TEMPERATURE

MEASUREMENT

HIMANSHU K. PATEL
Associate Professor (IC)
NIRMA UNIVERSITY
hkpatel@nirmauni.ac.in
Have you
ever
faced this
situation?

2#
 What is Temperature??
 A scalar quantity that determines the
direction of heat flow between two bodies
Definition:
Degree of Hotness or Coldness of a body
measured on a definite scale.

 A statistical measurement
 A difficult measurement
 A mostly empirical measurement

3#
 Temperature Scales
 °C – Degrees Celsius (or Centigrade)
 °F – Degrees Fahrenheit
 K – Kelvin
 R – Rankine

Relationship between different scales:

 °C = (°F - 32)/1.8
 °F = (1.8 x °C) + 32
 K = °C + 273.15
 R = °F + 459.67
4#
Temperature Measurement :
Sensors & Instruments

 Thermocouple (T/C)
 Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
 Thermistor
 Bi-metallic Thermometers
 Filled Thermal Systems
 Pyrometers

5#
 Thermocouples (TC’s)
Basic Theory
• In 1821 a German physicist named Seebeck discovered the thermoelectric
effect which forms the basis of modern thermocouple technology. He
observed that an electric current flows in a closed circuit of two dissimilar
metals if their two junctions are at different temperatures.
• The thermoelectric voltage produced depends on the metals used and on
the temperature relationship between the junctions.
• If the same temperature exists at the two junctions, the voltage produced
at each junction cancel each other out and no current flows in the circuit.
• With different temperatures at each junction, different voltages are
produced and current flows in the circuit.
• A thermocouple can therefore only measure temperature differences
between the two junctions, a fact which dictates how a practical
thermocouple can be utilized.
Iron (Fe)

100ºC 0ºC

Constantan (Cu-Ni)

Thermocouple Circuit
6#
 Thermocouples (TC’s)

Thermocouple measuring circuit

Equivalent to
80ºC reading
Iron (Fe)
Copper (Cu)

100ºC 20ºC 0 10
mV
Copper (Cu)
Constantan (CuNi)
Hot Junction:
In Process
Cold Junction:
Needs to be held constant to give a
fixed reference. ( early methods
held cold junction at 0ºC using ice
or refrigeration unit).

7#
 Thermocouples (TC’s)
Standard Thermocouple Alloy Conductor Combinations
CODE CONDUCTOR COMBINATION TYPICAL OPERATING
RANGE ºF
B Platinum-30% Rhodium / Platinum-6% Rhodium +2500 to +3100
C Tungsten-5% Rhenium / Tungsten-26% Rhenium +3000 to +4200
D Tungsten-3% Rhenium / Tungsten-25% Rhenium +2800 to +3800
E Nickel Chromium / Constantan 0 to +1650
J Iron / Constantan +0 to +1400
K Nickel Chromium / Nickel Aluminium 0 to +2300
N Nickel-Chromium-Silicon / Nickel-Silicon- 1200 to +2300
Magnesium
R Platinum-13% Rhodium / Platinum 1600 to +2600
S Platinum-10% Rhodium / Platinum 1800 to +2600
T Copper / Constantan -300 to +650
8#
Thermocouples (TC’s)

A graph of
temperature
vs. voltage
shows
thermocouple
characteristics
are not
perfectly
linear.

9#
Thermocouple Resolution

Temperature Change From 500 deg F to 510 deg F

TYPE 500 OF 510 OF DIFF

C 4.140 4.248 0.108

E 17.945 18.371 0.426
J 14.110 14.418 0.308
K 10.561 10.789 0.228
R 2.017 2.070 0.053
S 1.962 2.012 0.050
T 12.574 12.887 0.313
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 Thermocouples (TC’s)
Thermocouple Construction
Sheath (normally stainless steel)

Arc Welded Junction Conductors • Normally element is in a thermowell

insulated by
(some are earthed at tip For
Magnesium Oxide
• Commonly element is 1/4” outside
improved response time)
Powder Diameter
• Sheath material, normally Stainless
steel but can be special material
such as Inconel, Incoloy, Hastelloy
etc.
• Duplex thermocouples have 2
11
elements inside one sheath. #
 Thermocouples (TC’s)
• Thermocouple Tip Types

Ungrounded – Grounded – For Exposed – For use

For use in use in corrosive and in dry, non-
corrosive and pressurized apps. corrosive, non-
pressurized apps. Quicker response pressurized apps.
Slow response time than Quickest response
time. Offers ungrounded due to time of all three.
electrical improved heat
12
isolation. transfer. #
Thermocouples (TC’s)

Response time
comparison
among the
different
thermocouple
tip types.

13
#
 RTDs
RTDs (Resistance Temperature Detectors) operate under
the principle that the electrical resistance of certain
metals increases and decreases in a repeatable and
predictable manner with a temperature change.

14
#
 RTD Elements
Wire Wound Element
Precise lengths of wire are wrapped
around a ceramic mandrel, then
inserted inside a ceramic shell which
acts to support and protect the wire
windings.

Inner Coil Element

Wires are coiled then slid into the
holes of a ceramic insulator.
Some manufacturers backfill the
bores with ceramic powder after
the coils are inserted. This keeps
the coils from shorting against
each other.

Thin Film Element

Metallic ink is deposited onto a
ceramic substrate. Lasers then etch
the ink to provide a resistance path.
The entire assembly is encapsulated
in ceramic to support and protect.

15
#
RTD Lead Wire Configurations
 2-wire: Should only be used
with very short runs of lead-
wire. No compensation for
lead-wire resistance.

 3-wire: Most commonly

used for industrial
applications. Lead-wire
compensation.

 4-wire: Laboratory use

historically, moving more
into industrial applications.
Full compensation for lead-
wire resistance. 16
#
 Wheatstone Bridge
The most common method for measuring the
resistance of an RTD is to use a Wheatstone
bridge circuit. In a Wheatstone bridge, electrical
excitation current is passed through the bridge,
and the bridge output current is an indication of
the RTD resistance.
1

R
R

AMMETER

RTD
R
3

17
#
 RTDs
• The most common material is Platinum.
• PT100 - It’s resistance is 100 Ω at 0°Celsius.
– Hence the term “PT100”
• It’s resistance is 138.5 Ω at 100°Celsius.
– Hence the Fundamental Interval of
38.5 Ω
– Or 0.385 Ω per 1°Celsius Rise in
Temperature.
• There are other materials available for more
unusual temperature ranges such as
Germanium (e.g.10 to 100 Kelvin).
18
#
 RTD Vs. Thermocouple
Temperature Sensor Selection Guide

RTD Thermocouple

Temperature Range -328°F to 1562°F -310°F to 3308°F

Accuracy ±0.001°F to 0.1°F ±1°F to 10°F

Response Time Moderate Fast

Stability Stable over long periods Not as stable

<0.1% error / 5 yr. 1°F error / 1yr.

Linearity Best Moderate

Sensitivity High Low

Vibration applications Poor Good

19
#
 RTD Vs. T/C Accuracy
RTD Thermocouple Type J & K
Temp.°C Grade B Grade A Standard Premium
-200 ±1.10°C ±0.47°C
-100 ±0.67°C ±0.30°C
0 ±0.25°C ±0.13°C ±2.2°C ±1.1°C
100 ±0.67°C ±0.30°C ±2.2°C ±1.1°C
200 ±1.10°C ±0.47°C ±2.2°C ±1.1°C
300 ±1.50°C ±0.64°C ±2.3°C ±1.2°C
400 ±1.90°C ±0.81°C ±3.0°C ±1.6°C
500 ±2.40°C ±0.98°C ±3.8°C ±2.0°C

20
#
Temperature Element Assembly

Head Nipple-Union-Nipple Thermowell

21
#
 Thermowells

Straight Shank

Flanged Van Stone

Plug

Step Shank

Tapered Shank
Plug
with
Chain

Threaded Weld-in
Accessories 22
#
 Thermowells

Insertion Length

Lagging
Extension
23
#
 Thermowell Installation

PIP Flanged
Thermowell
Installation
Requirements

24
Perpendicular Pipe Installation Elbow Installation #
Thermowell Design & Material

Considerations for Thermowell selection:

 Process temperature
 Environment / Process media
 Fluid or gas pressure
 Pipe or vessel size
 Flow velocity

25
#
 Wake Frequency
 Thermowells must be carefully
selected for processes where
significant velocity is present.
 By penetrating the process flow, the
thermowell is subject to the stress and
friction of the flow. This may set up a
natural vibration that may result in the
shearing off of the thermowell into the
process. This is called the “Wake
Frequency”.

 ASME PTC 19-3 – Thermowells :

This Standard establishes a
mechanical design standard for
reliable service of thermowells in a
broad range of applications. This
includes an evaluation of the forces
caused by external pressure, and the
static and dynamic forces resulting
from fluid impingement.
26
#
 Wake Frequency Calculation
Energy Absorbed Top View
By Thermowell

Vortices
Resonance
Condition
fWake
Side View
Wake

fWake = fNatural
Frequency
(fWake) fNatural

Thermowell Calculations
1) Ensure that: fWake
fNatural < 0.8

27
#
 Other TW Failure Modes:
Process-Induced Bending Stress

Velocity
Density
Diameter FDrag FDrag Flow

Area
Length

28
#
 Thermowell Insertion
Modification

SHORTENED
TYPICAL THERMOWELL STEPPED THERMOWELL
THERMOWELL
CONSTRUCTION CONSTRUCTION
CONSTRUCTION

29
#
 Transmitters

 Signal Conditioner
 Low level inputs
mV from thermocouples
 from RTD’s
 High level outputs
4-20 mA current
Digital (i.e. Fieldbus)

30
#
 Thermistors
• Thermistors are temperature sensing devices that are similar
to RTD’s in that their resistance changes as temperature
changes.
• The major difference is that for most thermistors the
resistance decreases as temperature increases.
• Thermistors are an inexpensive alternative to RTD’s when
temperature ranges are below 150°C. Thermistors can be
used from temperatures of –80°C to 300°C.
• Most thermistors have base resistances, which are much
higher than RTD’s.
• One of the greatest advantages of using a thermistor sensor
is the large change in resistance to a relatively small change
in temperature. This makes them very sensitive to small
changes in temperature. 31
#
 I.C. Sensor

I= 1 uA/K
+ High output
5V - 100 d Very linear
Accurate @
V = 1mV/K
room ambient
960d
Limited range
Cheap
 The Basic 4 Temperature Sensors

RTD Thermistor I.C.

Thermocouple
Most accurate High output High output Wide variety
Most stable Fast Most linear Cheap
Fairly linear 2-wire meas. Cheap Wide T. range
No self-heating
Expensive Very nonlinear Limited variety
Slow Limited range Limited range Hard to measure
Needs I source Needs I source
Needs V Relative T. only
Self-heating Self-heating source Nonlinear
4-wire meas. Fragile
Self-heating Special
connectors
Absolute temperature sensors
 Bimetallic Thermometers
A Bimetallic Thermometer
consists of an indicating or
recording device, a sensing
element and a means for Basic example:
connecting the two. Two metal strips expand at different
rates as the temperature changes.

A pointer is attached to the

rotating coil which indicates
the temperature on the dial.

Bimetal Coil
Coil rotation is caused by the
difference in thermal
expansions of the two metals.
34
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Filled Thermal Systems

35
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 References

 ISA MC 96.1 – Temperature Measurement Thermocouples

 PIP PCETE001 – Temperature Measurement Guidelines
 PIP PCFTE100 – Thermowell Fabrication Details
 ASME PTC 19.3 – Temperature Measurement
 Internet websites:
◦ Sensorsmag.com
◦ Omega.com
◦ Isi-seal.com
◦ Sensortecinc.com
◦ Wikipedia.org
◦ Rosemount.com

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Any Questions???

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 THANK YOU
&
HAVE A NICE DAY!

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