What Is Personality?

While personality is something that we talk about all the time ("He has such a great personality!"
or "Her personality is perfect for this job!"), you might be surprised to learn that psychologists
do not necessarily agree on a single definition of what exactly constitutes personality.

Personality is generally described as being made up the characteristic patterns of thoughts,

feelings, and behaviors that make a person unique. In others words, it is what makes you you!

Researchers have found while some external factors can influence how certain traits are
expressed, personality originates within the individual. While a few aspects of personality may
change as we grow older, personality also tends to remain fairly consistent throughout life.

Because personality plays such an important role in human behavior, an entire branch of
psychology is devoted to the study of this fascinating topic. Personality psychologists are
interested in the unique characteristics of individuals, as well as similarities among groups of
people.

Characteristics

In order to understand the psychology of personality, it is important to learn some of the key
characteristics of how personality works.

 Personality is organized and consistent. We tend to express certain aspects of our

personality in different situations and our responses are generally stable.
 Although personality is generally stable, it can be influenced by the
environment. For example, while your personality might lead you to be shy in social
situations, an emergency might lead you to take on a more outspoken and take-charge
approach.
 Personality causes behaviors to happen. You react to the people and objects in your
environment based on your personality. From your personal preferences to your choice of
a career, every aspect of your life is affected by your personality.

How Theories Are Studied

Now that you know a bit more about the basics of personality, it's time to take a closer look at
how scientists actually study human personality. There are different techniques that are used in
the study of personality. Each technique has its own strengths and weaknesses.

 Experimental methods are those in which the researcher controls and manipulates the
variables of interests and takes measures of the results. This is the most scientific form of
research, but experimental research can be difficult when studying aspects of personality
such as motivations, emotions, and drives. These ideas are internal, abstract, and can
be difficult to measure. The experimental method allows researchers to look at cause-
and-effect relationships between different variables of interest.
  Case studies and self-report methods involve the in-depth analysis of an individual as
well as information provided by the individual. Case studiesrely heavily on the
interpretations of the observer, while self-report methods depend on the memory of the
individual of interest. Because of this, these methods tend to be highly subjective and it is
difficult to generalize the findings to a larger population.
 Clinical research relies upon information gathered from clinical patients over the course
of treatment. Many personality theories are based on this type of research, but because
the research subjects are unique and exhibit abnormal behavior, this research tends to be
highly subjective and difficult to generalize.

Major Theories

Personality psychology is the focus of some of the best-known psychology theories by a number
of famous thinkers including Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson. Some of these theories attempt to
tackle a specific area of personality while others attempt to explain personality much more
broadly.

Biological Theories

Biological approaches suggest that genetics are responsible for personality. In the classic nature
versus nurture debate, the biological theories of personality side with nature.

Research on heritability suggests that there is a link between genetics and personality traits. Twin
studies are often used to investigate which traits might be linked to genetics versus those that
might be linked to environmental variables. For example, researchers might look at differences
and similarities in the personalities of twins reared together versus those who are raised apart.

One of the best known biological theorists was Hans Eysenck, who linked aspects of personality
to biological processes. For example, Eysenck argued that introverts had high cortical arousal,
leading them to avoid stimulation. On the other hand, Eysenck believed extroverts had low
cortical arousal, causing them to seek out stimulating experiences.

Behavioral Theories

Behavioral theorists include B. F. Skinner and John B. Watson. Behavioral theories suggest that
personality is a result of interaction between the individual and the environment. Behavioral
theorists study observable and measurable behaviors, rejecting theories that take internal
thoughts and feelings into account.

Psychodynamic Theories

Psychodynamic theories of personality are heavily influenced by the work of Sigmund Freud and
emphasize the influence of the unconscious mind and childhood experiences on personality.
Psychodynamic theories include Sigmund Freud's psychosexual stage theory and Erik
Erikson's stages of psychosocial development.
Freud believed the three components of personality were the id, the ego, and the superego. The
id is responsible for all needs and urges, while the superego for ideals and morals. The ego
moderates between the demands of the id, the superego, and reality. Freud suggested that
children progress through a series of stages in which the id's energy is focused on different
erogenous zones.

Erikson also believed that personality progressed through a series of stages, with certain conflicts
arising at each stage. Success in any stage depends on successfully overcoming these conflicts.

Humanist Theories

Humanist theories emphasize the importance of free will and individual experience in the
development of personality. Humanist theorists also focused on the concept of self-actualization,
which is an innate need for personal growth that motivates behavior. Humanist theorists
include Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.

Trait Theories

The trait theory approach is one of the most prominent areas within personality psychology.
According to these theories, personality is made up of a number of broad traits. A trait is
basically a relatively stable characteristic that causes an individual to behave in certain ways.
Some of the best-known trait theories include Eysenck's three-dimension theory and the five
factor theory of personality.

Eysenck utilized personality questionnaires to collect data from participants and then employed a
statistical technique known as factor analysis to analyze the results. Eysenck concluded that there
were three major dimensions of personality: extroversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism.

During his initial examination, he described two major dimensions of personality which he
referred to as Introversion/ Extroversion and Neuroticism/Stability. Extroversion and
introversion related to how people tend to interact with the world while neuroticism and stability
related to emotionality.

Eysenck believed that these dimensions then combine in different ways to form an individual's
unique personality. Later, Eysenck added the third dimension known as psychoticism, which
related to things such as aggression, empathy, and sociability.

Later researchers suggested that there are five broad dimensions that make up people's
personalities. Often referred to as the Big 5 theory of personality, this theory suggests that the
five major personality dimensions are Openness, Conscientiousness, Extroversion,
Agreeableness, and Neuroticism, sometimes identified with the useful acronym OCEAN.

Famous Figures

Some of the most famous figures in the history of psychology left a lasting mark on the field of
personality. In order to better understand the different theories of personality, it can be helpful to
learn more about the lives, theories, and contributions to the psychology of these eminent
psychologists.

Sigmund Freud

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was the founder of psychoanalytic theory. His theories emphasized
the importance of the unconscious mind, childhood experiences, dreams, and symbolism. His
theory of psychosexual development suggested that children progress through a series of stages
during which libidinal energy is focused on different regions of the body.

His ideas are what as known as grand theories because they seek to explain virtually every aspect
of human behavior. Some of Freud's ideas are considered outdated by modern psychologists, but
he had a major influence on the course of psychology and some concepts, such as the usefulness
of talk therapy and the importance of the unconscious, are enduring.

Erik Erikson

Erik Erikson (1902-1994) was an ego psychologist trained by Anna Freud. His theory of
psychosocial stages describes how personality develops throughout the lifespan. Like Freud,
some aspects of Erikson's theory are considered outdated by contemporary researchers, but his
eight-stage theory of development remains popular and influential.

B. F. Skinner

B. F. Skinner (1904-1990) was a behaviorist best known for his research on operant
conditioning and the discovery of schedules of reinforcement. Schedules of reinforcement
influence how quickly a behavior is acquired and the strength of a response. The schedules
described by Skinner are fixed-ratio schedules, fixed-variable schedules, variable-ratio
schedules, and variable-interval schedules.

Sandra Bem

Sandra Bem (1944-2014) had an important influence in psychology and on our understanding of
sex roles, gender, and sexuality. She developed her gender schema theory to explain how society
and culture transmit ideas about sex and gender. Gender schemas, Bem suggested, were formed
by things such as parenting, school, mass media, and other cultural influences.

Abraham Maslow

Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) was a humanist psychologist who developed the well-
known hierarchy of needs. This hierarchy includes physiological needs, safety and security
needs, love and affection needs, self-esteem needs, and self-actualizing needs.

Carl Rogers
Carl Rogers (1902-1987) was a humanist psychologist who believed that all people have
an actualizing tendency - a drive to fulfill the individual potential that motivates behavior.
Rogers called healthy individuals fully-functioning, describing these individuals as those who are
open to experience, live in the moment, trust their own judgment, feel free and are creative.

Important Terminology

Classical Conditioning

A behavioral training technique which begins with a naturally occurring stimulus eliciting an
automatic response. Then, a previously neutral stimulus is paired with the naturally occurring
stimulus. Eventually, the previously neutral stimulus comes to evoke the response without the
presence of the naturally occurring stimulus. The two elements are then known as
the conditioned stimulus and the conditioned response.

Operant Conditioning

A behavior training technique in which reinforcements or punishments are used to influence

behavior. An association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior.

Unconscious

In Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality, the unconscious mind is a reservoir of feelings,

thoughts, urges, and memories that are outside of our conscious awareness. Most of the contents
of the unconscious are unacceptable or unpleasant, such as feelings of pain, anxiety, or conflict.
According to Freud, the unconscious continues to influence our behavior and experience, even
though we are unaware of these underlying influences.

Id

According to Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality, the id is the personality component

made up of unconscious psychic energy that works to satisfy basic urges, needs, and desires. The
id operates based on the pleasure principle, which demands immediate gratification of needs.

Ego

According to Freud, the ego is the largely unconscious part of the personality that mediates the
demands of the id, the superego, and reality. The ego prevents us from acting on our basic urges
(created by the id) but also works to achieve a balance with our moral and idealistic standards
(created by the superego).

Superego

The superego is the component of personality composed of our internalized ideals that we have
acquired from our parents and from society. The superego works to suppress the urges of the id
and tries to make the ego behave morally, rather than realistically.
Self-Actualization

An innate human need to achieve personal growth that motivates behavior.

A Word From Verywell