Course Contents
1.1 Introduction.
1.2 Engineering Requirements
from Materials.
1.3 Classification of Engineering
Materials.
1.4 Factors that Govern Material
Selection for Engineering
Applications.
1.5 Structure of Metals.
1.6 Structure Property Corelation.
1.7 Micro- And Macro-
Examination
Metallurgy is the science and technology of metals. Right from extraction of metal form ore,
refining of metals, study and formation of alloys and relationship of structure and properties
of metals.
Metallurgy is classified into
(i) Extractive metallurgy
(ii) Physical metallurgy
(iii) Mechanical metallurgy
Extractive metallurgy: Extractive Metallurgy deals with extraction of metals from their ores
(oxides, sulphides, chlorides, etc) and refining them.
Physical metallurgy:This area of metallurgy is the study of structure property relationship of
metals, optimization of properties by manipulating the structure, alloying of metals, heat
treatments of metals etc. Study of microstructures of metals by different microscopes are
also covered under this stream of Metallurgy.
Mechanical metallurgy: Mechanical working of metals, testing of metals for various
mechanical properties, design of components, fracture/failure study and selection of
materials is covered under this stream of Metallurgy. It is also customary to classify
metallurgy into ferrous metallurgy and Non-ferrous Metallurgy. Ferrous Metallurgy is
Metallurgy of iron, steels and cast irons. Non-ferrous metallurgy deals with metals and
alloys other than Iron and Iron alloys. Copper, Aluminium, Magnesium, Zinc, Tin, Lead and
their alloys are studied in non-ferrous metallurgy.
1.2 Engineering Requirements from Materials-March 2010
(a) Formability / Fabrication requirement : Ability of material to deform to desired size and
shape plastically and ability to get joined.
(b) Service Requirement / Properties : Enough strength, Abrasion resistance, Anti-wear
property, Resistance to corrosion etc.
(c) Economic Requirement : It should be cost effective i.e. economicallyviable.
Engineering Materials
Refractories
Elastomers Plastics
Or
Rubbers
Metals
Around 75 % of engineering materials fall under this category.
(1) Ferrous metals
(2) Non ferrous metals
(1) Ferrous metals
Iron and Iron based alloys are called ferrous metals and alloys.
They are pig iron, wrought iron, plain carbon steels, alloy steels, cast irons and alloy cast
irons.
(2) Non ferrous metals
Any other metal than iron and their alloys fail under this group, e.g. Cu, Ai, Ni etc and
their alloys, brasses, bronzes etc.
Rubbers
Rubber also called as elastomer is hydrocarbon polymeric material. It tolerates large and
reversible elastic deformations.
Rubbers are non-crystalline, non-conducting and show good corrosion resistance and
resistance to chemical environment. The most important characteristic of it is its high
energy storing capacity.
Natural rubber
Natural rubber is processed from rubber latex obtained form tropical trees.
It is tough, elastic in nature and has good resistance to tear.
It softens upon heating and hardens at 5°C.
Ceramics and Refractories
Oxides, nitrides, carbides, silicates, borides of various metals make ceramics. Rock and
clay are natural ceramics. Sometimes ceramics may contain compounds of non-metallic
elements such as SiC, BaTiOa.
Ceramics are inorganic, nonmetallic solids.
Important characteristics of ceramics are :
(a) Abrasion resistance.
(b) Corrosion resistance
(c) Resistance to high temperatures.
(d) Creep resisting property
(e) Hardness and brittleness
(f) Insulating property.
Examples of ceramic materials are sand, brick, cement, concrete, silicon carbide,
tungsten carbide, boron nitride.
Refractories are the ceramic compounds used for high temperature applications. They
have high melting point, high fusion temperature, high dimensional stability at elevated
temperatures.
Refractoriness of the material is the ability to withstand high temperatures without
appreciable deformation or softening.
Applications of refractory materials include furnace walls, furnace hearth linings, bricks
supporting heating coils, linings of nuclear reactors etc.
2. Service requirements
Material selected should not only be suitable for withstanding types and magnitude of
various forces but also must withstand the service environments.
e.g. material for furnace doors must withstand high temperatures.
3. Reliability
Reliability is degree of probability that the component and its material retain their
stability in order to serve the function for which it is designed.
e.g. cheap screw drivers are not reliable as they do not show of reliability in properties
as well as in dimensions.
4. Cost and availability
Abundance i.e. easy availability of materials plays important role in selection of materials for
engineering applications cost is also a major constraint in selection of materials.
5. Safety
Chosen material must perform the function efficiently in the service conditions. Materials
showing catastrophic i.e. brittle failures are almost always avoided as they are serious threat
to the safety.
6. Service environments
Material selection is largely influenced by the environment surrounding the material e.g.-
Sea water machinery asks for special quality materials.
7. Biodegradability and recyclability
Bio-degradable and recyclable materials are preferred nowadays as they do not affect
ecological balance adversely.
E-waste, non-biodegradable wastes are serious problems in modern society.
1.5 Structure of Metals
Structure of metal is the arrangement of its internal constituents. Structure can be
described on following four levels (ordered in increasing magnitude).
1. Subatomic structure: Based upon subatomic constituents such as electrons, protons.
2. Atomic structure: Arrangement of atoms and their clustersFCC, BCC etc.
3. Microscopic structure: Arrangement of phases observable under microscope.
4. Macrostructure: When structure can be viewed with unaided eyes.
If more number of such dense planes and directions are available in the lattice, the
material becomes easily plastically deformable and hence shows higher ductility.
2. Cutting of the specimen. After selecting a particular area in the file mass, the specimen
may be removed with the help of a saw, a. panning tool, an abrasive wheel, etc.
3. Mounting the Specimen.If the specimen is too small to be held in hand for further
processing, it should be mounted in thermoplastic resin or some other low melting point
alloy.
4. Obtaining Flat Specimen Surface. It is first necessary to obtain a reasonably flat surface
on the specimen. This is achieved by using a fairly coarse file or machining or grinding, by
using a motor driven emery belt.
5. Intermediate and Fine Grinding. Intermediate and fine grinding is carried out using
emery papers of progressively finer grade.
The emery papers should be of very good quality in respect of uniformity of particle
size.Four grades of abrasives used are: 220 grit, 320 grit, 400 grit and 600 grit (from coarse
to fine); the 320 grit has particle sizes (of the silicon carbide) as about 33 microns and 600
grit that of 17 microns (1 micron = 10-4 cm).
The specimen is first ground on 220 grit paper, so that scratches are produced roughly at
right angle to those initially existing on the specimen and produced through preliminary
grinding or coarse filing operation.Having removed the primary grinding marks, the
specimen is wash free of No. 220 grit.Grinding is then continued on the No. 320 paper, again
turning the specimen through 900 and polishing until the previous scratches marks are
removed.The process is repeated with the No. 400 and No. 600 papers.Grinding with the
No. 200, No. 320, etc., papers could be done in the following ways:
a) The specimen may be hand-rubbed against the abrasive paper which is laid over a
flat surface such as a piece of glass plate.
b) The abrasive paper may be mounted on the surface of a flat, horizontally rotating
wheel and the specimen held, in the hand, against it.
In either case, the surface of the abrasive paper (with a water proof base) shall be lubricated
with water so as to provide a flushing action to carry away the particles cut from the
surface.
6. Rough Polishing.A very small quantity of diamond powder (particle size about 6 microns)
carried in a paste that is oil-soluble is placed on the nylon cloth-covered surface of a rotating
polishing wheel. The lubricant used during the polishing operation is specially prepared
oil.The specimen is pressed against the cloth of the rotating wheel with considerable
pressure and is moved around the wheel in the direction opposite to rotation of the wheel
to ensure a more uniform polishing action.
7. Fine Polishing.The polishing compound used is alumina (Al2O3) power (with a particles of
0.05 microns) placed on a cloth covered rotating wheel. Distilled water is used as a
lubricant.Fine polishing removes fine scratches and very thin distorted layer remaining from
the rough polishing stage.
8. Etching.Even after fine polishing, the granular structure in a specimen usually cannot be
seen under the microscope; because grain boundaries in a metal have a thickness of the
order of a few atom diameters at best, and resolving power of a microscope is much too low
to reveal their presence. In order to make the grain boundaries visible, after fine polishing
the, metal specimens are usually etched.Etching imparts unlike appearances to the metal
constituents and thus makes metal structure apparent under the microscope.
Before Etching, the polished specimen is thoroughly washed in running water.Then, the
etching is done either by
Immersing the polished surface (of the specimen) in the etching Reagent or by
Rubbing the polished surface gently with a cotton swab wetted with the Etching
Reagent.
After etching, the specimen is again washed thoroughly and dried.
(iv) Water
6. Mixed nitric and (i) Nitric acid 50 CC A good general etch-ant for Al
acetic acids 50 CC and its alloys
(ii) Glacial acetic acid
1 Comparison method
2 Intercept method
3 Planimetrlc (or Jeffries) method
where N is the number of grains observed per square inch at 100x magnification
Planimetric (or Jeffries) Method A circle or a rectangle of known area (usually 5,000 sq mm)
is inscribed on a photomicrograph or on the groundglass of the metallograph. A
magnification should be selected which will give at least 50 grains in the field to be counted.
The sum of all the grains included completely within the known area plus one-half the
number of grains intersected by the circumference of the area gives the total number or
equivalent whole grains within the area. Knowing the magnification of the specimen, the
number of grains per square millimeter is determined by multiplying the equivalent number
of whole grains by the corresponding magnification. Thus, if the equivalent number of
whole grains is found to be 75 at a magnification of 100x, the number of grains per square
millimeter is equal to 75 x 2.0, of 150.
In case of dispute, the planimetric method is preferred over the comparisonmethod for
equiaxed grains. it Is important to realize that in using any method to determine grain size,
the estimation is not a precise measurement. A metal structure is a mixture of three-
dimensional crystals of varying sizes and shapes. Even if all the crystals were identical in size
and shape, the cross sections of the grains on the polished surface would show varying
areas depending upon where the plane cuts each individual crystal. Therefore, no two fields
of observation can be exactly the same.
The distribution of sulphides, in the cross section prepared can be found out by sulphur
print however estimation of sulphur content is not possible by sulphur print. Sulphur
print provides permanent record of sulphide distribution.
Procedure of sulphur print
Surface under consideration is polished by 0 and 00 emery papers and then washed
under tap water.
Photographic bromide paper is soaked in 2Vo aqueous solution of sulphuric acid for the
duration of 5 to 10 minutes.
Emulsion side of photographic paper soaked with sulphuric acid is brought in close
contact with the polished steel surface to be studied.
The contact time may be 3 to 4 minutes. Roller is used to make close contact between
paper and surface.
Sulphur printing involves following reactions.
or
MnS H2SO4 MnSO4 H2S
From Steel (On Photographic paper)
Emulsion on
Photographic paper Creates dark brown spots
on Photographic paper
Photographic paper is then removed form the polished surface and washed thoroughly
under tap water.
Principle : When steels is treated with dilute Nitric acid, combined carbon frorn steel
forms nitrated compound, brown in colour. Intensity of brown colour of this compound
is proportional to the carbon content of the steel. Intensity of brown colour formed by
steel sample is then compared with that of standard specimen and conclusion is arrived
at.
3 to 5 ml of dilute HNO3 with sp. gravity 1.2 is slowly added to 0'1 gm of steel samples.
slow addition is recommended at earlier stages of HNO3 additions in order to avoid
violent reaction.
Heat in a water bath and occasionally shake if bubbling is observed.
Stop heating when steel is completely dissolved.
Remove from water bath and allow the solution to cool.
Take 0.1 gm of standard steel of similar carbon content and treat similarly to obtain the
solution. (It generhlly takes 20 to 30 min)
compare the colours of both solution by taking them in Eggertz tubes after necessary
dilution with water.
Quantities recommended for different steels.
0.2 gm for low carbon steels
0.1 gm for medium carbon steels
0.05 gm for high carbon steels
Course Contents
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Unit Cell And Its
Lattice Parameters
2.3 Bravais Lattices
2.4 Coordination Number
2.5 Crystal structure of
metals
2.6 Atomic Packing Factor
(APF)
2.7Crystallographic Planes
And Directions
2.8 Polymorphism And
Allotropy
2.9 Diffusion In Solids
2.10 Crystallization
2.9 Mechanism
OfCrystallization
2.11 Nucleation
2.12 Growth of crystal
2.12 Imperfection In
Crystals
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Crystallography is the study of the crystal formation of solids, including:
X-ray determination of lattice structures,Crystal habit, (i.e. the form of a crystal),The
shape and defects of crystals.When applied to metals, this science is called
metallography.
Crystallography is that branch of science in which the internal structure of crystals,
their properties, external or internal symmetries of crystals are studied.
Crystalline materials consist of atoms or molecules arranged in a regular and orderly
manner in a three dimensional pattern.
The various terms associated with crystallography are:
(1) A Crystal is a solid whose constituent atoms or molecules are arranged in a systematic
geometric pattern.
(2) The structure implies the arrangement and disposition of the atoms within a crystal.
(3) The atoms arrange themselves in distinct pattern in space called a space lattice.
(4) The unit cell is the smallest group of atoms possessing the symmetry of the crystal.
(5) The layers of atoms or the planes along which atoms are arranged are known as atomic
or crystallographic planes.
(6) Characteristic intercepts and interfacial angles of a crystal constitute the lattice
parameters of a cell.
(7) Miller Indices is a system of notation for designating crystallographic planes and
directions of crystals.
(8) Atomic packing factor is the ratio of the volume of the atoms per unit cell to the
total volume occupied by the unit cell.
(9) Coordinate number is the number of nearest atoms directly surrounding a given
atom in a crystal i.e., nearest neighbours to an atom in crystal.
Fig2.2 A unit cell with x, y and z coordinate axis, showing axial lengths (a, b, and c) and
interaxial angles (α, β and γ).
The unit cell geometry is completely defined in terms of six parameters: the three edge
lengths a, b and c and the three interaxial angles α, β and γ. These are indicated in Fig.
35.8 and are sometimes termed the Lattice Parameters of a crystal structure.
On this basis, there are found crystals having seven different possible combinations of a,
b, and c and α, β and γ, each of which represents a distinct crystal system.
The coordination number may also be defined as the nearest neighbours to an atom in
a crystal.
Fig shows that the coordination number of carbon atom is four, because it has four
hydrogen atoms around it.
When the coordination number is larger, the structure is more closely packed.
Coordination numbers for a simple cubic, BCC and FCC lattice have been discussed
below:
For any corner atom, there will be 4 face centred atoms of the surrounding unit cells in
its own plane, 4 face centred atoms below this plane and 4 face centred atoms above
this plane.
Hence the coordination number for this case is 4 + 4 + 4 = 12
1. Body centered cubic(B.C.C.) If the atoms are represented as spheres, the center atom
touches each corner atom but they do not touch each other. Since each corner atom is
shared by eight adjoining cubes and the atom in the center cannot be shared by any
other cubes.
Example: Aluminum, Nickel, Copper, Gold, Silver Lead, Platinum & Gamma (γ) iron.
C.P.H. shows two based planes in the form of regular hexagons with atoms at each corner of
the hexagon and one atom at the center.
In addition there are three atoms in the term of a triangle midway between the two based
plane. If the based plane is divided in to six equilateral triangles, the additional 3 atoms are
nested in the center of alternate equilateral triangle.
Unit cell of B.C.C. & F.C.C. can be specified by lattice parameter ‘a’. The hexagonal unit cell
requires width of hexagon ‘a’ and the distancebetweentwo based plane ‘c’. These
determine axial ratio cross section ( ) The axial ratio varies from 1.58 far beryllium to 1.88
cadmium.
=6
Atomic Radius:
Assume that atoms are spherical in space and are in contact in a crystal.Atomic radius can
be design as half the distance betweenthe centers of two neighboring atoms.
Let,HereAG = r+ 2r + r = 4r
Let EG2= a2+ a2 = 2a2
AG2= AE2+ EG2
(4r)2= a2+2a2= 3a2
16r2= 3a2
√
Put or a=2r
( )
(ii) Take the reciprocal of these numbers; see (ii) line of Table (iii) Change these
reciprocals to the smallest integers having the same ratio, i.e., by multiplying each
reciprocal (or fraction) by the same number such as the common denominator. Refer
line (III) of Table (iv) Enclose the values in parenthesis (hkl)Figs. (b), (c), (d) and (e) show
a number of crystallographic planes and their miller indices in a cubic lattice.
If a plane cuts any axis on the negative side of the origin, the index will be negative and
is indicated by placing a minus sign above the index, as (hkl). For example, the miller
indices of plane ODEF which goes through the origin (O) cannot be determined without
changing the location of the origin. Change the origin from point O to point P .
The plane ODEF intersects X-axis and Z-axis at infinity but intersects Y-axis at - 1. The
plane hastherefore miller indices at (010).
Draw a vector from origin parallel to the direction whose indices are desired. For example,
if indices of AE is desired, draw a line OH parallel to AE through origin O. Draw CE in the
downward direction (dotted), let it cut OH at I and then draw IJ parallel to X-axis to cut Z-
axis.
Now OI is the line that passes through origin and is parallel to EA whose indices is to be
determined. The point I has coordinates x =1, y =0,z = -1 and thus the indices of line EA is
[101] (Parallel lines have same indices).
Diffusion processes play a crucial role in many solid-state phenomena and in the
kinetics of microstructural changes during metallurgical processing and
applications; typical examples include phase transformations, nucleation,
recrystallization, oxidation, creep, sintering, ionic conductivity, and intermixing in
thin filmdevices.
Direct technological uses of diffusion include solid electrolytes for advanced
battery and fuel cell applications, semiconductor chip and microcircuit fabrication
and surface hardening of steels through carburization. The knowledge of
diffusion phenomenon is essential for the introduction of a very small
concentration of an impurity in a solid state device.
TYPES OF DIFFUSION
(i) Self Diffusion: It is the transition of a thermally excited atom from a site of
crystal lattice to an adjacent site or interstice.
(ii) Inter Diffusion: This is observed in binary metal alloys such as the Cu-Ni
system.
(iii) Volume Diffusion: This type of diffusion is caused due to atomic movement in
bulk in materials.
(iv) Grain Boundary Diffusion: This type of diffusion is caused due to atomic
movement along the grain boundaries alone.
(v) Surface Diffusion: This type of diffusion is caused due to atomic movement
along the surface of a phase.
DIFFUSION MECHANISM
Diffusion is the transfer of unlike atoms which is accompanied with a change of
concentration of the components in certain zones of an alloy. Various
mechanisms have been proposed to explain the processes of diffusion. Almost all
of these mechanisms are based on the vibrational energy of atoms in a solid.
Direct interchange, cyclic, interstitial, vacancy etc. are the common diffusion
mechanisms. Actually, however, the most probable mechanism of diffusion is
that in which the magnitude of energy barrier (activation energy)to be overcome
by moving atoms is the lowest.
Activation energy depends on the forces of interatomic bonds and crystal lattice
defects which facilitate diffusion transfer (the activation energy at grain
boundaries is only one half of that in the bulk of a grain). For metal atoms, the
vacancy mechanism of diffusion is themost probable and for elements with a
small atomic radius (H, N and C), the interstitial mechanism. Now,we will study
these mechanisms.
(i) Vacancy Mechanism: This mechanism is a very dominant process for diffusion
in FCC, BCC and HCP metals and solid solution alloy. The activation energy for this
Prepared By: Hozef A. Gandhi Department of Mechanical Engineering
Page 2.16 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot
Material Science &Metallurgy (2131904) 2. Crystal Geometry
process comprises the energy required to create a vacancy and that required to
move it. In a pure solid, the diffusion by this mechanism is shown
Diffusion by the vacancy mechanism can occur by atoms moving into adjacent
sites that arevacant. In a pure solid, during diffusion by this mechanism, the
atoms surrounding the vacant site shift their equilibrium positions to adjust for
the change in binding that accompanies the removal of a metal ion and its
valency electron.
We can assume that the vacancies move through the lattice and produce random
shifts of atoms from one lattice position to another as a result of atom jumping.
Concentration changes takes place due to diffusion over a period of time. We
must note that vacancies are continually being created and destroyed at the
surface, grain boundaries and suitable interior positions, e.g. dislocations.
Obviously, the rate of diffusion increases rapidly with increasing temperature.
which mass transfer of a solute from the liquid solution to a pure solid crystalline
phase occurs. In chemical engineering crystallization occurs in a crystallizer.
Crystallization is therefore an aspect of precipitation, obtained through a variation of
the solubilityconditions of the solute in the solvent, as compared to precipitation due
to chemical reaction.
2.9 Mechanism Of Crystallization
The crystallization process consists of two major events, nucleation and crystal
growth. Nucleation is the step where the solute molecules dispersed in
the solvent start to gather into clusters, on the nanometer scale (elevating solute
concentration in a small region), that become stable under the current operating
conditions.
These stable clusters constitute the nuclei. However, when the clusters are not
stable, they dissolve. Therefore, the clusters need to reach a critical size in order
to become stable nuclei. Such critical size is dictated by the operating conditions
(temperature, supersaturation, etc.). It is at the stage of nucleation that the
atoms arrange in a defined and periodic manner that defines the crystal
structure — note that "crystal structure" is a special term that refers to the
relative arrangement of the atoms, not the macroscopic properties of the crystal
(size and shape), although those are a result of the internal crystal structure.
The crystal growth is the subsequent growth of the nuclei that succeed in
achieving the critical cluster size. Nucleation and growth continue to occur
simultaneously while the supersaturation exists.
Supersaturation is the driving force of the crystallization, hence the rate of
nucleation and growth is driven by the existing supersaturation in the solution.
Depending upon the conditions, either nucleation or growth may be predominant
over the other, and as a result, crystals with different sizes and shapes are
obtained (control of crystal size and shape constitutes one of the main challenges
in industrial manufacturing, such as for pharmaceuticals).
Once the supersaturation is exhausted, the solid–liquid system reaches
equilibrium and the crystallization is complete, unless the operating conditions
are modified from equilibrium so as to supersaturate the solution again.
Many compounds have the ability to crystallize with different crystal structures, a
phenomenon called polymorphism. Each polymorph is in fact a different
thermodynamic solid state and crystal polymorphs of the same compound exhibit
different physical properties, such as dissolution rate, shape (angles between
facets and facet growth rates), melting point, etc. For this reason, polymorphism
is of major importance in industrial manufacture of crystalline products.
2.11 Nucleation
It is the first step in the formation of either a new thermodynamic phase or a new
structure via self-assembly orself-organisation . Nucleation is typically defined to
be the process that determines how long we have to wait before the new phase
or self-organised structure, appears.
Nucleation is often found to be very sensitive to impurities in the system.
Because of this, it is often important to distinguish between heterogenous
nucleation and homogeneous nucleation. Heterogeneous nucleation occurs
at nucleation sites on surfaces in the system.Homogenous nucleation occurs
away from a surface.
Nucleation the initial process that occurs in the formation of a crystal from a
solution, a liquid, or a vapour, in which a small number of ions, atoms, or
molecules become arranged in a pattern characteristic of a crystalline solid,
forming a site upon which additional particles are deposited as the crystal grows.
The first value is a consequence of the physical characteristics of the solution, while the
others define a difference between a well- and poorly designed crystallizer.
Course Contents
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Edge and Screw
Dislocations
3.3 Deformation by slip
3.4 Deformation by
twinning
3.5 Recovery
3.6 Recrystallization
3.7 Grain growth
3.1 INTRODUCTION
This type of deformation is irreversible. However, an object in the plastic
deformation range will first have undergone elastic deformation, which is reversible,
so the object will return part way to its original shape.
Plastic deformation is a process in which enough stress is placed on metal or plastic
to cause the object to change its size or shape in a way that is not reversible. In other
words, the changes are permanent; even when the stress is removed, the material
will not go back to its original shape.
Sometimes referred to simply as plasticity, this type of deformation can take be
conducted under controlled circumstances as well as unintentionallyBoth the
deformation of plastic and the deformation of metals involve changes to the makeup
of the material itself. For example, metals that undergo this process of plastic
deformation experience a condition known as dislocation. As stress of some type is
exerted on the metal, the material reaches a point known as the yield strength.
When this point is achieved, the pattern of the molecules that make up the metal
begin to shift. The end result is that the molecules realign in a pattern that is shaped
by the exterior stress placed on the object.
3.2 EDGE AND SCREW DISLOCATIONS
In an edge dislocation, localized lattice distortion exists along the end of an extra
half-plane of atoms.
A screw dislocation results from shear distortion.
Many dislocations in crystalline materials have both edge and screws components;
these are mixed dislocations.
When metals are plastically deformed, some fraction (roughly 5%) of energy is
retained internally; the remainder is dissipated as heat. Mainly, this energy is stored
as strain energy associated with dislocations. Lattice distortions exist around the
dislocation line.
Slip Systems
Dislocations move more easily on specific planes and in specific
directions.Ordinarily,there is a preferred plane (slip plane), and specific directions
(slip direction)along which dislocations move.The combination of slip plane and
slip direction is called the slip system.
3.5 Recovery
This usually occurs at low temperatures and involves motion and annihilation ofpoint
defects as well as annihilation and rearrangement of dislocations resulting in the
formationof subgrains and subgrain boundaries (e.g., tilt and/or twist low-angle
boundaries).
A distinctivefeature of the recovery process is that it does not involve any change in
the grain structure of thecold-worked metal, the only changes taking place are the
dislocation arrangements within theexisting grains. Small changes in hardness that
are sometimes observed during recovery canbe attributed to the decrease in the
dislocation and point defect density and to the growth ofthe subgrains.
3.6 Recrystallization
If increased thermal activation is available (i.e., if the temperature israised)
nucleation and growth of strain-free grains in the deformed matrix will take place.
Asthese grains grow, the dislocations in the matrix are annihilated at the boundaries
of the newlyformedgrains. Strength and hardness decrease considerably and
ductility increases.
Thelowest temperature at which stress-free grains appear in the structure of a
previously plasticallydeformed metal is termed the recrystallization temperature.
This depends upon the grain size,the severity of plastic deformation, and the
presence of solute atoms or second phase particles.
The recrystallization temperature is usually 1/3-1/2 the absolute melting point of the
material.
Course Contents
4.1 Introduction
4.2 solidification defects
4.3 Methods to control
grain structure
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Solidification of Metals:
Solidification involves the transformation of the molten metal back into the solid
state.The solidification process differs depending on weather the metal is pure element
or an alloy. A pure metal solidifies at a constant temperature equal to its freezing point,
which is the same as its melting point. The process occurs over and over time as shown.
Gas Porosity
We shall start by considering gas porosity. This can again be sub-divided into a
furtherthree causes:
− Firstly, gas held in solution in the molten metal can be precipitated as the
metalsolidifies, simply as a result of the reduced solubility on freezing. Secondly, if the
mould is filled under very poor conditions, air can be entrained in themetal stream and
then trapped as the metal solidifies. Finally, the sand binders used to make the moulds
and cores often break down whenin contact with the molten metal and the gaseous
decomposition products can forcetheir way into the solidifying metal, leading to defects
which are normally known as'blows'.These different types of gas porosity defect vary in
their size, distribution, distancebelow the casting surface and morphology. It follows
therefore that the cause of suchdefects in a real casting can be deduced from a careful
examination.
Air Entrapment
Moving on to the entrapment of air, we shall take as an example a sump casting that
hasbeen deliberately made badly using a conical pouring basin, a parallel downsprueand
Nowell base. In addition, we have a non-tapered runner bar
andinsufficientgates.generates surface turbulence in the metal stream as it fills the
mould, leading to achaotic, scrambled mess of metal and air. The air cannot escape
easily because it is heldin place by the oxide film. Furthermore, as the air bubbles move
through the moltenmetal, they leave behind a collapsed sac of oxide, forming a bubble
trail which isanother form of defect in the casting.
Following explains some of the methods to control the grain structure during
solidification:
1. Inoculation: By using appropriate inoculating or grain refining agents, a wide spread
nucleation can be produced during solidification that result in fine grain structure.
Course Contents
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Useful terminology
5.3 Cooling curves
5.4 Phase diagram
5.5 Interpretation of Phase diagram
5.6 Gibbs phase rule
5.7 Classification of equilibrium
diagrams
5.8 Two metals completely soluble
in the liquid and solid state
5.9 Eutectic system
5.10 Two metals completely soluble
in the liquid state, but only
partly soluble in the solid state
5.11 Peritectic reaction
5.12 Eutectoid transformation
5.13 Peritectoid transformation
5.14 Types of solid solution
5.15 Hume - Rothary law
5.1 INTRODUCTION:
Phase diagrams, also known as Equilibrium Diagrams are a very important tool in the
study of alloys.
A phase diagram has temperature as its ordinate (Y-axis) & alloy composition as
abscissa (X-axis).
Ideally the phase diagram will show the phase relationship under equilibrium
conditions, in which there is no change with the time.
Equilibrium conditions may be approached by extremely slow heating and cooling so
that if a phase change is to occur, sufficient time is allowed.
Phase equilibrium: It refers to the set of conditions where more than one phase may
exist. It can be reflected by constancy with time in the phase characteristics of a
system. In most metallurgical and materials systems, phase equilibrium involves just
solid phases. However the state of equilibrium is never completely achieved because
of very slow rate of approach of equilibrium in solid systems. This leads to non-
equilibrium or meta-stable state, which may persist indefinitely and of course, has
more practical significance than equilibrium phases. An equilibrium state of solid
system can be reflected in terms of characteristics of the microstructure, phases
present and their compositions, relative phase amounts and their spatial
arrangement or distribution.
Introduction
Fig. 5.1 Cooling curves for (a) Pure Metal or compound (b) Binary solid solution (c) Binary eutectic
system
Types
A huge amount of information concerning the phase changes in many alloys systems
has been accumulated and the best way to record this data is in the form of Phase
diagram, which is also termed as Equilibrium diagram or Constitutional diagram.
An equilibrium diagram shows the limits of composition and temperature within
which the various constituents or phases of an alloy are stable.
Changes of structure and the composition of the constituents in equilibrium at a
fixed temperature can be determined from a phase diagram.
If two metals of a binary solid solution (such as Cu-Ni) system are mixed in various
proportions, melted and then cooled, and a cooling curve is constructed for each
composition (Fig 5.2), the resulting diagram obtained by joining Q1,Q2,Q3…. And
R1,R2,R3…, will be the phase diagram.
Q1,Q2,Q3… are the temperatures at which solidification completes.
This phase diagram shows two different and distinct phases; one is liquid metal
solution and the other is solid solution.
Within this two phases or within liquidus and solidus , the two phases i.e., liquid and
solid exist together, which can be mechanically separated by decantation of the
liquid phase.
Liquidus is that line above which the alloy is in liquid state and from where the
solidification starts.
Solidus is that line below which the alloy is in solid state and where solidification
completes.
The following three useful conclusions are the rules necessary for interpreting phase
diagrams:
The phases that are present.
The chemical composition of each phase.
The Lever Rule (the amount of each phase)
Point-3: With the same alloy, but at 600F, only one phase, i.e. The solid solution is
present.
Similar analysis can be made for any other alloy composition and temperature in
phase diagram.
To find out the composition of phases which are stable at a given temperature (say
900F, Fig 5.4), draw a horizontal (isothermal) line, OP at the given temperature.
The projections upon the X axis of the intersections (i.e. O & P) of the isothermal line
with the solidus and liquidus respectively , give the compositions of the solid and
liquid, which co-exist in equilibrium at that temperature.
For Example,
Liquid phase (point P) has the composition roughly 62% Bismuth.
Solid phase (point O) has the composition roughly 14% Bismuth.
Besides indicating the number of phases and phase composition, the phase diagram
also tells the proportion of co-existing phases at any given temperature.
To determine the relative amount of two phases, erect an ordinate at a point (say
30% Bi) on the composition scale which gives the total or overall composition of the
alloy.
The intersection of this composition vertical (AL) and a given isothermal line OP (i.e.
point M) is the fulcrum of a simple lever system and OM and MP are lever arms,(fig
5.4).
This is called as the lever rule because the amount of a given phase multiplied by its
lever arm is equal to the amount of the other phase multiplied by its (i.e. other) lever
arm.
The lever rule or principle may be expressed mathematically as:
The amount of solid phase,
𝑀𝑃 (62 − 30)
= 𝑥 100 = 𝑥 100 = 66.67%
𝑂𝑃 (62 − 14)
The Phase rule, known as Gibbs Phase Rule, establishes the relationship between the
number of degrees of freedom (F), the number of components (C), and the number
of phases (P).
It is expressed mathematically as follows:
P + F = C +2
P+F=C+1
F=C+1–P
= 2+2-1
= 3 degrees of freedom
=2+2-1
=2 degrees of freedom
SOLID STATES
(i) (a) Formation of crystals in the melt (at say point S),
As the temperature falls to T1, crystal nuclei of pure Cd begin to form. Since pure Cd
is deposited, it follows that the liquid becomes richer in Bi; the composition of liquid
moves to left 3' and as indicated by the diagram, no further Cd deposits until
temperature falls to T2.
At T2 more Cd is deposited and dendrites begin to develop from the already formed
nuclei (Fig. 5.5 (D)).
The growth of the Cd dendrites, on the one hand, and the consequent enrichment of
the remaining liquid in Bi, on the other, continues until the temperature has fallen to
140°C, the eutectic temperature in this case.
The remaining liquid then contains 40% Cd and 60% Bi, the eutectic composition.
Contrary to alloy 3, in this case crystal of pure Bi form first, enriching the melt with
Cd.
The composition of the melt (or liquid) moves to right until ultimately the point E is
reached and the remaining liquid solidifies as eutectic (40% Cd and 60% Bi).
No solidification occurs until the melt reaches the eutectic temperature (140°C)
At the eutectic temperature, the two pure metals crystallize together to give a
characteristically fine aggregate [Fig. 5.5 (C)] known as eutectic. —
Eutectic consists of alternate layers of Cd and Bi which form at the eutectic
temperature (140°C in this case).
Since most metals show some solubility for each other in the solid state, this type is
the most common and, therefore, the most common alloy system.
Metals such as Pb-Sn and Pb-Sb are partly soluble in each other in the solid state. -
Fig. 5.6 shows the Tin-Lead equilibrium diagram with microstructure obtained under
non-equilibrium condition of solidification.
The figure shows that:
(i) Tin will dissolve up to maximum of 2.6% Pb at the eutectic temperature, forming
the solid solution α.
(ii) lead will dissolve up to a maximum of 19.5% tin at the eutectic temperature,
giving the solid solution β.
(iii) Slope of BA and CD indicate that the solubility of Pb in Sn (α) and that of Sn in Pb
(β) decrease as the temperature falls.
Consider an alloy of composition Z (70%Pb – 30%Sn). As the melt temperature falls
to T1, dendrites of composition Y will deposit.
The alloy solidifies as a solid solution until at 183°C , the last layer of solid to form is
of composition C (80.5% Pb – 19.5% Sn).
The remaining liquid which has the eutectic composition (38% Pb – 62% Sn) then
solidifies by depositing, in the form of a eutectic, i.e. alternate layers of α and β, of
compositions B and C respectively.
If cooled slowly to room temperature the compositions of the solid solutions α and β
will follow the line BA and CD i.e. α will become progressively poorer in lead and β in
tin.
It is the reaction that occurs during the solidification of some alloys where the liquid
phase reacts with a solid phase to give a solid phase of different structure.
The reaction reverses on melting.
Like solid solution formation and eutectic reaction, peritectic reaction is also a
mechanism of solidification shown by various metal systems, but it is comparatively
less common.
A peritectic reaction is, actually, just the opposite of the eutectic reaction.
Refer to Fig. 5.7 showing the peritectic reaction.
Assuming very slow rates of cooling, the peritectic reaction will occur only in those
Pt-Ag alloys that contain between 12 and 69% silver (Ag).
Consider a liquid (melt) of composition Z, i.e., containing 25% Ag. Solidification
commences at T1 and dendrites of α, initially of composition W, begin forming.
Selective crystallization of α continues down to Tp, the peritectic temperature; when
the alloy reaches this temperature, it is composed of solid α-dendrites of
composition B and liquid of composition D in the proportion α: liquid = RD:RB.
At peritectic temperature (1185°C, in this case) the α dendrites begin to react with
the remaining liquid and form solid solution δ, which contains 45% silver
(composition C). Since ZZ1 (point R ) lies between B and C this means that there is an
excess of the liquid solution α, so that the liquid is used up first. Hence the final
structure will consist of α containing 12% silver (composition B) and δ, containing
45% silver (composition C). These phases will be in the ratio
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝛼 (𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐵) 𝑅𝐶
=
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝛿 (𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐶) 𝐵𝑅
After the peritectic reaction has occurred, the temperature falls and the remaining
liquid tends to solidify as δ which changes in composition along CY2. At Y2
solidification will be complete and the structure will consist of crystals of uniform δ
(of the same composition as that of the original liquid).
In actual practice, fast cooling tends to produce heterogeneous grains and may cause
some α to be retained in the centre of the (δ) grains.
Eutectoid point : The point in the equilibrium diagram indicating the composition of
the eutectoid and its temperature of transformation.
Eutectoid structure : The structure, frequently lamellar, produced by the
simultaneous precipitation of the components of the eutectoid from the solid
solution.
Eutectoid reaction is found in many systems such as Cu-Al, Cu-Zn, Al-Mn, Cu-Be, etc.
Fig. 5.8 shows an eutectoid-diagram.
Consider the alloy-1. As it is slowly cooled, γ solid solution is formed when the
liquidus line is crossed at Y1. More and more γ is formed until the solidus line is
crossed at Y2. It remains a uniform solid solution until the solvus line is crossed at Y3.
The pure metal A must now start to undergo an allotropic change, forming the α
solid solution.
The composition of γ is gradually moving down and along the line ME ; γ solution
becomes richer in metal B.
When alloy reaches the eutectoid temperature Te, the γ reaches eutectoid point E.
The microstructure at room temperature consists of primary α or proeutectoid α
which was formed between Y3 and Y4 surrounded by the eutectoid mixture of α + β.
The peritectoid reaction is the transformation of two solids into a third solid.
It is an isothermal reversible reaction in which a solid phase reacts with a second
solid phase to produce yet a third solid phase on cooling.
Fig. 5.9 shows a Peritectoid Diagram, which can be explained on lines similar to those
for eutectoid diagram (Refer section 5.12).
L is the liquid phase.
γ, α and β are solid phases.
A and B are two metals.
Ep is the peritectoid point.
Tp is the peritectoid temperature.
This structure is now known as ordered substitutional solid solution or super lattice.
Prolonged annealing tends to produce still more uniform and ordered solid solution.
Cu- Zn, Au-Cu, Cu2MnAI are some examples of ordered structures.
Interstitial solid solution: Interstitial solid solution forms when solute atoms are
very small as compared to the solvent atoms, they are unable to substitute solvent
atoms (because of the large difference in diameters of solvent and solute atoms) and
can only fit into the interstices or spaces in the crystal lattice of solvent atoms .
Those atoms which have atomic radii less than 1 angstrom (1 Å) are likely to form
interstitial, solid solutions. Such atoms are carbon (0.77 Å), nitrogen (0.71 Å),
hydrogen (0.46 Å), oxygen (0.6 Å), etc. Actually, atomic size is not the only factor that
determines whether or not an interstitial solid solution will form.
Small interstitial solute atoms dissolve much more readily in transition metals (such
as Fe, Ni, Mn, Mo, Cr, W, etc.) than in other metals. Carbon forms an interstitial solid
solution with F.C.C. iron during the solidification of steel but it can also be absorbed
by solid iron provided the latter is heated to a temperature at which the structure is
F.C.C. This is the basis of carburizing steels. Nitrogen also dissolves interstitially in
solid steel, during the nitriding process.
3. Chemical-affinity Factor: The greater the chemical affinity of two metals, the
more restricted is their solid solubility. When their chemical affinity is great, two
metals tend to form an intermediate phase rather than a solid solution. Generally,
the farther apart the elements are in the periodic table, the greater is their chemical
affinity.
4. Relative Valence (Valency) Factor: Consider two atoms, one with large
valence electrons and the other with small number of valence electrons. It has been
found that the metal of high valence can dissolve only a small amount of a lower
valence metal, while the lower valence metal may have good solubility for the higher
valence metal.
For example, in the Al-Ni alloy system, both metals have f.c.c. structure. The relative
size factor is approximately 14%.However; Ni is lower in valence than Al and thus
solid nickel dissolves 5% aluminium, but the higher valence Al dissolves only 0.04%
Ni.
Course Contents
6.1 Allotropy of Iron.
6.2 The Iron – Iron Carbide
Diagram.
6.3 Definition of Structure.
6.4 Carbon Solubility in Iron.
6.5 Slow Cooling of Steel.
Originally, non-magnetic α iron was called β iron until subsequent x – ray studies
showed no change in lattice structure at 1414° F. Since this magnetic transformation
does not affect the heat treatment of iron – carbon alloys.
All the allotropic changes give off heat (exothermic) when iron is cooled and absorb heat
(endothermic) when iron is heated (Refer Figure 6.1).
Fig. 6.2 The delta region for iron – iron carbon diagram.
The diagram shows three horizontal lines which indicate isothermal reactions. The γ
solid solution is called austenite. The portion of the diagram in the upper left corner of is
expanded in Figure 6.2. This is known as delta region, because of the δ solid solution.
Horizontal line at 2720˚F is being peritectic reaction. The equation of the peritectic
reaction may be written as
Liquid
cooling
heating
Austenite
The maximum solubility of carbon in B.C.C. δ iron is 0.10% (point M) while in F.C.C. γ iron
the solubility is much greater. The presence of carbon influences the δ iron to γ iron
allotropic change.
As carbon is added to iron, the temperature of the allotropic change increases from
2554˚F to 2720˚F at 0.10% carbon.
Consider the significance of the line NMPB. On cooling, the portion NM represents the
beginning of the crystal structure changes from B.C.C. δ iron to F.C.C. γ iron for alloys
containing less than 0.10% carbon.
The portion MP represents the beginning of this crystal structure change by means of a
peritectic reaction for alloys between 0.10% and 0.18% carbon.
For the alloys containing less than 0.18% carbon on cooling, the end of crystal structure
change is given by line NP.
On line PB, for alloy between 0.18 and 0.50% carbon, the allotropic change begins and
ends at constant temperature.
Any alloy containing more than 0.50% carbon will cut the diagram to the right of point
B and will solidify austenite only.
Since No commercial heat treatment is done in the delta region.
Fig. 6.3 The iron – iron carbide equilibrium diagram labeled with the common names for the
structure.
In Figure 6.3 shows a eutectic reaction at 2065˚F at horizontal line CED, at point E where
4.3% carbon. Since the horizontal line CED represents the eutectic reaction, whenever
an alloy crosses this line the reaction must be take place.
Prepared By: Prof. A. J. Makadia Department of Mechanical Engineering
Page 6.4 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot
Material Science & Metallurgy (2131904) 6. The Iron –Iron Carbide Equilibrium Diagram
Any liquid that is present when this line is reached must now solidify in to the very fine
intimate mixture of the two phases that are at either end of the horizontal line, namely
austenite and iron carbide (called cementite). This eutectic mixture has given the name
ledeburite and equation may be written as
austenite cementite
cooling
Liquid heating
eutectic mixture ledeburite
The eutectic mixture is not usually seen in the microstructure, since austenite is not
stable at room temperature and must undergo another reaction during cooling.
There is a small solid solution area to the left of line GH. We know that 1666˚F
represents the changes in crystal structure of pure iron from F.C.C. γ iron to B.C.C. α
iron. That area is a solid solution of small amount of carbon dissolved in B.C.C. α iron and
is called ‘Ferrite’.
The diagram shows a third horizontal line HJK, which represents a eutectoid reaction.
The eutectoid point J is at 0.80% carbon and 1333˚F. Any austenite present must now
transform in to the very fine eutectoid mixture of ‘Ferrite + Cementite’ called ‘Pearlite’.
The equation may be written as
ferrite cementite
cooling
Liquid heating
eutectoid mixture pearlite
On the basis of carbon content, iron carbide diagram divides in two parts.
Fig. 6.6 (c) Pearlite with 2500X (d) Pearlite with 17000X
Properties:
Tensile strength 120000 PSI
Elongation 20% in 2 inch
Hardness – Rockwell C20
– Rockwell B 95-100
– BHN 250-300
The calculation shows that the percentage of unfilled space in the F.C.C. lattice is 25%, and
in the B.C.C. lattice 32%. In both austenite and ferrite, the carbon atoms are dissolved
interstitially, that is, in the unfilled spaces of the
lattice structure. In view of the above calculations, it may seem strange that the solubility of
carbon in austenite is so much greater than it is in ferrite. This seemingly unusual behavior
may be explained by a study of Fig. 6.7. The largest hole in B.C.C. ferrite is halfway between
the center of the face and the space between the two corner atoms. Two of the four
possible positions for a carbon atom on the front face of a body centered cube are shown in
Fig. 6.7. The largest interstitial sphere that would just fit has a radius of 0.36 (10-8) cm. The
largest hole in F.C.C. austenite is midway along the edge between two corner atoms. One
possible position for a carbon atom on the front face of face – centered cube is shown in Fig.
6.7. The largest interstitial sphere that would just fit has a radius of 0.52 (10-8) cm.
Therefore, austenite will have a greater solubility for carbon than ferrite. Since the carbon
atom has a radius of about 0.70 (10-8) cm, the iron atoms in austenite are spread apart by
the solution of carbon so that, at the maximum solubility of 2%, only about 10% of the holes
are filled. The distortion of the ferrite lattice by the carbon atom is much greater than in the
case of austenite; therefore, the carbon solubility is much more restricted.
6.8(b)). As the cooling progress and the amount of ferrite increases, the remaining
austenite becomes richer in carbon.
Fig. 6.8 Schematic representation of the changes in microstructure during the slow cooling of 0.2%
carbon steel.
a) Austenite
b) Formation of ferrite grains at austenite grain boundaries.
c) Growth of ferrite grains – composition of austenite is now 0.8% carbon
d) Austenite transforms to pearlite at 1333˚F
Its carbon content is gradually moving down and to the right along the A 3 line.
Finally, the line HJ is reached at point X2. This line is known as lower critical temperature
line on the hypo eutectoid side and is labeled A1. The line A1 is the eutectoid
temperature line and is the lowest temperature at which F.C.C. iron can exist under
equilibrium condition
Just above A1, line the microstructure consists of 25% austenite and 75% ferrite (Figure
6.8(c)).
ferrite cementite
cooling
Austenite heating
pearlite
Note that it is only austenite which is changing at the A1 line. Therefore when the
reaction is complete the microstructure will show approximately 25% Pearlite and 75%
ferrite (Figure 6.8(d)).
Let us consider the eutectoid reaction in a little more detail. Austenite is to change to
ferrite. Austenite is an interstitial solid solution with each remaining grain dissolving 0.8
% C in F.C.C. Fe. Ferrite, however, is B.C.C. Fe and dissolves very little carbon, so the
change in crystal structure cannot occur until the carbon atoms come out of solution.
Therefore, the first step is the precipitation of the carbon atoms to form plates of
cementite (iron carbide). In the area immediately adjacent to the cementite plate the
iron is depleted of carbon, and the atoms may now rearrange themselves to form B.C.C.
ferrite. Thin layers of ferrite are formed on each side of the cementite plate. The process
continues by the formation of alternate layers of cementite and ferrite to give the fine
fingerprint mixture known as pearlite. The reaction usually starts at the austenite grain
boundary, with the pearlite growing along the boundary and into the grain, see Fig.6.9.
Since ferrite and pearlite are stable structures, the microstructure remains substantially
the same down to room temperature and consists of approximately 75 % proeutectoid
ferrite (formed between the A3 and A1 lines) and 25% pearlite (formed from austenite at
the A1 line). Figure 6.10 (a) shows the microstructure of a 0.2 % C steel slow – cooled. As
predicted, it consists of 75 % proeutectoid ferrite (light areas) and 25% pearlite (dark
areas). The dark areas in this micro certainly do not look like a mixture, which pearlite is
supposed to be. Higher magnification (Fig.6.10 (b)), however, reveals the fine fingerprint
mixture of pearlite.
The changes just described would be the same for any hypoeutectoid steel. The only
difference would be in the relative amount of ferrite and pearlite. The closer the carbon
content to the eutectoid composition (0.8 % C), the more pearlite will be present in the
microstructure. The microstructure of a 0.4 % C steel slow cooled (Fig.6.10(c)) shows
approximately 50 % pearlite, while the eutectoid composition (0.8 % C) shows 100 %
pearlite (Fig.6.10 (d)).
Prepared By: Prof. A. J. Makadia Department of Mechanical Engineering
Page 6.10 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot
Material Science & Metallurgy (2131904) 6. The Iron –Iron Carbide Equilibrium Diagram
Fig. 6.10 Photomicrographs of (a) 0.20 percent carbon steel, slow – cooled,100X;
(b) Same as (a), but at 500X;
(c) 0.40 percent carbon steel, slow – cooled, 100X;
(d) eutectoid (0.80 percent carbon)steel, slow –
cooled,500X.
All samples etched with 2 percent nital. Dark areas are pearlite; light are ferrite.
cementite primarily along the grain boundaries (Fig.6.11(b),(c)). Finally the eutectoid –
temperature line is reached at x4. This line is called the lower – critical temperature line
on the hypereutectoid side and is labeled A3,1. Just above the A3,1 line the microstructure
consists largely of austenite, with the excess proeutectoid cementite as a network
surrounding the austenite grains (Fig.6.11(c)). Applying Rule II with cementite on the
right side of the line, the amount of cementite would be
1.0 0.8
% cementite 100 3.4 %
6.67 0.8
Fig. 6.11 Schematic representation of the changes in microstructure during the slow cooling of a 1.0
percent carbon steel. (a) Austenite; (b) formation of excess cementite at austenite grain boundaries;
(c) growth of excess cementite to form a network – austenite composition is now 0.8 percent carbon;
(d)Austenite transforms to pearlite at 1333° F.
Fig. 6.12 Photomicrographs of (a) 1 percent carbon steel, slow – cooled, 500X;
(b) 1.2 percent carbon steel, slow – cooled, 300X.
Pearlite areas surrounded by a white proeutectoid cementite network. Note the increase
in thickness of the cementite network with the increase in carbon content.
The A3,1, line for hypereutectoid steels represents the beginning and the end of the
allotropic change from F.C.C. austenite to B.C.C. ferrite. By the same process described
earlier, the remaining austenite (containing 0.8 % carbon) transforms to the eutectoid
mixture, pearlite (Fig.6.8 (d)). At room temperature the microstructure consists of 96.6
% pearlite (formed from austenite at the A3,1 line) and a network of 3.4 % proeutectoid
cementite (formed between the Acm and A3,1, lines). Look closely at Fig. 6.12(a),
particularly where the pearlite areas meet, to see the thin, white proeutectoid
cementite network. The story just described would be the same for any hypereutectoid
steel, slow – cooled. As the carbon content of the alloy increases, the thickness of the
proeutectoid cementite network generally increases. Figure 6.12 (b) shows the
microstructure of a 1.2 % carbon steel. Both photomicrographs show very clearly the
lamellar (platelike) structure of pearlite.
Note the difference in significance of the upper – critical – temperature lines, the A3 and
Acm. The former line involves an allotropic change, whereas the latter involves only a
change in carbon solubility.
The mechanical properties of an alloy depend upon the properties of the phases and the
way in which these phases are arranged to make up the structure. Ferrite is relatively
soft with low tensile strength, while cementite is hard with very low tensile strength.
The combination of these two phases in the form of the eutectoid (pearlite) produces an
alloy of much greater tensile strength than that of either phase. Since the amount of
pearlite increases with an increase in carbon content for hypoeutectoid steels, the
strength and Brinell hardness will also increase up to the eutectoid composition of 0.80
% carbon. The ductility, as expressed by percent elongation and reduction in area, and
impact strength decrease with increasing carbon content. Beyond the eutectoid
composition, the strength levels off and may even show a decrease due to the brittle
cementite network. The Brinell hardness, however, continues to increase due to the
greater proportion of hard cementite.
Course Contents
7.1 Heat Treatment & its
Purpose
7.2 Types of Heat Treatment
7.3 Factors affecting hardening
process
7.4 Surface Heat Treatment or
Case Hardening
7.5 Austempering or
Isothermal Quenching
7.6 Martempering or Marquenc
hing
Process:
When this steel is heated, no change will occur until A1(lower critical temperature line) is
crossed, when A1 is crossed at that temperature pearlite area will transform to small
grains of austenite by means of eutectoid reactions, but the original large ferrite grains
will remain unchanged (Figure 7.1b). Cooling from this temperature will not refine the
grain.
Continued heating between A1 and A3 lines will allow the large ferrite grains to
transform to small grains of austenite so that above A3 (upper critical temperature line)
line the entire microstructure will show only small grains of austenite. (Figure 7.1c)
Subsequent furnace cooling will result in small grains of pro eutectoid ferrite and small
area of coarse lamellar pearlite. (Figure 7.1d) So, proper annealing temperature for hypo
eutectoid steel is approximately 50˚F above A3 line.
Refinement of the grain size of hyper eutectoid steel will occur about 50˚F above the
lower critical temperature line (A3, 1). Heating above this temperature will coarsen the
austenite grains which, on cooling will transform to large pearlite areas.
The microstructure of annealed hyper eutectoid steel will consist of coarse lamellar
pearlite areas surrounded by a network of pro eutectoid cementite (Fig.7.2). Because
this excess cementite network is brittle and tends to be a plane of weakness, annealing
should never be a final heat treatment for hyper eutectoid steels. The presence of a
thick, hard grain boundary will also result in poor machinability.
= 60000 PSI
This same idea cannot be applied to hyper eutectoid steel, since their strength is
determined by the cementite network which forms the continuous phase. The presence
of the brittle network results in a drop in tensile strength above 0.8% carbon (Refer
Table 7.1).
2. Spheroidising Annealing:
Purpose:
To improve the machinability and ductility of high carbon steel and air hardening alloy
steel. This process will produce a spheroidal or globular form of carbide in a ferrite
matrix.
Fig. 7.4 Microstructure of (a) Cold worked steel (b) Recrystallised steel
Structural changes:
The final structure after this treatment consists of strain free equipped grains at the
expense of deformation grains. Properly changes produced by cold working are removed
and steel returns very nearly to its original properties.
Therefore, hardness and strength decreases whereas the ductility increases.
Application:
Manufacturing in steel wires, sheets or strips.
5. Normalizing:
Purpose:
The purpose of Normalizing is to perform harder and stronger steel than full annealing.
So that for some applications normalizing may be final heat treatment.
Normalizing may also be used to improve machinability modified and refine cast
dendritic structure, refine the grain and homogenize the microstructure in order to
improve the response in hardening operations.
Method:
Steel is heated to about approximately 100˚F above upper critical temperature (A 3 or
Acm), hold at that temperature for a sufficient period of time and then cooled in still air.
The increase in cooling rate due to air cooling as compared with furnace cooling affects
the transformation of austenite and resultant microstructure in several ways.
Structural change:
In this process, the homogeneity of austenite increase since the temperature involved is
more than that for annealing. It results in better dispersion of ferrite and cementite in
the final structure. The grain size is finer in the normalized structure then in annealed
one. This results in a slightly higher strength and hardness but lower ductility than full
annealing.
Fig. 7.5(a) Structural changes during normalizing Fig. 7.5(b) Normalized 0.50% carbon steel,
heated to 1800˚F and air cooled
Figure 7.5 (b) shows the microstructure of normalized 0.5% carbon steel.
In annealed condition 62% pearlite + 38% proeutectoid ferrite. Due to air cooling this
sample has 10% proeutectoid ferrite which is the white network surrounding the dark
pearlite areas.
For hypereutectoid steel, normalizing will reduce the continuity of proeutectoid
cementite network, and in some cases it may be suppressed entirely.
Since it was the presence of cementite network which reduce strength of annealed
hyper eutectoid steels, normalized steel should show an increase in strength. (Table 7.1)
particularly for steels containing more than 0.8%carbon.
Application:
Rolled and forged steels possessing coarse grains are subjected to normalizing for grain
refinement.
Normalizing Annealing
1. Air cooling 1. Furnace cooling
2. Due to normalizing there is different 2. The furnace imposes identical cooling at
cooling at different locations, hence all the locations so identical properties.
different thickness regions will have
different properties.
3. Micro structure contains less ferrite 3. Microstructure contains less ferrite.
than annealing. Example: 0.5% carbon steel
Example: 0.5% carbon steel 38% ferrite and 62% pearlite
10% ferrite and 90% pearlite
4. Ferrite cementite lamella in pearlite is 4. Ferrite cementite lamellae in pearlite is
fine. coarse.
5. Comparatively higher strength and 5. Comparatively lower strength and
hardness. hardness.
6. Less expensive 6. Here energy is needed and it is time
consuming so treatment is expensive.
7. It improves the machinability of low 7. It improves the machinability of
carbon steel. medium carbon steel.
6. Hardening:
Purpose:
The main purpose of hardening is to develop a high hardness level in components
extended for heavy duty service.
Process:
Hardening treatment consist of heating the steel to hardening temperature, holding at
that temperature for a particular time followed by rapid cooling such as quenching in
water, oil, salt bath.
a. Hypo eutectoid steel are heated about 30-50˚C above the upper critical
temperature line (A3).
b. Hyper eutectoid steel are heated about 30-50˚C above the lower critical
temperature line (A1).
c. Rapid cooling means the cooling rate is just in excess of the critical cooling rate.
Structure change:
In hypo eutectoid steel, ferrite and pearlite transform to austenite at hardening
temperature. This austenite transforms to martensite on rapid cooling.
In hypereutectoid steel, the find structure is blend of cementite and martensite. Since
cementite is harder than the martensite, the wear resistance is better than that
achieved by martensite alone.
Applications:
Tensile strength and yield strength are improved by hardening structural steel
components like gears, shafts, bearings.
The wear resistance and cutting ability of steel are increased.
7. Tempering:
Hardening treatment develops maximum hardness, excellent wear resistance and high
strength in the steel.
At the same time, it affects property such as ductility and toughness. Hence in hardened
condition steels are generally brittle.
The degree of brittleness increased with increasing carbon content and severity in the
cooling rate.
More ever, high residual stresses are developed due to formation of martensite.
Therefore hardening is always followed by another treatment known as tempering.
Purpose:
The purpose of tempering is to relieve the residual stresses and improve ductility and
toughness of the steel. The grain in ductility and toughness is usually attained at the loss
of hardness and wear resistance.
Process:
The process consist of heating the steel below lower critical temperature (typically 150 –
630 ˚C) followed by cooling in air or at any other desired cooling rate.
Structural changes:
As martensite is a super saturated solid solution, if energy is supplied by tempering, it
decomposes to a two phase microstructure consisting of B.C.C. α ferrite and small
particles of carbide.
Classification:
1. Low temperature tempering about 200˚C high carbon and low alloy steel
2. Medium temperature tempering about 200 - 400˚C coil and laminated spring
3. High temperature tempering about 400 - 650˚C medium carbon steel, shafts,
gears
7.3 Factors affecting hardening process:
1. Hardening temperature:
Hypoeutectoid steel 30-50˚C above the upper critical temperature line (A3).
Hyper eutectoid steel 30-50˚C above the lower critical temperature line (A1).
2. Holding time:
Recommended holding time is 1 hour for each 25mm thickness or diameter.
3. Quenching medium:
Prepared By: Prof. A. J. Makadia Department of Mechanical Engineering
Page 7.10 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot
Material Science & Metallurgy (2131904) 7. Heat Treatment of Steels
Different industrial quenching media available are water, brine, air, oil, molten
salt bath and synthetic quenchants.
Quenching medium characteristics such as temperature, specific heat, and
thermal conductivity, latent heat of vaporization, viscosity and agitation affect
the cooling+
4. Cooling rate:
The critical cooling rate (CCR) largely depends upon the alloying element. Alloy
steel have less CCR and hence some of alloy steels are hardened by air cooling.
High carbon steels have slightly more CCR and have to be hardened by oil
cooling.
Medium carbon steels have still higher CCR hence water or brine quenching is
required.
5. Shape and size of steel parts:
Larger parts or parts with variable thickness are heated at a very slow rate
because at a faster cooling rate, thermal gradient is set up between inner and
outer surface or between thick and thin surface.
These parts are held at the hardening temperature for a sufficient period time to
attain a uniform temperature.
The quenching medium contacts the surface of the parts only. So that the ratio of
surface to mass is an important factor in determining the actual cooling rate.
6. Surface condition:
The surface condition of the steel components also affects the hardening
characteristics.
The presence of scale, oil, grease and other foreign particle are not desirable. Oil
and grease burn during the heating and leave behind a residue which is a bad
conduction of heat. These residue, scale or foreign particle result in variable
cooling rates at different points on the surface.
7.4 Surface Heat Treatment or Case Hardening:
Numerous industrial applications require a hard wear resistance surface called the case
and relatively soft, tough inside called core.
Case hardening methods:
1. Carburizing
2. Nitriding
3. Cyaniding or carbo nitriding
4. Flame hardening
5. Induction hardening
The first three method change the chemical composition
Carburizing – addition of carbon
Nitriding – addition of nitrogen
Cyaniding – addition of both
Last two methods do not change the chemical composition of the steel. In flame and
induction hardening the steel must be capable of being hardened, therefore the carbon
contain must be about 0.3% or carbon or higher.
1. Carburizing:
Carburizing is a process by which the carbon content of steel is increased.
A low carbon steel, usually about 0.2% carbon or lower is placed in an atmosphere that
contains substantial amount of carbon monoxide.
This process is used for machine parts including cams, pistons, gears, pump shafts etc.
The process consist if heating the steel to a temperature 1700˚F (900-930˚C) in contact
with a carburizing medium, holding at that temperature for a sufficient period of time
and cooling it to the room temperature.
As the steel is now in austenite region and the solubility of carbon is more in this region,
the carbon from the medium is diffuses in to austenite (1.2% of carbon at surface).
2CO C+ CO2
Fe + (C) Fe(C)
4. The CO2 produced reacts with the carburizing components to form more CO.
CO2 + C 2CO
The depth obtained varies from 1 to 2 mm and carburizing time varied from 6 to 8 hrs.
Advantages:
It does not require the use of prepared atmosphere.
It is efficient and economical for industrial processing of parts in small lots or for large
massive parts.
Disadvantages:
Not suitable for the production of thin carburized cases.
Close control of surface carbon cannot be achieved.
Liquid carburizing:
Liquid carburizing is also known as salt bath carburizing. The carburizing medium is a
fused salt bath composed of sodium cyanide (Na CN), sodium chloride (NaCl) and barium
chloride (BaCl2). The both are melted in a steel cast pot type furnace heated by oil or
gas. The process is carried out by immersing the steel components n the both
maintained at a temperature of 815 - 900˚C for a periods varying from 5 min to 1 hrs.
Depending upon the case depth require. The components are then quenched.
The reactions in the salt bath are as follows:
This process gives a thin and clear hardened layer up to a case depth of 0.08 mm. High
temperature salt bath are used for producing a deep case.
Advantages:
Rapid and uniform heat transfer, low distortion, negligible surface oxidation and rapid
absorption of carbon.
Highly uniform case depths are obtained with uniform carbon content.
The cycle time for liquid carburizing is shorter than gas or pack carburizing.
Disadvantages:
Cyanide salts are extremely poisonous so case is required during its storage and
disposal.
The salt sticks to the components and must be thoroughly washed after treatment.
Regular checking and adjustment of both compositions is necessary to obtain uniform
case depth.
Gas carburizing:
1. The carbon monoxide in the carrier gas is the active carburizing agent.
2CO CO2 +(C)-------1
The carbon thus releases dissolved interstially in to the surface of steel.
2. Methane also release carbon
CH4 2H2 + (C)
3. Carbon dioxide formed in -1 reacts with methane
CO2 + CH4 2H2 + 2CO
Gas carburizing is commonly used to obtain thin carbon between 0.2 – 0.5 mm.
Advantages:
This method is used for large volume production.
Process provides accurate control of case depth and surface carbon content.
It is cleaner process.
It allows quicker handling by direct quenching.
Less labor cost but highly skilled personnel are required to maintain the necessary
control.
After carburizing excess cementite (Fe3C) occurs as a network in the case and induce
brittleness. However a case containing 1% or more carbon may be soft at the surface
after quenching due to retention of austenite. Prolonged heating in austenite range
during carburizing introduces a coarse grain to the whole structure.
Fig. 7.9 Heat treatment for carburized steel (a) Direct quench
(b) Double heat treatment
The objective of heat treatment after carburizing are:
1. To break the cementite network
2. To achieve higher hardness at the surface
3. To refine the coarse grains of the core and case.
1. Direct quench:
In this method, the components are quenched in a quenching both directly, from the
carburizing temperature and then tempered to reduce the brittleness of the case.
Due to faster cooling from the austenite region, martensite is produced in the surface
and reasonably fine ferrite is produced in the centre. This process is good for only fine
grained steels.
2. Double heat treatment:
If the steel is coarse grained through the cross section then double heat treatment
required.
Steps involved in the process are:
1. Slow cooling from the carburizing temperature to room temperature. This reduces
the residual stresses which in turn reduce the tendency of distortion and cracking.
2. Reheating the steel above upper critical temperature (850 - 900˚C) and quenching.
Austenite is finer at this temperature and these results in finer ferrite grains at the
core. The additional advantage is that the carbide network also dissolves on heating
and does not appear after quenching.
3. Reheating to a temperature just above the lower critical temperature (750 – 780˚C)
and quenching. By this treatment refining and hardening of case are achieved. On
quenching austenite transforms to martensite at the surface of the steel. The core
does not get hardened.
4. Tempering the steel to relive internal stresses and brittleness of the case.
2. Carbo nitriding:
Advantages:
It has advantages over carburizing as lower heat treating temperature is required and
less drastic quench is needed. The less drastic quench significantly reduces the
distortion.
The wear resistance and surface Hardenability are better than carburizing process.
3. Cyaniding:
Advantages:
Process is less time consuming.
Disadvantages:
Sodium salts are very poisonous, care is required.
This process is not suitable for parts which are subjected to shock, fatigue and impact
because nitrogen addition has an adverse effect on such properties.
4. Nitriding:
In the nitriding process, atomic nitrogen is diffused into the surface of the steel being
treated.
This process is more effective for special alloy steel containing aluminum, chromium,
vanadium and molybdenum. These elements form hard and stable nitrides as soon as
they come into contact with nitrogen at the surface of work piece.
Before being nitride, the steel parts are heated to produce the required core property.
The heat treatment is done by heating the steel to 930˚C, quenching in oil followed by
tempering. All rough and finish machining are carried out before nitriding.
The steel parts are placed in a retort and heated to a temperature of about 550˚C. At
this temperature ammonia (NH3) gas is allowed to circulate. The ammonia gas
dissociates as follows the equation.
2NH3 2(N) + 3H2
The atomic nitrogen is absorbed by the surface of steel forming nitrides bath with iron
and other elements. The parts are maintained at this temperature for about 40 – 100
hours according to the core required.
Nitriding does not involve a quench and the parts are slow coated in the retort itself.
Core depth in the range of 0.1 – 0.5 mm is obtained and hardness up to 1100 VHN.
Application:
Nitriding is used for air craft engine parts such as cams, cylinder, liners, valve stems,
shaft and piston rings. Nitride steels are more corrosion resistant and have higher
endurance limit than most of the plain carbon carburized steels.
Parts such as gauges, forming dies, bearing parts are surface hardened by nitriding.
During nitriding ‘white layer’ of Fe4N and Fe2N formed at the outer layer of the surface.
The white layer is brittle and hence has a determintal effect on the fatigue life of
nitirded parts and this is normally removal.
Advantages:
No quenching is required after nitriding, cracking or distortion is unlikely.
A very high surface hardness is obtained. (1100 VHN)
Resistance to corrosion is good.
Fatigue resistance is important advantages.
Hardness is retained up to 500˚C where as in carburized component hardness begins to
fall at low temperature. (200˚C)
It is very clean process compared with cyanide bath.
Disadvantages:
This process is economical only when large number of components is to be treated.
To obtain maximum hardness, special alloy steel has to be used.
The cycle times are long requiring 50 – 90 hours to produce a maximum case depth of
0.5 – 0.8 mm.
5. Flame hardening:
Flame hardening and induction hardening do not change the chemical composition of
steel.
In this process the surface of the steel is heated by oxy – acetylene gas flame to
austenitising temperature followed by a quenching spay. The austenite is transformed to
martensite.
The steel for flame hardening must have sufficient carbon content (0.3 – 0.6 %C).
Fig. 7.13 Progressive method of flame hardening, showing the hardness pattern developed.
(From “Metals Handbook”, Vol.2, American Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio, 1964.)
Prepared By: Prof. A. J. Makadia Department of Mechanical Engineering
Page 7.20 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot
Material Science & Metallurgy (2131904) 7. Heat Treatment of Steels
Advantages:
The required area can be hardened.
Large machine surface can be hardened economically.
Ability to treat component offer surface finishing, since there is a little scaling,
decarburization or distortion.
Disadvantages:
The possibility of overheating and thus damaging the parts.
Difficulty is producing hardened zone less than 1/16” in depth.
To obtain optimum results, a technique has to be developed for each design.
6. Induction hardening:
Fig. 7.15 Typical works coils for high – frequency units and the heat patterns developed by each.
(From “Metals Handbook”, Vol.2, American Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio, 1964.)
Due to very fast heating and no holding time, the austenite formed fine and this result in
fine grained martensite.
Induction hardening is normally followed by a low temperature tempering at (160 – 200
˚C).
The depth of hardening is controlled by frequency of alternating currents where
(see the Table)
The steels with carbon content 0.4 – 0.5% are more suitable for this process.
Applications:
Crank shaft, cam shaft, axles, gears, rolls, bearing bars, brakes drums, overhead
travelling crane wheels etc.
Advantages:
Fast heating and absence of holding time leads to an increase in production rate.
No decarburization occurs.
Less distortion because the heating is only at the surface.
Easy control over the depth of hardening by control of frequency of supply voltage and
time of holding.
Disadvantages:
Because of the cost of the equipment, the process is not suitable for small scale
production.
Irregular shaped parts cannot be handled economically.
High maintenance cost.
Process:
Steel is heated above austenitising temperature and then quenched in a bathe
maintained at a temperature just above Ms temperature within the bainitic region
(between 400 – 800˚F) 200 – 400 ˚C in general. It is held at that temperature in the salt
bath for a sufficient period of time until the all the austenite is transformed in to bainite.
Since the transformation occurs at a constant temperature, this process is known as
‘isothermal hardening’.
After complete transformation the steel is taken out of the bath and cooled to room
temperature by any desired rate.
Structural changes:
Depending on the transformation temperature the structure could be upper bainite or
lower bainite. But the lower bainite is preferable as it has better mechanical properties
than tempered martensite.
Applications:
Austempering is applied for heat treating components of intricate sections. Such
components might distort or crack when they are treated by the conventional quench
hardening. This is avoided in Austempering.
Process:
In this process the steel is heated to austenitising temperature. It is then quenched in a
constant temperature bath (180 – 250 ˚C) maintained above Ms temperature. It is held
in this bath until the temperature is uniform through the part. Then it is removed the
bath and cooled in air.
This process removes most of the quenching stress.
Structure changes:
During cooling in air, the structure obtained is martensite. The steel is generally
tempered in order to improve the property.
Application:
This process is more suitable for high carbon steel and alloy steel.
Course Contents
8.1 Plain Carbon Steel
8.2 Alloy Steel
8.3 Popular Alloy Steel
8.4 Tool Steel
8.5 Stainless Steel
Steel with carbon 0.80 - 0.90 % having tensile strength 660 N/mm2 and hardness 500-
600 BHN.
Application: rock drill, railway rails, machine chisels, punch and dies, leaf spring, music
wire etc.
Steel with carbon 0.90 - 1.0 % (high carbon tool steel) having tensile strength 580
N/mm2 and hardness 500-600 BHN.
Application: punch and dies, springs, shear blades, keys etc.
Steel with carbon 1.0 - 1.1 %
Application: machine tool, tap, mandrels, railway spring etc.
Steel with carbon 1.1 - 1.2 %
Application: tap, thread metal die, twist drill etc.
Steel with carbon 1.2 - 1.3 %
Application: file, reamer, metal cutting tool etc.
Steel with carbon 1.3 - 1.5 %
Application: wire drawing dies, tools for turning chilled iron, metal cutting saws etc.
Definition:
Steel is considered to be alloy steel when the maximum of the range given for the
content of alloying elements exceeds one or more of the following limits:
Purpose of alloying:
1. Increase hardenability.
2. Improve strength of ordinary temperature.
3. Improve mechanical properties at high or low temperature.
4. Improve toughness at any minimum hardness or strength.
5. Increase wear resistance.
6. Increase corrosion resistance.
7. Improve magnetic properties.
Nickel steels are used for storage cylinder for liquefied gases and other low temperature
applications.
Other use of nickel steels are heavy forging, turbine blades, high stressed screw, bolts
and nuts (40 Ni 3 steel).
2. Chromium steel:
Chromium is less expensive alloying element than nickel and forms simple carbide
(Cr7C3, Cr4C) or complex carbides [(FeCr)3C].
These carbides have high hardness and good wear resistance.
It increases tensile strength and corrosion resistance of low alloy steel.
% Of Cr in Steel Use
8 Electrical use
15 Spring ball and roller bearing
Nickel – chromium – molybdenum steels are used for the structural parts of wings
assembly and loading gears.
Classification:
1. According to quenching media
a. Water hardening steel.
b. Oil hardening steel.
c. Air hardening steel.
2. According to alloy content
a. Carbon tool steel.
b. Low alloy tool steel.
c. Medium alloy tool steel.
3. According to application
a. Hot work steel.
b. Shock resisting steel.
c. High speed steel.
d. Cold work steel.
O – Oil hardening
Cold work A – Medium alloy air hardening
D – High carbon, High chromium
T – Tungsten base
High speed
M – Molybdenum base
Mold P – Mold steel
L – Low alloy
Special purpose
F – carbon-tungsten
Properties:
Excellent red hardness (tool can operate at high temperature).
Good shock resistance.
Good non deforming properties.
Good wear resistance.
Fair machinability.
Fair to poor resistance to decarburization.
Types:
1. Molybdenum base (Group M).
2. Tungsten base (Group T).
Tungsten base is known as 18 – 4 – 1
18% tungsten, 4% chromium, 1% vanadium.
Molybdenum base is known as 6 – 6 – 4 – 2
6% molybdenum, 6% tungsten, 4% chromium, 2% vanadium.
Molybdenum steel is lower in price, so over 80% of H.S.S. is produced of molybdenum
type steel.
When better than average red hardness is required, steel containing cobalt is
recommended.
Higher vanadium content is desirable when the material cut is highly abrasive.
In T-15 steel, a combination of cobalt and vanadium provides red hardness and abrasion
resistance.
Application: cutting tools such as tool bits, drills, reamers, broaches, milling cutters,
hobs, saws, wood working tools etc.
further oxidation, rust or corrosion. As these steel cannot be strained easily it is called
stainless steel.
A three numerical numbering system is used to identify stainless steel. The last two
numbers have no particular significance but the first numerical indicates the group as
follows.
Course Contents
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Classification Of Materials
9.3 Pig Iron
9.4 Wrought Iron
9.5 Cast Iron and Types
9.5.1 Gray Cast Iron
9.5.2 Malleable Cast Iron
9.5.3 Nodular Cast Iron
9.5.4 White Cast Iron
9.5.5 Chilled Cast Iron
9.5.6 Alloy Cast Iron
9.1 Introduction:
Ferrous materials contain iron.
Ferrous materials are the most important metals/ alloys in the metallurgical and
mechanical industries because of their very expensive uses.
1. Pig iron partly refined in a cupola produces various grades of cast iron.
2. By pudding process, wrought iron is produced.
3. Steel is produced from pig iron by various steel making process such as Bessemer, open
hearth, oxygen, electric and spray steel making.
Wrought iron is a composite metal. Figure shows the fracture of wrought iron.
The mechanical properties of wrought iron are largely those of pure iron. Because of
nature of slag distribution the tensile strength and ductility are greater in longitudinal
direction.
It has ability to resist corrosion. As corrosion continues the slag fibers begin to function
as rest resistors.
Wrought iron is never cast. All shaping is accomplished by hammering, pressing and
forging.
It is possible to improve the strength of wrought iron by alloying. The most popular alloy
wrought irons are those containing 1.5 to 3.5% nickel.
Tensile properties of wrought iron.
% Elongation in 8 inch 25 22
Reduction in area % 45 42
Wrought iron is available in the form of plates, sheets, bars, forging blooms and billets,
rivets and wide range of tubular products like pipe, tubing and casing cold drawn tubing
and welding fittings.
1. Building construction : Service lines and electrical conduits, soil, waste.
2. Public work : Bridge, railing, blast plates, towers etc.
3. Industrial : Condenser tubes, heat exchangers, acid and alkali process
lines.
4. Rail road and marine : Diesel exhaust and air brake piping.
5. Others : Coal handling equipments, cooling towers, spray pond piping.
1. Carbon content.
2. The alloy and impurity content.
3. Cooling rate during and after freezing.
4. Heat treatment after casting.
These variables control the conclusion of carbon and its physical form. The carbon may
be combined as iron carbide in cementite or free carbon in graphite. The shape and
distribution of free carbon particles will influence the physical property of cast iron.
1. Gray cast iron : Most of or all the carbon is uncombined in the form of graphite flanks.
2. White cast iron : All the carbon is in the combined form as cementite.
3. Malleable cat iron: All the carbon is uncombined in the form of irregular round particle
known as temper carbon. This is obtained by heat treatment of white cast iron.
4. Chilled cast iron: In which white cast iron layer at the surface is combined with gray cast
iron interior.
5. Nodular cast iron: In which by special alloy addition the carbon is largely uncombined in
the form of compact spheroids.
This structure offers from malleable iron is that it is obtained directly from solidification
and round carbon particles are more regular in shape.
Applications:
Machine tool structure (bed, frame and details).
Gear housing, pump housing, system turbine housing.
Motor frame.
Gas or water pipe for underground purpose.
Manhole cover.
Cylinder blocks and heads for IC engines, piston rings.
Tunnel segments.
Sanitary wares.
Rolling mills and general machinery parts.
Household applications.
Characteristics:
1. Malleable cast iron is one which can be hammered and rolled to obtain different shapes.
2. Malleable cast iron is obtained from hard and brittle white iron through controlled heat
conversion process.
3. a) A ferritic malleable cast iron has ferrite matrix.
b) A pearlitic malleable cast iron has pearlite matrix.
c) An alloy malleable cast iron contains chromium and nickel and possesses high
strength and corrosion resistance.
4. Malleable cast iron possesses high yield strength.
5. It has high young’s modulus and low co-efficient of thermal expansion.
6. It possesses good wear resistance and vibration damping capacity.
7. It has shrinkage 1.5mm per 100mm.
8. It has low moderate cost.
Fig. 9.3 a) Malleable iron unetched, irregular nodules of graphite called temper carbon
b) Ferritic malleable iron, temper carbon (black) in ferritic metrix. Etched in 5% natal
Applications:
Axle and differential housing, cam shaft and crank shaft in automobiles.
Gears, chain link, sprockets, elevator brackets in conveyor equipments.
Pumps, nozzles, cam, rocker arms as machine parts.
Gun mounts, tank parts, pistol parts etc and hammers wrenches etc.
The compact spheroids interrupt the continuity of matrix much less than graphite flanks
these results in higher strength and toughness compare with similar gray iron.
Nodular cast iron differs from malleable iron in that it is usually obtained as a result of
solidification and does not require heat treatment. The spheroids are more rounded
than the irregular aggregates of temper carbon found in malleable iron.
The total carbon content of nodular iron is the same as in gray cast iron.
Spheroidal graphite particles form during solidification because of the presence of small
amount of alloying element.
The nodule forming addition, usually magnesium or cerium is made to the laddle just
before casting. Since these elements have strong affinity for sulpher the base iron alloy
sulpher content must be below 0.015% for the treatment to be effective and the alloy
are described as ‘desulphurised’.
The amount of ferrite in the cast matrix depends on composition and rate of cooling.
Nodular iron with matrix having a maximum 10% pearlite is known as ‘ferritic iron’. This
structure gives maximum ductility, toughness and machinability.
A matrix structure which is largely pearlite can be produced as cast or by normalizing.
A martensite matrix may be obtained by quenching in oil or water from 1600°-1700° F.
The quenched structure is usually tempered after hardening to the desired strength and
hardness levels.
Austenitic ductile irons are highly alloyed types which retain their austenitic structure
down to at least -75° F. These irons are of interest because of their high corrosion
resistance and good creep properties at elevated temperature.
Chemical composition:
Carbon : 3.2-4.2% Manganese : 0.3-0.8%
Silicon : 1.1-3.5% Sulpher : 0.2%
Phosphorous : 0.08%
(a) (b)
Fig. 9.4 a) Nodular iron unetched, showing spheroids.
b) Ferritic nodular iron showing graphite spheroids n’ a ferrite matrix, etched in 2% nital.
Prepared By: Prof. A. J. Makadia Department of Mechanical Engineering
Page 9.10 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot
Material Science & Metallurgy (2131904) 9. Cast Iron
Applications:
Agricultural: Tractor and implement parts.
Automotive and diesel: Crank shaft, piston and cylindrical head.
Electrical fittings: Switch box, motor frame, circuit breaker parts.
Mining: Hoist drums, drive pulley, flywheel and elevator bracket.
Steel mill rolls.
Furnace doors.
Bearings, tools and dies, wrenches.
Miscellaneous dies for shaping steel, aluminium, bronze and titanium.
Examples: liners for cement mixers, ball mills, drawing dies, extrusion nozzles.
It is used as a starting material for the manufacturing of malleable cast iron.
Its freshly broken surface shows bright white fracture.
It contains
Fig. 9.6 Fracture of chilled iron casting showing the white, mottled and gray portions
This hard abrasion-resistant white cast iron surface of core is baked up by a soft gray
iron core. This core structure is obtained by careful control of overall alloy composition
and adjustment of cooling rate.
Freezing starts first, and the cooling rate is most rapid where the molten metal is in
contact with mould walls. The cooling rate decreases as the centre of casting is
approached. A chilled cast iron may be produced by adjusting the composition of the
iron so that the normal cooling rate at the surface is just enough to produce white iron
while the slower cooling rate below the surface will produce gray iron.
Chromium 1-4% is used in small amount to control chill depth. It increase hardness and
abrasion resistance.
Applications:
Railway car wheels.
Crushing rolls.
Stamp shoe and die.
Sprockets.
Heavy duty machine parts.
Course Contents
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Copper and copper
alloys
10.3 Brass and Brass alloys
10.4 Bronze and bronz
alloys
10.5 Gun metal
10.6 Bearing materials
10.7 Magnesium and its
alloys
10.8 Lead and its alloys
10.9 Tin and tin alloys
10.10 Zinc and its alloys
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Ferrous alloys are consumed in exceedingly large quantities because they have such a wide range of
mechanical properties, can be fabricated with relative ease and are economical to produce.
However, they possess some distinct limitations, chiefly
1. A relatively high density; therefore heavier in weight,
2. A comparatively low electrical conductivity, and
3. An inherent susceptibility to corrosion in some common on environments.
Thus, for many applications it is advantageous or even necessary to utilize other alloys e.g., non-
ferrous alloys, having more suitable property combinations. On occasion, a distinction is made (in
non-ferrous alloys) between cast and wrought alloys. Alloys that are so brittle that forming or
shaping by appreciable deformation is not possible ordinarily are cast; these are classified as cast
alloys. On the other hand, those that are amenable to mechanical deformation are termed wrought
alloys.
In addition, the heat treatability of an alloy system is mentioned frequently. Heat-treatable
designates an alloy whose mechanical strength is improved b y precipitation hardening etc.
Non-ferrous metals/alloys are not iron-based. The more common non-ferrous materials are the
following metallic elements and their alloys:
1. Copper 4. Lead 7. Zinc
2. Aluminium 5. Nickel 8. Cobalt etc.
3. Magnesium 6. Tin
d) Arsenical touch pitch copper containing 0.4% As, 0.065% oxygen, 0.02% Pb, 0.15% Ni,
0.006% Ag, 0.01% Sb and less than 0.005% Bi, less than 0.020% Fe and remaining copper.
e) Oxygen free copper contains 0.005% Pb, 0.001% Ni, 0.001% Ag and less than 0.0005% and
0.001% Fe and Bi respectively. It is melted and cast in non-oxidising atmosphere.
Properties:
- Excellent resistance to corrosion.
- Non-magnetic properties.
- Easy to work, it is ductile a d malleable.
- Moderate to high hardness and strength.
- High thermal and electrical conductivity.
- It can be easily polished, plated and possesses a pleasing appearance.
- Resistance to fatigue, abrasion and corrosion.
- It can be soldered, brazed or welded.
- Very good machinability.
- Ease of forming alloys with other elements like Zn, Sri, Al, Pb, Si, Ni, etc.
Uses
- Copper is used for the Electrical parts, Heat exchangers, Screw machine products, for
making various copper alloys, such as brass and bronze, household utensils, etc.
Copper Alloys
- Copper alloys normally possess excellent corrosion resistance, electrical and thermal
conductivities and formability.
- Some copper alloys combine high strength and corrosion resistance, a combination
desirable for marine applications.
- Some copper alloys because of their wearing properties, high hardness or corrosion
resistance are used as surfacing metals.
- Some copper alloys are selected for decorative applications because of appearance.
- Elements such as aluminium, zinc, tin, beryllium, nickel, silicon, lead etc., form alloys with
copper.
- High copper alloys contain 96.0 to 99.3% copper.
- They possess enhanced mechanical properties due to the addition of small amounts of
alloying elements such as chromium, zirconium, beryllium and cadmium.
high, but alloys relatively low in lead are preferred for hot forging operations. Lead has no
marked effect on the tensile strength, which is approximately the same as that of straight 60
: 40 brass, though lead tends to impair the weldability, ductility and impact strength.
- Leaded brass is used for: Keys, Lock-parts, Gears, Clock parts, Valve parts, Pipe unions, Items
for automatic water heaters.
(8) Naval brass
- Naval brass contains Cu 60%, Zn 39.25% and Sn 0.75%. The purpose of tin is to improve the
resistance to corrosion.
- Naval brass is used for structural applications and for forgings, especially in cases where
contact with sea water is likely to induce corrosion.
- Naval brass is obtainable as hot-rolled plate particularly for marine condenser plates, and in
the form of extruded rod for the production of machined or hot forged components. Both
sand and die castings are also available.
- Other applications of naval brass are: Propeller shafts, Valve stems, Pump impellers etc.
(9) Admiralty brass
- Admiralty brass contains 71% Cu, 28% Zn, and 1% Sn.
- It is used for decorative and architectural applications, screw machine products, heat
exchanger components, pump impellers etc.
- The excess phosphorus, which exists in solid solution, materially increases the hardness and
strength of the alloy, but it does so at the expense of ductility.
- In amounts greater than 1.0% phosphorus causes excessive brittleness and impairs surface
appearance but affords a good bearing surface, as is evident by the use of high phosphorus
bronze compositions for gears and other machine parts subject to wear.
- Standard Phosphor bronze for bearing applications contains 90% Cu, 10% Sri (min), and 0.5% P
(min). In sand cast condition it has a tensile strength of 220-280 N/mm2 and % elongation 3 to
8%.
- Phosphor bronze for gears contains 88% Cu, 12% Sri, 0.3% (max) Zn, 0.50% (mw.) Pb and 0.15%
(min) P. In sand cast condition, it has a tensile strength of 220-310 N/mm2 and 5-15%
elongation. This alloy is also utilised for general bearings, where its rigidity is of advantage.
- Leaded phosphor bronze contains 87% Cu, 7.5% Sn, 2.0% (max)Zn, 3.5% Pb, 0.3% (min) P and
1.0% (max) Ni. In sand cast condition, it has a tensile strength of 190-250 N/mm2 and %
elongation is 3-12. This material is satisfactory for many bearing applications.
- In general phosphor bronze
Has high strength and toughness Has good load bearing capacity and
Is resistant to corrosion Has low coefficient of friction.
- Phosphor bronze is used for bearing applications, making pump parts, linings, springs,
diaphragms, gears, clutch discs, bellows etc.
(2) Aluminium bronzes
Aluminium bronzes have the following compositions:
Cu Al Fe Sn Mn(%)
89 7 3.5 0.35 -
91 6-8 1.5-3.5 - 1(max)
Aluminium bronzes possess the following properties:
- Good strength - Good heat resistance
- High corrosion resistance - Good cold working properties, etc
Aluminium bronze finds the following uses:
- Bearings - Propellers - Imitation jewellery
- Valve seats - Slide valves - Pump parts etc.
- Gears - Cams
Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Hozef A. Gandhi
Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot Page 10.7
10. Non - Ferrous Alloys Material Science & Metallurgy (2131904)
Lead is the oldest of the commonly used metals and the softest of the heavy metals. When it is cast
or cut, it is a lustrous silvery colour to begin with. After standing for a time, however, the surface
turns a dull bluish grey due to oxidation. Lead is poisonous and should not be brought into contact
with food. Lead has a F.C.C. crystal structure.
Properties
- It has a low melting point of 327°C and density is 11.34 kg/dm3.
- It is very resistant to corrosion, against most acids, but not against HCl-HNO3 mixture.
- Its strength, hardness and elasticity are low, e.g., tensile strength 15 NNmm2, extensibility
up to 60%.
- It has low resistance to deformation but high formability, cold forming is preferred.
- Lead can be easily soldered, welded and cast. It can be spread over other metal surfaces.
- In addition lead has: Heavy weight, High density, Softness, Malleability, Lubricating
properties, High coefficient of expansion, Low electrical conductivity and poisnous.
Uses and applications of lead
- As an alloying element to improve the machinability of bronzes, brasses and free machining
steels.
- Tank linings for corrosion protection.
- Manufacture of storage batteries.
- Pipe and drainage fittings.
- Bearing metals.
- Lead compounds in paints.
- Lead sheathing of electric cable.
- Low melting solders.
- Terne plate (lead-tin coated), etc.
- Radiation protection (from x-rays).
Properties of Nickel
- Is a hard lustrous white metal.
- Possesses good corrosion and oxidation resistance.
- Has high tensile strength and can be easily formed hot or cold.
- Can take up high polish.
(F)Super alloys
- The super alloys have superlative combinations of properties.
Tin Alloys
(1) Soft Solders 20 to 70% tin and remaining lead.
Symbols Composition in % by weight Uses
and melting point range
L-Pb Sn 35 Sb containing Sn 34.5-35.5, Sb 0.5-2.0, Rest Solder for copper, tin, zinc,
antimony Pb 186°C-225°C used with soldering iron or
flame
L-Sn 50 Ph (Sb) Tin-lead Sn 49.5-50.5, Sb 0.12-0.5, Tinning, fine soldering,
solder low antimony Rest Pb 183°C-215°C electrical engineering
L-Sn 60 Pb Ag Sn 59.5-60.5, Ag 3.0-4.0, Rest Electronics, precision
Pb 178°C -180°C mechanics, production of
electrical appliances
- The eutectic alloy, with 63% tin is used extensively in electrical industry.
- Alloy with 50% tin is general-purpose solder.
- Lower tin solders (15-20% tin) are used as dipping solders for sealing automotive
radiator cores.
- Bi, Cd, Pb and tin alloys are used as fuses for fire-extinguishing equipment, boiler
plugs, etc.
(2) Copper-tin alloys (bronzes)
- Phosphor bronze containing 8-12% tin with small additions of phosphorus is used for
springs, condenser tubes, bearings, bushings and diaphragms.
- The gun metals, tin-bronze casting alloys with 1 to 6% Zn are used for valves and
fittings for water and steam lines.
- Babbitt bearing metals are essentially tin-base alloys.
(3) Aluminium-tin alloys
Characteristics:
1. Relatively low melting point, 419.5°C (die-casting).
2. Good resistance to atmospheric corrosion.
3. Solubility in copper (brass).
4. Inherent ductility and malleability.
5. Volume coef. of Ther Exp. 20-400°C ... 8.9 x 10-5/°C.
6. Thermal conductivity at 18°C ... 0.27 cal/sec/cm/°C
- Zn is produced commercially as slab, Anode, strip, wire, Powder and rod.
Applications:
- Stampings - Building materials (as for flashings,
- Die castings roofing, gutters, etc.)
- Anodes for electro-galvanising - Engravers' plates.
- Coating on steel (to protect it) - Wire for metallizing.
- Making different alloys - Lithographers' sheets, etc.
- Fabricated (and rolled) shapes.
- Shells for dry batteries.
Course Contents
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Applications of
powder metallurgy
11.3 Advantages of powder
metallurgy
11.4 Limitations of powder
metallurgy
11.5 Powder metallurgy
process
11.6 Production of metal
powders
11.7 Characteristic of metal
powder
11.8 Blending and mixing
of powder
11.9 Compacting
11.10 Presintering and
sintering
11.11 Secondary operation
11.1 Introduction:
Powder metallurgy is an art and science of producing fine metal powders and
then making objects from individual, mixed or alloyed metal powders with or
without the inclusion of non-metallic constituents. Components are produced
in their final form by pressing metal powders into the desired shape, usually
in a metal mold, and then heating the compacted powder, either concurrently
or subsequently, for a period of time at a temperature below the melting
point of the major constituent.
For making a component by powder metallurgy,
1. The metal in the powder form must be able to respond to solid phase
welding;
2. The metal powder must be capable of sufficiently close packing under
pressure to permit welding to take place and, in case of alloying, be
capable of being sufficiently intimately mixed
Atomising
(2) In Reduction process, the compounds of metals (usually oxides, e.g., iron
Copper powder can be produced by the same method i.e., by heating copper oxide
in a stream of hydrogen,
Cu20 + H2 = 2Cu + H2 0
(3) Electrolysis is principally used for the production of extremely pure powders of
copper(and Iron). Electrolysis is similar to electroplating. For making copper powder,
copper plates are placed as anodes in a tank of electrolyte, whereas aluminium
plates are placed into the electrolyte to act as cathodes. High amperage produces a
powdery- deposit of anode metal on the cathodes.
After a definite time period, the cathode plates are taken out from the tank, are
rinsed to remove electrolyte and are dried. The (Cu) deposit on the cathode plates, is
then scraped off and pulverized to produce powder of the desired grain size.
(5) Milling operation is carried out by using equipments such as ball mill, impact mill,
eddymill, disk mill, vortex mill, etc. Milling (or grinding) can be classified as
comminution of brittle, friable, tough and hard materials and pulverization of
malleable and ductile metals.
(6) Condensation of metal powders. This technique can be applied in tne case 01
meiais,such as Zn, Cd, and Mg, which can be boiled and the vapour are condensed in
a powder form. A rod of metal (say Zn) is fed into a high temperature flame. The
vaporized droplets of metal are allowed to condense on to a cool surface of a
material to which they will not adhere.
Chemical Composition implies the type and percentage of alloying elements and
impuritiesandusually determines the particle hardness and compressibility. The
chemical composition of a powder can be determined by chemical analysis methods.
Particle Size is expressed by the diameter for spherical shaped particles and by the
averagediameter for non-spherical particles as determined by sieving method or
microscopic examination. Metal powders used in powder metallurgy usually vary in
size from 4 to 200 microns. Particle size influences mold strength, density/porosity of
the compact, permeability, flow and mixing characteristics, dimensional stability etc.
Particle Shape influences the packing and flow characteristics of powders. There are
variousshapes of metal powders, e.g.
Flow Rate is defined as the rate at which a metal powder will now under gravity
from acontainer through an orifice both having the specific shape and finish.
Flow rate measures the ability of a powder to be transferred. Flow rate is an
important characteristic because the die must be filled rapidly with powder to
achieve high rate ofproduction and economy.
Flow rate depends upon particle size, shape, apparent density, etc. Spherical shaped
metal powders possess maximum flow rates whereas dendritic ones the least.
Different powders in correct proportions are thoroughly mixed either wet or dry, in a
ball mill. In wet mixing, water or a solvent is used to obtain better mixing. Moreover,
wet mixing.
Reduces dust,
Lessens explosion hazards which are present with some finely divided
powders, and
Prevents surface oxidation.
Proper blending and mixing of the powders are essential uniformity of the finished
product. However, over-mixing should be avoided since it may decrease particle size and
work hardens the particles.
11.9 Compacting:
After blending and mixing, the next step is that of compacting or pressing the
powders into their semi-finished form preparatory to sintering.
The purpose of compacting is to consolidate the powder into the desired shape and
as closely as possible to final dimensions, taking into account any dimensional
changes that result from sintering. Compacting also imparts
1. The desired level and type of porosity, and
2. Adequate strength for handling.
Powders are compacted by using high pressures. The degree of pressure depends
upon:
1. Die pressing is done in special presses that include a feed hopper for the powder,
theshaping die to form the product, an upper punch and a lower punch to apply
correct pressures onto the powder being compacted. Weighed- quantity of powder
is placed in the die through the hopper and is compressed under pressure ranging
from 8 to 158 kg/sq. mm.
2. Roll pressingis used for production of continuous strip section, using a system as
shownin Fig. 8.3There are two rolls of appropriate size into which a regulated stream
of powder is guided, so that the rolls are able to apply the necessary compacting
pressure in a continuous sequence.
3. The Extrusion method of compacting does not give such efficient control as that
given bypressing or by rolling. It is difficult to obtain high densities and some
porosity is always left.
F
i
g. 11.4 Extrusion Method
Presintering
Frequently, powder metallurgy is used to make parts from materials that are
very difficult to machine.
When some machining is required on such parts, one goes lot presintering
before the actual sintering operation.
After presintering operation, the compacted part acquires sufficient strength
to behandled and machined without difficulty. Moreover, very little
dimensional change takes place, then in the final sintering, therefore,
machining after final sintering may be eliminated.
For presintering, the compacted parts are heated for a shot time at a
temperature considerably below the final sintering temperature.
Presintering is necessary when holes are to be drilled in hard to machine
parts. Presintering, in addition, removes lubricants and binders added to the
powders during the blending operation.
Presintering can be eliminated if no machining of the final product is
required.
Sintering
After being compressed into a briquette of the shape required in the finished
component, the agglomerated metals are sintered. Sintering is done to
achieve all possible final strength and hardness needed in the finished
product.
Sintering consists of heating pressed metal or cermet compacts in batch or
continuous furnaces' to a temperature below the melting point of the major
constituent in an inert or reducing atmosphere (of hydrogen, dissociated
ammonia or cracked hydrocarbon), where time, temperature, heating rate
and cooling rate are automatically controlled.Most metals are sintered at 70
to 80% of the melting temperature. Certain refractory materials may be
sintered at 90% of the melting point.
The sintering time varies from thirty minutes up to several hours. Sintering
temperatures and times vary considerably with different materials, e.g.,
Porous bronze bearings require treatment for only a few minutes at 800°C;
iron base compacts and cemented carbides require treatment for up to 2
hours at 1200-1250°C, etc.
Sintering is essentially a process of bonding solid bodies (particles) by atomic
forces.
Bonding of powder particles during sintering can take place in any of the
three ways:
3.Machining 6.Plating
1. Sizing
Sintering process produces some distortion and alterations in size. After the part has
been sintered, in order to make it dimensionally correct, it is placed in a die and is
repressed. Sizing improves surface finish of the component also. However, a slight
change in density occurs during sizing.
2. Coining.
The sintered part is repressed in the die to reduce the void space and impart the
required density.
3. Machining.
Features such as threads, under cuts, grooves etc., are usually not practical for
powder metallurgy fabrications, and are generally machined on parts after they
have been presintered. Boring, turning, drilling, tapping, etc., can be done on
presintered parts using tungsten carbide cutting tools.
4. Impregnation
Sintered parts may be impregnated with oil, grease, wax or other lubricating
materials, in case self-lubricating properties are desired. Parts are immersed in
lubricants heated to approximately 93°C. The porous structure gets completely
(about 90%) impregnated in 10 to 20 minutes. The lubricant is retained in the
part by capillary action.
The sintered part may be impregnated with plastics also. This is done in order to,
5. Infiltration
A part is first pressed and sintered from iron powder to about 77% of theoretical
density. Then a replica (or infiltration) blank of copper (or brass) is placed over the
part which is sent through the furnace. The infiltrant melts and soaks through the
porous part, producing a density close to 100%.
6. Plating
Plating is carried out in order to,
7. Heat treatment
Sintered parts are heat treated in order to
improve:
1. Wear resistance. 3. Hardness
2. Grain structure. 4. Strength.
To prevent oxidation of the internal structure, the heat treatment is carried out in
controlled atmosphere. The porosity of sintered parts decreases the heat
conductivity, therefore longer heating and shorter cooling periods are required.
Following heat treatment processes are usually applied to parts made by powder
metallurgy.
1. Stress relieving 5. Through hardening
2. Carburizing 6. Induction hardening
3. Carbonitriding
4. Nitriding
Course Contents
12.1 Non Destructive Test
(DPT)
Advantage of DPT:
1. DPT is simple as no electronic system is involved.
2. It is cheaper than other NDT tests.
Limitations of DPT:
1. It can detect surface breaking defects only.
2. This method is not suitable for naturally porous material such as unglazed ceramics and
some thermo plastic material as it affects by penetrant fluid.
Applications of DPT:
Aerospace, automotive and general manufacturing industries for the quality control of
production and by users during regular maintenance and safety checks.
Examples: Turbine rotor discs, blades, pistons, cast cylinder head wheel, forged
components. Weld assembly.
Fig. 12.5 Schematic representation of the use of X-rays for examination of a welded plate
3. Ultrasonic inspection for flow detection makes use of acoustic waves with frequency in
the range of 20 KHz and 20 MHz which can be transmitted through solids and get
reflected by subsurface defects.
4. The use of sound waves to determine a defect is a very old / ancient method. If a piece
of metal is struck by a hammer it will radiate certain audible/easy to hear notes, of
which pitch and clamping may be influenced by the presence of internal flows. However
this technique of hammering and listening is useful only for the determination of large
defects.
5. Here sound waves above audible range with frequency 1 to 5 million Hz (cycle/sec) –
hence it is known as ultrasonic.
6. Ultrasonic is a fast, reliable, non destructive testing method which employs
electronically produced high frequency sound waves that will penetrate metals, liquids
and other metals at a speed of several thousand feet/sec.
7. Ultrasonic waves for NDT are usually produced by piezoelectric materials. These
materials undergo a change in physical dimensions when subjected to electric field.
8. This conversion of electrical energy to mechanical energy is known as “piezoelectric
effect”. If an alternating electric field is applied to a piezoelectric crystal, the crystal will
expand during the first half of cycle and contact when the electric field is reversed. By
varying the frequency of the alternating electric field, we can vary the frequency of the
mechanical vibration (sound wave) produced in the crystal. Quartz is a widely used
ultrasonic transducer. A transducer is a device for converting one form of energy to
another.
Ultrasonic test methods:
1. Through Transmission Method:
This method uses an ultrasonic transducer on each side of the object being inspected. If an
electrical pulse of the desired frequency is applied to the transmitting crystal, the ultrasonic
waves produced will travel through the specimen to the other side. The receiving transducer
on the opposite side receive the vibrations and converts them in to an electrical signed than
can be amplified and observed on the cathode ray tube of an oscilloscope, a meter or some
other indicator. If the ultrasonic wave travels through the specimen without encountering
any flow, the signal received is relatively large. If there is a flow in the path of the ultrasonic
wave part of the energy will be reflected and the signal received by the receiving transducer
will be reduced.
Fig. 12.8 The through-transmission and pulse –echo methods of ultrasonic inspection
Fig. 12.9 Oscilloscope pattern for the pulse –eco method of ultrasonic inspection
Since the indications on the oscilloscope screen measure the elapsed time between
reflection of the pulse from the front and back surfaces, the distance between
indications is a measure of the thickness of the material. The location of a defect may
therefore be accurately determined from the indications on the screen.
For larger parts, a film of oil ensured proper contact between the crystal searching unit
and test piece. Smaller parts may be placed in a tank of water, oil or glycerin. The crystal
searching units transmits sound waves through the medium and into material being
examined.
Close examination of the oscilloscope screen in the picture shows the presence of three
pips. The left pip indicates the front of the piece. The right pip the back of the piece and
the smaller center pip is an indication of flow.
Applications:
1. It is used to detect and locate such defect as shrinkage cavities, internal bursts or cracks,
porosity and large non metallic inclusions.
2. Wall thickness can be measured in a close vessel.
An important use for eddy current testing is sorting material for heat treat variations or
composition mix-ups. This application requires the use of two coils.(see fig.) A standard
piece is placed in one coil and the test piece in other coil. Acceptance or rejection of the test
piece may be determined by comparing the two patterns on the oscilloscope screen.
Eddy current testing may be used to detect surface and sub-surface defects, plate or tubing
thickness, and coating thickness.
Eddy current Measuring Tubing and bar High speed, False indication
variations in wall stock, parts of noncontact, result from
thickness of thin uniform automatic. many variables;
metals or coatings; geometry, flat only good for
detecting stock, or sheet conductive
longitudinal seems and wire. materials;
or cracks in tubing; limited depth of
determining heat penetration.
treatments and
metal compositions
for sorting.
Radiography:
Ultrasonic pulse Finding internal All metals and Fast, dependable, Requires
echo defects, cracks, lack hard nonmetallic easy to operate; contact or
of bond, materials, sheets, lends itself to immersion of
laminations, tubing, rods, automation, result part;
porosity, forgings, castings, of test immediately interpretation
determining grain field and known; relatively of readings
structure and production portable, highly requires
thicknesses. testing; in service accurate, sensitive. training.
part testing;
brazed and
adhesive bonded
joints.
For C
Difference between 0.43 and 0.38=0.05
So
.
= 12.5 %
( . . )/
Hardenability
When a steel piece of large cross section is heated to a austenite temperature and then
quenched, the cooling rate decreases from the surface to the interior. Martensite is
obtained at the surface due to highest cooling rate. But it is not possible to get a
martensitic structure at the center due to the relatively slow cooling rate. Hence, a
gradient of hardness exists from the surface to the center. Since every grade of steel has
its own transformation characteristics, the depth of penetration of hardness across the
cross section differs. The measure of these properties termed as Hardenability of the
steel.
Hardenability is defined as the relative ability of steel to be hardened by quenching and
it determines the depth and distribution of hardness across the cross section.
Hardenability should not be confused with maximum hardness of steel.
Hardenability is very useful and important property of steel. It determines the rate at
which the given steel should be quenched. Maximum hardness is mainly a function of
carbon content. Hardenability of steel depends on
1. Composition of steel
2. Method of manufacture
3. Section of the steel
4. Quenching medium
5. Quenching method
In industry, a simple experiment called Jominey End Quench Test (named after Walter
Jominey, American Metallurgist) is used to determine Hardenability of steel.
Objectives:
The objective of the experiment is to take readings in the Rockwell C scale along the flat
surface of the Jominey specimen and to plot the graph Hardness vs. Distance from
quenched end.
Equipment:
1. Electric furnace
2. Jominey end quench test fixture
3. Jominey specimen (made as per ASTM standard)
4. Rockwell hardness tester
Test Procedure:
1. Preheat the furnace to 1700° F (910°C-920° C)
2. Place the Jominey specimen in the furnace and soak for one hour.
3. Turn the water on at Jominey sink. Adjust the free water column about 2.5 inches.
Swivel the baffle plate to block the water column so that there is no contact between
water and the test specimen when the test specimen is initially placed on the fixture.
4. Remove the Jominey specimen from the furnace and place in the fixture as shown in
figure. Swivel the baffle out of position so that water impinges on the bottom of the
specimen without wetting the sides of specimen. Leave water running for about 15
minutes.
Fig. 12.13 Apparatus used in the test and Standard form of test piece
5. Remove the Jominey specimen from the fixture and grind a flat on the side of the
specimen.
6. Mark points on the ground surface at an interval of 1.6mm distance from the quench
end as shown in figure.
7. Take reading at an interval of 1.6mm intervals. Near the quenched end, this interval is
reduced to 0.8mm as hardness values vary rapidly.