1

APPLICATION NOTE

Recommended Battery Maintenance Practices

There are many different tests that can be performed on a battery string. The question often
arises which one should be performed. The truth is no single test can be used to determine if a
string is good or bad. In order to maintain a battery string, a maintenance plan needs to be
established. The plan will need to consist of multiple tests that determine the condition of all
components of the battery string. It must be remembered that a battery string consists of more
than just batteries. All elements of the string need to be tested and maintained. The data from
these tests will determine the condition of the battery string and what maintenance steps need
to be taken.

The level of maintenance performed should be a balanced between how critical the backup
system is and maintenance cost. Not performing the proper maintenance can lead to a battery
string failing to operate when required. The cost of a failed back-up system needs to be taken
into account when establishing a battery maintenance program.

Below is a list of tests that are performed as part of a maintenance routine. This application note
will explain the requirements of the different tests and why they should be performed. It will then
offer some recommended maintenance routines based on the chemistry of the battery.

Visual Inspection
A String Continuity Test
Float Voltage Measurements
Float Current Measurements
Ripple Current Measurements
Specific Gravity Measurements
Temperature Measurements
Discharge Testing
Ohmic Testing
Strap or Inter-cell Resistance Testing

Visual Inspection

Visual inspection is a critical part of battery maintenance. A great deal can be learned from a
good inspection, which needs to be performed on the entire system. The following items need to
be inspected.

1. Bulging or deformed batteries: A battery can be bulging due to excessive internal heat or
excessive plate growth. If a battery is bulging or deformed, then it needs to be replaced.
If they are not replaced, the jars may break or start leaking.

2. Cracked or leaking cells: Batteries contain electrolyte. In lead acid batteries the
electrolyte is acidic. In NiCD batteries, the electrolyte is alkaline. If electrolyte is leaking
from a cell, it is not only a hazard but it can cause ground faults if it creates a path to a
grounded surface, such as a battery rack. Any cells with leaking electrolyte need to be
replaced.

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2621 Van Buren Avenue, Norristown, Pennsylvania, 19403, USA
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APPLICATION NOTE

Recommended Battery Maintenance Practices

3. Check the electrolyte levels in flooded batteries: Verify the electrolyte is level is between
the two fill lines on the battery. Low electrolyte levels will cause partial plate sulfating and
excessive heating.

4. Verify there are no ground faults: This applies to ungrounded systems. Check the
ground fault monitor and verify no ground faults are indicated. If the system does not
have a ground fault monitor, then a DMM can be used. Measure the voltage from the
positive terminal to earth, then measure the voltage from the negative terminal to earth.
The values should be the same. If one is lower than the other, then that is an indication
that there is a ground fault on the side that had the lower measurement.

5. Check the strap connections: Be sure they are clean. If corrosion is seen, clean them.
Be sure to always use insulated tools. If a metal tool is dropped across battery
terminals, it will turn into a fuse and create a hazard.

6. Check the battery rack: If the batteries are on a rack or support system, verify it is sturdy
and not corroded.

7. Check the ventilation system: Verify the ventilation system is operational. Flooded lead
acid batteries release hydrogen gas. If hydrogen accumulates in sufficient quantities in a
confined area, it can become an explosion hazard.

8. Cleanliness: Verify the room is clean and free of debris and obstacles.

9. Check neutralizing agent: Verify you have the correct neutralizing agent in the room in
case of a spill.

Record the information. Be sure to record the information. It is good to have records to
reference. In addition some standards such as the US NERC standard requires records
be kept.

String Continuity

If a battery string does not have continuity, it will not function. There must be a low impedance
path for the current to flow. Different types of batteries fail in different modes. Vented lead acid
or VLA batteries tend to fail in what is referred to as a shorted mode. This is not to say they are
shorted out, but it means that their impedance will still be low enough for current to get through
the string even with a failed battery. This is due to the large amount of electrolyte. That does not
mean that they cannot fail open, it is just not their normal mode of failure.

Valve regulated lead acid, or VRLA batteries, tend to fail in what is referred to as an open mode.
This is not to say they are opened, but it means that their impedance will be high enough for
current to not get through the string. This is because they operate in an electrolyte-starved
mode.

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2621 Van Buren Avenue, Norristown, Pennsylvania, 19403, USA
T. 1-610 676 8500 F. 1-610-676-8610
 3

APPLICATION NOTE

Recommended Battery Maintenance Practices

This is why it is recommended that if VRLA batteries are being used in a critical application, a
parallel string configuration should be used. This helps ensure there is a low impedance path for
current should a VRLA battery fail.

Loss of continuity in a battery string can be due to either a battery failing or a poor strap
connection, so both need to be taken into account.

By measuring each battery’s impedance and each inter-cell strap’s resistance, you can assume
you have continuity. However, the recommended method of verifying continuity is to inject a
current through the entire string and verify you have a good path.

Float Voltage

The float voltage is the DC voltage measured across the batteries and the string when the
batteries are in float mode or fully charged. This value needs to be measured across the posts
of the battery.

The measured value is then compared to the value on the battery manufacturer’s datasheet,
which will list the float voltage range. Verify the string is well balanced and all the cells are within
the proper range.

NOTE: Do not use a Digital Multimeter (DMM) to make this measurement. A DMM is a high
impedance device. Even a battery that has little to no capacity can measure well on a DMM. A
lower impedance device or a small load should be placed on the battery to measure the float
voltage.

If the float voltage is low, then the battery is not fully charged and the plates are partially
sulfated. The longer it stays this way the harder it is reverse it. If the float voltage is high then
the battery is getting over charged. This will accelerate chemical reactions and accelerate grid
corrosion in flooded cells and dry out in VRLA batteries.

A battery can act as a source or a load. If a battery in a string has a low voltage, it will act as a
load and draw current from the other batteries. If it is found that the string is unbalanced, then
an equalization or boost charge may need to be run in order to balance the string. Follow all
battery manufacturer recommendations when performing an equalization test. Always test all
inter-cell connections prior to performing an equalization test.

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2621 Van Buren Avenue, Norristown, Pennsylvania, 19403, USA
T. 1-610 676 8500 F. 1-610-676-8610
 4

APPLICATION NOTE

Recommended Battery Maintenance Practices

Float Current

The float current is the measurement of the DC current going through the battery string. This
measurement can be taken anywhere in a series string. Kirchhoff law states that the sum of the
currents flowing into any junction will equal the sum coming out of that junction. This means the
current through any series string will be constant. In parallel strings, it needs to be measured at
the output of the charger.

If the batteries are in float mode, this should be a low value. However, if the batteries are
charging, then this value will be high.

If the batteries are charging, do NOT perform a test on them. Batteries need to be fully charged
in order to perform proper testing. Batteries that are not fully charged have plates that are
partially sulfated. This means they will have reduced capacity and as a result high impedance.

If float currents are changing over time this can be an indicator of a problem. In Valve Regulated
Lead Acid (VRLA) batteries a float current that is increasing over time can be a precursor to
Thermal Run-away. In Lead Antimony batteries, a steadily increasing float current can be a sign
of antimony poisoning.

A float current that has risen quickly can be a sign either a short circuit or a ground fault,
assuming the batteries are not charging.

Ripple

The ripple current is a measurement of the AC current that is present on the battery string. This
is a by-product of AC to DC conversion. The battery charger takes AC current in and rectifies it
to DC current to charge the batteries. This conversion is not 100% efficient. There is always
some residual AC current.

This current is normally quite small. However, if the charger has a faulty rectifier, then we can
see high levels of ripple current. This will cause internal heating of battery. IEEE recommends
that the ripple current should not exceed more than 5A for every 100Ah capacity of the battery.
This measurement can be taken anywhere in a series string. In parallel strings, it needs to be
measured at the output of the charger.

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2621 Van Buren Avenue, Norristown, Pennsylvania, 19403, USA
T. 1-610 676 8500 F. 1-610-676-8610
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APPLICATION NOTE

Recommended Battery Maintenance Practices

If the rectifier in the charger fails then the ripple will be a low frequency ripple. Low frequency
ripple can cyclically raise and lower the float voltage 50 or 60 times a second. This can raise the
float voltage above the maximum rating of the battery at the peak and lower the float voltage
below the open circuit voltage of the battery at its minimum. This leads to repeated overcharging
and discharging of the battery, lowering its life span.

Low frequency ripple can interfere with instrumentation that performs low frequency testing,
such as ohmic testers. If a measurement is not stabilizing this could be a sign of low frequency
ripple. To verify this, turn off the charger and see if the reading stabilizes. If it does this is an
indication of a charger problem.
High frequency ripple current is typically due to either UPS systems or the battery load. Keep in
mind a UPS system can also have a faulty charge system creating low frequency ripple.

Specific Gravity

Specific Gravity is a measurement of the ratio of the density of a liquid with

respect to density of water. In a lead acid battery it is a measurement of
the density of the acid referenced to the density of water. As a battery
discharges the specific gravity drops.

This test is only applicable to flooded batteries, because access to the

electrolyte is required to perform the test. This test will tell us the state of
charge (SOC) of the battery. This test can help identify contaminates in the
electrolyte. This test can also help identify electrolyte stratification.

Stratification is the tendency for different types of solution that are mixed together to separate
over time. When a flooded battery is on charge it will slowly out gases, provided the charge
voltage is not low. Bubbles can be seen rising periodically. This is typically enough to avoid
stratification.

The specific gravity test is a temperature-dependent test. It does require temperature

compensation because the electrolyte density does change with temperature. Cold increases
the density and the specific gravity rises. Heat decreases the density and the specific gravity
falls.

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2621 Van Buren Avenue, Norristown, Pennsylvania, 19403, USA
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 6

APPLICATION NOTE

Recommended Battery Maintenance Practices

Hydrometers, in general, are calibrated at 80°F (26.7°C).

Specific Gravity readings taken on electrolytes

above or below 80 °F must be compensated for as
follows:
Add .004 for every 10°F (5.6°C) above
80 °F (26.7 °C)
Subtract .004 for every 10°F (5.6°C) below
80 °F (26.7°C)

Temperature

As the temperature increases, molecules move

faster and chemical reactions occur at a faster rate.
This accelerates positive grid corrosion in flooded cells (VLA) and also accelerates dry out in
sealed cells (VRLA). An increase of 10°C will half the life of a battery. In contrast at lower
temperatures, molecules move slower and chemical reactions occur at a slower rate. This leads
to lower capacity and lower current delivery.

In flooded cells (VLA), the temperature of the electrolyte should be measured and compared to
battery manufacturer recommendations. In sealed cells (VRLA), the temperature should be
measured from the negative post and compared to battery manufacturer recommendations. The
recombination effect takes place on the negative plate. This is the primary source of heat in a
VRLA battery.

Discharge Testing

Discharge testing, also referred to as load testing, is a direct measurement of a battery strings
capacity. Discharge testing is the only test that will give a direct measurement of string capacity.
Discharge testing requires a load to be connected to the battery string. This is normally a
constant current load. The string will then be discharged at a particular rate. The measured
string capacity will then be compared to the calculated string capacity.

There are several different types of battery discharge tests, including the acceptance test, the
performance test and the service test.

The acceptance test is a discharge test that is performed when a new string is commissioned.
Since this is performed on a new string, the string may not have full capacity because new
batteries (also referred to as green batteries) may not have completed their formation process.
They will need to sit on float for a period of time in order to achieve full capacity. This is normally
a short period for flooded lead acid batteries (VLA). Sealed batteries (VRLA) with AGM
separators can take three to six months to complete formation.

The performance test is a periodic discharge test that is performed as part of the maintenance
schedule. This test is done on fully formatted batteries. The batteries would be fully charged

Megger USA - Valley Forge Corporate Centre

2621 Van Buren Avenue, Norristown, Pennsylvania, 19403, USA
T. 1-610 676 8500 F. 1-610-676-8610
 7

APPLICATION NOTE

Recommended Battery Maintenance Practices

with all inter-cell connections tested prior to the test and an equalization charge is typically
performed prior to the test.

A service test is an AS IS test. There is preparation required for acceptance and performance
testing. A service test is performed on the string as it is. This test does not test the full capacity
of the battery. Instead, it will follow a load profile to verify that the batteries have enough power
and energy to support a particular function for a given period of time. These tests may not use a
constant current load. They may use a constant resistance or constant energy load, depending
on the battery string application.

Ohmic Testing

Ohmic testing is a method of testing batteries that compliments discharge testing. Discharge
testing is an absolute way of measuring battery capacity. Ohmic testing is a relative
measurement used to supplement discharge testing and tests the state of the battery’s health.
Discharge testing is an important test, however, it does take time to perform and is only
performed once every few years. Battery’s plates will continue to sulphate and corrode between
discharge tests. Sealed batteries will continue to dry out and they can fail between discharge
tests.

Ohmic testing is a quick on-line test that is performed between discharge tests. A known current
is either injected or drawn from the battery. Then, the voltage drop across the battery is
measured. From these two values, the resistance or impedance of the battery can be
calculated. As the battery ages, the impedance of the battery will increase and the capacity will
decrease.

There are different types of ohmic tests — an AC test and a DC test. Impedance testing is an
AC test that injects a current through the battery. A resistance test draws DC current from the
battery. Impedance testing is the recommended method. Impedance testing measures the
resistive, capacitive and inductive properties of the battery. This means it will detect changes in
the double layer charge (a capacitive value). This will provide indications of aging sooner than
resistive testing. In addition, current is not pulled from the battery. AC testing injects an AC
current. This significantly reduces any ARC hazards. Plus, since current is not pulled from the
battery, the measurement is repeatable. When a DC current is pulled from the battery, the
battery must first recharge before the measurement can be retaken.

Inter-cell Resistance

Inter-cell resistance, or strap resistance, is a measurement of the total resistance between the
batteries in a string. These measurements should be taken on the posts of the battery. This
ensures the battery terminal resistance (the resistance from the post to the strap) is included in
the measurement.

Poor connections will increase the resistance. A higher resistance will lead to larger voltage
drops and greater heating. As the voltage drops increase along the string, the float voltage

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2621 Van Buren Avenue, Norristown, Pennsylvania, 19403, USA
T. 1-610 676 8500 F. 1-610-676-8610
 8

APPLICATION NOTE

Recommended Battery Maintenance Practices

across the batteries can decrease. This will lead to lower capacity and partial sulfating of the
plates and lower capacity. The longer the plates remain sulfated, the more difficult it is to
reverse the condition.

Inter-cell connections are mechanical connections. Vibrations, moisture, corrosion and the
expanding and contracting of heating effects will affect them. IEEE recommends that the straps
should be cleaned and reworked if the inter-cell resistance increases by 20%.

Inter-cell connection or straps have very low resistances, which are typically measured in the
micro-ohms. In order to measure these straps an adequate amount of test current is required.
When current is passed through a low resistance a small voltage drop is created. If this voltage
drop is not greater than the signal to noise ratio present on the strap then you may not get
reliable measurements. This will, of course, be dependent upon the magnitude and frequency of
the noise on the system as well as instrument filtering.
In general, if the test current is too low, then the voltage drop across the strap will be too low to
obtain a reliable measurement.

For example: If the strap under test is 50 µΩ

and the test current is only 100 mA, then the
voltage drop across the battery is only 5 µV.
A small amount of noise can cause false
𝑉 = 0.1𝐴
results.
∗ 0.0005𝛺
If testing an inter-cell connection with a DC
low resistance ohmmeter, the measurement
must be taken in both directions. This is
because there is DC current already going
through the strap from the charger.
Therefore, in one direction the measured
voltage drop will be higher than in the other
direction. This will lead to two different
resistive measurements. So the resistance is
measured in both directions and an average
of both measurements is taken. A low
frequency AC measurement does not require
two measurements since an alternating
current is used.

Megger USA - Valley Forge Corporate Centre

2621 Van Buren Avenue, Norristown, Pennsylvania, 19403, USA
T. 1-610 676 8500 F. 1-610-676-8610
 9

APPLICATION NOTE

Recommended Battery Maintenance Practices

Just like battery measurements, strap

measurements are relative measurements.
Different model duplex leads can give
different values due to different current
densities between the tips. One set of tips
injects current while the other set measures
voltage drop. The further the distance
between the current injection tip and the
voltage pick up tip on a duplex lead, the lower
the current density. In order to get an
absolute measurement, the distance between
the tips would need to be three times the
width of the strap.

For this reason, IEEE states that when a strap measurement deviates by 20% or more, then
that strap should be addressed. If a separate transmitter is used to inject current through the
entire string and a separate receiver is used to measure the voltage drop across the straps,
then the current density will be equal throughout the string and the measurement will be
absolute not relative.

Megger USA - Valley Forge Corporate Centre

2621 Van Buren Avenue, Norristown, Pennsylvania, 19403, USA
T. 1-610 676 8500 F. 1-610-676-8610
 10

APPLICATION NOTE

Recommended Battery Maintenance Practices

Maintenance Schedule Vented Lead Acid (VLA) / Flooded Cells

Minimum Recommended
4 Months Monthly
Inspection Inspection & electrolyte levels
Check Charger Voltage Measure ambient temp.
Check Electrolyte Levels Check charger voltage
Check for Ground Faults Pilot cell voltages & electrolyte temps
18 Months Float current
Battery float voltages Battery ground faults
Battery terminal & strap resistance Quarterly
String continuity Battery float voltage
Inspect visible cells or ohmic test Specific gravity & temp. of 10% of cells
Inspect battery rack Yearly
6 Years Specific gravity of all cells
Performance discharge test or ohmic test every 18 months Perform an ohmic test
Test straps
Periodic discharge testing
Acceptance test when installed
Performance test within first two years
Periodic performance tests in intervals 25% of
battery service life. For example a string with a 20
year service life would be tested every 5 years.

The minimum required maintenance shown above is based on the US NERC required
guidelines for substation batteries. The recommended maintenance is based on the IEEE450
recommendations.

Megger USA - Valley Forge Corporate Centre

2621 Van Buren Avenue, Norristown, Pennsylvania, 19403, USA
T. 1-610 676 8500 F. 1-610-676-8610
 11

APPLICATION NOTE

Recommended Battery Maintenance Practices

Maintenance Schedule Valve Regulated Lead Acid (VRLA)

Sealed Cells

Minimum Recommended
4 Months Monthly
Inspection Visual inspection
Check Charger Voltage DC charger voltage.
Check for Ground Faults Float voltage on each battery
6 Months String float current
Ohmic Test Ambient temperature
18 Months Battery ground faults
Battery float voltages Quarterly
Battery terminal & strap resistance Perform an ohmic test
String continuity Yearly
Inspect battery rack Test inter-cell connections
3 Years AC ripple current.
Performance discharge test or ohmic test every 6 months Periodic discharge
Acceptance test when string is installed
Periodic performance test performed in intervals of 25% of
the battery service life or 2 years. Which is ever shorter.

The minimum required maintenance shown above is based on the US NERC required
guidelines for substation batteries. The recommended maintenance is based on the IEEE1188
recommendations.

Megger USA - Valley Forge Corporate Centre

2621 Van Buren Avenue, Norristown, Pennsylvania, 19403, USA
T. 1-610 676 8500 F. 1-610-676-8610
 12

APPLICATION NOTE

Recommended Battery Maintenance Practices

Maintenance Schedule NiCD Batteries

Minimum Recommended
4 Months Quarterly
Inspection Inspection
Check Charger Voltage Check charger voltage
Check Electrolyte Levels Float current
Check for Ground Faults Battery ground faults
18 Months Electrolyte levels
Inspection Pilot cell electrolyte temps
Battery float voltages 6 Months
Battery terminal & strap resistance Float voltage of each cell
String continuity Yearly
6 Years Inter-cell and terminal resistance
Performance discharge test String continuity
Integrity of the battery rack
Periodic Discharge Testing
Acceptance test when first installed.
Performance test within the first two years.
Performance tests every 5 year.
If there are signs of excessive capacity loss then test annually.

The minimum required maintenance shown above is based on the US NERC required
guidelines for substation batteries. The recommended maintenance is based on the IEEE1106
recommendations.

Megger USA - Valley Forge Corporate Centre

2621 Van Buren Avenue, Norristown, Pennsylvania, 19403, USA
T. 1-610 676 8500 F. 1-610-676-8610