76 Linear Circuit Transfer Functions

Figure 2.37 For well-spread pole and zero, the impedance pauses to R0 until the second zero frequency occurs.

2.3.7 Zeros in the Network

As explained in Chapter 1, zeros of a transfer function correspond to conditions created in the
transformed circuit for which a null is observed in the response signal. While the circuit is examined as
s = sz, a null in the response occurs because a transformed open (infinite series impedance) opposes
the stimulus propagation or because a branch becomes a transformed short circuit to ground and
shunts the stimulus.
There are several ways you can unveil zeros while analyzing a network. The easiest way is by
inspection. To learn how to do it, look at Figure 2.38. What combination in the transformed circuit –
meaning C is replaced by 1/sC and L by sL – examined at s = sz could prevent the stimulus from
reaching the output? Let’s start from the left where the stimulus is located. R1 becomes infinite? Not

Figure 2.38 Conditions exist in the transformed network examined at s = sz which yield a null in the output
response.
Transfer Functions 77

likely; it is a fixed element, independent of frequency. What if node 1 goes to ground via a transformed
short circuit? Indeed, in this case, the input signal can no longer reach the output. The network that
connects node 1 to ground is made of capacitor C1 in series with its ESR rC. The series impedance of
C1 and rC is simply:
1 1 ‡ srC C1
Z 1 …s † ˆ r C ‡ ˆ (2.130)
sC 1 sC 1
What is the condition for which Z 1 sz1 ˆ 0? Solve for the root of (2.130) when 1 ‡ srC C1 ˆ 0 and
you find that the zero occurs for an angular frequency equal to:
1 1
sz1 ˆ or ωz1 ˆ (2.131)
rC C 1 rC C1
No mathematics, no complex equations, just look at the figure.
A quick example will help you understand the concept. Look at Figure 2.39 in which a current
source IT – the excitation – ac-sweeps a simple network. For s different than sz, current ^i1 exists and
produces a response ^vout across R1. When s = sz, the series connection of rC and 1=sC forms a
transformed short circuit across the current source. The response ^vout disappears because all the
excitation current IT now flows in the shunt while ^i1 is a null.
Let’s continue the exploration in Figure 2.38. Node 1 is connected to node 2 via the parallel
arrangement of C2 and R2. To block the signal propagation, it would mean that Z2 impedance
evaluated at s = sz2 becomes infinite. Is it possible? The impedance of the paralleled connection of C2
and R2 is defined as:
1 R2
Z 2 …s† ˆ R2 jj ˆ (2.132)
sC2 1 ‡ sR2 C 2
R2 is fixed and cannot become infinite however, if we cancel the denominator, we have another zero
for which Z2 will become infinite:
1 ‡ sR2 C2 ˆ 0 (2.133)

Figure 2.39 When the transformed circuit is examined at s = sz, the current in R1 is simply zero and the response
is nulled.
78 Linear Circuit Transfer Functions

implies that
1 1
sz2 ˆ or ωz2 ˆ (2.134)
R2 C2 R2 C 2
In this intermediate step, the pole of (2.132) becomes the zero of the transfer function. Let’s finish
since we are now at node 2. In parallel with the load, we see the series connection of L3 and its ESR
labeled rL. Can this series arrangement become a transformed short circuit for s = sz3? Let’s check:
Z 3 …s† ˆ sL3 ‡ r L ˆ 0 (2.135)

the solution is simply:

rL rL
sz 3 ˆ or ωz3 ˆ (2.136)
L3 L3
This is it, we have found 3 zeros in the above circuit arrangement just by inspecting the drawing. Not
bad for a 3rd-order network! With the help of (2.131), (2.134) and (2.136), we can immediately write
the denominator polynomial:
s s s
N …s† ˆ 1‡ 1‡ 1‡ (2.137)
ωz 1 ωz2 ωz3

This is a low-entropy form that we obtained without a complex analysis of the circuit. This method
works fine when the network lends itself well to this kind of interpretation: looking at Figure 2.38, you
can easily identify inductive and capacitive associations that could become either a short or an open
circuit. It is usually easy with passive networks, without controlled sources. When inspection is not
possible, you need another method.

2.4 First Step Towards a Generalized 1st-order Transfer Function

In more complex circuits, when controlled or dependent sources are involved, solving zeros by
inspection becomes an almost impossible exercise. Besides inspection, how to easily see if there are
zeros in the network under study and which energy-storing element contributes one or several zeros?
In a 1st-order system featuring a capacitor or an inductor, the time constant τ associated with the
storage element is either RC or L/R, with R the equivalent resistance driving C or L in certain
conditions. In all the simple transfer functions we have derived so far, L or C always appear combined
with s at the denominator and the numerator in presence of zeros [6]. Assuming a circuit featuring a
capacitor and considering b0 equal to 1, we can rewrite (2.68) as:
H 0 ‡ α1 C 1 s
H … s† ˆ (2.138)
1 ‡ β1 C 1 s

In this expression, α1 and β1 have the dimensions of ohms to form a time constant with C1. They
respectively represent the resistance offered by the capacitor terminals when the response is a null
(^vout ˆ 0 which occurs at the zero frequency) and when the excitation is set to zero for the pole (see
Figure 2.12).
When we calculate H0, we consider the circuit in static conditions, at a 0-Hz frequency. In this
mode, a capacitor offers a high impedance path and disappears from the analysis while an inductor is
assimilated as a short circuit. Removing a capacitor from a circuit can be seen as bringing its
capacitance to 0 F. Similarly, replacing an inductor by a strap means that the inductance has dropped
to 0 H. Capacitors and inductors can thus be put in different states depending on what needs to be
analyzed. The points below describe these different states and formalize the terminology: