The Dietary Fibers–FODMAPs Controversy
F. Brouns,1 N. Delzenne,2 and G. Gibson3
ABSTRACT
Globally a new trend is developing that recommends avoidance of
nondigestible, rapidly fermentable carbohydrates, also referred to as
FODMAPs. This trend includes the publication of “free from” books
and articles and the launch of diet programs and specialty foods. In this
article we present information to help in making appropriate dietary
recommendations.
What Is Known
• Dietary fibers and prebiotics are important for gut health
and function, and increased consumption is generally rec-
ommended.
• Avoidance of FODMAPs (nondigestible, rapidly ferment-
able carbohydrates) is being recommended for persons
suffering from irritable bowel syndrome to alleviate ab-
dominal distress due to intestinal gas production and
fluid shifts that lead to bloating.
• Small osmotic effects and gas formation are normal pro-
cesses in a healthy gut and are not disease symptoms.
• Cereals contain small quantities of rapidly fermentable
carbohydrates.
What Is New/Needs Attention
• Avoidance of fermentable dietary fibers may impair favor-
able gut flora metabolism, gut function, and health.
• Eliminating grains from the diet to avoid FODMAPs means
also eliminating a wide range of other components that are
known to be beneficial.
• Increasingly FODMAP-free foods are being marketed and
promoted to the general public and the hype surrounding
them seems to be increasing.
• Avoidance of FODMAPs to relieve intestinal discomfort
is only recommended on an individual basis and under
medical/dietetic supervision.
Background and Introduction
Dietary fibers are long-standing drivers of public health.
There is no doubt that a diet rich in whole grains, and thus in
fiber, results in a number of disease risk reductions, gut func-
tion improvements, and related health benefits. In contrast, diets
low in fiber are known to increase disease risk and negatively
impact gut function. In this article, we discuss whole grain
foods, most of which contain wheat, oat, and/or rye, and their
1 NUTRIM School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism, Faculty of Health,
Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University, Netherlands.
2 Université catholique de Louvain, Louvain Drug Research Institute, Metabolism and Nutrition
Research Group, PMNT Unit, Brussels, Belgium.
3 Food Microbial Sciences Unit, School of Food Biosciences, The University of Reading,
Whiteknights, U.K.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/CFW-62-3-0098
© 2017 AACC International, Inc.
98 / MAY–JUNE 2017, VOL. 62, NO. 3
contribution of significant amounts of dietary fibers that are
crucial for optimizing gut health.
With this in mind, we will also discuss specific types of fiber
and nonabsorbed carbohydrate molecules that can lead to un-
pleasant gut sensations as a result of osmotic fluid shifts and/or
their relatively rapid fermentation by the gut microflora (also
referred to as gut microbiota). These carbohydrates, referred to
as FODMAPs, are rapidly fermentable oligosaccharides, disac-
charides, monosaccharides, and polyols (38). Intestinal discom-
fort seems to be exacerbated in individuals who suffer from a
hypersensitive gut, commonly known as irritable bowel syn-
drome (IBS), and prescribing a FODMAP-free diet for such indi-
viduals has proven beneficial for reducing symptoms (20,31). At
a public level, mainly due to social media messages and face-to-
face communications, there is an increasing perception that
FODMAPs can be detrimental to gut health, or at least cause
gut discomfort. This has led to the worldwide development and
commercialization of low-FODMAP diets and products. The
latter trend raises concerns in light of the actual body of evi-
dence that is the basis for dietary guidelines, many of which
recommend daily ingestion of at least 25 g and optimally >35 g
of nondigestible carbohydrates/day, including FODMAPs.
These dietary guidelines also point to the fact that carbohy-
drate fermentation in the gut is a normal gut microbiota-associ-
ated process linked with the production of a range of compounds
that are known to be beneficial to health. In fact, the microbial
breakdown of dietary carbohydrate is far more beneficial than
protein, for example.
Fiber and FODMAP Classifications
Dietary fibers can be classified in a variety of ways. Accord-
ingly, dietary fiber definitions may contain aspects related to
1) the origin of the fiber (e.g., intrinsic/naturally present,
extrinsic/isolated or added); 2) molecular composition, includ-
ing the degree of polymerization, molecular weight, saccharide
composition, chemical bond types, and components bound at
the terminal ends, such as certain acids; or 3) functional effects
within a certain food matrix and within the gastrointestinal lu-
men as a result of being insoluble/soluble, having low/medium/
high viscosity, and having low/medium/high fermentability.
These characteristics “in concert” determine the overall
effects that may impact metabolism and health. For example,
soluble, high molecular weight, viscous fibers, such as pectin,
b-glucans, and gums, have potent effects, creating a viscous
milieu that reduces the absorption rate of glucose and choles-
terol in the small intestine (7–9). Insoluble, poorly fermentable
fibers, such as cellulose and wheat bran, can exert significant
effects on fecal bulking and stool volume (12,15). Some specific
fermentable fibers have a potent effect on the metabolic activity
and composition of intestinal microbiota and can be referred to
as “prebiotics” (37,40). The saccharide composition of ferment-
able fibers determines the ratio of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs)
that are produced as a result of fermentation. For example, fer-
mentation of pectin results in high acetate and low propionate
and butyrate production; fermentation of fructan type fibers,
such as inulin and fructo-oligosaccharides (FOS), leads to less
acetate and more lactate production; and fermentation of resis-
tant starch (composed only of glucans) favors relatively high
butyrate production (11,27,36,40).
Carbohydrates that are indigestible and naturally present in
food have effects similar to those of added fibers that have the
same molecular composition. Similarly, carbohydrates that es-
cape absorption in the small intestine due to malabsorption
and, thus, become available for fermentation in the colon, exert
effects similar to those that are naturally present (11).
Some nutrients considered to be FODMAPs are quite similar
in this respect. Fermentable carbohydrates enter the colon undi-
gested and become available for fermentation by the gut micro-
biota. As a result, FODMAPs can effectively induce desired gut
metabolism and related health benefits, at least in healthy indi-
viduals. Interestingly, various nondigestible oligosaccharides,
which fall under the FODMAP classification, appear to be the
most effective prebiotics (23,37).
In the following sections we will highlight some aspects of
nondigestible carbohydrates and their fermentation. In addition
we will address why and when avoidance of FODMAPs may be
recommended to reduce intestinal discomfort in highly suscep-
tible individuals.
FODMAPs in Grain-Based Products
Grain-based products are increasingly being included in lists
of foods to avoid because they contain fermentable carbohydrates
(mainly fructans) that are classified as FODMAPs. However, the
quantities they contain are small and far below the levels that
would cause abdominal distress in normal healthy individuals.
For example, the total fructans content is typically ≤0.5 g in
2 slices of bread; ~1 g in 35–50 g of breakfast cereals; and ~0.5 g
in 150 g of pasta (6). It is notable that these FODMAPs can also
be significantly degraded during food processing and dough
making. A reduction of >50% has been observed when using
yeast, and breakdown may be nearly complete when using
sourdough culture. Factors that play a role in the breakdown of
these FODMAPs include duration of fermentation, changes in
pH, and yeast strain or sourdough culture used (43).
In this context, it is also important to mention that grains are
a significant source of fibers (Table I) and that whole grain foods
supply significant amounts of micronutrients and antioxidants
in the diet. Accordingly, regular whole grain consumption is
related to favorable modifications in gut microbiota, reduces
low-grade inflammation, and leads to significant risk reductions
for diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular disease, and colon cancer
(3,28,33,44,46). Thus, avoiding whole grain foods because they
contain FODMAPs would result in a significant reduction in
intake of these components and should only be recommended
when there is a therapeutic need and appropriate dietary guid-
ance. In this regard, Laatikainen et al. (24) found that when
consuming a low-FODMAP rye bread IBS patients were able to
reduce gastrointestinal gas accumulation, but also that replacing
regular rye bread with low-FODMAP bread without broader
concomitant dietary changes did not improve quality of life.
Thus, dietary guidance is important to help individuals select
appropriate alternative foods.
Fiber and Gut Effects
Although the transit of residual foodstuffs through the hu-
man stomach and small intestine is probably too rapid for the
indigenous microbiota to exert a significant impact, transit
slows markedly in the colon. Typical transit time in the large
intestine is measured in days rather than hours. As such, colonic
microorganisms have ample opportunity to degrade available
substrates. Major dietary substrates available for colonic fermen-
tation include starches that for various reasons are resistant to
the action of pancreatic amylases and can be degraded by bacte-
rial enzymes, as well as dietary fibers such as pectins, xylans,
cellulose, arabinogalactan, inulin, guar gum, and hemicellulose.
Other carbohydrate sources available for fermentation in lower
concentrations include oligosaccharides, such as, for example,
FOS and galacto-oligosaccharides (GOS), and a variety of sug-
ars and nonabsorbable sugar alcohols. In addition, proteins and
amino acids can be effective growth substrates for colonic bac-
teria, and bacterial secretions, lysis products, sloughed epithelial
cells, and mucins also may make a contribution. However, di-
etary carbohydrate is, by far, the predominant source of nutri-
ents that have various physiological effects. Intestinal bacteria
are able to ferment these intermediates to SCFAs, hydroxy and
dicarboxylic organic acids, gases (mainly hydrogen), and other
neutral, acidic, and basic end products (26).
Effect of Fibers on Colonic Transit Times and Stool Output
Fermentation of dietary fibers in the colon has a number of
health-promoting attributes (25). The main product of polysac-
charide fermentation in the colon is bacterial biomass, which
not only increases stool bulk, but also gives rise to increased
numbers or metabolic activity of the main saccharolytic bacte-
rial species. Among the saccharolytic microflora, the bifidobac-
teria and lactobacilli are thought to be particularly beneficial to
gastrointestinal health, and importantly, they do not produce
hydrogen or carbon dioxide as part of their metabolic process.
CEREAL FOODS WORLD / 99
Increased stool bulk contributes to reduced colonic transit times,
which is seen as beneficial for the relief and prevention of con-
stipation and also for reducing the impact of detrimental micro-
biota-associated characteristics, such as toxic nitrogenous com-
pounds, H2S, and the production of carcinogenic or genotoxic
compounds.
Reduced Colonic pH
Bacterial fermentation also results in lower colonic pH. A
higher colonic pH is indicative of disease states such as colon
cancer, whereas a more acidic pH is characteristic of a healthy
colon. For example, lower pH may impede the growth of cer-
tain pathogenic bacteria while encouraging the growth of bifi-
dobacteria and lactic acid microbiota. In addition, a reduced
pH is known to stimulate colonic mineral and trace-element
absorption (37).
SCFA Production during Fiber Fermentation
In terms of end products, a variety of different metabolites
are formed. Predominant among these are the SCFAs acetate,
propionate, and butyrate (39). The majority of the SCFAs are
absorbed into the bloodstream and can be further metabolized
systemically. Transport to, and further metabolism of, SCFAs in
the liver, muscle, or other peripheral tissues is thought to con-
tribute slightly to daily host energy requirements. Other prod-
ucts include electron-sink metabolites, such as ethanol, pyru-
vate, and lactate, which are mainly converted further to SCFAs
and, therefore, do not accumulate to any significant level in the
large bowel. The end products from saccharolytic gut fermenta-
tion may be considered benign or even protect or promote health
(Table II). In contrast, metabolites from protein and/or amino
acid fermentation, such as amines, ammonia, and phenolic com-
pounds, can be detrimental to general health.
FODMAPs and Gut Tolerance
According to Mansueto et al. (30), FODMAPs would include
fructose, lactose, fructans, galactans, and polyols such as sor-
bitol, mannitol, maltitol, xylitol, erythritol, polydextrose, and
isomalt. Because most microbial fermentation in the gut takes
place in the large intestine, attention should be given to which
FODMAPs are actually intact when they reach the large intes-
tine. Not a lot is known about this process, but it is extremely
likely that many of the mentioned substrates are absorbed and/
or degraded in the upper bowel and do not make a major con-
tribution to colonic fermentation. For example, after hydrolysis
by the enzyme lactase in the small intestine, milk sugar (lactose)
is normally completely absorbed as glucose and galactose. How-
ever, in individuals who lack the enzyme lactase, lactose becomes
a FODMAP.
Moreover, it should be borne in mind that “fermentation” is a
wide-ranging term. Every person has microbial fermentation
occurring in the lower intestine, although this fermentation
differs depending on the microbiota present, substrates avail-
100 / MAY–JUNE 2017, VOL. 62, NO. 3
able for their growth, and the end products formed. As a result,
the influence of fermentation processes on physiology may vary
markedly among individuals. In this context, traditional prebi-
otics are carbohydrate substrates that are broken down by the
colonic microbiota in a specific manner, leading to the produc-
tion of metabolites, as well as driving the growth of microbiota
that are favorable for the health of the host, while suppressing
the numbers of less favorable types of microbiota. The most
researched prebiotics in this regard are the fructans and galac-
tans because of their specific molecular structures, which confer
selectivity toward bifidobacteria, which are known to positively
impact health (2). Hence, when ingesting an appropriate dose of
these prebiotics, one important negative aspect of FODMAP
fermentation, i.e., gas-induced gut distension, should not apply,
since at small doses there is very little gas production. Our view,
therefore, is that the FODMAPs concept, as it stands, does not
take selective (positive) fermentation into account. In this con-
text, it has been suggested that a diet low in FODMAPs is an
effective strategy for managing symptoms of IBS, particularly
gas distension, but this would only apply to those fermentable
carbohydrates that actually lead to significant amounts of gas
production by the microbiota, i.e., excluding many of the pre-
biotics. Barrett (5) has suggested “a rather relaxed FODMAPs
restriction that enables the inclusion of prebiotic FODMAPs
while still maintaining symptom relief.”
Do FODMAPs Contribute to Gut Diseases or Only
to Discomfort?
Gas production is considered to be part of normal bacterial
metabolism. Formed gases, as well as specific volatile organic
compounds (VOCs), may be expired with breath. Accordingly,
the “hydrogen breath test” can be used as a tool for detection of
bacterial overgrowth of the small intestine or for lactose intoler-
ance. In addition, analysis of the breath metabolome has revealed
gut inflammation and dysbiosis-related changes compared to
the composition of healthy controls. In this respect, a specific
breath metabolome appears to be associated with inflammatory
bowel disease (IBD) (35), and excessive production of hydrogen
and methane appears to be associated with IBS. Constipation
and obesity appear to be associated with bacterial overgrowth-
induced production of H2 or methane (34). It is interesting to
note that motility and transit may be involved in the underlying
mechanisms.
Major et al. (29) reported that an intervention study in which
subjects were exposed to three periods of drinking beverages
containing either glucose, fructose, or inulin showed that the
physiological responses after intake of fructose and inulin were
similar in patients with IBS and healthy controls. Albeit, fructose
induced more symptoms than did inulin. In view of their data,
the authors concluded that the observed symptoms in patients
with IBS were due more to osmosis-induced distention of the
small intestine (linked to fructose ingestion and its relatively slow
absorption, causing an osmotic fluid shift into the gut lumen)
rather than to excessive gas production (produced by inulin) in
the colon. These data support the fact that all carbohydrate types
that are currently being listed as FODMAPs do not generate
similar effects related to gut discomfort in patients with IBS.
Is Gas Production from FODMAP Fermentation also
Implicated in Other Pathologies?
In fact, breath analysis appears to be a new diagnostic tool
for the diagnosis of pathologies such as diabetes or liver disease
(13,42). However, a causal role of gases and VOCs as mediators
(positive or negative) of metabolic alterations remains unknown.
An interesting thought is that gases and VOCs may play a role
in the management of the gut microbial ecosystem, such as, for
example, cooperation between hydrogen-producing bacteria
and bacteria that take up hydrogen.
Specific gaseous compounds, such as nitric oxide (NO) may
play a role in control of host nitrogen homeostasis and may also
play a significant role in the modulation of gut epithelial blood
flow and motility. Interestingly, bifidobacteria, which are pro-
moted by specific prebiotic oligosaccharides, may generate more
NO than any other species, through the acidic nonenzymatic
reduction of nitrite (41). The relevance of such volatile metab-
olites for host physiology requires further research.
In general, it can be concluded that the production of gases
and VOCs, as a result of fermentation, is a normal physiological
feature. The fact that many foods deliver a variety of fermentable
carbohydrates means that we simply cannot avoid the generation
of gas. Based on our current knowledge, it may be speculated
that the production of gas and volatile compounds, along with
short-chain fatty acids, serves a number of beneficial processes
and functions in the gut. This area deserves further research.
Is a Low-FODMAP Diet Recommendable to All?
For several reasons recommending a low-FODMAP diet for
all (not only for nutrition targeted for specific subpopulations
like those with IBS) is difficult to justify. The diversity of nutri-
ents (mono-, di-, and oligosaccharides and polyols) encompassed
by this classification is difficult to discern in the context of nu-
tritional advice for the general population. For example, it is
generally recognized that we should avoid excess consumption
of fructose or saccharose (through added sugars, syrups, etc.)
because this promotes ectopic triglyceride synthesis and, there-
by, increases the risk of developing nonalcoholic fatty liver
disease (NAFLD). However, it has been observed that inges-
tion of nondigestible carbohydrates, including oligosaccharides
classified as FODMAPs, may also protect against the onset of
NAFLD (4,22).
Some highly fermentable (prebiotic) oligosaccharides have
been shown to change the gut microbiota in favor of bacteria
that can play a positive role in the management of inflamma-
tion and in key gut functions. For example, in obese individuals
short-chain oligosaccharides may increase Bifidobacterium, Fae-
calibacterium prausnitzii, or Akkermansia muciniphila, which
play a role in maintenance of gut barrier function and immunity
and participate in control of obesity and related metabolic dis-
orders (14,16). The role of prebiotics as “educators” in the gut
ecosystem is important, and a lack of dietary fiber in the diet
has been associated with increased risk of developing gut dys-
function and related diseases, including colon cancer. The fact
that low-FODMAP diets may decrease beneficial Bifidobac-
terium and/or Faecalibacterium prausnitzii raises questions
concerning recommendations for the general population. The
consequences of a reduction in these bacteria, which play a role
in immune system function and inflammation, are likely to be
adverse. Additionally, human breast milk contains oligosaccha-
rides that, because of their role as immune system drivers, are
considered important components of nutrition in early life (17).
Is breast milk, therefore, not to be avoided because it contains
certain FODMAPs? The answer, of course, is NO!
Finally, the FODMAPs concept may not be recommended for
the general population because avoiding foods containing oligo-
saccharides would mean avoiding many plant-based food prod-
ucts. Examples of these include most cereals, onions, leeks, ba-
nanas, and “ancient” vegetables such as the Jerusalem artichoke,
which contain considerable amounts of fermentable fibers and
prebiotic oligosaccharides.
Conclusions and Recommendations
Based on the available data and insights, we agree with the
conclusion of Camilleri and Boeckxstaens (10) that, in general,
a low-FODMAP diet presents both short- and long-term limita-
tions, including the high level of dietary restriction that may be
required by the individual patient, need for monitoring by an ex-
pert dietitian, potential for developing nutritional deficiencies,
potential for changes in gut microbiota, and lack of predictors
of response, as well as relative efficacy compared with other di-
etary, psychological, or pharmacological interventions for IBS.
Thus, a general avoidance of FODMAPs may result in low
fiber and micronutrient intakes and, when not appropriately
compensated for by the selection of alternative fiber-rich foods,
undesirable changes in gut microbiota composition may occur.
The efficacy of FODMAP exclusion compared to other dietary,
psychological, or pharmacological approaches needs to be de-
termined in the context of diets poor in fruits and vegetables
that act as important sources of key nutrients and fibers for the
general population.
Increasing coverage of low-FODMAP products and diets
should be viewed as a marketing and business development
trend that provides no evidence-based benefits for individuals
who based on diagnostic criteria would not otherwise be advised
to avoid FODMAPs.
Conflict of Interest
The authors report there is no conflict of interest.
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 Fred Brouns obtained a Ph.D. degree at Maas-
tricht University in the Netherlands for his
nutrition physiology research “Food and Fluid
Related Aspects in Highly Trained Athletes.”
On the Leading Edge
He has more than 25 years of experience in
the field of life sciences and health nutrition, in Grain Science
having headed international R&D functions
in the area of nutrition and health/nourish-
ing the world at Wander Dietetics and having
AACC International’s Official
worked for Sandoz Nutrition, Novartis Nutri-
tion, Eridania Beghin Say, Cerestar, and Cargill
Approved Methods of Analysis
Inc. Fred has chaired various food and nutrition expert panels for the
International Life Sciences Institute (ILSI) Europe, Brussels, and IDACE,
Paris. Fred is an invited member of the British Nutrition Society and is
a registered biomedical researcher, as well as a former board member
(2008–2012) of the Dutch Academy of Nutritional Sciences. He has
published extensively and is a frequent global educator and speaker
in the field of life sciences and nutrition. From 2008 to 2015 Fred held
a full chair, Health Food Innovation, at the Faculty of Health, Medicine
and Life and Sciences within the School of Nutrition and Translational
Research in Metabolism (NUTRIM), Maastricht University. His primary
research interest is vitality and physical function in health and disease
related to aspects of plant bioactives, sugars, carbohydrates, and di-
etary fibers, as well as whole grain, cereals, and gluten.

Nathalie Delzenne is a full professor at the

Université catholique de Louvain (UCL). She is
a lecturer in nutrition biochemistry and metab- AACCI’s Methods of Analysis stand at the forefront
olism and is leader of the Metabolism and
Nutrition Research Group at the Louvain Drug
of the grain industry. More than 350 methods,
Research Institute at UCL in Brussels (Belgium). spreadsheets and collaborative trial reports
Nathalie is involved in the international scien- have been produced by the 23 AACCI technical
tific community (as president of the Belgian committees and are continuously updated online.
Nutrition Society, a member of the Royal
This, coupled with interactive guidelines, videos,
Academy of Medecine in Belgium, an editor
for Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and and other enhancements ensures the highest,
Metabolism, a member of the Scientific Board of the European Society most consistent standards for your products.
for Enteral and Parenteral Nutrition, a former member of the Board
of Directors of the International Scientific Association for Probiotics Most recent updates include…
and Prebiotics, etc.). After earning her Ph.D. degree in pharmaceuti-
cal sciences in 1991, she earned a postdoctoral certificate in nutrition ■ A new method that contributes to uniform
(Lausanne, CH) and performed postdoctoral research related to nutri- flour production in experimental milling using
ent–gene interactions (Paris Inserm Unit 342). Nathalie has returned the Chopin CD1 laboratory mill
to UCL to start her academic career and has been a pioneer in the dis-
covery of nutrients (prebiotics) targeting the gut microbiota to control ■ A new method to measure β-glucan viscosity
nutritional disorders (e.g., obesity, cachexia, polyunsaturated fatty acid using the Rapid Visco Analyzer (RVA)
deficiencies, etc.). She has published as a first or last author of more
than 300 papers and led many international projects focused on nutri-
■ A new visual supplement and procedural
tion and health. For further details on her research team and activities, guide for determining total (gasometric)
please visit www.uclouvain.be/en-269734.html. carbon dioxide in baking powder
Glenn Gibson is a professor of food microbi- ■ A new spreadsheet for calculating statistical
ology at the University of Reading; a visiting figures in NIR Analysis
professor at the Imperial College, London
■ High-speed mixing rheology of wheat flour
(Institute for Global Health Innovation); a
research scientist with Plant and Food, New using the doughLAB
Zealand; and special science adviser at the ■ A new method to quantify total carotenoid
Tianyi Health Sciences Institute, Zhenjiang,
content in cereal grains and flours
China. Glenn is a past president and founding
member of the International Scientific Asso- ■ Two new methods to determine gluten
ciation for Probiotics and Prebiotics (ISAPP). content to Codex Alimentarius standard
He has authored or coauthored 8 books, more
than 450 research papers, more than 300 published abstracts, and
10 patents and has more than 25,000 career citations (h factor = 81).
He has supervised 70 Ph.D. students (some cosupervised) and ob-
tained 128 research contracts. Glenn is currently researching acute
and chronic gut disease and pro/prebiotics. Human trials are a major
facet of this research, with initial principles being tested in gut models.
He was responsible (with Prof. M. Roberfroid) for instigation of the
prebiotic concept for gut microbiota management through diet.

CEREAL FOODS WORLD / 103