Journal of Constructional Steel Research 128 (2017) 762–771

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Journal of Constructional Steel Research

Tolerances of imperfections and strength of cold-formed lipped

channel column
Z. Sadovský a,⁎, J. Kriváček b
a
831 03 Bratislava, Slovakia
b
ÚSTARCH SAV, Inst. of Construction and Architecture, Slovak Academy of Sciences, 845 03, Bratislava, Slovakia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The paper addresses the ultimate buckling strength of thin-gauge axially loaded lipped channel columns with ini-
Received 22 December 2015 tial geometrical imperfections related to execution tolerances. For computational modelling of the column
Received in revised form 6 October 2016 strength respecting the tolerance limits a deterministic method employing geometrical and material nonlinear
Accepted 11 October 2016
FEM analysis with imperfections (GMNIA) is suggested. The imperfections are assumed in the shapes of eigen-
Available online 18 October 2016
modes of the corresponding linearized buckling problem and their combinations. For comparing their influence
Keywords:
on the column strength, the imperfections are normalized by the energy measure. The comparison is carried out
Cold-formed steel on the top energy measure level limited by execution tolerances. Referring to published experimental work three
Lipped channel column cross-sections and several column lengths are considered in a numerical study. Summarizing the numerical re-
Ultimate strength sults and abilities of the energy measure to facilitate the treatment, guidance for the use of FEM GMNIA in the es-
Geometrical imperfections timation of the column least strength is suggested.
Execution tolerances © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction corresponding deviations from the nominal (perfect) state. On top of

Achievement of consistent allowances for structural imperfections
and specification of geometrical execution tolerances with regard to
buckling strength of column, frames, plated structures and shells is a
goal raised within subtasks for the development of Structural Eurocodes
(CEN/TC 250). Reaching the goal is to be reflected in a standardized
guidance for the use of the Finite Element Method (FEM), which is be-
coming a frequent tool for the design of complex structures. The compu-
tational modelling should provide more economical design without
reducing target levels of safety. FEM calculations taking into account
both material and geometrical nonlinearity with inclusion of imperfec-
tions (GMNIA) represent standard for collapse analysis of thin-walled
members. The task is quite complex, see e.g. [1,2]. Particularly, the geo-
metrical imperfections leading to the most likely instability modes are
of main concern. Usually the imperfections are considered as eigen-
modes of linearization of the considered nonlinear structural problem.
To achieve the most unfavourable imperfection the individual eigen-
mode shapes, their combinations or possibly also other imperfection
shapes influencing buckling strength should be compared. A question
arises on how to normalize the imperfections for the intended compar-
ison. The associated topic of interest is the realisation of combination of
imperfections. Further, imperfections should obey limitations derived
from the execution tolerances, which necessitate identification of the
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: zoltan@sadovsky.info (Z. Sadovský), usarjkri@savba.sk (J. Kriváček).
this an efficient performance of the procedure is expected.
In majority of research papers the severity of considered geometrical
imperfections is compared at a given level of amplitude often set in de-
pendence on the predominant mode type, e.g. cross-sectional or global
buckling [1,3–5]. The amplitude is a local measure, by which highly
distorted imperfection shapes are not revealed. Thus, unrealistic imper-
fections are eligible for comparison, e.g. for a longitudinal plate in in-
plane compression an imperfection having a number of short equal-am-
plitude half-waves in load direction. Combination of eigenmodes to a
shape of the same amplitude is not straightforward, since first the am-
plitude of the combined shape is to be searched for and then scaled to
the desired level. Therefore simplified combination rules are used [5].
Doubts may arise to the setting of the level of combined cross-sectional
and global imperfections.
The linearized buckling analysis is traditionally used in design spec-
ifications; e.g. for thin-walled members the buckling loads calculated by
the Vlasov theory are employed. Based on the Vlasov assumptions on
neglect of membrane transverse extensions and membrane shear
strains Schardt [6] developed the Generalised Beam Theory (GBT).
GBT allows decomposition of buckling modes into a linear combination
of local, distortional, global and other deformation modes [7]. Introduc-
ing the concepts of GBT into the Finite Strip Method (FSM) another
computational tool for obtaining pure buckling modes was developed
in the constrained Finite Strip Method (cFSM) [8]. Generally, in FEM
analysis pure buckling modes do not exist. Nevertheless, attempts
have been made to show the participation of pure modes in FEM eigen-
modes by the GBT or cFSM abilities in spite of their approximate nature

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcsr.2016.10.006
0143-974X/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 Z. Sadovský, J. Kriváček / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 128 (2017) 762–771
and limitations [8–10]. They may stem, among other reasons, from the
goal of relating imperfection tolerances to the eigenmodes. However,
for complying with tolerance specifications the identification of local,
distortional and global buckling components of imperfections of a struc-
tural element is not needed. The assessment of the deviations can pro-
ceed computationally simulating the measurements for checking
tolerance limits. This procedure is employed in the present paper.
A first attempt to codify the use of nonlinear FEM analysis for design
purposes has been realized in the informative Annex C of EN 1993-1-5:
2006. The geometric imperfections may be based on eigenmodes scaled
to an 80% of the fabrication tolerances. For achieving the worst case the
imperfections should be combined choosing any one as a leading imper-
fection with full magnitude. The magnitudes of others (accompanying)
imperfections should be reduced to 70%, see [11]. The procedure is es-
sentially a simplified rule not based on a consistent relationship between
tolerances and strength of thin-walled structural elements. Still, follow-
ing the recommendation may be demanding, particularly because guid-
ance facilitating the choice of unfavourable eigenmodes is not provided.
The aim of the present work is to contribute to the current discussion
on the use of FEM GMNIA in Eurocodes. The paper addresses the ulti-
mate buckling strength of cold-formed columns in axial compression
as affected by geometrical imperfections subjected to the limitations
by execution tolerances. A particular problem of thin-gauge lipped
channel columns is considered. The procedure for computational
modelling of the column strength based on the energy measure of im-
perfections developed in [12] is extended to include the tolerances
issue. The execution code EN 1090-2: 2008 + A1: 2011, stipulating
technical requirements for steel structures, distinguishes essential toler-
ances and functional tolerances. The former give necessary limits for
satisfying the design assumptions in terms of mechanical resistance
and stability of a structure. The latter might be required to meet other
function like appearance or fit up. The requirements for execution, i.e.
the manufacture of thin-gauge cold-formed steel structural elements
and the installation of structures made from such elements under pre-
dominantly static loading conditions, defined in prEN 1090-4 prepared
under CEN/TC 135 WG14 follow the standard EN 1090-2: 2008, Table
D.1.2 and Table D.2.2. The code prEN 1090-4 covers linear profile cross
sections produced by cold-forming having thicknesses of not N4 mm.
The energy measure (EM) of a geometrical imperfection is defined as
the square root of the elastic strain energy hypothetically accumulated
when the initially perfect element is deformed into the imperfect
shape. The strain energy can be obtained by the linear FEM analysis in-
troducing the shape as an imposed deformation [12]. Normalization of
the imperfections by the energy measure carries a benefit. The eigen-
modes are orthogonal with respect to the scalar product generated by
the measure, i.e. to the elastic stiffness matrix Ke. This feature allows
straightforward combination of eigenmodes to a given level [12]. Note
that the eigenmodes are also orthogonal with respect to the geometric
matrix Kg. However, Kg is generally not positive definite and thereby un-
suitable for defining an imperfection measure, see e.g. buckling of rect-
angular plate in pure shear load.
The levels of imperfections chosen for eigenmodes or other shapes
should be related to tolerances. Here a deterministic approach is devel-
oped. For simplicity the unscaled tolerance values are referred to. Con-
sideration of top admissible imperfection magnitudes relates to
assumption that they produce the lowest failure loads. The basic level
of the EM is derived from the column bent with respect to the weaker
cross-sectional axis to the essential tolerance of L/750, where L is the
column length. It is referred to as a bow mode. Since the bow mode
may not occur within practically studied eigenmodes, it is simulated in-
troducing two imposed unit deformations in the middle of the column
at the web-flange junctions. In the next step the maxima of local and
distortional deviations have to be checked for not exceedance of func-
tional tolerances (Section 4).
Cross-sections used in numerical study are taken from the published
papers on experimental research and design formulas of the cold-
763
formed column strength [13,14], see Section 2. Particularly, the profiles
with thin thicknesses t = 1.48 & 1.5 are considered. There are two rea-
sons for such choice: 1) Columns are cold-formed by press braking,
which yields small corner radiuses and thereby possibility of neglecting
residual stresses in computations; 2) Another reason is that for thinner
profiles a more pronounced manifestation of buckling phenomena is
observed.
Details on applied FEM codes, particularly on the MSC.NASTRAN
code (version 2013 and 2014) are given in the Section 3. There are listed
conducted FEM tasks, considered elements, their meshing, boundary
conditions and loading. Special attention is focused on the strategy of
simulating the nonlinear behaviour and strength (GMNIA) of the stud-
ied cold-formed columns. Few comparisons with other FEM codes are
given.
Section 4 is devoted to calculation of buckling loads and modes as
well as the corresponding values of the strain energy. The eigenmodes
show combinations of local and distortional buckling, local and global
bow, camber (the major axis flexure) and twist. The upper maxima of
displacement components obtained for eigenmode imperfections nor-
malized by the energy measure indicate eigenmodes with significant
cross-sectional and global patterns. Finally, the results of a survey on
the ratio of maximum local to maximum distortional deviation carried
out for each design case on a rich set of eigenmodes are presented.
Section 5 reports imperfect column strength calculations carried out
for design cases distinguished by chosen cross-sections and lengths of
columns. A moderate level of eigenmode imperfections set by the ener-
gy measure is used. The presented figures show failure loads as well as
information on the applied imperfections normalized to a given EM
level, particularly their maxima of displacement components. The si-
multaneous presentation of failure loads and characteristics of imper-
fections is intended for providing a perceivable view on the treatment
of geometrical imperfections issue by adopting the energy measure.
Strength calculations using imperfections created as combinations of
global and distortional modes are carried out for the eigenmodes
possessing nearby buckling loads.
Section 6 presents column strength calculations for upper imperfec-
tion levels as limited by execution tolerances. Summarizing the devel-
oped procedure and numerical results, guidance for the estimation of
the least column strength by FEM GMNIA is suggested. Also an overall
comparison of computationally assessed failure loads with published
experimental values is presented. The paper concludes with a short
Conclusions section.
2. Dimensions of cold-formed columns
The dimensions of lipped channel columns are chosen to develop
local, distortional and global failure modes. This was done by variation
of cross-section and length of the columns adopted from the published
experimental strength research, see Table 1 and Fig. 1. Material proper-
ties of considered specimens are shown in Table 2.
The shallow cross-section L36F — with low flange to web ratio was
adopted from [13], where several column lengths were studied. The
test rig was equipped with fixed-ended bearings restraining minor,
major and twist rotations as well as warping. To ensure full contact be-
tween the bearings and the test specimen lockable plates were used to
bed-in [13]. The maxima of local imperfections were found at the tip of
Table 1
Outer cross-section dimensions and length of cold-formed columns [mm].
Cross-section Web Flange Lip Thickness Length
Shallow 97.4 37.0 12.7 1.48 1004.6; 1500; 2000; 2300
L36F [13]
Medium 98.9 49.5 10.7 1.5 1500; 2000; 2250; 2500
ST15A90 [14]
Deep 99.9 99.6 10.1 1.48 1503.6
LT15A90 [14]
764 Z. Sadovský, J. Kriváček / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 128 (2017) 762–771
Shallow Medium
Deep
y y y
z z z maxima of co-ordinate shifts. In ABAQUS Version 6.7 the buckling
L36F [13] ST15A90 [14] LT15A90 [14]
Fig. 1. Cross-sections of cold-formed columns.
flanges being of the order of profile thickness. The maxima of overall
minor axis flexural imperfections at mid-length were L/1100. The spec-
imens were manufactured by press braking, which yielded the mem-
brane and bending residual stresses to be b 3% and 7% of the measured
0.2% proof stress, respectively.
The dimensions of medium and deep channel cross-sections match
those of the test specimens ST15A90 and LT15A90 [14], respectively,
see Table 1. The fixed-ended bearings of the test rig ensured similar re-
straints as reported for the narrow channel. The ends of specimens were
milled flat to achieve full contact between the specimen and end bear-
ings. There is no info given on the geometrical imperfections. The spec-
imens were manufactured by press braking.
Note that the lip to flange ratio of the first two cross-sections satisfies
the limits (from 0.2 to 0.6) set by EN 1993-1-3: 2006 for to provide suf-
ficient stiffness and to avoid primary buckling of the stiffener itself. For
the deep channel the ratio is about 0.1 and thereby the lips should be ig-
nored in design (ibid). However, in our computations they are taken
into account.
3. Application of FEM codes
For solving three types of FEM tasks: linear statics and linearized
buckling providing initial imperfect geometries and non-linear GMNIA
calculations of the statics strength of columns the MSC. NASTRAN
code was applied. All tasks were treated with the quadrilateral four-
nodded linear QUAD4 element. Three element sizes of approximately
7.5, 5 and 3.3 mm created meshes denoted as coarse, medium and
fine, respectively. The effect of mesh density on accuracy of buckling re-
sults was checked. The multipoint constraint equations for element
nodes located at the bottom end of the column provided uniform trans-
lation in axial direction. The translations in other directions and all
translations of nodes at the column top end were fixed. These boundary
conditions well match the attachment into the test rigs of specimens re-
ferred to for the choice of cross-sections and lengths of investigated
columns.
In the FEM linear statics task the approximation of potential bow ei-
genmode was calculated. Load conditions were realized as unit transla-
tions imposed in the middle of the column at web-flange junctions. The
task produced the nodal displacements and strain energy value of the
mode.
For the FEM linearized buckling task, a unity force at one node of the
bottom end of the column was used. The buckling loads and the corre-
sponding eigenmodes were calculated using Lanczos method. NASTRAN
normalizes the eigenmodes to the unit maximum displacement
Table 2
Material properties.
Cross-section σ0.2 [MPa] σu [MPa]
Shallow 500 540
L36F [13]
Medium 515 555
ST15A90 [14]
Deep 520 560
LT15A90 [14]
component (co-ordinate shift from the perfect state) providing for
each eigenmode the corresponding strain energy value. ANSYS and
COSMOS/M have an alternative normalization either the same as in
NASTRAN however not giving accompanying energy values; or
employing for normalization the geometric matrix Kg, not giving the
modes “are normalized so that the maximum displacement component
has a magnitude of 1.0. If all displacement components are zero, the
maximum rotation component is normalized to 1.0”. However, the out-
put of the corresponding strain energy is not offered. MARC code nor-
malizes the eigenmodes to the strain energy value of statics case.
Thus, the maxima of displacement components of individual eigen-
modes depend on the choice of load magnitude applied in the statics
case.
For GMNIA model the elastic–plastic material with work hardening
slope of E/104, the yield function criterion of von Mises and isotropic
hardening rule was adopted. The assumed load interval of up to 1.7
times the 1st buckling load was divided into ten load cases using uni-
form load steps. The load cases were created by force acting at the
same node as the unity force in FEM linearized buckling task. The mag-
nitudes of individual load step increments were controlled by the arc-
length method of the Crisfield constraint type, so the increments could
be less than zero. For lower load cases three load step increments are
generated by default. Since the solution never reached upper load
cases, the number of controlled step increments was limited to 15.
The full Newton–Raphson iteration algorithm was applied at each incre-
ment with the convergence criteria for load and work of 10−3 and 10−7,
respectively. The number of iterations for each increment was limited to
25. If the solution did not converge, the increment was bisected and the
analysis was repeated. The peak of the load-shortening response curve
represented the collapse load. When the determination of the peak
load was problematic due to spurious unloading or non-convergence
of solution the analysis was repeated by using the Riks or modified
Riks approach instead of the Crisfield type of arc-length method. If the
problems continued or unrealistic collapse load was detected (e.g. com-
paring to results for different mesh) a new analysis with increased num-
ber of load steps limited to 50 and/or with increased number of
controlled step increments to 25 or 50 was performed. Some cases
were recalculated with refined convergence criteria for load and work
equal to 10−5 and 10−9, respectively; however this practice had mini-
mal effectiveness because only one recalculation was successful. More-
over, one has to be aware that refining convergence criteria may
considerably increase the computational time.
In comparison to the COSMOS/M model using the SHELL4T elements
of the type QUAD4 based on Mindlin's theory carried out in [12] slightly
lower buckling loads were obtained. The shapes and order of eigen-
modes correlated quite well but for few couples, which were found in
reversed order. The GMNIA strength calculations depending on imper-
fection level and shape showed an overall correlation; generally COS-
MOS/M provided lower collapse loads [12].
The minimum strength values shown in Figs. 6–14 were verified by
FEM MARC code calculation. This non-linear solution was started from
MSC.NASTRAN as Solution 600, which means that the initial geometry
is transferred directly from MSC.NASTRAN and original QUAD4 ele-
ments are replaced by MARC‘s bilinear thick shell elements 75 (by de-
fault). However an element less sensitive to distortion — bilinear thin
shell element 139 was applied. Loading was realized by uniform trans-
lation of the bottom end of the column up to 1.2 times the shortening
at the NASTRAN strength. Two sizes of increments were used:
E [GPa] 0.01 mm up to 0.9 times the limit value and 0.002 mm for the rest of
translations. For shallow channel columns the differences to NASTRAN
195
ranged from +0.1% to – 1.0%. For medium channel columns the interval
200 from +1.1% to – 1.2% was obtained. The largest differences showed the
deep channel column. The almost equal minimal failure loads reached
200 for the 6th eigenmode imperfection and the reversed 42nd eigenmode,
differed by – 2.6% and – 2.8%.
 Z. Sadovský, J. Kriváček / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 128 (2017) 762–771 765

4. Imperfections, eigenmodes and the energy measure
The eigenmodes of the linearized column buckling possess the
(rather general) property of representing incipient shapes of small non-
linear solution branches bifurcating from the ideally perfect state at the
eigenloads. This appears to be the main reason for their use as initial im-
perfections for the corresponding nonlinear buckling problem.
Minimising potential energy for small solutions of the nonlinear buck-
ling problem while normalizing imperfections by the energy measure
shows that the eigenmodes are also characteristic imperfection shapes,
cf. [15]. This further supports their role in the study of an imperfect
buckling problem. However, progressing nonlinear solutions possibly
including plasticity phenomena may change their incipient shapes ei-
ther smoothly or suddenly at bifurcation and snap through points. The
small solutions thus may not provide conclusive evidence on failure
modes and loads of a structural element/column. Nevertheless,
adopting eigenmodes as theoretical geometrical imperfections has ad-
vantages over, e.g. trigonometric functions. Their use can be significant-
ly facilitated when normalizing imperfections by the energy measure.
Solving the linearized buckling problem by a FEM code means that
the well known equations
K e φi ¼ λi K g φi ; λi ≈ P cri ; i ¼ 1; …; n
are satisfied. Ke and Kg are the elastic stiffness and geometric matrices,
respectively. φi denotes the i-th eigenmode and λi represents the corre-
sponding buckling load Pcri. The energy measure of an eigenmode φi de-
rives from the quadratic form related to the Ke matrix:
 1=2  1=2
1 T 1 T
EMðφi Þ ¼ φi K e φi ¼ λi φi K g φi
2 2
EM represents the norm in the n-dimensional space of the FEM approx-
imation, which possesses the scalar product xTKey/2 and a complete sys-
tem of orthogonal base functions φi, i = 1,…,n. The first quadratic form
in Eq. (2) represents a hypothetic strain energy exerted to distort
the initially perfect column into the shape of the eigenmode φi, i.e.
reflects buckling deformability of the column in that mode. The qua-
dratic form related to the Kg matrix (second parentheses in Eq. (2))
characterises the column axial shortening corresponding to its
Shallow cross-section; L = 1500
Pcr Pcr 28×200 EM 28×200 EM
[kN] Pcr 42×300 EM 42×300 [Nmm]1/2
180 Pcr 60×450 EM 60×450
deflection in the i-th eigenmode, i.e. reflects its axial deformability in
that mode. Eq. (2) shows that when normalizing eigenmodes by the en-
ergy measure the higher the buckling load the higher the axial stiffness
in the respective eigenmode. Note that this seemingly obvious feature
cannot be observed normalizing the eigenmodes by amplitude [12].
Fig. 2 presents results of linearized buckling calculations of the shal-
low cross-section column of the length L = 1500 mm obtained by the
code MSC.NASTRAN. The first 60 buckling loads and the energy mea-
sures of the corresponding eigenmodes normalized to the unit maxi-
mum co-ordinate shift are shown. Three mesh choices 28 × 200,
42 × 300 and 60 × 450, where the first figure shows the number of ele-
ments over the cross-section and the second along the length, were
checked. As can be seen the respective buckling loads do not clearly in-
dicate, which of the meshing should be preferred. On the other hand the
EM values are sensitive to reveal possible interchange of mode ordering
(positions 33, 34 and 45, 46), occurrence of a new mode (position 59)
and stabilisation of their values while proceeding to finer meshes (e.g.
positions 30 and 47). This is another benefit of working with energy
measure. Small EM values show that lesser strain energy is required to
distort the column into the respective eigenmode shape of unit magni-
tude. In other words, the buckling deformability of the column in that
eigenmode shape is greater. High values of the energy measure show
ð1Þ severely distorted modes of potentially unrealistic magnitudes [12].
The eigenmodes calculated for the mesh 60 × 450 are further
renormalized by the energy measure to its lowest level obtained for
the 48th mode, which buckled in a combined camber and twist shape,
see Fig. 2. The corresponding maxima of co-ordinate shifts are plotted
in Fig. 3. The unit interval chosen should provide well perceivable visu-
alization of their proportions. Now higher magnitudes of the maxima
are interpreted as greater buckling deformability of the column in
ð2Þ
those eigenmode shapes. Note that the higher magnitudes may imply
earlier outset of large deflection effects unfavourably influencing the
column strength. For heavily distorted eigenmodes, the normalization
by the energy measure yields small magnitudes thereby suppressing oc-
currences of unrealistic magnitudes. For modes with higher maxima of
Shallow cross-section; L = 1500
Max coord. shift Local & Glob. Bow
Local ampl Shift z (Camber & Twist)
Dist. ampl
[mm]
1.0
600

150 500 0.8

120 400 0.6

90 300
0.4
60 200
0.2
30 100

0 0 0.0

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60

Mode Mode i = 1, ... 60; Global Bow 61

Fig. 2. Buckling loads and the energy measure of eigenmodes normalized to the unit Fig. 3. Maxima of co-ordinate shifts of eigenmodes normalized by the energy measure to
maximum co-ordinate shift; comparison of three meshes. the level of the 48th mode (see Fig. 2) and particular amplitudes of selected modes.
766 Z. Sadovský, J. Kriváček / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 128 (2017) 762–771
co-ordinate shift also maxima of local, distortional and local bow devia-
tions are plotted in Fig. 3. The “increasing branch” shows increasing
buckling deformability owing to occurrence and gradual increase of
the distortional and later also the local bow deviation. The “decreasing
branch” reflects ever increasing number of half-waves of local buckles
severely distorting the column web. For calculation of column strength
the eigenmodes of high buckling deformability — high magnitudes of
co-ordinate shifts maxima suggest themselves as the potentially worst
imperfections. One has also take into account the eigenmode axial stiff-
ness increasing with the magnitude of eigenloads under this normaliza-
tion, which counteracts the indications of buckling deformability. Fig. 17
[12] showing the column collapse loads as depending on eigenmode
imperfection shapes and magnitude (EM) as well as Figs. 10 and 12
[12] suggest that for small imperfection magnitudes the axial
deformability dominates the choice of the worst shape — the most influ-
ential being the first and second eigenmode imperfections. Regarding
the tolerance check, the high buckling deformability of eigenmodes in-
dicates maxima of local, distortional and bow deviations. These observa-
tions and simple eigenmode combination can significantly facilitate the
search for the worst imperfection under tolerances limitations.
On the 61st position of the horizontal axis of Fig. 3 the amplitude of
the approximated global bow (bending with respect to the weaker
cross-sectional axis) is drawn. The bow shape was calculated by linear
FEM imposing two horizontal unit deformations in the middle of the
column at the web-flange junctions. Then its amplitude was scaled
adjusting the resulting EM value to the adopted EM level obtained for
the 48th eigenmode. Selected eigenmode shapes including the eigen-
mode bow shape (46) and the approximated bow shape (61) are
shown in Fig. 4.
The maxima of local and distortional deviations of highly deformable
eigenmodes evaluated for each column cross-section and length
allowed making a survey on the ratio of maximum local to maximum
distortional amplitude. The results referred to the ratio of the web to
flange outer dimensions — the horizontal axis are compared with ratios
of permitted local to distortional deviations set for functional tolerances
of local (width/c) and distortional (flange ∗ sin α) Class I (c = 50; α =
3°) and Class II (c = 100; α = 2°), see Fig. 5. Almost all design cases are
below the Class I dotted line. This means that satisfying the distortional
Class I limitation the corresponding tolerance on local buckling is in al-
most all cases automatically satisfied. The eigenmodes of shallow cross-
section columns develop relatively higher proportion of local to distor-
tional deviations. A reversed situation can be observed for the case of
1 2 3 18 21 28
Fig. 4. Selected eigenmodes and the approximated bow shape (denoted as no. 61) of the shallow cross-section column of the length L = 1500 mm.
deep cross-section, where distortional deviations are further enhanced
by weaker lips.
5. Imperfect column strength calculations
For all considered dimensions of cross-section and length of axially
loaded cold-formed columns the GMNIA strength calculations are car-
ried out. A moderate level of imperfections derived by the procedure
used for development of Fig. 3 is introduced. Investigation of a design
situation starts with determination of a set of the first 60 eigenmodes
normalized by the energy measure (EM). The EM level is adjusted by
scaling the eigenmodes, so that their maxima of co-ordinate shifts lie
in the unit interval reaching its upper limit, which is of 1 mm. For the ei-
genmodes with upper maxima of co-ordinate shifts also the local, dis-
tortional and bow amplitudes are estimated, see Fig. 3. The results of
eigenmodes analysis and the GMNIA strength values are plotted in a
common graph. This should give an overview about the effectiveness
of preparatory eigenmode analysis (see Section 4) in the search for
the worst imperfection shape. When the multiplication of an eigen-
mode by – 1 leads to a different configuration, then both are used as im-
perfections distinguishing the resulting strength values by solid circle
and solid star marker. Note that within the linearized buckling analysis
both configurations are equivalent.
5.1. Shallow channel columns
Figs. 6–9 show results obtained for the shallow channel columns of
the lengths 1004.6, 1500, 2000 and 2300, respectively. The employed
meshing is (60 × 302, 60 × 450, 60 × 600 and 60 × 690 elements cover-
ing the cross-section and length). For the short column (L =
1004.6 mm) decisive eigenmodes possess upper local and distortional
amplitudes — Modes 21, 23, 25 and 30, Fig. 6. Although of comparable
amplitude, mode 37 lost importance probably because of its higher
buckling load level. Its shape consists of two distortional half-waves
similarly as it can be seen in the inner part of the 44-th eigenmode of
the longer column of L = 1500 mm, see Fig. 4. Significant amplitude
possesses also the approximated global bow imperfection (61); howev-
er the corresponding strength is distinctly above the lower values.
For the column of the length L = 1500 again eigenmodes with upper
local and distortional amplitudes — Modes 32, 34 and 38 play decisive
role, however the almost global bow mode and global camber and
twist mode appearing on the 46th an 48th position gained importance,
31 32 34 35 38 44 46 48 61
Mode
 Z. Sadovský, J. Kriváček / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 128 (2017) 762–771 767

max loc / max dist 1004.6 2250

tol R Class I Shallow cross-section; L = 1500
1500 2300
tol loc / tol dist tol R Class II
2000 2500 Max coord. shift Local & Global Bow
1.2
Local ampl Shift z (Cam & Twist) Pult( i)
1.0 Dist. ampl Pult(- i)
[mm] [kN]
0.8
1.6
Deep

Shallow
0.6 1.4 100

1.2

Medium
0.4
1.0 80
0.2
0.8
0.0
0.6 60
1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75
Ratio web / flange outer dimensions 0.4

0.2 40
Fig. 5. Ratios of maxima of local and distortional components of EM normalized
eigenmodes compared with the ratios based on the functional tolerances of Class I and 0.0
Class II. 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Mode i = 1, ... 60; Global Bow 61
cf. Figs. 7 and 3. Note that for the bow like Mode 46 and the approximat-
Fig. 7. GMNIA failure loads for moderate EM level of eigenmode imperfections represented
ed bow shape 61 almost equal strength values have been obtained. by their maxima of co-ordinate shifts and some particular amplitudes; shallow profile, L =
Increase of the column length to L = 2000 caused decrease of the 1500 mm.
upper local and distortional amplitudes and a shift of the corresponding
eigenmodes to higher positions (≥43). The decisive imperfection shape buckling loads, to another global mode (30) and a small group of signif-
provides the global camber and twist mode and global bow mode on the icant cross-sectional eigenmodes (40, 43, 44 and 45). A question may be
30th and 37th position. The lowest strength is obtained simultaneously raised on their combined effect on the column strength. Combining two
for the global bow and the approximated global bow shape (61), Fig. 8. modes at the given EM level, the combination factors cg and cd take on
Note the gain of importance in the first 4 eigenmode shapes. the values of the orthogonal co-ordinates of points on a unit circle.
The tallest column of L = 2300 shows continuation of the tenden- Thus considering cg within b−1,1N the cd = ± (1 − cg2)1/2. The combi-
cies: shifts of eigenmodes with distortional components to the upper nations of the reversed bow mode with each of the cross-sectional
positions (buckling loads) and decreasing the order numbers of global modes 40, 43, 44 and 45 resulted in negligible strength decrease of
camber and twist mode (12) and global bow mode (26); and increased 0.7% attained with 44th mode and cg = 0.9 and cd ≅ 0.4359. Combination
importance of the first 4 modes. Further, similar “performance” in terms of global modes (30 and reversed 37) showed a decrease to 72.63 kN at
of strengths obtained for the global bow and the approximated global cg = cd ≅ 0.7071 being 2.2% below the strength of 74.27 kN obtained for
bow imperfections is confirmed. The lowest strength results for the the global bow imperfection. When considering combinations of more
global camber and twist mode, Fig. 9.
At L = 2000 the global bow eigenmode (37) is relatively close, in
terms of the order number and thereby also of the corresponding
Shallow cross-section; L = 2000
Shallow cross-section; L = 1004.6 Max coord. shift Local & Global Bow
Max coord. shift Local ampl Pult( i) Local ampl Shift z (Cam & Twist) Pult( i)
Dist. ampl Local & Glob. Bow Pult(- i) Dist. ampl Pult(- i)
[mm] [kN] [mm] [kN]
1.8 110 1.6

1.4 80
1.5 100
1.2
1.2 90 1.0 70

0.9 80 0.8

0.6 60
0.6 70
0.4
0.3 60 0.2 50

0.0 50 0.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Mode i = 1, ... 60 & Sin-Bow 61 Mode i = 1, ... 60; Global Bow 61

Fig. 6. GMNIA failure loads for moderate EM level of eigenmode imperfections represented Fig. 8. GMNIA failure loads for moderate EM level of eigenmode imperfections represented
by their maxima of co-ordinate shifts and some particular amplitudes; shallow profile, L = by their maxima of co-ordinate shifts and some particular amplitudes; shallow profile, L =
1004.6 mm. 2000 mm.
768 Z. Sadovský, J. Kriváček / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 128 (2017) 762–771

Shallow cross-section; L = 2300 Medium cross-section; L = 1500

Max coord. shift Local & Global Bow Max coord. shift Local & Global Bow
Local ampl Shift z (Cam & Twist) Pult( i) Local ampl Shift z (Cam & Twist) Pult( i)
Dist. ampl Pult(- i) Dist. ampl Pult(- i)
[mm] [kN] [mm] [kN]
1.6 70 1.8
1.4 110
1.5
1.2 60 100
1.0 1.2
90
0.8 50 0.9
0.6 80
0.6
0.4 40 70
0.2 0.3
60
0.0 30 0.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Mode i = 1, ... 60; Global Bow 61 Mode i = 1, ... 60; Global Bow 61
Fig. 9. GMNIA failure loads for moderate EM level of eigenmode imperfections represented Fig. 10. GMNIA failure loads for moderate EM level of eigenmode imperfections
by their maxima of co-ordinate shifts and some particular amplitudes; shallow profile, L = represented by their maxima of co-ordinate shifts and some particular amplitudes;
2300 mm. medium profile, L = 1500 mm.

distant global modes (12 and 25) occurring for column of L = 2300 only
a minute decrease was obtained. 5.3. Deep channel column

As noted in Section 2 the lip to flange ratio of the deep channel col-
5.2. Medium channel columns umn does not satisfy the limits set by EN 1993-1-3: 2006 and thereby
primary buckling of the lip may occur. Fig. 14 shows failure loads for
Study on the strength of the medium channel columns of the lengths the column of L = 1503.6 mm (96 × 450 elements). One can observe
1500, 2000, 2250 and 2500 (66 × 450, 44 × 400, 88 × 270 and 88 × 300 that for ten eigenmodes and the approximated bow mode the failure
elements) is presented in Figs. 10–13, respectively. Note that particular- loads are around 84 kN. Closer exploration revealed that the increments
ly for the length L = 2250 the mesh size used in the paper [16] was ap- of deformation resulted in development of local buckling of the lip. The
plied in order to expand the earlier performed strength calculations. A lowest strength of 83.32 kN was obtained for the 42nd eigenmode im-
check of the lowest strength values for L = 2250 against the fine perfection. Slightly higher values were found for the 6th and 18th
66 × 680 meshing showed negligible differences, thereby for L =
2500 analogical mesh was applied. At this cross-section no global bow
eigenmode appeared within the first 60 eigenmodes. This gave the rea-
son for introduction of an approximated global bow imperfection. Medium cross-section; L = 2000
Fig. 10 shows results for the column of the length L = 1500. Impor-
Max coord. shift Local & Global Bow
tant eigenmodes are situated between the 21st and 31st position. The
imperfection shape in the global camber and twist mode appearing at Local ampl Shift z (Cam & Twist) Pult( i)
the 51st position gives significantly higher strength value. Modes with Dist. ampl Pult(- i)
local twist deformations (46, 47…) are insignificant. [mm] [kN]
Checking the next tree figures (Figs. 11–13) one can see the in 1.8
Subsection 5.1 observed tendency of decreasing the upper distortional 110
and local amplitudes and of shifting their positions higher with the col- 1.5
umn length. The position of the global camber and twist mode de- 100
creases with the column length from the 44th (L = 2000) to 29th 1.2
(L = 2250) and 13th (L = 2500). For L = 2250 the strengths calculated 90
for the global imperfection (Mode 29) and for the distortional mode 0.9
with high local component (Mode 32) are quite close. For the tallest col- 80
umn (L = 2500) the global imperfection shape (Mode 13) provides the 0.6
lowest strength value being distinctly below the other values. 70
The proximity of buckling loads of the decisive eigenmode imperfec- 0.3
tions obtained at the column of L = 2250 suggests checking the influ- 60
ence of their combinations on column strength. The global mode 0.0
(29th) is combined with each of the distortional modes having signifi- 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
cant local component (30th and 32nd). Using 0.1 step for the combina-
Mode i = 1, ... 60; Global Bow 61
tion factor cg the largest decrease to 82.40 kN was obtained for
combination of the global imperfection with the 32nd eigenmode Fig. 11. GMNIA failure loads for moderate EM level of eigenmode imperfections
shape in the proportions (cg:cd) = (0.6:0.8). This is about 2.3% less represented by their maxima of co-ordinate shifts and some particular amplitudes;
than the lowest strength of 84.36 kN found for the 29th eigenmode. medium profile, L = 2000 mm.
 Z. Sadovský, J. Kriváček / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 128 (2017) 762–771 769

Medium cross-section; L = 2250 Deep cross-section; L = 1503.6

Max coord. shift Local & Global Bow Max coord. shift Local ampl Fl(i)
Local ampl Shift z (Cam & Twist) Pult( i) Local ampl Local & Global Bow Pult( i)
Dist. ampl Pult(- i) Dist. ampl Shift z (Cam & Twist) Pult(- i)
[mm] [kN] [mm] [kN]
1.5 1.8 100
110
1.2 1.5 90
100
1.2 80
0.9
90 0.9 70
0.6
80 0.6 60
0.3
0.3 50
70
0.0 0.0 40
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Mode i = 1, ... 60; Global Bow 61 Mode i = 1, ... 60 & Global Bow 61
Fig. 12. GMNIA failure loads for moderate EM level of eigenmode imperfections
Fig. 14. GMNIA failure loads for moderate EM level of eigenmode imperfections
represented by their maxima of co-ordinate shifts and some particular amplitudes;
represented by their maxima of co-ordinate shifts and some particular amplitudes; deep
medium profile, L = 2250 mm.
profile, L = 1503.6 mm.

eigenmodes with the maxima of co-ordinate shifts within the upper

values, however at the bottom positions. The experimental failure load part of the figures in Section 5, factors necessary to increase the adjusted
of the specimen LT15A90 [14] of 74.2 kN reported without indication moderate level of the energy measure for to reach the tolerance limits in
of imperfections is significantly lower than the theoretical values. global bow, local or distortional deviations can be determined. Figs. 15
Even significant increase of the magnitudes of the considered imperfec- and 16 show the obtained bow, local and distortional factors for the
tions did not markedly influence the lower ultimate strength values cal- shallow and medium channel columns. For global bow the essential tol-
culated by the adopted FEM model. erance L/750 was used. Local and distortional deviations were subjected
to the more stringent Class II functional limitations of EN 1090-2:
6. Imperfect column strength respecting tolerance limitations 2008 + A1: 2011, see Section 4. Obviously, in order to satisfy one of
the tolerances and simultaneously not exceed the remaining two the
Looking for the least failure load the upper imperfection levels are lowest factor has to be applied. In majority of cases it is the bow factor.
limited by the execution tolerances. Based on the analysis of eigen- The largest down-crossing of the bow factor is found for the medium
modes in Section 4 displayed for each considered design situation as a channel column of L = 1500, where the local factor of 3.01 is decisive.
For this design case detailed GMNIA column strength calculations
were performed. The desired imperfection level was obtained by multi-
Medium cross-section; L = 2500 plying each of the eigenmodes scaled to the moderate EM level (Fig. 3)
by the factor of 3.01. The results of the subsequent GMNIA calculations
Max coord. shift Local & Global Bow are shown in Fig. 17. Comparing the column strength values for the
Local ampl Shift z (Cam & Twist) Pult( i)
Dist. ampl Pult(- i)
[mm] [kN] Shallow channel column
1.5 Tol factor
100 7
1.2
6 Bow factor
90
Loc factor
0.9 5 Dist factor
80
4
0.6
70 3
0.3
2
60
0.0 1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
0
Mode i = 1, ... 60; Global Bow 61 1000 1500 2000 2500
Fig. 13. GMNIA failure loads for moderate EM level of eigenmode imperfections Length [mm]
represented by their maxima of co-ordinate shifts and some particular amplitudes;
medium profile, L = 2500 mm. Fig. 15. Tolerance factors for the shallow channel column.
770 Z. Sadovský, J. Kriváček / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 128 (2017) 762–771

Medium channel column The presented procedure is summarized into guidance for the use of
FEM in the estimation of the least GMNIA strength of a lipped channel
Tol factor column respecting tolerance limitations:
9
1. Solve the linearized buckling problem determining about the first 50
8 Bow factor eigenmodes and the corresponding eigenloads. Normalize the eigen-
Loc factor modes by the energy measure (EM) to the level adjusted by scaling
7 Dist factor the eigenmodes to obtain their maxima of co-ordinate shifts within
the unit interval reaching its upper limit.
6 2. Check the obtained eigenmodes for occurrence of a global bow mode —
column bent with respect to the weaker cross-sectional axis. In the
5
case of unsuccessful outcome calculate an approximated global bow
4 mode, imposing two unit deformations in the middle of the column
at the web-flange junctions. Scale the mode to set its energy measure
3 equal to the level adjusted in step 1).
3. For the eigenmodes with upper maxima of co-ordinate shifts esti-
2 mate the maxima of local, distortional and bow deviations. Calculate
1500 2000 2500 the corresponding factors needed for to reach the tolerance limits in
local and distortional deviations as well as in global bow.
Length [mm]
4. Use the smallest factor to scale all considered eigenmodes and the
global bow for obtaining the imperfections normalized to the final
Fig. 16. Tolerance factors for the medium channel column.
EM level at which the least failure load is to be searched.
5. Check the column strengths for imperfections with the upper co-or-
moderate and top imperfection EM level (see Figs. 10 and 17) an in-
dinate shifts as the potentially most unfavourable shapes. Looking for
creased importance of higher eigenmode imperfections with upper
the least failure load combine the most influential global and cross-
co-ordinate maxima at the top level can be observed. Particularly, now
sectional imperfection modes with nearby buckling loads at the
the lowest strength is reached for the 51st camber and twist eigenmode
final EM level. Consider also reversed eigenmode/bow shapes, i.e. if
imperfection with the largest co-ordinate shift. The results suggest that
multiplication by −1 yields different configuration.
for high EM imperfection levels even high eigenmodes with upper buck-
ling deformability may indicate the most important imperfections. The step 1) can be readily performed by NASTRAN, which normal-
Imperfections created as combinations of the 51st global eigenmode izes the eigenmodes to the unit maximum co-ordinate shift. The least
with each of the cross-sectional eigenmodes: 21st, 24th, 30th and 31st value of EM derived from the strain energy values provided simulta-
were employed for checking potential decrease of the lowest strength neously for each eigenmode represents the desired EM level to which
of 90.99 kN obtained for the global imperfection. A decrease to 89.93 all remaining eigenmodes should be scaled. Plotting the corresponding
kN was obtained for combination with the 24th eigenmode with maxima of co-ordinate shifts in the form of Fig. 3 gives a lucid overview
(cg:cd) = (0.9:0.4359). The decrease is slightly above 1% of the lowest on those with upper maxima. Generally, any other EM level might be
strength obtained for individual eigenmode imperfections. The practi- used for initial scaling (sizing) of the eigenmodes.
cally negligible difference appears as a consequence of distant buckling An approximate comparison of computed ultimate column strength
loads of combined eigenmodes. Combinations of the cross-sectional ei- values with the failure loads of experiments [13,14], see Section 2, can
genmodes did not result in a decrease of their minimum failure load. be performed. Table 3 shows the experimental failure loads along
with the lowest theoretical column strength values obtained for
eigenmode imperfections at moderate (see Figs. 6–14) and tolerance
Medium cross-section; L = 1500 reaching levels (cf. Figs. 15–17). Due column length dimensions are in-
dicated by lower case superscript letters. In spite of incomplete or miss-
Max coord. shift Local & Global Bow
ing information on the initial geometrical imperfections of the
Local ampl Shift z (Cam & Twist) Pult( i) specimens (see Section 2) the comparison may give some insight on
Dist. ampl Pult(- i) the influence of magnitudes of imperfections on the columns strength
[mm] [kN] not allowing corroborative evidence on the influence of the variability
of imperfections shapes.
3.0 110
Focusing on the shallow channel [13] the trend of decreasing failure
2.5 100 loads with increasing column length largely corresponds to the

2.0 90 Table 3
Experimental failure loads [13,14] and the lowest theoretical column strength values ob-
1.5 80 tained for eigenmode imperfections at moderate and tolerance reaching levels EM in kN.

Sample\Length 999.2/1000.4a 1500/1503.6b 2000 2500/2300c

1.0 70
Shallow L36F [13] 89.6 82.4 70.1 58.1
Moderate imp. 88.27 88.50 74.25 63.15c
0.5 60 Tol. lim. (*tol.f.)## 87.16(*1.16) 81.78(*2.27) 67.52(*3.14) 58.05c(*3.57)
Medium ST15A90 – 97.3b – –
0.0 50 [14]
Moderate imp. – 94.24 86.70 74.36
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Tol. lim. (*tol.f.)## – 90.99(*3.01) 79.37(*4.42) 66.13 (*5.38)
Mode i = 1, ... 60; Global Bow 61 Medium L48F# [13] 102.3a 98.6 90.1 73.9
a,b,c
indicate corresponding column length dimensions.
#
Fig. 17. GMNIA failure loads for the top EM level of eigenmode imperfections represented L48F similar cross-section dimensions as ST15A90.
##
by their maxima of co-ordinate shifts and some particular amplitudes respecting Tolerance factor by which the moderate imperfection level was increased, see Figs.
tolerances limitations; medium profile, L = 1500 mm. 15 and 16.
 Z. Sadovský, J. Kriváček / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 128 (2017) 762–771
calculated values. Also experimental failure modes reported as flexural
and flexural-torsional modes for L N 2000 mm and combinations of
these modes with local and distortional modes at short and intermedi-
ate length L ≤ 2000 mm may be traced on significant imperfections in
Figs. 6–9.
For the medium channel ST15A90 [14] reported without info on im-
perfections the lowest failure load computed for L = 1500 and moder-
ate imperfection level is below the experimental value. The
distortional failure mode in the test corresponds to the computed failure
mode, cf. Fig. 10.
A row related to columns with medium profile L48F with dimen-
sions similar to those of the investigated ST15A90 [14] is added. The
maxima of distortional deviations are as for shallow L36F profile of the
order of thickness, while the minor axis flexural imperfections are of
1/1300. The failure modes reported were “combined local and distor-
tional buckling modes at short lengths, combinations of these modes
with the flexural-torsional buckling mode at intermediate lengths, and
pure flexural and flexural-torsional buckling modes at long lengths”
[13]. The computed failure loads and the corresponding failure modes
indicated by the eigenmode imperfections largely correspond to the
tests, cf. Figs. 10, 11, 13 and 17.
Generally, the theoretical column strength values obtained at the
tolerance reaching levels of the energy measure of eigenmode imperfec-
tions are below the experimental failure loads.
7. Conclusions
The paper presents a method for computational modelling of the ul-
timate buckling strength of thin-gauge lipped channel columns in axial
compression by geometrical and material nonlinear FEM analysis with
imperfections (GMNIA). Geometrical imperfections subjected to the
limitations by execution tolerances are considered. For calculations of
the least strength the imperfections in the shapes of eigenmodes of
the corresponding linearized buckling problem and their combinations
are employed. The imperfections are normalized by the energy measure
(EM) introduced as the square root of the elastic strain energy hypothet-
ically required to distort the initially perfect column into the considered
imperfect shape. The search for the least column strength is carried out
at the top EM level of imperfections as limited by execution tolerances.
The approach is deterministic; thereby the tolerances are for simplicity
directly referred to the unscaled values.
Normalization of imperfections by the energy measure has several
advantages. Imperfections are compared using sole measure, the level
of which is limited by essential tolerance for column bow and functional
tolerances for local and distortional deviations. Heavily distorted imper-
fection shapes are included with correspondingly small amplitudes.
Thus, using equal amplitudes for simple and heavily distorted imperfec-
tion shapes, which may lead to unrealistically low failure loads, is
avoided, see [17,18]. The cross-sectional and global eigenmodes are
readily combined, since they are orthogonal with respect to the scalar
product (elastic stiffness matrix) related to the measure. High ampli-
tudes of normalized eigenmode imperfections reveal influential shapes.
These imperfections when situated nearby within ascending ordering of
eigenloads/eigenmodes, i.e. with close eigenloads, are potential shapes
771
for checking their combinations in the search for the least strength. Nu-
merical results suggest that using the first (critical) eigenmode for com-
binations at the top EM level is generally not useful. The abilities of the
energy measure to facilitate computational treatment of the geometri-
cal imperfections issue and the obtained numerical results are summa-
rized in guidance for the use of FEM in the estimation of the least GMNIA
column strength.
An application of the method to different types of thin-walled struc-
tural elements and structures and its generalization within probabilistic
setting is aimed at our subsequent investigations.
Acknowledgment
The authors acknowledge a partial support of their work by grant
agency VEGA under grant 2/0154/15.
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