Chemical Engineering Science 97 (2013) 1–6

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Chemical Engineering Science

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ces

Arsenic removal from groundwater by electrocoagulation

in a pre-pilot-scale continuous filter press reactor
Omar J. Flores a, José L. Nava a,n, Gilberto Carreño a, Enrique Elorza b, Francisco Martínez a
a
Departamento de Ingeniería Geomática e Hidráulica, Universidad de Guanajuato, Av. Juárez 77, Zona Centro, C.P. 36000 Guanajuato, Guanajuato, Mexico
b
Departamento de Ingeniería en Minas Metalurgia y Geología, Universidad de Guanajuato, ExHacienda San Matías S/N, C.P. 36020 Guanajuato,
Guanajuato, Mexico

H I G H L I G H T S

Arsenic removal from groundwater by electrocoagulation.

Aluminum as sacrificial anodes.

Electrolyzes at different flow rates and current densities.

Electrocoagulation led to 100% arsenic removal (50 μg L−1) with 3.9 kWh m−3.

The influence of hypochlorite on arsenic removal efficiency was analyzed.

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: We investigated arsenic removal from groundwater by electrocoagulation (EC) using aluminum as the
Received 19 November 2012 sacrificial anode in a pre-pilot-scale continuous filter press reactor. The groundwater was collected at a
Received in revised form depth of 320 m in the Bajío region in central Mexico (arsenic 50 μg L–1, carbonates 40 mg L–1, hardness
6 April 2013
80 mg L–1, pH 7.5 and conductivity 150 μS cm–1). The influence of current density, mean linear flow and
Accepted 15 April 2013
Available online 24 April 2013
hypochlorite addition on the As removal efficiency was analyzed. Poor removal of total arsenic (o 60 %)
in the absence of hypochlorite is due to a mixture of arsenite (HAsO2(aq) and H3AsO3(aq)) and arsenate
Keywords: (HAsO42−). Arsenic removal is more efficient when arsenite is oxidized to arsenate by addition of
Arsenic removal hypochlorite at a concentration typically used for disinfection (1 mg L–1). Arsenate removal by EC might
Aluminum sacrificial anode
involve adsorption on aluminum hydroxides generated in the process. Complete arsenate removal by
Dissolution
EC was satisfactory at a current density of 5 mA cm–2 and mean linear flow of 0.91 cm s–1, with
Electrolysis
Coagulation electrolytic energy consumption of 3.9 kWh m3.
Precipitation & 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Arsenic-contaminated water is a significant problem owing to

Mining activities have historically led to environmental pollu-
tion. The main elements in groundwater contamination are heavy
metals and metalloids such as lead, copper, zinc, iron, and arsenic
produced by acid rock drainage (Ramos et al., 2011). Dissolved
arsenic (As) was recently found in groundwater in the Bajío region
(Guanajuato, central Mexico) at concentrations of 50–155 μg L–1.
This problem was caused by arsenic mobilization in mine tailings
dams (Hernández et al., 2010) and natural weathering of arsenic-
containing rocks (Ramos et al., 2011). Mining was once the
predominant economic activity in the region.
n
Corresponding author. Tel.: +52 4731020100x2289; fax: +52 4731020100x2209.
E-mail addresses: jlnm@ugto.mx, jlnavam@yahoo.com.mx (J.L. Nava).
its toxicity. Long-term exposure to arsenic leads to chronic health
problems such as hyperpigmentation and keratosis of the hands
and feet; it also causes bladder, lung, skin, kidney, liver, and
prostate cancer (Smith et al., 2006). Considering the high toxicity
of arsenic, the World Health Organization (WHO) and the US
Environmental Protection Agency have set a maximum acceptable
level of 10 μg L–1 for arsenic in drinking water, which differs from
the recommendation of the Mexican authorities (25 μg L–1).
Removal of arsenic from large volumes of water is generally
performed by adding chemical coagulants such as aluminum or
iron sulfate. However, owing to low concentrations of dissolved As,
this process produces large amounts of sludge because SO4– anions
consume 50% of the coagulant (Rios et al., 2005). This is the main
reason why electrocoagulation (EC) is typically used, in which
aluminum or iron, when dissolved electrolytically, supports the
coagulation process and decreases the amount of sludge. EC is

0009-2509/$ - see front matter & 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ces.2013.04.029
2 O.J. Flores et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 97 (2013) 1–6

effective in destabilizing dispersed fine particles and anions
contained in water (Chen et al., 2002). Flocs of metallic hydroxides
are formed and remove dissolved species (Chen et al., 2002; Shen
et al., 2003; Hernández et al., 2010; Mohora et al., 2012).
Arsenic species in water from deep wells (pH∼7.5) include
innocuous arsenite (HAsO2 and H3AsO3, oxidation state III) and
arsenate anions (HAsO42–, oxidation state V) (Pourbaix, 1974;
Smedley and Kinniburgh, 2002). Arsenate at neutral pH is more
susceptible to EC removal (Hansen et al., 2007; Hernández et al.,
2010; Wan et al., 2011; Mohora et al., 2012; Balasubramanian et al.,
2009) because arsenate anions adsorb onto flocs of iron (Hansen
et al., 2007, 2008; Kobya et al., 2011; Wan et al., 2011) and
aluminum hydroxides (Hansen et al., 2008; Hernández et al.,
2010; Kobya et al., 2011; Mohora et al., 2012). Martínez-Villafañe
et al. (2009) and Kobya et al. (2011) reported that arsenate removal
occurs via ligand exchange with ferric hydroxides. According to
van Genuchten et al. (2011), As(V) forms inner-sphere complexes
with the surface of iron oxides. However, reports on the mechan-
ism of As removal by aluminum flocs are rather limited. Hansen
et al. (2007) reported that oxidation of As(III) to As(V) by ferric
ions and/or oxygen bubbling is convenient.
The electrode materials commonly used for As removal by EC
are mainly iron (Parga et al., 2005; Hansen et al., 2007, 2008;
García-Lara and Montero-Ocampo, 2010; Kobya et al., 2011; Wan
et al., 2011) and aluminum (Hernández et al., 2010; Kobya et al.,
2011; Mohora et al., 2012). Kobya et al. (2011) demonstrated that
aluminum was better than iron electrodes at removing arsenic
from drinking water. We obtained similar results in a previous
study (Hernández et al., 2010).
There are literature reports on EC removal of As using Al
electrodes from synthetically prepared water (Hernández et al.,
2010; Kobya et al., 2011) and groundwater (Mohora et al., 2012)
containing high arsenic concentrations. The results differ because
a great number of species that are present in groundwater
interfere with arsenic removal, besides reactor operating para-
meters such as current density, flow rate and geometry.
The aim of this study was to decrease the arsenic concentration
in groundwater from the Bajío region by EC using aluminum as the
sacrificial anode in a pre-pilot-scale continuous filter press reactor.
The influence of current density, mean linear flow rate and
hypochlorite addition on the As removal efficiency was analyzed.
The energy consumption for electrolysis was also estimated.
2. Electrochemical and chemical processes during As removal
by EC using aluminum electrodes
Al(OH)3 and Al2O3 flocs are believed to adsorb HAsO2− 4 (Hernández
et al., 2010; Kobya et al., 2011; Mohora et al., 2012)
Al(OH)3(s)+HAsO2– 2–
4 -[Al(OH)3  HAsO4 ](s) (4)
Al2O3(s)+HAsO2– 2–
4 -[Al2O3  HAsO4 ](s) (5)
We previously reported that arsenite removal may occur by
sweep coagulation, in which interaction occurs between As(III)
and Al(OH)3 and Al2O3 flocs (Hernández et al., 2010). However,
reports on the mechanism of As removal by aluminum flocs are
rather limited. A deeper understanding of the As interaction with
aluminum precipitates requires additional research.
At the aluminum cathode, hydrogen gas is released
3H2O+3e–-1.5H2+3OH– (6)
The solution at the cathode interface becomes alkaline over
time. OH– ions migrate and diffuse away from the cathode to the
anode, thus favoring water formation by reaction with protons
from reaction (2) to (3)
OH–+H+-H2O (7)
The major problem with aluminum anodes is passivation due
to Al2O3 precipitation, which leads to high anode and cell
potentials and increases the energy consumption and cost of EC
(Kobya et al., 2011; Mohora et al., 2012). Passivation can be
controlled at low current densities in combination with convection
(turbulent flow conditions), which favors Al3+ transport away from
the surface to the bulk solution. In addition, cathodes of the same
material can be used to electrodissolve Al2O3 by periodic current
reversal (Mohora et al., 2012), which allows even consumption of
the aluminum electrodes during the process.
3. Experimental
3.1. Solutions
Groundwater for electrochemical treatment was collected from
deep wells (320 m) located in the Bajío region (Guanajuato, México).
Table 1 lists the characteristics of the sample. The groundwater
contained 50 μg L–1 total As, which exceeds the Mexican standard for
arsenic in water (25 μg L–1). It is believed that As(III) is predominant
in this anaerobic groundwater. Water samples were obtained from
the wells before the disinfection process, which usually involves
hypochlorite addition.

EC involves in situ generation of coagulants by electrodissolu-
tion of aluminum electrodes. Aluminum cations are generated at
the anode and hydrogen gas is evolved at the cathode. This process
generates aluminum hydroxide, which is believed to adsorb As
(Hernández et al., 2010; Kobya et al., 2011; Mohora et al., 2012).
The electrode and chemical reactions in neutral solution (pH∼7)
are shown below. At the anode, electrodissolution generates
aluminum ions (Al3+), which are transformed to aluminum hydro-
xide and aluminum oxide in the bulk
Al(s)-Al3++3e–
3.2. Pre-pilot-scale filter press cell
Fig. 1 shows a schematic of the experimental set-up.
The system consists of a continuous pre-pilot-scale filter press
cell in which the coagulant is produced. The resulting solution
Table 1
Characteristics of the groundwater samples collected at a depth of 320 m in the
(1) Bajío region (Guanajuato, México).

3+ + After hypochlorite additiona

Al +3H2O-Al(OH)3(s)+3H (2) Parameter Fresh

2Al3++3H2O-Al2O3(s)+6H+ (3) Total arsenic (μg L–3) 59 59

Carbonates (mg L–3) 40 40
The oxidation states of As in water are As(III) and As(V). As(V) Hardness (mg L–1) 80 80
is typically dominant in aerobic surface waters, while As(III) is found pH 7.5 8.1
Conductivity (μS cm–1) 150 392
in anaerobic groundwater. At neutral pH, the predominant As
(V) species has a net negative charge (HAsO42−), while As(III) species a
Hypochlorite was added at 1 mg L–1, the concentration typically used for
generally have no net charge (HAsO2 and H3AsO3) (Pourbaix, 1974). disinfection of groundwater.
 O.J. Flores et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 97 (2013) 1–6
Fig. 1. Electrical and flow circuit for the EC process in a filter press reactor.
Table 2
Dimensions of the electrocoagulation reactor.
Reactor volume, Vr (cm3)
Height, B (cm)
Channel length, L (cm)
Chanel width, S (cm)
Total length of six channels, LT (cm)
Number of channels
Anode area in each channel in contact with solution (cm2)
Cathode area in each channel in contact with solution (cm2)
Cross-sectional area, AT (cm2)
(mixture of water and coagulant) is passed to a test jar to induce
flocculation and adsorption of arsenic on aluminum flocs. The
arsenic is then precipitated and the clarified solution is analyzed.
The reactor was switched in monopole configuration. Three
aluminum electrodes (3.05 cm  8.10 cm  0.30 cm) were used
as anodes and four similar electrodes were used as cathodes.
The electrodes were spaced at 0.60 cm using propylene separators.
The reactor dimensions are listed in Table 2. This pre-pilot-scale
reactor was developed in our laboratory for removal of arsenic
from synthetic solutions (Hernández et al., 2010). The serpentine
array induces fluid turbulence, enhancing mass transport of the
coagulant from the anode to the bulk and avoiding both alumina
precipitation and anode passivation.
The reactor was connected to a hydraulic system consisting of a
centrifuge pump (model MDX-MT-3) of 0.25 HP and a flow meter
(model F-44250LH-8) with a capacity of 0–1 L min–1. The PVC pipes
connecting the reservoir to the pump were 0.3 in. in diameter.
The valves and connections were also made of PVC. A BK Precision
power supply (model 1090) was used for electrolysis tests.
The cell potential was measured using the power supply.
The aluminum electrode potential was measured as the difference
between aluminum and a saturated mercurous sulfate reference
3
electrode (SSE; Radiometer model XR200), 0.615 V vs. SHE/V. The
potential of this electrode was determined using a high-impedance
multimeter (Agilent model 34401A). All electrode potentials are
reported with respect to SHE.
3.3. Methodology
EC studies were carried out using the experimental set-up
shown in Fig. 1. EC was performed under different hydrodynamic
conditions with a mean linear flow rate of 0.91–4.55 cm s–1 and
current density of 4, 5 and 6 mA cm–2. Each resulting solution was
immediately passed to the test jar and mixed at slow speed
(30 rpm) for 15 min for aggregate growth. The aggregates were
allowed to precipitate in static solution for approximately 1 h.
Arsenic was analyzed in the resulting clarified solution. After
dissolution of the floc, aluminum was also analyzed.
3.4. Analytical procedure
Arsenic concentrations in the samples were measured using a
standard method (APHA, 1995) with an atomic absorption spectro-
meter (Perkin-Elmer AAnalist 200) equipped with a manual
hydride generator at 188.9 nm. The As detection limit was
0.1 μg L–1 and the error for triplicate analyses was within 2%. The
kinetics of aluminum dissolution was followed by dissolving the
sludge at pH 2 and then quantifying aluminum ions by AA.
Carbonates and hardness were analyzed according to standard
methods (APHA, 1995). Conductivity and pH measurements were
carried out on a waterproof instrument (HANNA model HI 991300).
All chemical reagents were of analytical grade. Each individual
experiment was performed at least three times and the results were
averaged.
88.94
3.05
8.1
0.6 4. Analysis of results and discussion
48.6
6 4.1. Arsenic removal from fresh groundwater
24.7
24.7
1.83 Fig. 2 shows the residual concentration of arsenic (CAs) in fresh
groundwater after EC as a function of the mean linear flow rate (u)
at 4, 5 and 6 mA cm–2. The experimental and theoretical aluminum
doses are also shown.
At 4 mA cm–2, CAs linearly increased between 23 and 50 μg L–1
as a function of u in the interval 0.91–3.64 cm s–1 (Fig. 2a),
indicating that arsenic removal decreases as u increases. This is
due to depletion of the experimental Al(III) dose from 42 to
5 mg L–1. The quasi-constant CAs at u ≥ 3.64 cm s–1 is due to the
low dose of aluminum (CAl(III) o4 mg L–1). The experimental
aluminum dosage, obtained by analysis of the sludge, was lower
than the theoretical amount added, calculated as
 
jLMW
C AlðIIIÞðNÞ ¼ ð1  106 ÞðNÞ ð8Þ
nFSu
where CAl(III) is the aluminum concentration (mg L–1), j is the
current density (A cm–2), L is the length of one channel (cm), MW
is the molecular weight of aluminum (26.98 g mol–1), n is the
number of electrons exchanged (n ¼3), F is the Faraday constant
(96485 C mol–1), S is the channel width (cm), u is the mean linear
flow rate (cm s–1), N is the number of channels, and 1  106 is a
conversion factor used to obtain the aluminum concentration in
mg L–1.
The difference between the experimental and theoretical
values can probably be explained, on one hand, by oxygen
evolution according to Eq. (9), which typically occurs simulta-
neously with Eq. (1) (Kobya et al., 2011), and, on the other hand, to
4 O.J. Flores et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 97 (2013) 1–6

1991). The arsenite species can be oxidized to HAsO42− by addition

of hypochlorite. The effectiveness of this oxidation is well known
(Ghurye and Clifford, 2001).
The experimental aluminum dose decreased as the current
density increased (Fig. 2a–c), contrary to what was expected. This
could be related, on one hand, to enhanced oxygen evolution and,
on the other hand, to simultaneous precipitation of Al2O3 at the
anode (Kobya et al., 2011; Mohora et al., 2012), even under such
hydrodynamic conditions. The change in shape for the experi-
mental aluminum dose curve in Fig. 2a–c may be attributable to
the formation of a layer of Al2O3 at the anode, which may passivate
the anode against progressive electrodissolution. However, this
analysis may be inaccurate. X-Ray studies would be helpful in
identifying the Al2O3 layer, but this was beyond the scope of the
present study.

4.2. Arsenic removal from groundwater after hypochlorite addition

Fig. 3 shows CAs in pre-conditioned drinking water after EC as a

function of u at 4, 5 and 6 mA cm–2. The experimental and
theoretical aluminum doses are also shown.

Fig. 2. Influence of the mean linear flow rate on the residual arsenic concentration
and aluminum dose for fresh groundwater (initial parameters: arsenic 50 μg L–1,
carbonates 40 mg L–1, hardness 80 mg L–1, pH 7.5 and conductivity 150 μS cm–1) at a
current density of (a) 4, (b) 5 and (c) 6 mA cm–2. The anode area for six channels
was 148.2 cm2.

anode passivation due to Al2O3 precipitation (Kobya et al., 2011;

Mohora et al., 2012).

H2O-0.5O2+2H++2e– (9)

At 5 mA cm–2, CAs increased from 23 to 50 μg L–1 as a function

of u in the interval 1.82–4.55 cm s–1 (Fig. 2b), indicating that
arsenic removal also decreases as u increases at this current
density. Again, the experimental aluminum dose was lower than
the theoretical one.
At 6 mA cm–2, the behavior of CAs as a function of u differed for
the ranges 1.82–2.73, 2.73–3.64 and 3.64–4.55 cm s–1. (Fig. 2c).
However, the increase in CAs from 20 to 42 μg L–1 at 1.82–
4.55 cm s–1 was significant. The experimental aluminum dose
was lower than the theoretical one.
The poor EC removal of arsenic can be attributed to the mixture
of HAsO2, H3AsO3 and HAsO2− Fig. 3. Influence of the mean linear flow rate on the residual arsenic concentration
4 . The third species is probably more
and aluminum dose for groundwater after addition of hypochlorite (initial para-
susceptible to removal by adsorption on Al(OH)3 and Al2O3 flocs meters: arsenic 50 μg L–1, carbonates 40 mg L–1, hardness 80 mg L–1, hypochlorite
(Hernández et al., 2010; Kobya et al., 2011; Mohora et al., 2012), 1 mg L–1, pH 8.1 and conductivity 392 μS cm–1) at a current density of (a) 4,
since these flocs have a positive zeta potential (Amirtharajah et al., (b) 5 and (c) 6 mA cm–2. The anode area for six channels was 148.2 cm2.
 O.J. Flores et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 97 (2013) 1–6 5

At 4 mA cm–2, CAs increased linearly between 3 and 38 μg L–1 as
a function of u in the interval 0.91–4.55 cm –1 due to a decrease in
the experimental aluminum dose from 17 to 1 mg L–1 (Fig. 3a).
However, the CAs values are lower than those obtained for fresh
groundwater at 4 mA cm–2 (Fig. 2a). This confirms the hypothesis
that HAsO42− is probably removed by adsorption on Al(OH)3 and
Al2O3 flocs (Hernández et al., 2010; Kobya et al., 2011; Mohora
et al., 2012). X-Ray absorption spectroscopy and X-ray photoelec-
tron spectroscopy would be helpful in investigating the local
environment of Al and As in EC flocs generated in Bajío ground-
water, but this was beyond the scope of the present study. It
should be noted that CAs satisfies the WHO limit of ≤10 μg L–1 at
u ¼0.91 cm s–1 and the Mexican standard of ≤25 μg L–1 at u ¼0.91–
1.82 cm s–1.
At 5 mA cm–2, the behavior of CAs as a function of u differed for the
ranges 0.91–1.81, 1.81–2.73 and 2.73–4.55 cm s–1 (Fig. 3b). CAs is close
to zero at u¼0.91 cm s–1, 22 μg L–1 at u¼ 1.81 cm s–1 and 23 μg L–1 at
u¼ 2.73 cm s–1. The latter slight variation in CAs can be attributed to
the almost constant experimental aluminum dose of 6–7 mg L–1. CAs
then increased linearly from 23 to 33 μg L–1 at 2.73–4.55 cm s–1 due to
depletion of the experimental aluminum dose.
At 6 mA cm–2, CAs as a function of u showed different behavior at
0.91–3.64 and 3.64–4.55 cm s–1 (Fig. 3c). The increase in CAs from 11
to 33 μg L−1 at 0.91–3.64 cm s–1 was significant, and CAs remained
constant at 33 μg L–1 with a further increase to u¼4.55 cm s–1.
In the presence of hypochlorite, the experimental dose of alumi-
num was lower than the corresponding theoretical dose (Fig. 3a–c).
CAs after EC was lower in the presence of hypochlorite than
without hypochlorite, indicating that arsenic removal is more
efficient when arsenite is oxidized to arsenate. Arsenate removal
by EC might involve adsorption on aluminum hydroxides gener-
ated in the process.
Although the initial groundwater As concentration of 50 μg L–1
complies with safety standards in many countries, the Mexican
authorities want to reduce the maximum acceptable level of
arsenic in drinking water from 25 to 10 μg L–1 because of chronic
health problems in the population. Experiments were performed
at 4 and 5 mA cm–2 and 0.81 cm s–1 (Table 3) with the aim of
obtaining residual arsenic concentrations of o10 μg L–1.
Table 3 summarizes EC results that satisfy the Mexican arsenic
standard of ≤25 μg L–1, including the cell potential (Ecell) and
electrolytic energy consumption, evaluated as
Econs ¼
Ecell I
ð10Þ
3:6 B S u
where I is the current intensity during electrolysis (C s–1), B is the
channel height (cm), S is the channel width (cm) and 3.6 is a
conversion factor used to obtain Econs in units of kWh m–3.
Table 3 reveals that EC at 4 mA cm–2 satisfied the Mexican
standard for arsenic at flow rates between 0.91 and 1.82 cm s–1,
corresponding to an aluminum dose of 9–17 mg L–1 and an
aluminum dose rate of QAl(III) ¼0.32–0.34 mg L–1 s–1, evaluated as
C AlðIIIÞ u
Q AlðIIIÞ ¼ ð11Þ
LN
EC at 5 mA cm–2 satisfied the Mexican As standard at flow rates
between 0.91 and 2.73 cm s–1, corresponding to aluminum doses
of 6–31 mg L–1and aluminum dose rates of 0.34–0.58 mg L–1 s–1.
EC at 6 mA cm–2 satisfied the Mexican As standard at flow rates of
0.91–2.73 cm s–1, corresponding to aluminum doses of 7–16 mg L–1
and aluminum dose rates of 0.30–0.39 mg L–1 s–1. It should be
noted that the cell potential decreased as a function of u at each
current density, indicating that aluminum ions are transported
away from the surface to the bulk solution under such turbulent
flow conditions, decreasing Al2O3 precipitation on the anode. The
best EC in terms of energy consumption was obtained at 4 mA cm–2
and u¼1.82 cm s−1, for which energy consumption of 1.2 kWh m–3
reduced arsenic from 50 to 17 μg L–1. Data for carbonates, hardness,
pH and conductivity are not presented, since these parameters
remained almost constant.
Studies have shown that several dissolved species present in
water samples can interfere with EC arsenic removal. For example,
Wan et al. (2011) reported that phosphates in synthetic ground-
water interfere with EC arsenic removal using Fe as sacrificial
anodes, because phosphate and As species compete with surface
iron oxide sites. The authors also showed that silicates and sulfates
did not affect As removal. However, reports regarding As removal
by EC using Al electrodes are rather limited. Mohora et al. (2012)
reported that natural organic matter is simultaneously removed
with As from groundwater by EC using Al anodes. It should be
noted that we did not measure concentrations of phosphates,
silicates, sulfates and natural organic matter, and hence their
influence on As removal is not discussed. However, this analysis
should serve as a useful starting point and these interferences may
be investigated in future research.
The experimental aluminum dose in the presence of hypochlorite
did significantly improve when the current density was increased
from 4 to 5 mA cm–2 and at 4 mA cm–2 it did not significantly differ in
the absence and presence of hypochlorite. These random discrepan-
cies are typically observed in electrodissolution processes. The experi-
mental aluminum dose and aluminum dose rate in the presence and
absence of hypochlorite at 6 mA cm–2 were lower than those obtained
at 4 and 5 mA cm–2 due to massive generation of electrolytic gases
and anode passivation. EC at 46 mA cm–2 did not lead to further
removal of As (data not shown).
The random discrepancies for the experimental dose and dose
rate of aluminum at each flow rate did not systematically improve
with increasing current density (Table 3); these discrepancies
indicate a lack of correlation between As removal and the current
density and flow rate.

Table 3
Residual arsenic concentrations after hypochlorite addition satisfying the Mexican 5. Conclusions
standard (CAs≤25 μg L–1), as well as the aluminum dose (CAl(III)) and dose rate
(QAl(III) ¼CAl(III)u/LT), cell potential and electrolytic energy consumption. We systematically investigated arsenic removal from Bajío
Current u CAs CAl(III) QAl(III) Ecell Econs
groundwater by EC using aluminum as a sacrificial anode in a
Density (cm s–1) (μg L–1) (mg L–1) (mg L–1 s–1) (V) (kWh m–3) pre-pilot-scale continuous filter press cell. The influence of current
density, mean linear flow rate and hypochlorite addition on the As
4 mA cm−2 0.91 3 17 0.32 8.4 2.5 removal efficiency was analyzed.
1.82 17 9 0.34 7.9 1.2
Poor removal of total As by EC in the absence of hypochlorite at
2.73 – – – – –
5 mA cm−2 0.91 0 31 0.58 10.6 3.9 current densities of 4, 5 and 6 mA cm–2 and mean linear flow rates
1.82 22 7 0.26 8.9 1.6 of 0.91–4.55 cm s–1 was due to a mixture of arsenite and arsenate.
2.73 23 6 0.34 8.9 1.2 Arsenic removal is more efficient when arsenite is oxidized to
6 mA cm−2 0.91 11 16 0.30 11.6 5.3 arsenate by addition of hypochlorite at a concentration typically
1.82 22 10 0.37 11.2 2.5
2.73 25 7 0.39 10.8 1.6
used for disinfection. Arsenate removal by EC might involve
adsorption on aluminum hydroxides generated in the process.
6 O.J. Flores et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 97 (2013) 1–6
The resulting sample meets the Mexican arsenic standard of
≤ 25 μg L–1.
EC investigations revealed that mean linear flow rates between
0.91 and 2.73 cm s–1 at current densities of 4–6 mA cm–2 yielded
samples that met the Mexican standard for arsenic in water. Under
these conditions, aluminum doses and dose rates of 6–31 mg L–1
and 0.26–0.58 mg L–1 s–1, respectively, were suitable.
Complete arsenic removal by EC was achieved at 5 mA cm–2
and 0.91 cm s–1, with electrolytic energy consumption of
3.9 kWh m–3. The best EC in terms of energy consumption was
obtained at 4 mA cm–2 and 1.82 cm s–1, with energy consumption
of 1.2 kWh m–3 to decrease arsenic from 50 to 17 μg L–3.
An increase in current density to 46 mA cm–2 did not improve
the EC process any further. This is attributed to massive generation
of electrolytic gases and anode passivation.
Acknowledgments
We are grateful to CONACYT and CONCYTEG for financial support
under the FOMIX GTO-2011-C03-162757 project. We thank Cynthia
Montaudon for her help in revising the manuscript. We would also
like to thank Universidad de Guanajuato for financial support.
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