has applied for a job but it is claimed, thus justified belief that Jones will get the job. He also has a
justified belief that Jones has 10 coins in his pocket. He therefore concludes that the man who will get
the job has 10 coins in his pocket.

In fact, Smith does get the job and he happens to have 10 coins in his pocket as well by chance.

So his belief that the man has 10 coins in his pocket will get the job was true, also it cannot be regarded
as knowledge.

 A true proposition can be believed by an individual but still not to be knowledge

Infallibilism:
 Richard Kirkham
 Justification for a belief must be infallible

Reliabilism:
 Alvin Goldman
 A true belief counts as knowledge only if it is produced by a reliable belief forming process

Prior Knowledge:
Knowledge that is known independently from experience

Posteriori Knowledge:
Knowledge that is known from experience
Analytic/Synthetic Propositions: Immanuel Kant
 Analytic: Know them to be true just by understanding their meaning (My father’s brother is my
uncle)
 Synthetic: Propositions with distinct subjects and predicates (My father’s brother has black hair)

Etymology:
Branch of philosophy that involves systematizing, defending and recommending concepts of right and
wrong conduct.

Engineering Ethics:
Study of moral issues and decisions confronting individuals and organizations engaged in engineering.

NSPE professional obligations (National society of professional engineers)

Law is not enough we need to rely on principles and canons.

Nicolescu Seminar:
 Fabrication: making up results
 Falsification: manipulation of research materials, equipment or process or changing results so
that the research is not accurately represented
 Plagiarism: A proportion of another ideas, process, results or words without proper credit

Onori Seminar:
 Paradigm: Framework within which we shall work
 Philosophical and theoretical framework of a scientific school or discipline within which
theories, laws and generalizations and the experiments performed in support of them are
formulated.
 Method: A tool for a specific scientific investigation
 Methodology: Principles that dictate how a given set of methods are to be deployed and
interpreted. The structured approach used to investigate whether our ideas are valid or not.
 Proposition: Your idea as a hypothesis

Qualitative vs. Quantitative Method:

Qualitative Quantitative
Information Words/text Numbers
Goal Definitions Analysis
Sized Study Small Large
Perspective Holistic Specific
Researcher’s role Involved Neutral
Design Open Defined

Karl Popper: Nothing can be proven true/valid if it can just be falsified.