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RAMESH KUMAR
0622073407c
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IN
cccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccc CIVIL ENGINEERING
(2010-2011)

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cccccccccccccccccccccccSUMMER TRAINING REPORT
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SUBMITTE BY:

RAMESH KUMAR

0622073407
B.TECH. IIIRD YEAR
(CIVIL ENGINEERING)
CHECKED BY:c

«««««««««««« ««««««««««« «««««««««««

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINAR PROJECT INCHARGE ccccccccccc
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ccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccc PREFACEc
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As a part of course curriculum of b. tech we were asked to undergo 6 weeks

summer training in any organization so as to give exposure to practical
with various activities taking place in the organization.

I have put my sincere efforts to accomplish my objective within the

stipulated time. Despite all limitation, obstructions, hurdle and hindrances,
I have toiled and worked to my optimum potential to achieve desired
goals. I put the best of my efforts and have also tried to be justice with
available. If any where something is found unacceptable or unnecessary to
the theme; you are welcome with your valuable suggestions.

Thanking you

Yours Sincerely

Ramesh Kumar

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

To matter what accomplishment we achieve somebody helps me. For

every accomplishment we need the cooperation and help of others. As
knowledge advances by steps not by leaps so, ability advances by
encouragement and guidance. Although you have ability and knowledge
but it is worthless unless and until you can develop it if somebody
encourages you.

While developing the project, I have learnt a lot. Firstly I got the
exposure to the industry. We got to learn the work culture of a company.
This will be an unforgetful experience. While developing this project, a
lot of difficulties were faced by me. But it was the help of some special
people that I have gained much confidence and developed the project
quite well. Hereby, I shall like to thank all the employees of MCD to
coordinate with me and provide me the information needed to complete
the analysis part of this project. I shall like to thank everyone who in
anyway helped me in this project.

My heartiest thanks to Mr. KAMAL SINGH who helped me in providing the

required infrastructure, good work culture, make me learn a lot of new
things, guiding me throughout the project and for providing me such a
golden opportunity to experience the work culture before actually working
for a company.
At last I am greatly thankful to the lectures of CH. B. P GOVT.
ENGINEERING COLLEGE JAFFARPUR NEW DELHI whose inspiration &
teaching are strong tool for completion of this training.

RAMESH KUMAR

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 INDEX
S.NO TOPIC PAGE

1 ABOUT MCD 8
2 TYPES OF ROAD 10
3 HISTORY OF ROAD TRANSPORT 14
1.c EARLY ROAD 14
2.c HARAPPAN ROAD 14
4 MACADM 16
5 THE AMERICAN ROAD -1823-FIRST MACADAM 18

6 ASPHALT CONCRETE 25
7 CONSTRUCTION AGGREGATE 30
8 ROAD -SURFACE 33
9 CONCRETE 35
10 ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS 51
11 CONCRETE HANDLING /SAFETY PRECAUTION
53

12 GRAVEL ROAD
59
13 ROAD DESIGN AND CONSTUCTION PROCEDURE
62
PRELIMINARY SURVEYS 62

CNSTUCTION SURVEYS 65

CONSTRUCTION 67

MAINTENANCE 72

14 SOIL TREATMENT 76
15 TESTS 0N MATERIAL 84

(1).TEST ON AGGREGATE 84
AGGREGATE IMPACT VALUE

(2).AGGREGATE CRUSHING VALUE 88

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 (3).SLUMP TEST 92

(4).COMPACTION 94
FACTOR TEST

(5).SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF FINE AND COARSE AGGREGATES 96

(6)FLAKINESS INDEX AND ELONGATION INDEX OF COARSE 100

AGGREGATE

(7).DETERMINATION OF LOS ANGLES ABRASION VALUE 104

(8).WATER ABSORPTION 109

TEST

(9).TEST ON BITUMEN 113

PENETRATION TEST

(10) DETERMINING SOFTINING POINT 117

0F BITUMEN

(11) DETERMINING BITUMEN CONTENT 120

(12) DETERMINING SPECIFIC 122

GRAVITY OF BITUMEN

(13)DETERMINIG FLASH AND FIRE POINT BITUMEN 124

16 NAME OF WORK .1 127

1.COAST ESTIMATION

2.GOOGLE EARTH VIEW OF SITE OF WORK.1

3.ROUTE MAP OF CNSTRUCTION SITE OF WORK.1

17 NAME OF WORK.2 133

18 NAME OF WORK .3 135

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 ABOUT MCD

The Municipal Corporation of Delhi is among the largest municipal bodies in the world
providing civic services to more than estimated population of 13.78 million citizens in the
capital city. It is next only to Tokyo in terms of area. Within its jurisdiction are some of
the most densely populated areas in the world. It has also the unique distinction of
providing civic services to rural and urban villages, Resettlement Colonies, regularised
unauthorised colonies, JJ Squatter Settlements, slum 'basties, private 'katras' etc.

MCD came into existance on the 7th of April, 1958 under and Act of Parliament. Since
then, the Municipal Body has always been alive in its constitution and functioning to
the growing needs of citizens. The Amendment of 1993 in the Act brought about
fundemental changes in composition, functions, governance and administration of the
Corporation.

The entire MCD area is divided into 12 Zones.

The Citizens' representatives in the corporation, namely councillors are always
approachable for removal of grievances.

Municipal Corporation of Delhi : Services

It also works for the betterment of slums and squatter localities. The department
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functions separately from the state government so that it becomes easy for people to
avail the facilities of every department depending upon their requirements. For their
convenience, the Delhi Municipal Corporation/Nagar Nigam has divided the city into
twelve different zones and their offices are located in every specific zone.

It has also opened many recreational centers where one can take training of vocational
courses where they give professional training so that one can open their own business as
well. Under the act of 1957, the corporation also levies taxes including property tax,
which is on residential as well as commercial properties and house tax, which is on
residential property throughout the city.

With improvement in the services in every sector and resource management, the
Municipal Corporation of Delhi MCD has not only successfully accomplished but has also
undertaken many challenging projects as well. Indiahousing.com appreciates the
efforts of Municipal Corporation of Delhi India and provides you with their website as
well as site address for further detailed information:

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 Types of road

Types of roads

Various Types of road are in use around the world. Roads range in size from private driveways,
to the two-lane highway, to high capacity dual carriageway routes, such
as Freeways, Expressways, and High-quality dual carriageways.

The names associated with a particular type of road vary around the world, and many names
are partially equivalent but not exactly equivalent to each other. As a result, the name given to
a road in one country could apply to a different type of road in another country. Details for
each are covered in the specific articles about each Type of road.

Road materials

Roads are constructed from many materials.

The material used depends on local conditions and other factors such as

1.c The amount of traffic the road is designed for

2.c And the weight of
the vehicles allowed to
use the road.

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Some of the materials used to build roads and surface Pavement (material) includes:

Îc Asphalt concrete
Îc Brick
Îc Chipseal
Îc Cobblestone
Îc Concrete
Îc Corduroy road
Îc Gravel road
Îc Ice road
Îc Macadam
Îc Plank road
Îc Portland cement
Îc Tarmac
Îc Composite pavements

Îc Whitetopping
Îc Asphalt overlay over concrete

Descriptive road terms

Some terms used to describe roads cover characteristics of the road and can be used on many
types of roads. These terms include:

Îc Grade separated interchange

Îc Dual carriageway = divided highway
Îc Toll road = turnpike

Low capacity

Low capacity roads are generally low speed local roads serving a
particular village, town, neighborhood, or city. They provide access to and from roads designed
with higher capacities and for higher speeds. They often also serve the broadest variety of road
users such as pedestrians, automobiles, motorcycles, trucks, animals, wagons, and carriages. This
category includes:
 Îc Alley
Îc Arterial road
Îc Avenue
Îc Backroad
Îc Boulevard
Îc Collector road
Îc Court
Îc Cul-de-sac
Îc Dirt road
Îc Driveway
Îc Frontage road
Îc Lane
Îc Road
Îc Single carriageway
Îc Street
Îc Winter road

High speed roads

Most countries have major roads of medium capacity that connect

cities, places, other routes, or other significant points of interest.
They may have multiple lanes of traffic, a median or central
reservation between lanes of opposing traffic, and partial access
control (ramps and grade separation). Often they are restricted to
motorized vehicles that can maintain high speeds. However, they
can also be as simple as a two-lane shoulderless road.

These roads go by names like:

Îc 2+1 road
Îc 2+2 road
Îc Farm to Market Road

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 Îc Highway
Îc Motorway
Îc Parkway

High speed restricted access roads

Most high capacity roads are built to a higher standard than

general purpose roads. In order to provide for higher traffic
volumes, access is restricted to certain categories of motorized
vehicles and limited to a certain number of access points where
grade separations and ramps enable through traffic to proceed
without interruption. These high capacity routes are almost
always divided.

Îc Autobahn
Îc Auto-estrada
Îc Autopista
Îc Autostrada
Îc Autostrasse
Îc Expressway
Îc Freeway
Îc High-quality dual carriageway (HQDC)
Îc Interstate Highway
Îc Limited-access highways
Îc Super two

Multi Modal

Multi-modal roads: a newer concept which can include a shared

dedicated lane for:

Îc High occupancy vehicle-HOV

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 Îc Carpool lane - carpool
Îc Bus
Îc Lightrail tracks.
Îc Bike paths (adjacent)

Îc Example:
Îc Transportation Expansion Project (Denver) ³ T-REX

History of road transport

The history of road transport started with the development of tracks by humans and their beasts
of burden.

Early roads

The first forms of road transport were horses, oxen or even humans carrying goods over tracks
that often followed game trails, such as the Natchez Trace.[1] In the Stone Age humans did not
need constructed tracks in open country. The first improved trails would have been
at fords, mountain passes and through swamps.[2] The first improvements would have consisted
largely of clearing trees and big stones from the path. As commerce increased, the tracks were
often flattened or widened to accommodate human and animal traffic. Some of these
dirt tracks were developed into fairly extensive networks,
allowing communications, tradeand governance over wide areas. The Incan Empire in South
America and the Iroquois Confederation in North America, neither of which had the wheel, are
examples of effective use of such paths.

Harappan roads

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Street paving has been found from the first human settlements around 4000 BC in cities of
the Indus Valley Civilization on theIndian subcontinent, such as Harrapa and Mohenjo-daro.

Wheeled transport

Wheels appear to have been developed in ancient Sumer in Mesopotamia around 5000 BC,
perhaps originally for the making of pottery. Their original transport use may have been as
attachments to travois or sleds to reduce resistance. It has been argued that logs were used
as rollers under sleds prior to the development of wheels, but there is no archeological evidence
for this.[6]Most early wheels appear to have been attached to fixed axles, which would have
required regular lubrication by animal fats or vegetable oils or separation by leather to be
effective.[7] The first simple two-wheel carts, apparently developed from travois, appear to have
been used in Mesopotamia and northern Iran in about 3000 BC and two-
wheel chariots appeared in about 2800 BC. They were hauled by onagers, related to donkeys.[7]

Early tar-paved roads

In the medieval Islamic world, many roads were built throughout the Arab Empire. The most
sophisticated roads were those of theBaghdad, Iraq, which were paved with tar in the 8th
century. Tar was derived from petroleum, accessed from oil fields in the region, through the
chemical process of destructive distillation.[11]

New construction methods in the 18th and 19th

centuries

As states developed and became richer, especially with the Renaissance, new roads and bridges
began to be built, often based on Roman designs. Although there were attempts to rediscover
Roman methods, there was little useful innovation in road building before the 18th century.

Toll roads

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England and Wales

As traffic levels increased in England, roads deteriorated. Toll roads were built by Turnpike
Trusts, especially between 1730-1770. It has been claimed that as a result the time taken
between London, to York, Manchester or Exeter was cut by two-thirds between 1720 and
1780.[13] Blind Jack Metcalf (1717²1810) built about 300 km (180 miles) of turnpike road between
1753 and 1810, mainly in Lancashire, Derbyshire, Cheshire and Yorkshire. He understood the
importance of good drainage and surfaced his roads with "a compact layer of small, broken
stones with sharp edges", rather than the naturally rounded stones traditionally used in
European road building. British turnpike builders began to realise the importance of selecting
clean stones for surfacing, and excluding vegetable material and clay to make better lasting
roads.

United States of America

Highways in the USA circa 1825

Turnpikes were also later built in the United States. They were usually built by private
companies under a government franchise. They typically paralleled or replaced routes already
with some volume of commerce, hoping the improved road would divert enough traffic to make
the enterprise profitable. Plank roads were particularly attractive as they greatly reduced
rolling resistance and mitigated the problem of getting mired in mud. Another improvement,
better grading to lessen the steepness of the worst stretches, allowed draft animals to haul
heavier loads.

McAdam

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John Loudon McAdam (1756²1836), another Scottish engineer, designed the first modern roads.
He developed an inexpensive paving material of soil and stone aggregate (known
as macadam), and he embanked roads a few feet higher than the surrounding terrain to cause
water to drain away from the surface. He had noticed in his observations that coaches with
narrow, iron-tyred wheels and moving at relatively high speed were causing significant
damage to roads, but that areas of small broken stones were most resistant to damage, while
the areas that had large surface stones degraded fastest. His solution was to create roads with
three layers of stones laid on a crowned subgrade with side ditches for drainage. The first two
layers consisted of angular hand-broken aggregate, maximum size 3 inches (75 mm), to a total
depth of about 8 inches (200 mm). The third layer was about 2 inches (50 mm) thick with a
maximum aggregate size of 1 inch (25 mm). Each layer would be compacted with a heavy roller,
causing the angular stones to lock together with their neighbours. It is possible that his initial
decision not to use the heavy layer of base stones used by Telford in his subgrade reflected lack
of suitable stones, but McAdam quickly saw they were not necessary. In practice, his roads
proved to be twice as strong as Telford's roads.[22] He also insisted on raising the roads to ensure
good drainage and flat crowned surfaces, rather than ridges built into the road to encourage
drainage.[23]

McAdam was adamantly opposed to the filling of the voids between his small cut stones with
smaller material, possibly as a reaction against the use of poor materials, including soil and
vegetable matter, on roads in the past. Nevertheless, in practice road builders began to
introduce filler materials such as smaller stones, sand and clay, and it was observed that these
roads were stronger as a result. Macadam roads were being built widely in the United States
and Australia in the 1820s and in Europe in the 1830s and 1840s.[24]

Development of modern paved roads

Various systems had been developed over centuries to reduce washaways, bogging and dust in
cities, including cobblestones and wooden paving. Tar-bound macadam (tarmac) was applied
to macadam roads towards the end of the 19th century in cities such as Paris. In the early 20th
century tarmac and concrete paving were extended into the countryside.

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Incidentally, bicyclists were among the early campaigners on what was called the Good Roads
Movement. Bicycling was an extremely popular recreation among the middle and upper classes
in the late 19th century and was more fun on paved roads.

1823 - First American Macadam Road

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The first macadam surface in the United States was laid on the "Boonsborough Turnpike Road"
between Hagerstown and Boonsboro, Maryland. By 1822, this section was the last unimproved
gap in the great road leading from Baltimore on the Chesapeake Bay to Wheeling on the Ohio
River. Stagecoaches using the road in winter needed 5 to 7 hours of travel to cover 10 miles.

Historic Pennsylvania Ave. was first paved with asphalt in 1876. In this photo, taken in 1907,
crews repave with the equipment of the time.

Desirable qualities in pavements include durability, smoothness, quietness, ease of cleaning,

and a nonslippery surface. The requirements conflict to a degree, so no one material is ideal in
all respects. The foundation of a pavement must be crowned, or slightly arched, for rapid
shedding of water; it must be strong enough to withstand heavy dynamic loads, but capable of
responding to temperature changes. It has been estimated that some 27,000 tons of water fall
annually on one mile of road.

In 1919, the Washington-Richmond Road near Dumfries, Va., about 30 miles (48 km) south of

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Washington, D.C., claimed this car. Mud was a serious problem before asphalt paving.

The deplorable conditions of the nations roads became a great public concern in the late
nineteenth century with the invention of the bicycle and later the motor car. In the early 1890's
bicycle clubs in the United States pushed hard for road improvements. These efforts brought
about the "National League for Good Roads" in 1892. Continued dissatisfaction with the
conditions of the nations roads resulted in the creation of the "Office of Road Inquiry" by
Congress in 1893.

Thomas Telford, who was born in Eskdale, Scotland, in 1757, perfected the method of building
roads with broken stones. Telford placed the stones at a certain thickness in accordance with the
weight and volume of traffic on that road. He also took into consideration road alignment and
gradient, which are still important factors for roadbuilders today.

John Loudon McAdam (1756-1836)

Engraving by Charles Turner. By courtesy of the trustees of the British Museum; photograph,
J.R. Freeman & Co. Ltd.

John Loudon McAdam, born in Scotland in 1757, and the general surveyor for the city of Bristol,
England, designed roads using broken stones that were laid evenly and tightly so that they
covered the soil and formed a hard surface. These ´macadam roads,µ as they were called,
served the purpose of providing a somewhat stable pathway for pedestrians and horsedrawn
traffic.

While Telford and McAdam were contemporaries, they each had different ideas of how to build
the best road. Telford·s designs were more expensive than McAdam·s, but some scholars say
they were superior in quality.

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 Macadam construction diagram.

Macadam consists basically of compacted layers of small stones cemented into a hard surface by
means of stone dust and water (water-bound macadam). However, the main pavement
surfaces in use today are bituminous/asphalt coverings and concrete.

Macadam construction with asphalt.

By 1910, refined petroleum asphalt had gained its permanent market supremacy over the
producers of rock, natural and sheet asphalt. The oil companies could manufacture asphalt
superior to that mined from the natural deposits in Trinidad Lake and Bermudez Lake. This
supremacy even threatened diplomatic relations between the United States and Venezuela.

In the bituminous macadam pavement, the foundation is macadam, upon which a bituminous
material that penetrates at least 2 in (5 cm) into the foundation is poured, forming an
impervious binder. In the bituminous-mixed macadam pavement, a mixture of crushed rock,

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ground glass and other additives, and bituminous binder is spread over a macadam foundation
and rolled into a compact mass.

The two other pavement types use a concrete road slab as a foundation. In the sheet asphalt
pavement, a binder course and a wearing course are laid over a concrete foundation. The
binder course, whose function is to prevent creepage of the upper course, is composed of broken
stone and asphalt cement. The wearing surface is a mixture of fine sand, filler, and asphalt.

By far the most common type of pavement for heavy use is rigid concrete. The first concrete
pavement was laid in Bellefontaine, Ohio, in 1894. A modern highway will have a 6 in (15 cm)
base of concrete, on top of which 3 in (7.5 cm) of steel-reinforced concrete will be laid.
Pavements that must withstand only pedestrian traffic may use brick or wood-blocks, set in a 1
in. (2.5 cm) bedding of sand, cement mortar, or mastic.

1910 - Spreading asphalt Macadam on crushed rock base, State Aid Road No.59 - 85, Yakima
County. Washington State.

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 1912 - Steam roller compacting macadam. Washington State.

1910 - Auto-truck spreading asphalt Macadam, Walla Walla County, Washington State.

1911 - Crushing plant and hauling machinery used in building permanent highway, Yakima
County. Washington State.

The U.S. Corps of Engineers, which had not previously been involved in pavement matters prior
to World War II, was charged with military road and runway construction. Faced with the
production of larger, heavier airplanes, the Corps needed to come up with pavement thickness

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design methods for runways that could handle wheel loads greater than 12,500 pounds (5,670
kg). Not only did they meet the huge military demand for heavy-duty pavements, but they
would continue to influence all aspects of asphalt paving long after the war was over.

In 1956, the Federal- Aid Highway Act was established, creating an infrastructure highway
program

unmatched by any other in the world. President Dwight D. Eisenhower stated that the
Interstate System would establish ´a grand plan for the rebuilding of our obsolete road and
street system.µ The basis of the system was a 41,000-mile (65,983-km) highway network
connecting major cities in the Unites States. One component of this plan was that for every five
miles of road, one mile would be straight for use as an airplane landing strip in time of need.

The network design task was given to the U.S. Bureau of Public Roads and the State Highway
Departments. While many state highway departments requested asphalt for their part of the
interstate system, concrete was also used despite its higher cost of construction.

Besides cost, another feature that makes asphalt superior to concrete is flexibility. Maintaining
asphalt is also typically less expensive than maintaining concrete.

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 Materials used in road construction

Asphalt concrete

Asphalt concrete.

As shown in this cross-section, many older roadways are smoothed by applying a thin layer
of asphalt concreteto the existing portland cement concrete.

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A layer of asphalt concrete. In road construction, a base layer of crushed rock is usually laid
down first to increase durability (see photo below)

Machine laying asphalt concrete, fed from a dump truck.

Asphalt concrete is a composite material commonly used for construction

ofpavement, highways and parking lots. It consists of asphalt (used as a binder) and
mineral aggregate mixed together, then laid down in layers and compacted.

The terms "asphalt (or asphaltic) concrete", "bituminous asphalt concrete" and the abbreviation
"AC" are typically used only in engineering and construction documents and literature. Asphalt
concrete pavements are often called just "asphalt" by laypersons who tend to associate the term
concrete with Portland cement concreteonly. The engineering definition of concrete is
any composite material composed of mineral aggregate glued together with a binder, whether
that binder is Portland cement, asphalt or even epoxy. Informally, asphalt concrete is also
referred to as "blacktop

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Mixture formulations

Mixing of asphalt and aggregate is accomplished in one of several ways:

Îc Hot mix asphalt concrete (commonly abbreviated as HMAC or HMA) is produced by heating
the asphalt binder to decrease its viscosity, and drying the aggregate to remove moisture
from it prior to mixing. Mixing is generally performed with the aggregate at about 300 °F
(roughly 150 °C) for virgin asphalt and 330 °F (166 °C) for polymer modified asphalt, and
the asphalt cement at 200 °F (95 °C). Paving and compaction must be performed while the
asphalt is sufficiently hot. In many countries paving is restricted to summer months because
in winter the compacted base will cool the asphalt too much before it is packed to the
optimal air content. HMAC is the form of asphalt concrete most commonly used on highly
trafficked pavements such as those on majorhighways, racetracks and airfields.
Îc Warm mix asphalt concrete (commonly abbreviated as WMA or WAM) is produced by
adding either zeolites, waxes, or asphalt emulsions to the mix. This allows significantly lower
mixing and laying temperatures and results in lower consumption of fossil fuels, thus
releasing less carbon dioxide, aerosols and vapours. Not only are working conditions
improved, but the lower laying-temperature also leads to more rapid availability of the
surface for use, which is important for construction sites with critical time schedules. The
usage of these additives in hot mixed asphalt (above) may afford easier compaction and
allow cold weather paving or longer hauls.
Îc Cold mix asphalt concrete is produced by emulsifying the asphalt in water with
(essentially) soap prior to mixing with the aggregate. While in its emulsified state the
asphalt is less viscous and the mixture is easy to work and compact. The emulsion will break
after enough water evaporates and the cold mix will, ideally, take on the properties of cold
HMAC. Cold mix is commonly used as a patching material and on lesser trafficked service
roads.
Îc Cut-back asphalt concrete is produced by dissolving the binder in kerosene or another lighter
fraction of petroleum prior to mixing with the aggregate. While in its dissolved state the
asphalt is less viscous and the mix is easy to work and compact. After the mix is laid down
the lighter fraction evaporates.

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Îc Mastic asphalt concrete or sheet asphalt is produced by heating hard grade
blown bitumen (oxidation) in a green cooker (mixer) until it has become a viscous liquid
after which the aggregate mix is then added.
The bitumen aggregate mixture is cooked (matured) for around 6-8 hours and once it is
ready the mastic asphalt mixer is transported to the work site where experienced layers
empty the mixer and either machine or hand lay the mastic asphalt contents on to the
road. Mastic asphalt concrete is generally laid to a thickness of around 3¼4²1š3¼16 inches
(20-30 mm) for footpath and road applications and around 3¼8 of an inch (10 mm) for
flooring or roof applications.
In addition to the asphalt and aggregate, additives, such as polymers, and antistripping
agents may be added to improve the properties of the final product.

Îc Natural asphalt concrete can be produced from bituminous rock, found in some
parts of the world, where porous sedimentary rock near the surface has been
impregnated with upwelling bitumen.

A landing strip, one of the uses of asphalt concrete

Asphalt concrete is often touted as being 100% recyclable. Several in-place recycling
techniques have been developed to rejuvenate oxidized binders and remove cracking,
although the recycled material is generally not very water-tight or smooth and should
be overlaid with a new layer of asphalt concrete. Asphalt concrete that is removed
from a pavement is usually stockpiled for later use as a base course material. This
reclaimed material, commonly known by the acronym 'RAP' for recycled or reclaimed
asphalt pavement, is crushed to a consistent gradation and added to the HMA mixing
process. Very little asphalt concrete is actually disposed of in landfills. Sometimes
waste materials, such as rubber from old tires, are added to asphalt concrete as is the

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 case with rubberized asphalt, but there is a concern that the hybrid material may not
be recyclable.

Asphalt damaged by cryoturbation, or freezing of groundwater.

Asphalt deterioration can include alligator cracks, potholes, upheaval, raveling,

rutting, shoving, stripping, and grade depressions. In cold climates, freezing of the
groundwater underneath can crack asphalt even in one winter (by cryoturbation).
Filling the cracks with bitumen can temporarily fix the cracks, but only proper
construction, i.e. allowing water to drain away from under the road, can slow this
process.

Asphalt concrete pavements³especially those at airfields³are sometimes

called tarmac for historical reasons, although they do not contain tar and are not
constructed using the macadamprocess.

Performance characteristics

Asphalt concrete has different performance characteristics in terms of surface durability, tire
wear, braking efficiency and roadway noise. The appropriate asphalt performance
characteristic is obtained by the traffic level amount in categories A,B,C,D,E, and friction coarse
(FC-5). Asphalt concrete generates less roadway noise than Portland cement concrete surfacing,

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and is typically less noisy than chip seal surfaces. Tire noise effects are amplified at higher
operating speeds. The sound energy is generated through rolling friction converting kinetic
energy to sound waves. The idea that highway design could be influenced by acoustical
engineering considerations including selection of surface paving types arose in the very early
1970s.

Construction aggregate

Limestone quarry.

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10 mm graded crushed rock or aggregate, for use in concrete. Called "blue metal" in Australia.

20 mm graded aggregate.

Construction aggregate, or simply "aggregate", is a broad category of coarse

particulatematerial used in construction, including sand, gravel, crushed stone, slag, recycled
concrete and geosynthetic aggregates. Aggregates are a component of composite materials such
as concreteand asphalt concrete; the aggregate serves as reinforcement to add strength to the
overall composite material. Due to the relatively high hydraulic conductivity value as
compared to most soils, aggregates are widely used in drainage applications such as foundation
and french drains, septic drain fields, retaining wall drains, and road side edge drains.
Aggregates are also used as base material under foundations, roads, and railroads. To put it
another way, aggregates are used as a stable foundation or road/rail base with predictable,
uniform properties (e.g. to help prevent differential settling under the road or building), or as a
low-cost extender that binds with more expensive cement or asphalt to form concrete.

The American Society for Testing and Materials publishes an exhaustive listing of specifications
for various construction aggregate products, which, by their individual design, are suitable for
specific construction purposes. These products include specific types of coarse and fine
aggregate designed for such uses as additives to asphalt and concrete mixes, as well as other
construction uses. State transportation departments further refine aggregate material
specifications in order to tailor aggregate use to the needs and available supply in their
particular locations.

Sources for these basic materials can be grouped into three main areas: Mining of mineral
aggregate deposits, including sand, gravel, and stone; use of waste slag from the manufacture
of iron and steel; and recycling of concrete, which is itself chiefly manufactured from mineral
aggregates. In addition, there are some (minor) materials that are used as specialty lightweight
aggregates: clay, pumice, perlite, and vermiculite

›c
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Modern production

The advent of modern blasting methods enabled the development of quarries, which are now
used throughout the world, wherever competent bedrock deposits of aggregate quality exist. In
many places, good limestone, granite, marble or other quality stone bedrock deposits do not
exist. In these areas, natural sand and gravel are mined for use as aggregate. Where neither
stone, nor sand and gravel, are available, construction demand is usually satisfied by shipping
in aggregate by rail, barge or truck. Additionally, demand for aggregates can be partially
satisfied through the use of slag and recycled concrete. However, the available tonnages and
lesser quality of these materials prevent them from being a viable replacement for mined
aggregates on a large scale.

Over 1 million tons annually are mined from this quarry near San Francisco.[1]

Large stone quarry and sand and gravel operations exist near virtually all population centers.
These are capital-intensive operations, utilizing large earth-moving equipment, belt conveyors,
and machines specifically designed for crushing and separating various sizes of aggregate, to
create distinct product stockpiles.

According to the USGS, 2006 U.S. crushed stone production was 1.72 billion tonnes valued at $13.8
billion (compared to 1.69 billion tonnes valued at $12.1 billion in 2005), of which limestone was
1,080 million tonnes valued at $8.19 billion from 1,896 quarries, granite was 268 million tonnes
valued at $2.59 billion from 378 quarries, traprock was 148 million tonnes valued at $1.04 billion
from 355 quarries, and the balance other kinds of stone from 729 quarries. Limestone and
granite are also produced in large amounts as dimension stone. The great majority of the

mc
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crushed stone moved by heavy truck from the quarry/plant to the first point of sale or use.
According to theUSGS, 2006 U.S. sand and gravel production was 1.32 billion tonnes valued at
$8.54 billion (compared to 1.27 billion tonnes valued at $7.46 billion in 2005), of which 264
million tonnes valued at $1.92 billion was used as concrete aggregates. The great majority of
this was again moved by truck, instead of by electric train.

Currently, total U.S. aggregate demand by final market sector was 30%-35% for non-
residential building (offices, hotels, stores, manufacturing plants, government and institutional
buildings, and others), 25% for highways, and 25% for housing.[2]

Roadcsurface

A road in the process of being resurfaced

c
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Road surface (British English) or pavement (American English) is the durable surface material
laid down on an area intended to sustain vehicular or foot traffic. In the
pastcobblestones and granite setts were extensively used, but these surfaces have mostly been
replaced by asphalt or concrete. Such surfaces are frequently marked to guide traffic.
Today,permeable paving methods are beginning to be used for low-impact roadways and
walkways.

Metalling

The term road metal refers to the broken stone or cinders used in the repair or construction of
roads or railways,[1] and is derived from theLatin metallum, which means both "mine" and
"quarry".[2] Metalling is known to have been used extensively in the construction of roads by
soldiers of the Roman Empire (see Roman road) but a limestone-surfaced road, thought to date
back to the Bronze Age, has been found in Britain.[3] Metalling has had two distinct usages in
road surfacing. The term originally referred to the process of creating a gravel roadway. The
route of the roadway would first be dug down several feet and, depending on local
conditions, French drains may or may not have been added. Next, large stones were placed and
compacted, followed by successive layers of smaller stones, until the road surface was composed
of small stones compacted into a hard, durable surface. "Road metal" later became the name
of stone chippings mixed with tar to form the road surfacing material tarmac. A road of such
material is called a "metalled road" in Britain, a "paved road" in the USA, or a "sealed road" in
Australia.

Asphalt

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Closeup of asphalt on a driveway

Asphalt (specifically, asphalt concrete) has been widely used since 1920²1930. The viscous
nature of the bitumen binder allows asphalt concrete to sustain significant plastic deformation,
although fatigue from repeated loading over time is the most common failure mechanism. Most
asphalt surfaces are built on a gravel base, which is generally at least as thick as the asphalt
layer, although some 'full depth' asphalt surfaces are built directly on the native subgrade. In
areas with very soft or expansive subgrades such as clay or peat, thick gravel bases or
stabilization of the subgrade with Portland cement or lime may be required. Polypropylene and
polyester materials have also been used for this purpose[5] and in some countries,
a foundation ofpolystyrene blocks has used, which has the added advantage of providing a frost
proof base.[6] The actual material used in paving is termed HMA (Hot Mix Asphalt), and it is
usually applied using afree floating screed.

An asphalt concrete surface will generally be constructed for high volume primary highways
having an Average Annual Daily Traffic load higher than 1200 vehicles per day.[7] Advantages
of asphalt roadways include relatively low noise, relatively low cost compared with other
paving methods, and perceived ease of repair. Disadvantages include less durability than other
paving methods, less tensile strength than concrete, the tendency to become slick and soft in hot
weather and a certain amount of hydrocarbon pollution to soil and groundwater or waterways.

In the 1960s, rubberized asphalt was used for the first time, mixing crumb rubber from used tires
with asphalt. In addition to using tires that would otherwise fill landfills and present a fire
hazard, rubberized asphalt is more durable and provides a 7²12 decibel noise reduction over
conventional asphalt. However, application of rubberized asphalt is more temperature-
sensitive, and in many locations can only be applied at certain times of the year.

Concrete

Concrete surfaces (specifically, Portland cement concrete) are created using a concrete mix
of Portland cement, gravel, sand and water. The material is applied in a freshly-mixed slurry,

[c
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and worked mechanically to compact the interior and force some of the thinner cement slurry
to the surface to produce a smoother, denser surface free from honeycombing. The water allows
the mix to combine molecularly in a chemical action called hydration.

Concrete surfaces have been refined into three common types: jointed plain (JPCP), jointed
reinforced (JRCP) and continuously reinforced (CRCP). The one item that distinguishes each
type is the jointing system used to control crack development.

Jointed Plain Concrete Pavements (JPCP) contain enough joints to control the location of all the
expected natural cracks. The concrete cracks at the joints and not elsewhere in the slabs. Jointed
plain pavements do not contain any steel reinforcement. However, there may be smooth steel
bars at transverse joints and deformed steel bars at longitudinal joints. The spacing between
transverse joints is typically about 15 feet for slabs 7²12 inches thick. Today, a majority of the
U.S. state agencies build jointed plain pavements.

Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavements (JRCP) contain steel mesh reinforcement (sometimes
called distributed steel). In jointed reinforced concrete pavements, designers increase the joint
spacing purposely, and include reinforcing steel to hold together intermediate cracks in each
slab. The spacing between transverse joints is typically 30 feet or more. In the past, some
agencies used a spacing as great as 100 feet. During construction of the interstate system, most
agencies in the Eastern and Midwestern U.S. built jointed-reinforced pavement. Today only a
handful of agencies employ this design, and its use is generally not recommended as JPCP and
CRCP offer better performance and are easier to repair.

Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavements (CRCP) do not require any transverse contraction
joints. Transverse cracks are expected in the slab, usually at intervals of 3²5 ft. CRCP pavements
are designed with enough steel, 0.6²0.7% by cross-sectional area, so that cracks are held
together tightly. Determining an appropriate spacing between the cracks is part of the design
process for this type of pavement.

Continuously reinforced designs generally cost more than jointed reinforced or jointed plain
designs initially due to increased quantities of steel. However, they can demonstrate superior
long-term performance and cost-effectiveness. A number of agencies choose to use CRCP
designs in their heavy urban traffic corridors.

One advantage of cement concrete roadways is that they are typically stronger and more
durable than asphalt roadways. They also can easily be grooved to provide a durable skid-
resistant surface. Disadvantages are that they typically have a higher initial cost and are
perceived to be more difficult to repair.

ñc
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The first street in the United States to be paved with concrete was Court Avenue
in Bellefontaine, Ohio, but the record for first mile of concrete pavement to be laid in the United
States is claimed by Michigan.

Composite surfaces
c

Composite surfaces combine Portland cement concrete and asphalt. They are usually used to
rehabilitate existing roadways rather than in new construction.

Asphalt overlays are sometimes laid over distressed concrete to restore a smooth wearing
surface. A disadvantage of this method is that the joints between the underlying concrete slabs
usually cause cracks, called reflective cracks in the asphalt.

Whitetopping uses Portland cement concrete to resurface a distressed asphalt road.

Surface deterioration

Deteriorating asphalt.

As pavement systems primarily fail due to fatigue (in a manner similar to metals), the damage
done to pavement increases with the fourth power of the axle load of the vehicles traveling on

c
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it. Civil Engineersconsider truck axle load, current and projected truck traffic volume,
supporting soil properties (can be measured using the CBR) and sub-grade drainage in design.
Passenger cars are considered to have no practical effect on a pavement's service life, from a
fatigue perspective.

Other failure modes include ageing and surface abrasion. As years go by, the binder in a
bituminous wearing course gets stiffer and less flexible. When it gets "old" enough, the surface
will start losing aggregates, and macrotexture depth increases dramatically. If no maintenance
action is done quickly on the wearing course potholing will take place. If the road is stil
structually sound, a bituminous surface treatment, such as a chipseal or surface dressing can
prolong the life of the road at low cost. In areas with cold climate, studded tires may be allowed
on passenger cars. In Sweden and Finland, studded passenger car tires account for a very large
share of pavement rutting.

Several design methods have been developed to determine the thickness and composition of
road surfaces required to carry predicted traffic loads for a given period of time. Pavement
design methods are continuously evolving. Among these are the Shell Pavement design method,
and the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) 1993
"Guide for Design of Pavement Structures". A new mechanistic-empirical design guide has been
under development by NCHRP (Called Superpave Technology) since 1998. A new design guide
called Mechanistic Empirical Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG) was developed and is about to
be adopted by AASHTO.

According to the AASHO Road Test, heavily loaded trucks can do more than 10,000 times the
damage done by a normal passenger car. Taxrates for trucks are higher than those for cars in
most countries for this reason, though they are not levied in proportion to the damage done.[18]

The physical properties of a stretch of pavement can be tested using a falling weight
deflectometer.

Further research by University College London into pavements has led to the development of an
indoor, 80-sq-metre artificial pavement at a research centre called Pedestrian Accessibility and
Movement Environment Laboratory (PAMELA). It is used to simulate everyday scenarios, from
different pavement users to varying pavement conditions.[19] There also exists a research facility
near Auburn University, the NCAT Pavement Test Track, that is used to test experimental
asphalt pavements for durability.

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 Concrete
History

Concrete has been used for construction in various ancient civilizations.[4] An analysis of
ancient Egyptian pyramids has shown that concrete was employed in their construction.[5]

During the Roman Empire, Roman concrete (or opus caementicium) was made
fromquicklime, pozzolana, and an aggregate of pumice. Its widespread use in many Roman
structures, a key event in the history of architecture termed the Roman Architectural Revolution,
freed Roman construction from the restrictions of stone and brick material and allowed for
revolutionary new designs both in terms of structural complexity and dimension.[6]

Modern tests show that opus caementicium had as much compressive strength as modern
Portland-cement concrete (ca. 200 kg/cm2).[8] However, due to the absence ofsteel
reinforcement, its tensile strength was far lower and its mode of application was also different:

Modern structural concrete differs from Roman concrete in two important details. First, its mix
consistency is fluid and homogeneous, allowing it to be poured into forms rather than requiring
hand-layering together with the placement of aggregate, which, in Roman practice, often
consisted of rubble. Second, integral reinforcing steel gives modern concrete assemblies great
strength in tension, whereas Roman concrete could depend only upon the strength of the
concrete bonding to resist tension.[9]

Additives
Concrete additives have been used since Roman and Egyptian times, when it was discovered
that adding volcanic ash to the mix allowed it to set under water. Similarly, the Romans knew
that adding horse hair made concrete less liable to crack while it hardened, and adding blood
made it more frost-resistant.[11]

Recently, the use of recycled materials as concrete ingredients has been gaining popularity
because of increasingly stringent environmental legislation. The most conspicuous of these is fly
ash, a by-product of coal-fired power plants. This significantly reduces the amount of quarrying
and landfill space required, and, as it acts as a cement replacement, reduces the amount of
cement required.

In modern times, researchers have experimented with the addition of other materials to create
concrete with improved properties, such as higher strength or electrical
conductivity. Marconite is one example.

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Cement and sand ready to be mixed.

Composition

There are many types of concrete available, created by varying the proportions of the main
ingredients below. By varying the proportions of materials, or by substitution for the
cemetitious and aggregate phases, the finished product can be tailored to its application with
varying strength, density, or chemical and thermal resistance properties.

The mix design depends on the type of structure being built, how the concrete will be mixed and
delivered, and how it will be placed to form this structure.

Cement

Portland cement is the most common type of cement in general usage. It is a basic ingredient of
concrete, mortar, and plaster. English masonry worker Joseph Aspdin patented Portland cement
in 1824; it was named because of its similarity in colour to Portland limestone, quarried from the
English Isle of Portland and used extensively in London architecture. It consists of a mixture of
oxides of calcium, silicon and aluminium. Portland cement and similar materials are made by
heating limestone (a source of calcium) with clay, and grinding this product (calledclinker) with
a source of sulfate (most commonly gypsum).

6 c
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Water
Combining water with a cementitious material forms a cement paste by the process of
hydration. The cement paste glues the aggregate together, fills voids within it, and allows it to
flow more freely.

Less water in the cement paste will yield a stronger, more durable concrete; more water will
give an freer-flowing concrete with a higherslump.[12]

Impure water used to make concrete can cause problems when setting or in causing premature
failure of the structure.

Hydration involves many different reactions, often occurring at the same time. As the reactions
proceed, the products of the cement hydration process gradually bond together the individual
sand and gravel particles, and other components of the concrete, to form a solid mass.

Reaction:

Cement chemist notation: C3S + H ƒ C-S-H + CH

Standard notation: Ca3SiO5 + H2O ƒ (CaO) (SiO2) (H2O)(gel) + Ca(OH)2
Balanced: 2Ca3SiO5 + 7H2O ƒ 3(CaO) 2(SiO2) 4(H2O)(gel) + 3Ca(OH)2

Aggregates

Fine and coarse aggregates make up the bulk of a concrete mixture. Sand,
natural gravel and crushed stone are mainly used for this purpose. Recycled
aggregates (from construction, demolition and excavation waste) are
increasingly used as partial replacements of natural aggregates, while a number
of manufactured aggregates, including air-cooled blast furnace slag and bottom
ash are also permitted.

Decorative stones such as quartzite, small river stones or crushed glass are
sometimes added to the surface of concrete for a decorative "exposed aggregate"
finish, popular among landscape designers.

Distribution of aggregates after compaction is inhomogeneous due to the

influence of vibration. As a result, gradients of strength may be significant .

6›c
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 Installing rebar in a floor slab during a concrete pour.

Reinforcement

Concrete is strong in compression, as the aggregate efficiently carries the

compression load. However, it is weak in tension as the cement holding the
aggregate in place can crack, allowing the structure to fail. Reinforced
concrete solves these problems by adding eithersteel reinforcing bars, steel fibers,
glass fiber, or plastic fiber to carry tensile loads.

Chemical admixtures

Chemical admixtures are materials in the form of powder or fluids that are
added to the concrete to give it certain characteristics not obtainable with plain
concrete mixes. In normal use, admixture dosages are less than 5% by mass of
cement, and are added to the concrete at the time of batching/mixing.The
common types of admixtures] are as follows.

Îc Accelerators speed up the hydration (hardening) of the concrete. Typical

materials used are CaCl2 and NaCl. However, use of chlorides may cause
corrosion in steel reinforcing and is prohibited in some countries.
Îc Retarders slow the hydration of concrete, and are used in large or difficult
pours where partial setting before the pour is complete is undesirable.

6mc
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 Typical polyol retarders are sugar, sucrose, sodium gluconate, glucose, citric
acid, and tartaric acid.
Îc Air entrainments add and entrain tiny air bubbles in the concrete, which will
reduce damage during freeze-thaw cycles thereby increasing the concrete's
durability. However, entrained air is a trade-off with strength, as each 1% of
air may result in 5% decrease in compressive strength.
Îc Plasticizers/superplasticizers (water-reducing admixtures) increase the
workability of plastic or "fresh" concrete, allowing it be placed more easily,
with less consolidating effort. Typical plasticizers are liginsulfate, polyol type.
Alternatively, plasticizers can be used to reduce the water content of a
concrete (and have been called water reducers due to this application) while
maintaining workability. Such treatment improves its strength and
durability characteristics. Superplasticizers (high-range water-reducing
admixtures) are a class of plasticizers that have fewer deleterious effects
when used to significantly increase workability. Representative
superplasticizers are sulfonated naphthalene formaldehyde condensate,
sulfonated melamine, formaldehy condensate, and acetone formaldehyde
condensate. More advanced superplasticizers are polycarboxylate types.
Îc Pigments can be used to change the color of concrete, for aesthetics.
Îc Corrosion inhibitors are used to minimize the corrosion of steel and steel bars
in concrete.
Îc Bonding agents are used to create a bond between old and new concrete.
Îc Pumping aids improve pumpability, thicken the paste, and reduce
separation and bleeding.

Mineral admixtures and blended cements

There are inorganic materials that also have pozzolanic or latent hydraulic
properties. These very fine-grained materials are added to the concrete mix to
improve the properties of concrete (mineral admixtures),[13] or as a replacement
for Portland cement (blended cements).[15]

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 Îc Fly ash: A by product of coal fired electric generating plants, it is used to
partially replace Portland cement (by up to 60% by mass). The properties of
fly ash depend on the type of coal burnt. In general, silicious fly ash
is pozzolanic, while calcareous fly ash has latent hydraulic properties.[16]
Îc Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS or GGBS): A by-product
of steel production is used to partially replace Portland cement (by up to 80%
by mass). It has latent hydraulic properties.[17]
Îc Silica fume: A by-product of the production of silicon and ferrosilicon alloys.
Silica fume is similar to fly ash, but has a particle size 100 times smaller. This
results in a higher surface to volume ratio and a much
faster pozzolanic reaction. Silica fume is used to increase strength and
durability of concrete, but generally requires the use of superplasticizers for
workability.
Îc High reactivity Metakaolin (HRM): Metakaolin produces concrete with
strength and durability similar to concrete made with silica fume. While silica
fume is usually dark gray or black in color, high reactivity metakaolin is
usually bright white in color, making it the preferred choice for architectural
concrete where appearance is important.

Concrete production

Concrete plant facility (background) with concrete delivery trucks.

The processes used vary dramatically, from hand tools to heavy industry, but
result in the concrete being placed where it cures into a final form. Wide range of

66c
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 technological factors may occur during production of concrete elements and their
influence to basic characteristics may vary (article of Maksym Bulavytskyi
(Ukraine) at www.concreteresearch.org)

When initially mixed together, Portland cement and water rapidly form a gel,
formed of tangled chains of interlocking crystals. These continue to react over
time, with the initially fluid gel often aiding in placement by improving
workability. As the concrete sets, the chains of crystals join up, and form a rigid
structure, gluing the aggregate particles in place. During curing, more of the
cement reacts with the residual water (hydration).

This curing process develops physical and chemical properties. Among other
qualities,mechanical strength, low moisture permeability, and chemical and
volumetric stability.

Cement being mixed with sand and water to form concrete.

Mixing concrete

Thorough mixing is essential for the production of uniform, high quality concrete.
Therefore, equipment and methods should be capable of effectively mixing
concrete materials containing the largest specified aggregate to produce uniform
mixtures of the lowest slump practical for the work.

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 Concrete pump.

A concrete slab ponded while curing.

Workability
c

Workability is the ability of a fresh (plastic) concrete mix to fill the form/mold
properly with the desired work (vibration) and without reducing the concrete's
quality. Workability depends on water content, aggregate (shape and size
distribution), cementitious content and age (level of hydration), and can be
modified by adding chemical admixtures. Raising the water content or adding
chemical admixtures will increase concrete workability. Excessive water will lead
to increased bleeding (surface water) and/or segregation of aggregates (when
the cement and aggregates start to separate), with the resulting concrete having
reduced quality. The use of an aggregate with an undesirable gradation can
result in a very harsh mix design with a very low slump, which cannot be readily
made more workable by addition of reasonable amounts of water.

6c
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 Workability can be measured by the concrete slump test, a simplistic measure of
the plasticity of a fresh batch of concrete following the ASTM C 143 or EN 12350-2
test standards. Slump is normally measured by filling an "Abrams cone" with a
sample from a fresh batch of concrete. The cone is placed with the wide end
down onto a level, non-absorptive surface. It is then filled in three layers of equal
volume, with each layer being tamped with a steel rod in order to consolidate
the layer. When the cone is carefully lifted off, the enclosed material will slump a
certain amount due to gravity. A relatively dry sample will slump very little,
having a slump value of one or two inches (25 or 50 mm). A relatively wet
concrete sample may slump as much as eight inches.

Slump can be increased by adding chemical admixtures such as mid-range or

high-range water reducing agents (super-plasticizers) without changing
the water-cement ratio. It is bad practice to add water on-site that exceeds the
water-cement ratio of the mix design, however in a properly designed mixture it
is important to reasonably achieve the specified slump prior to placement as
design factors such as air content, internal water for hydration/strength gain,
etc. are dependent on placement at design slump values.

High-flow concrete, like self-consolidating concrete, is tested by other flow-

measuring methods. One of these methods includes placing the cone on the
narrow end and observing how the mix flows through the cone while it is
gradually lifted.

After mixing, concrete is a fluid and can be pumped to where it is needed.

Concrete mixture placement

Concrete mixture placement

6·c
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 Concrete compaction

Concrete compaction

Curing

it may continue to strengthen for In all but the least critical applications, care
needs to be taken to properly cure concrete, and achieve best strength and
hardness. This happens after the concrete has been placed. Cement requires a
moist, controlled environment to gain strength and harden fully. The cement
paste hardens over time, initially setting and becoming rigid though very weak,
and gaining in strength in the days and weeks following. In around 3 weeks, over
90% of the final strength is typically reached, though decades.[23]

Hydration and hardening of concrete during the first three days is critical.
Abnormally fast drying and shrinkage due to factors such as evaporation from
wind during placement may lead to increased tensile stresses at a time when it
has not yet gained significant strength, resulting in greater shrinkage cracking.
The early strength of the concrete can be increased by keeping it damp for a
longer period during the curing process. Minimizing stress prior to curing
minimizes cracking. High early-strength concrete is designed to hydrate faster,
often by increased use of cement that increases shrinkage and cracking. Strength
of concrete changes (increases) up to three years. It depends on cross-section
dimension of elements and conditions of structure exploitation. Resulting
strength distribution in vertical elements researched and presented at the

6åc
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 article "Concrete Inhomogeneity of Vertical Cast-In-Place Elements In Skeleton-
Type Buildings"

During this period concrete needs to be in conditions with a controlled

temperature and humid atmosphere. In practice, this is achieved by spraying or
ponding the concrete surface with water, thereby protecting concrete mass from
ill effects of ambient conditions. The pictures to the right show two of many ways
to achieve this, ponding ² submerging setting concrete in water, and wrapping in
plastic to contain the water in the mix.

Properly curing concrete leads to increased strength and lower permeability, and
avoids cracking where the surface dries out prematurely. Care must also be
taken to avoid freezing, or overheating due to the exothermic setting of cement
(the Hoover Dam used pipes carrying coolant during setting to avoid damaging
overheating). Improper curing can cause scaling, reduced strength, poor
abrasion resistance and cracking.

Properties

Concrete has relatively high compressive strength, but significantly lower tensile
strength, and as such is usually reinforced with materials that are strong in
tension (often steel). The elasticity of concrete is relatively constant at low stress
levels but starts decreasing at higher stress levels as matrix cracking develops.
Concrete has a very low coefficient of thermal expansion, and as it matures
concrete shrinks. All concrete structures will crack to some extent, due to
shrinkage and tension. Concrete that is subjected to long-duration forces is prone
tocreep.

Tests can be made to ensure the properties of concrete correspond to

specifications for the application.

[ c
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 Environmental concerns

Worldwide CO2 emissions and global change

The cement industry is one of two primary producers of carbon dioxide

(CO2), creating up to 5% of worldwide emissions of this gas, of which 50% is
from the chemical process, and 40% from burning fuel.The embodied
carbon dioxide (ECO2) of one tonne of concrete varies with mix design and is
in the range of 75 ² 175 kg CO2/tonne concrete.The CO2 emission from the
concrete production is directly proportional to the cement content used in
the concrete mix. Indeed, 900 kg of CO2 are emitted for the fabrication of
every ton of cement. Cement manufacture contributes greenhouse gases
both directly through the production of carbon dioxide when calcium
carbonate is thermally decomposed, producing lime and carbon
dioxide,[27] and also through the use of energy, particularly from the
combustion of fossil fuels. However, some companies have recognized the
problem and are envisaging solutions to counter their CO2 emissions. The
principle of carbon capture and storage consists of directly capturing the
CO2 at the outlet of the cement kiln in order to transport it and to store the
captured CO2 in an adequate and deep geological formation.

Surface runoff

Surface runoff, when water runs off impervious surfaces, such as non-porous
concrete, can cause heavy soil erosion. Urban runoff tends to pick
up gasoline, motor oil, heavy metals, trash and other pollutants from
sidewalks, roadways and parking lots.[28][29] The impervious cover in a
typical city sewer system prevents groundwater percolation five times than
that of a typical woodland of the same size.[30] A 2008 report by the United
States National Research Council identified urban runoff as a leading source
of water quality problems.

[›c
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 Urban heat

Both concrete and asphalt are the primary contributors to what is known as
the urban heat island effect.

Using light-colored concrete has proven effective in reflecting up to 50%

more light than asphalt and reducing ambient temperature. A
lowalbedo value, characteristic of black asphalt, absorbs a large percentage
of solar heat and contributes to the warming of cities. By paving with light
colored concrete, in addition to replacing asphalt with light-colored
concrete, communities can lower their average temperature.

Concrete dust

Building demolition, and natural disasters such as earthquakes often

release a large amount of concrete dust into the local atmosphere. Concrete
dust was concluded to be the major source of dangerous air pollution
following the Great Hanshin earthquake.

Health concerns

The presence of some substances in concrete, including useful and unwanted

additives, can cause health concerns. Natural radioactiveelements (K, U and
Th) can be present in various concentration in concrete dwellings,
depending on the source of the raw materials used.Toxic substances may
also be added to the mixture for making concrete by unscrupulous makers.
Dust from rubble or broken concrete upon demolition or crumbling may
cause serious health concerns depending also on what had been
incorporated in the concrete.

[mc
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 Concrete handling/safety precautions

Handling of wet concrete must always be done with proper protective

equipment. Contact with wet concrete can cause skin burns due to the
caustic nature of the mixture of cement and water.

Secondary efflorescence: Water seeping through the concrete, often in

cracks, having dissolved components of cement stone.Osteoporosis of
concrete often happens in parking garages, as road salt comes off cars to
the concrete floor as a saline solution in the winter.

Damage modes

Concrete degradation

[c
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 Concrete spalling caused by the corrosion ofreinforcement bars after
that carbonation of cement decreased the pH below the passivation
threshold for steel.

Concrete can be damaged by many processes such as, e.g., the expansion
of corrosion products of the steel reinforcement bars, freezing of trapped
water, fire or radiant heat, aggregate expansion, sea water effects,
bacterial corrosion, leaching, erosion by fast-flowing water, physical
damage and chemical damage (from carbonation, chlorides, sulfates and
distillate water).

Manufacturers of cement and concrete admixtures must keep on top of

microbiological contamination in raw materials, intermediates and final
products to prevent product spoilage. One method of keeping controlling
contamination is through 2nd Generation ATP test.

Concrete repair

Concrete pavement preservation (CPP) and concrete pavement restoration

(CPR) are techniques used to manage the rate of pavement deterioration
on concrete streets, highways and airports. Without changing concrete
grade, this non-overlay method is used to repair isolated areas of
distress. CPP and CPRtechniques include slab stabilization, full- and
partial-depth repair, dowel bar retrofit, cross stitching longitudinal cracks
or joints, diamond grinding and joint and crack resealing. CPR methods,
developed over the last 40 years, are utilized in lieu of short-lived asphalt
overlays and bituminous patches to repair roads. These methods are often
less expensivethan an asphalt overlay but last three times longer and
provide a greener solution.

CPR techniques can be used to address specific problems or bring a

pavement back to its original quality. When repairing a road, design data,
construction data, traffic data, environmental data, previous CPR activities
and pavement condition, must all be taken into account. Pavements
repaired using CPR methods usually last 15 years. The methods are
described below.

[6c
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 Îc Slab stabilization restores support to concrete slabs by filling small voids
that develop underneath the concrete slab at joints, cracks or the
pavement edge.
Îc Full-depth repairs fixes cracked slabs and joint deterioration by
removing at least a portion of the existing slab and replacing it with
new concrete.
Îc Partial-depth repairs corrects surface distress and joint-crack
deterioration in the upper third of the concrete slab. Placing a partial-
depth repair involves removing the deteriorated concrete, cleaning the
patch area and placing new concrete.
Îc Dowel bar retrofit consists of cutting slots in the pavement across the
joint or crack, cleaning the slots, placing the dowel bars and backfilling
the slots with new concrete. Dowel bar retrofits link slabs together at
transverse cracks and joints so that the load is evenly distributed across
the crack or joint.
Îc Cross-stitching longitudinal cracks or joints repairs low-severity
longitudinal cracks. This method adds reinforcing steel to hold the crack
together tightly.
Îc Diamond grinding, by removing faulting, slab warping, studded tire
wear and unevenness resulting from patches, diamond grinding, creates
a smooth, uniform pavement profile. Diamond grinding reduces road
noise by providing a longitudinal texture, which is quieter than
transverse textures. The longitudinal texture also enhances surface
texture and skid resistance in polished pavements.
Îc Joint and crack sealing minimizes the infiltration of surface water and
incompressible material into the joint system. Minimizing water entering
the joint reduces sub-grade softening, slows pumping and erosion of the
sub-base fines, and may limit dowel-bar corrosion caused by de-icing
chemicals.

Concrete pumping

The world record for vertical concrete pumping was achieved in India by
Schwing Stetter in August 2009.Concrete was pumped to a height of 715m

[[c
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 for the construction of the Parbati hydro-electric power project in the Indian
state of Himachal Pradesh.

Continuous pours

The world record for largest continuously poured concrete raft was achieved
in August, 2007 in Abu Dhabi by contracting firm, Al Habtoor-CCC Joint
Venture. The pour (a part of the foundation for the Abu Dhabi's Landmark
Tower) was 16,000 cubic meters of concrete poured within a two day
period.[42] The previous record (close to 10,500 cubic meters) was held by
Dubai Contracting Company and achieved March 23, 2007.[43]

The world record for largest continuously poured concrete floor was
completed November 8, 1997 in Louisville, Kentucky by design-build firm,
EXXCEL Project Management. The monolithic placement consisted of
225,000 square feet of concrete placed within a 30 hour period, finished to
a flatness tolerance of FF 54.60 and a levelness tolerance of FL 43.83. This
surpassed the previous record by 50% in total volume and 7.5% in total
area.[44][45]

Building with concrete

Concrete is the safest, most durable and sustainable building material. It

provides superior fire resistance, gains strength over time and has an
extremely long service life. Concrete is the most widely used construction
material in the world with annual consumption estimated at between 21
and 31 billion tonnes. Concrete construction minimizes the long-term costs of
a building or infrastructure project.

Environmentally sustainable

With its 100-year service life, concrete conserves resources by reducing the
need for reconstruction. Its ingredients are cement and readily available
natural materials: water, aggregate (sand and gravel or crushed stone).
Concrete does not require any CO2 absorbing trees to be cut down. The land

[ñc
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 required to extract the materials needed to make concrete is only a fraction
of that used to harvest forests for lumber.

The Baths of Caracalla, Rome, Italy, in 2003.

Concrete absorbs CO2 throughout its lifetime through carbonation, helping

reduce its carbon footprint. A recent study [46] indicates that in countries
with the most favorable recycling practices, it is realistic to assume that
approximately 86% of the concrete is carbonated after 100 years. During
this time, the concrete will absorb approximately 57% of the CO2 emitted
during the original calcination. About 50% of the CO2 is absorbed within a
short time after concrete is crushed during recycling operations.

Concrete consists of between 7% and 15% cement, its only energy-intensive

ingredient. A study [47] comparing the CO2 emissions of several different
building materials for construction of residential and commercial buildings
found that concrete accounted for 147 kg of CO2 per 1000 kg used, metals
accounted for 3000 kg of CO2 and wood accounted for 127 kg of CO2. The
quantity of CO2 generated during the cement manufacturing process can be
reduced by changing the raw materials used in its manufacture.

A new environmentally friendly blend of cement known as Portland-

limestone cement (PLC) is gaining ground all over the world. It contains up
to 15% limestone, rather than the 5% in regular Portland cement and results
in 10% less CO2 emissions from production with no impact on product
performance. Concrete made with PLC performs similarly to concrete made
with regular cement and thus PLC-based concrete can be widely used as a
replacement. In Europe, PLC-based concrete has replaced about 40% of

[c
c
 general use concrete. In Canada, PLC will be included in the National
Building Code in 2010. The approval of PLC is still under consideration in
the United States.

Energy efficiency
Energy requirements for transportation of concrete are low because it is
produced locally from local resources, typically manufactured within 100
kilometers of the job site. Once in place, concrete offers significant energy
efficiency over the lifetime of a building .[48] Concrete walls leak air far less
than those made of wood-frames. Air leakage accounts for a large
percentage of energy loss from a home. The thermal mass properties of
concrete increase the efficiency of both residential and commercial
buildings. By storing and releasing the energy needed for heating or
cooling, concrete's thermal mass delivers year-round benefits by reducing
temperature swings inside and minimizing heating and cooling costs. While
insulation reduces energy loss through the building envelope, thermal mass
uses walls to store and release energy. Modern concrete wall systems use
both insulation and thermal mass to create an energy-efficient building.
Insulating Concrete Forms (ICFs) are hollow blocks or panels made of either
insulating foam or rastra that are stacked to form the shape of the walls of a
building and then filled with reinforced concrete to create the structure.

Models of Porsche automobiles, made out of concrete, part of an exhibition,

"Best of Austria," in the Lentos Museum in Linz, Austria in 2009.

[·c
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Gravel road

A gravel road, as often found in ruralareas and lesser-developed nations.

A close-up of gravel road in Terre Haute, Indiana.

A gravel road is a type of unpaved road surfaced with gravel that has been brought to the site
from a quarry or stream bed. They are common in less-developed nations, and also in the rural
areas of developed nations such as Canada and the United States. In New Zealand, they are
known as 'metal roads'.[1] They may be referred to as 'dirt roads' in common speech, but that
term is used more for unimproved roads with no surface material added. If well constructed and
maintained, a gravel road is an all-weather road.

The gravel used consists of irregular stones mixed with a varying amount of sand, silt, and clay,
which can act as a binder. A gravel road is quite different from a 'gravel drive', popular as
privatedriveways in the United Kingdom. This uses clean gravel consisting of uniform, rounded
stones and small pebbles.

[åc
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Characteristics

Construction

Compared to sealed roads, which require large machinery to work and pour concrete or to lay
and smooth a bitumen-based surface, gravel roads are easy and cheap to build. However,
compared to dirt roads, all-weather gravel highways are quite expensive to build, as they
requirefront loaders, dump trucks, graders and roadrollers to provide a base course of hard-
packed earth or other material, sometimesmacadamised, covered with one or more different
layers of gravel. Graders are also used to produce a more extreme camber compared to a paved
road to aid drainage, as well as construct drainage ditches and embankments in low-lying
areas. Cellular confinement systems can be used to prevent the washboarding effect.

.Maintenance

Gravel roads require much more frequent maintenance than paved roads, especially after wet
periods and when accommodating increased traffic. Wheel motion shoves material to the
outside (as well as in-between travelled lanes), leading to rutting, reduced water-runoff, and
eventual road destruction if unchecked. As long as the process is interrupted early enough,
simple re-grading is sufficient, with material being pushed back into shape.

Another problem with gravel roads is washboarding ³ the formation of corrugations across the
surface at right angles to the direction of travel. They can become severe enough to cause
vibration in vehicles so that bolts loosen or cracks form in components. Grading removes the
corrugations, and reconstruction with careful choice of good quality gravel can help prevent
them re-forming. Additionally, installing acellular confinement system will prevent the
washboard-like corrugations from occurring.

Gravel roads are often found in cold climates because they are less vulnerable to freeze / thaw
damage than asphalt roads and also because the inferior surface of gravel is not an issue if the
road is covered by snow and ice for extended periods.

ñ c
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Driving
Although well-constructed and graded gravel roads are suitable for speeds of 100 km/h (60
mph), driving on them requires far more attention to variations of the surface and it is easier to
lose control than on a paved road. In addition to potholes, ruts and loose stony or sandy ridges
at the edges or in the middle of the road, problems associated with driving on gravel roads
include:

Îc sharper and larger stones cutting and puncturing tires, or being thrown up by the wheels
and damaging the underside, especially puncturing the fuel tank of unmodified cars
Îc stones skipping up hitting the car body, lights or windshields when two vehicles pass
Îc dust thrown up from a passing vehicle reducing visibility
Îc 'washboard' corrugations cause loss of control or damage to vehicles
Îc skidding on mud after rain
Îc in higher rainfall areas, the increased camber required to drain water, and open drainage
ditches at the sides of the road, often cause vehicles with a high centre of gravity, such as
trucks and off-road vehicles, to overturn if they do not keep close to the crown of the road.
Îc Tire wear increases by 40%-50% on Gravel Roads
Îc Excess dust permeates door-opening rubber moulding breaking the seal
Îc Lost binder in the form of road dust, when mixed with rain, will wear away the painted
surfaces of vehicles

ñ›c
c
ROAD DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
PROCEDURE

ROAD AND BRIDGE RECONSTRUCTION IMPROVEMENTS ARE PRIORITIZED BASE ON

PUBLIC INPUT, PUBLIC HEARINGS, ENGINEERING JUDGMENT AND AVAILABILITY OF
FUNDING SOURCES. ONCE A PROJECT HAS BEEN APPROVED AND SCHEDULED ON
THE COUNTY'S FIVE YEAR CONSTRUCTION PROGRAM THE COUNTY ENGINEER IS
DIRECTED TO BEGIN PRELIMINARY SURVEYS USED FOR DESIGN. THE FOLLOWING IS
A RECAP OF THIS PROCEDURE:

PRELIMINARY SURVEYS

1.cPRELIMINARY MAPPING SURVEY

MAP THE ENTIRE AREA WHERE THE NEW ROAD CONSTRUCTION WILL TAKE
PLACE TO ENABLE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE NEW HIGHWAY LOCATION.

BENCH MARKS EVERY 1000 FEET OVER THE ENTIRE PROJECT

1.cBENCH MARKS
ESTABLISH LENGTH, REFERENCED TO SEA LEVEL ELEVATION.

2.cALIGNMENT

ESTABLISH THE NEW ALIGNMENT OF THE HIGHWAY ON THE ENTIRE LENGTH

OF THE PROJECT, INCLUDING PUBLIC ROAD CONNECTIONS.

(1)c ASURE AND ESTABLISH SURVEY POINTS EVERY 100 FEET.

ñmc
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 (2)c SET REFERENCE POINTS TO PRESERVE THE NEW ROAD ALIGNMENT
(APPROXIMATELY 30 PER MILE).

3.c PROPERTY CORNERS

LOCATE ALL EXISTING PROPERTY CORNERS ADJACENT TO THE NEW

HIGHWAY
AND REFERENCE THEM TO THE NEW CENTERLINE.

4.cTOPOGRAPHY

REFERENCE ALL PHYSICAL LAND FEATURES TO THE NEW HIGHWAY

CENTERLINE (BUILDINGS, FENCES, TREES, DRIVEWAYS, ROAD CONNECTIONS,
WETLAND, LAKES, RIVERS, UTILITY POLES, CABLES, PEDESTALS, CULVERTS,
ETC.) TO A POINT 100 FEET (MINIMUM) ON EACH SIDE OF THE NEW HIGHWAY
CENTERLINE.

5.c CROSS SECTIONS

ESTABLISH SEA LEVEL ELEVATIONS OF THE EXISTING GROUND SURFACE

EVERY 30 - 50 FEET TO A POINT 100 FEET ON EACH SIDE OF THE NEW
HIGHWAY CENTERLINE OVER THE ENTIRE PROJECT LENGTH,
(APPROXIMATELY 115 CROSS SECTIONS PER MILE).

6.cSOILS SURVEY

SOIL BORINGS ARE TAKEN WITH A DRILL RIG AND BY HAND AUGER TO A
POINT 100 FEET ON EACH SIDE OF THE NEW HIGHWAY CENTERLINE, ( A
MINIMUM OF 25 BORINGS PER MILE), AND THE SOILS CLASSIFIED.

ñc
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 7.c SWAMP SOUNDINGS

THE DEPTH OF THE MUCK AND PEAT MATERIAL IS MEASURED IN ALL

WETLANDS AND RIVERS WITHIN 100 FEET OF THE NEW HIGHWAY
CENTERLINE. (APPROXIMATELY 30 SOUNDINGS PER ACRE).

8.c RIGHT OF WAY ACQUISITION

THE RIGHT OF WAY AND SLOPE EASEMENT LIMITS OF THE NEW HIGHWAY
INCLUDING PROPERTY LINES, ARE STAKED EVERY 100 FEET (MINIMUM) ON
EACH SIDE OF THE HIGHWAY FOR APPRAISAL OF THE PROPERTY AND RIGHT
OF WAY NEGOTIATIONS.

9.cADDITIONAL SURVEYS

HIGHWAY AND BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS WHICH AFFECT

WETLANDS, LAKES AND RIVERS REQUIRE ADDITIONAL SURVEYS AND
ATTENTION TO DETERMINE THE TOTAL IMPACT TO THE AREA. THIS DATA IS
NEEDED TO OBTAIN PERMITS FROM THE MINNESOTA DEPARTMENT OF
NATURAL RESOURCES AND THE U.S. ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERS AND ALSO
FOR NOTIFYING THE OTHER AGENCIES THAT MAY BE INVOLVED WITH THE
PROPOSED CONSTRUCTION (MINNESOTA POLLUTION CONTROL AGENCY,
STATE HISTORIC PRESERVATION OFFICER, ETC.) ALONG WITH PERMITS THERE
MAY BE REPORTS REQUIRED TO BE WRITTEN DESCRIBING CERTAIN
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES WHICH AT THE MINIMUM TAKE 60 DAYS FOR
REVIEW.

ñ6c
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 CONSTRUCTION SURVEYS

1.c PRIOR TO CONSTRUCTION OPERATIONS

(1) RE-ESTABLISH THE NEW HIGHWAY CENTERLINE (SET SURVEY POINTS

EVERY 100 FEET ON THE NEW CENTERLINE).
(2) SET STAKES TO MARK THE LIMITS OF TREE AND BRUSH REMOVAL AT THE
RIGHT OF WAY LIMITS (APPROXIMATELY 150 STAKES PER MILE).

1.c AFTER COMPLETION OF THE TREES AND BRUSH REMOVAL

(1) RE-ESTABLISH THE NEW HIGHWAY CENTERLINE, (THE CENTERLINE

ESTABLISHED IN STEP NO. 1 IS PARTIALLY DESTROYED DURING THE TREE AND
BRUSH REMOVAL OPERATIONS).

(2) SET CONSTRUCTION STAKES:

A. CENTERLINE REFERENCE STAKES ARE SET EVERY 100 FEET ON EACH SIDE
OF THE NEW HIGHWAY BEYOND THE CONSTRUCTION LIMITS TO ENABLE THE
CONTRACTOR TO LOCATE THE NEW HIGHWAY CENTERLINE, SHOULDER AND
DITCH BOTTOM ELEVATION.

B. SLOPE STAKES ARE ALSO SET EVERY 100 FEET (MINIMUM) ON EACH
SIDE OF THE NEW HIGHWAY CENTERLINE WHICH ESTABLISH THE CUT OR FILL
POINT OF THE NEW CONSTRUCTION.

C. STAKES ARE SET AT ALL NEW CROSS CULVERTS WHICH INDICATE THE
LOCATION AND ELEVATION OF THE INLET AND OUTLET OF THE CULVERT.

D. ADDITIONAL STAKES ARE SET IN VARIOUS AREAS FOR CURB AND GUTTER

ñ[c
c
 AND STORM SEWER CONSTRUCTION AND OTHER SPECIAL CONSTRUCTION
ITEMS.

3. WHEN THE EARTHWORK PORTION OF THE CONSTRUCTION IS NEAR

COMPLETION

STAKES (BLUE TOPS) ARE SET ON THE NEW HIGHWAY CENTERLINE AND
SHOULDER LINE EVERY100 FEET (MINIMUM) AND DRIVEN TO THE ELEVATION
INDICATED IN THE CONSTRUCTION PLANS.

THE "BLUE TOPS" ARE THEN USED BY THE CONTRACTOR TO PERFORM THE
FINAL FINISH TO THE NEW HIGHWAY PRIOR TO CONSTRUCTING THE
AGGREGATE BASE AND BITUMINOUS SURFACE MATERIALS.
WHEN THE FINISH

4. EROSION CONTROL

ING OF THE SLOPES AND DITCH BOTTOMS AND REPLACEMENT OF THE

TOPSOIL ARE COMPLETE, SODDING STAKES ARE SET FOR THE CONTRACTOR
TO PLACE SOD ON VARIOUS AREAS OF THE SHOULDERS AND DITCH BOTTOMS
TO PREVENT EROSION. STAKES ARE ALSO SET FOR OTHER EROSION CONTROL
MATERIALS SUCH AS STRAW MULCH, ROCK RIPRAP, ETC.

5. WHEN THE PROJECT IS COMPLETE

FINAL MEASUREMENTS ARE TAKEN ON THE CONTRACT ITEMS TO DETERMINE

A OVERRUN OR UNDERRUN OF QUANTITY, SUCH AS BORROW PITS,
CONCRETE ITEMS, SOD, SEEDING, ETC. TO ARRIVE AT FINAL PAYMENT FOR
THE CONTRACTOR.

IF THE MANY TRIPS AND TIME ELEMENT INVOLVED WITH A NEW PROJECT
FROM START TO FINISH IS MUCH LONGER THEN SEEMS REASONABLE, THEN I
HOPE THIS ARTICLE WILL BE HELPFUL IN UNDERSTANDING THE HIGHWAY
DEPARTMENT'S ASSIGNED RESPONSIBILITIES TO RECONSTRUCT A ROAD OR
BRIDGE.

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 SOIL TREATMENT

BACKFILLING, CONSOLIDATION & COMPACTION

Preparation
ac The ground over which the filling has to be done should be cleaned off all
grass, loose stones, rubbish of all kinds etc. If there is water in the area, it
should be pumped or bailed out.
ac If the plinth depth doesn·t exceed 45cm above ground level and if the
exposed ground is B.C. soil, then remove the BC soil completely to avoid
uneven settlement of the flooring.
ac Select the refilling material from the excavated stuff and stock it
separately for reuse.
ac Estimate the quantity of refilling in the plinth and in pits. Judge the
quantity of material available.
ac Place the order for any further refilling material required.
ac Engage laborers for refilling.
ac Keep all tools for refilling and compaction ready.

Filling, consolidation & compaction

ac The sides of concrete and masonry in foundation trenches or in

the column pits should be filled with suitable excavated material. Filling
should be done in layers, and compacted with steel rammer or with
wooden logs.
ac The approved excavated material, which has been stocked, shall be
cleaned of all rubbish, large size stone, vegetation etc.
ac Filling should be done in layers each layer being of 15cm to 20cm.
ac Each layer is watered and compacted with heavy rammers of wooden
logs or steel.
ac If the area of refilling is large then either electric operated or fuel
operated compactors are used to compact the filling material.
ñc
c
ac The process of filling in plinth, watering and compaction shall be carried
out till the required level is reached so as to form a thoroughly
compacted base.
ac While compacting due care is taken to protect the foundation columns,
plinth walls, etc., which are already constructed.
ac If the depth of filling exceeds more than 1m then for economy purpose
building rabbit may be allowed as a filling material for further depth,
the procedure being the same.
ac Under no circumstances black cotton soil shall be used for filling in plinth
and footing pits.

COMPACTION OF SOILS

Compaction means pressing of soilparticles close to each other by

mechanical methods. Air duringcompaction is expelled from the void space
in the soil mass and therefore the mass density is increased. Compaction is
done to improve the engineering properties of the soil. Compaction of soil is
required for theconstruction of earth dams, canal embankments, highways,
runways and many other structures.

STANDARD PROCTOR TEST

c
c
To assess the amount of compaction and water content required in the
field, compaction tests are done on the same soil in the laboratory. The test
provides a relationship between the water content and the dry density. The
water content at which the maximum dry density is attained is obtained
from the relationship provided by the tests. Proctor used a standard mould
of 4 inches internal diameter and an effective height of 4.6 inches with a
capacity of 1/30 cubic foot. The mould had a detachable base plate and a
removable collar of 2 inches height at its top. The soil is compacted in the
mould in 3 layers, each layer was given 25 blows of 5.5 pounds rammer
filling through a height of 12 inches.

IS: 2720 part VII recommends essentially the same specification as in

Standard Proctor test, some minor modifications. The mould recommended
is of 100mm diameter, 127.3 mm height and 1000ml capacity. The rammer
recommended is of 2.6 kg mass with a free drop of 310mm and a face
diameter of 50mm. The soil is compacted in three layers. The mould is fixed
to the detachable base plate. The collar is of 60mm height.

Procedure

About 3kg of air dried soil is taken for the test. It is mixed with 8% water
content and filled in the mould in three layers and giving 25 blows to each
layer. The volume of the mould and mass of the compacted soil is taken.
The bulk density is calculated from the observations. A representative
sample is placed in the oven for determination of water content. The dry
density id found out from the bulk density and water content. The same
procedure is repeated by increasing the water content.
Presentation of results

Compaction curve

·c
c
A compaction curve is plotted between the water content as abscissa and
the corresponding dry density as ordinate. It is observed that the dry
density initially increases with an increase in water content till the
maximum density is attained. With further increase in water content the
dry density decreases. The water content corresponding to maximum dry
density is known as the optimum water content (O.W.C) or the optimum
moisture content (O.M.C).

At a water content more than the optimum, the additional water reduces
the dry density as it occupies the space that might have been occupied by
the solid particles.

For a given water content, theoretical maximum density is obtained

corresponding to the condition when there are no air voids (degree of
saturation is 100%). The theoretical maximum density is also known as
saturated dry density. The line indicating theoretical maximum density can
be plotted along with the compaction curve. It is known as the zero air void
line.

åc
c
MODIFIED PROCTOR TEST

The modified Proctor test was developed to represent heavier compaction

than that in the standard Proctor test. The test is used to simulate field
conditions where heavy rollers are used. The test was standardized by
American association of State Highway Officials and is, therefore also
known as modified AASHO test.

In this, the mould used is same as that in the Std Proctor test. However, the
rammer used is much heavier and has a greater drop than that in the Std
Proctor test. Its mass is 4.89 kg and the free drop is 450mm. The soil is
compacted in five equal layers, each layer is given 25 blows. The
compactive effort in modified Proctor test is 4.56 times greater than in the
Std Proctor test. The rest of the procedure is same

FACTORS AFFECTING COMPACTION

ac Water Content

At low water content, the soil is stiff and offers more resistance to
compaction. As the water content is increased, the soil particles get
lubricated. The soil mass becomes more workable and the particles have
closer packing. The dry density of the soil increases with an increase in the
water content till the O.M.C is reached.
ac Amount of compaction

The increase in compactive effort will increase the dry density at lower
water content to a certain extent.
ac Type of soil

The dry density achieved depends upon the type of soil. The O.M.C and dry
density for different soils are different
ac Method of compaction

The dry density achieved depends on the method of compaction

EFFECT OF COMPACTION ON PROPERTIES OF SOILS

· c
c
1. Soil Structure
Soils compacted at a water content less than the optimum generally have a
flocculated structure. Soils compacted at water content more than the
optimum usually have a dispersed structure.

2. Permeability

The permeability of a soil depends upon the size of voids. The permeability
of a soil decreases with an increase in water content on the dry side of
optimum water content.

3. Swelling

4. Pore water pressure

5. Shrinkage

6. Compressibility

7. Stress-strain relationship

8. Shear strength

METHODS OF COMPACTION USED IN THE FIELD

Several methods are used in the field for compaction of soils. The choice of
method will depend upon the soil type, the maximum dry density required
and economic consideration. The commonly used methods are

1. Tampers

2. Rollers

3. Vibratory compactors

The compaction depends upon the following factors

ac Contact pressure

·›c
c
ac Number of passes
ac Layer thickness
ac Speed of roller
Types of rollers
ac Smooth-wheel rollers
ac Pneumatic tyred rollers
ac Sheep foot rollers

COMPACTION CONTROL
Compaction control is done by measuring the dry density and the water
content of compacted soil in the field
ac Dry density

The dry density is measured by core cutter method and sand replacement
method
ac Water content

For the measurement of water content, oven drying method, sand bath
method, calcium carbide method etc are used. Proctor needle is also used
for this.

COMPRESSIBILITY AND CONSOLIDATION OF SOILS

When a soil mass is subjected to a compressive force, its volume decreases.

The property of the soildue to which a decrease in volume occurs under
compressive force is known as the compressibility of soil. The compression
of soilcan occur due to
1.c Compression of solid particles and water in the voids
2.c Compression and expulsion of air in the voids
3.c Expulsion of water in the voids

·mc
c
The compression of saturated soil under a steady static pressure is known
asconsolidation. It is entirely due to expulsion of water from the voids

INITIAL, PRIMARY AND SECONDARY CONSOLIDATION

ac Initial Consolidation
When a load is applied to a partially saturated soil, a decrease in volume
occurs due to expulsion and compression of air in the voids. A small
decrease in volume occurs due to compression of solid particles. The
reduction in volume of the soil just after the application of the load is
known as initialconsolidation or initial compression. For saturated soils, the
initial consolidation is mainly due to compression of solid particles.

ac Primary Consolidation

After initial consolidation, further reduction in volume occurs due to

expulsion of water from the voids. When a saturated soil is subjected to a
pressure, initially all the applied pressure is taken up by water as an excess
pore water pressure. A hydraulic gradient will develop and the water starts
flowing out and a decrease in volume occurs. This reduction in volume is
called as the primary consolidation of soil
ac secondary Consolidation

The reduction in volume continues at a very slow rate even after the excess
hydrostatic pressure developed by the applied pressure is fully dissipated
and the primary consolidation is complete. The additional reduction in the
volume is called as the secondary consolidation.

·c
c
 TESTS ON MATERIALS USED:

(1)c TESTS ON AGGREGATE

AGGREGATE IMPACT VALUE

DETERMINATION OF AGGREGATE IMPACT VALUE

AIM:
(i) to determine the impact value of the roadaggregates;
(ii) to assess their suitability in roadconstruction on the basis of impact
value.

APPARATUS:
The apparatus as per IS: 2386 (Part IV) ² 1963 consists of:
(i) A testing machine weighing 45 to 60 kg and having a metal base with a
painted lower surface of not less than 30 cm in diameter. It is supported on
level and plane concrete floor of minimum 45 cm thickness. The machine
should also have provisions for fixing its base.
(ii) A cylindrical steel cup of internal diameter 102 mm, depth 50 mm and
minimum
thickness 6.3 mm. .
(iii) A metal hammer or tup weighing 13.5 to 14.0 kg the lower end being
cylindrical in shape, 50 mm long, 100.0 mm in diameter, with a 2 mm
chamfer at the lower edge and case hardened. The hammer should slide

·6c
c
freely between vertical guides and be concentric with the cup. Free fall of
hammer should be within 380±5 mm.
(iv) A cylindrical metal measure having internal diameter 75 mm and
depth 50 mm
for measuring aggregates.
(v) Tamping rod 10 mm in diameter and 230 mm long, rounded at one
end.
(vi) A balance of capacity not less than 500g, readable and accurate upto
0.1 g.

THEORY:
The property of a material to resist impact is known as toughness. Due to
movement of vehicles on the road the aggregates are subjected to impact
resulting in their breaking down into smaller pieces. The aggregates should
therefore have sufficient toughness to resist their disintegration due to
impact. This characteristic is measured by impact value test.
The aggregate impact value is a measure of resistance to sudden impact or
shock, which may differ from its resistance to gradually applied
compressive load.

PROCEDURE:
The test sample consists of aggregates sized 10.0 mm 12.5 mm. Aggregates
may be dried by heating at 100-110° C for a period of 4 hours and cooled.
(i) Sieve the material through 12.5 mm and 10.0mm IS sieves. The
aggregates
passing through 12.5mm sieve and retained on 10.0mm sieve comprises the
test
material.
(ii) Pour the aggregates to fill about just 1/3 rd depth of measuring
cylinder.

·[c
c
(iii) Compact the material by giving 25 gentle blows with the rounded end
of the
tamping rod.
(iv) Add two more layers in similar manner, so that cylinder is full.
(v) Strike off the surplus aggregates.
(vi) Determine the net weight of the aggregates to the nearest gram(W).
(vii) Bring the impact machine to rest without wedging or packing up on
the level plate, block or floor, so that it is rigid and the hammer guide
columns are vertical.
(viii) Fix the cup firmly in position on the base of machine and place whole
of the test
sample in it and compact by giving 25 gentle strokes with tamping rod.
(ix) Raise the hammer until its lower face is 380 mm above the surface of
aggregate sample in the cup and allow it to fall freely on the aggregate
sample. Give 15 such blows at an interval of not less than one second
between successive falls.
(x) Remove the crushed aggregate from the cup and sieve it through 2.36
mm IS sieves until no further significant amount passes in one minute.
Weigh the fraction passing the sieve to an accuracy of 1 gm. Also, weigh the
fraction retained in the sieve.
Compute the aggregate impact value. The mean of two observations,
rounded to nearest whole number is reported as the Aggregate Impact
Value.

OBSERVATIONS

Total weight of dry sample ( W1 gm)

·ñc
c
Weight of portion passing 2.36 mm sieve (W2 gm)

Aggregate Impact Value (percent) = W2 / W1 X 100

Mean = 14.5%

RESULT:
Aggregate Impact Value = 14.5 % (c

c 
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cccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccc cc c  c

RECOMMENDED VALUES

Classification of aggregates using Aggregate Impact Value is as given

below:

Aggregate Impact Value Classification

<20% Exceptionally Strong

10 ² 20% Strong

20-30% Satisfactory for road surfacing

>35% Weak for road surfacing

Specified limits of percent aggregate impact value for different types of

road construction by Indian Roads Congress is given below.

·c
c
AGGREGATE CRUSHING VALUE

AIM
To determine the aggregate crushing value of coarse aggregate.

µThe aggregate crushing value gives a relative measure of the resistance of

an aggregate crushing under gradually applied compressive load . With
aggregate crushing value 30 or higher· the result may be anomalous and
in such cases the ten percent fines value should be determined instead.

APPARATUS

(I) A steel cylinder 15 cm diameter with plunger and base plate .

(II) A straight metal tamping rod 16mm diameter and 45 to 60cm long
rounded at one end.

(III) A balance of capacity 3 kg readable and accurate to one gram.

(IV) IS sieves of sizes 12.5mm, 10mm and 2.36mm

(V) A compression testing machine.

(VI) Cylindrical metal measure of sufficient rigidity to retain its from under
rough

usage and of 11.5cm diameter and 18cm height.

(VII) Dial gauge

··c
c
SAMPLING

Coarse aggregate passing 12.5mm IS sieve and retained on a10mm. IS sieve

and heated at 100 to 110°C for 4 hours and cooled to room temperature.

The quantity of aggregate shall be such that the depth of material in the
cylinder , after tamping as described below shall be 10 cm.

The appropriate quantity may be found conveniently by filling the

cylinder.

Measure in three layers of approximately equal depth ,each layer being

tamped 25 times with the tamping rod and finally leveled off using the
tamping rod as straight edge,care being taken in the case of weaker
materials not to break the particles.the weight of the material comprising
the test sample shall be determined (weight A) and the same weight of
sample shall be taken for the repeat test.

·åc
c
PROCEDURE

((i)Put the cylinder in position on the base plate and weigh it (W)

(ii)Put the sample in 3 layers ,each layer being subjected to 25 strokes

using the tamping rod ,care being taken in the case of weak materials not
to break the particles and weigh it (W1)

(iii)Level the surface of aggregate carefully and insert the plunger so that
it rests horizontally on the surface ,care being taken to ensure that the
plunger does not jam in the cylinder.

(iv)Place the cylinder with plunger on the loading platform of the

compression testing machine.

(v)Apply load at a uniform rate so that a total load of 40T is applied in 10

minutes .

(vi)Release the load and remove the material from the cylinder.

(vii)Sieve the material with 2.36mm IS sieve, care being taken to avoid loss
of fines .

(viii)Weigh the fraction passing through the IS sieve (W2)

CALCULATIONS

The ratio of weight of fines formed to the weight of total sample in each
test shall be expressed as a percentage , the result being recorded to the
first decimal place.

W2

Aggregate crushing value = (W2x100) / (W1-W)

W2 =Weight of fraction passing through the appropriate sieve

å c
c
W1-W =Weight of surface dry sample.

The mean of two result to nearest whole number is the aggregate crushing
value.

RESULT

The aggregate crushing value of the given sample= 21%(cement concrete)

å›c
c
SLUMP TEST

AIM
To study the workability (determine the consistency) of
prepared concrete either in the laboratory or laboratory or during the
progress of work in the field and to check the uniformity of concrete from
batch to batch.
APPARATUS

Mould for slump test, non porous base plate, measuring scale, temping rod.
The mould for the test is in the form of the frustum of a cone having height
30 cm, bottom diameter 20 cm and top diameter 10 cm. The tamping rod is
of steel 16 mm diameter and 60cm long and rounded at one end.
SAMPLING
A concrete mix (M15 or other) by weight with suitable water/ cement ratio is
prepaid in the laboratory similar to that explained in 5.9 and required for
casting 6 cubes after conducting Slump test.

PROCEDURE
i. Clean the internal surface of the mould and apply oil.

ii. Place the mould on a smooth horizontal non- porous base plate.
iii. Fill the mould wit5h the prepared concrete mix in 4 approximately
equal layers.

iv. Tamp each layer with 25 strokes of the rounded end of the tamping rod
in a uniform manner over the cross section of the mould. For the
subsequent layers, the tamping should penetrate into the underlying layer.
v. Remove the excess concrete and level the surface with a trowel.

vi. Clean away the mortar or water leaked out between the mould and the
base plate.

åmc
c
vii. Raise the mould from the concrete immediately and slowly in vertical
direction.

viii. Measure the slump as the difference between the height of the mould
and that of height point of the specimen being tested.

NOTE

The above operation should be carried out at a place free from Vibrations
or shock and within a period of 2 minutes after sampling.

SLUMP

The slump (Vertical settlement) measured shall be recorded in terms of

millimeters of subsidence of the specimen during the test.

RESULT

Slump for the given sample= 50mm

åc
c
COMPACTION FACTOR TEST

AIM

To study the workability of concrete

APPARATUS

Compaction factor apparatus· trowels, hand scoop (15.2 cm long), a rod of

steel or other suitable material (1.6 cm diameter, 61 cm long rounded at
one end ) and a balance.

SAMPLING

Concrete mix (M15) is prepared as per mixdesign in the laboratory

PROCEDURE

(I)Place the concrete sample gently in the upper hopper to its brim using
the hand scoop and level it.

(ii) Cover the cylinder

(iii) Open the trap door at the bottom of the upper hopper so
that concrete fall in to the lower hopper .Push the concrete sticking on its
sides gently with the road.
(iv) Open the trap door of the lower hopper and allow the concrete to fall in
to the cylinder below

(v) Cut of the excess of concrete above the top level of cylinder using
trowels and level it. (vi) Clean the outside of the cylinder.

å6c
c
(vii) Weight the cylinder with concrete to the nearest 10 g. This weight is
known as the weight of partially compacted concrete (wi).
(viii) Empty the cylinder and then refill it with the same concrete mix in
layers approximately 5cm deep, each layer being heavily rammed to
obtain full compaction.

(ix) Level the top surface.

(x) Weigh the cylinder with fully compacted. This weight is known as the
weight of fully compacted concrete (w2).

(xi) Find the weight of empty cylinder (W).

NOTE
The test is sufficiently sensitive to enable difference in work ability arising
from the initial process in the hydration of cement to be measured. Each
test, there for should be carried out at a constant time interval after the
mixing is completed, if strictly comparable results are to be obtained.
Convenient time for releasing the concrete from the upper hopper has been
found to be two minutes after the completion of mixing.

CALCULATION
1.c The compaction factor is defined as the ratio of the weight of partially
compacted concrete to the weight of fully compacted concrete. It shall
normally to be stated to the nearest second decimal place.
1.c Compaction Factor= (W1-W2 / W2-W)

RESULT

Compaction factor of the concrete = 0.8

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SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF FINE AND CORSE AGGREGATES

AIM

To determine the specific gravity of given sample of fine and

coarse aggregates.

SPECIFIC GRAVITTY OF COARSE AGGREGATE.

Apparatus

1.c A balance or scale of capacity not less than 3 kg, readable and accurate
to 0.5 g and of such a type and shape as to permit the basket containing
the sample to be suspended from the beam and the weighed in water.
2.c A well ventilated oven thermostatically controlled to maintain a
temperature of 100oC to 110oC.
3.c A wire basket of not more than 6.3 mm mesh or a perforated container
of convenient size.
4.c A stout water tight container of convenient size.
5.c Two dry soft absorbent cloths each not less than 75×45 cm
6.c A shallow tray of area no less than 650 cm2
7.c An air tight container of capacity similar to that of the basket.

Procedure

(I) Take 2 kg of aggregate. Sample larger than 10mm

(ii)Wash the sample thoroughly to remove finer particle and dust.

(iii) Place the sample in a wire basket and immerse it in distilled water at
a temperature between 22oC and 32oC with a cover of at least 5 cm of
water above the top of the basket.

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(iv) Remove the entrapped air by lifting the basket containing the sample
25 mm above the base of the tank and allowing it to drop per second, care
being taken to see that the sample is completely immersed in water during
the operation.

(v) With the sample in water at a temper of 220C-32oC (W).

(vi) Remove the basket and aggregate from water and allow To drain for
a few minutes.

(vii) Empty the aggregate from the basket to a shallow tray.

(viii) Immerse the empty basket in water jolt 25 times and than the weight
in water (w2).
(ix) Place the aggregates in oven at a temperature of 100oC to 110oC for
24+- 0.5 hours.

(x) Remove it from the oven and cool it and find the weight. (w2)
Calculations

Apparent Specific Gravity = (Weight of a substance/ wt of an equal vol of

water)

= W3/(W3- (w1-w2))

Result
S specific gravity of given coarse aggregate= ««2.65««««««..

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SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF FINE AGGREGATE

Apparatus

1.A balance of capacity not less than 3kg ,readable and accurate to 0.5 gm
and of such a type as to permit the weighing of the vessel containing the
aggregate and water .

2.A well ventilated oven to maintain a temperature of 100ºC to 110ºC

3.Pyconometer of about 1 littre capacity having a metal conical screw top

with a 6mm hole at its apex . The screw top shall be water tight .

4.a means supplying a current warm air .

5.A tray of area not less than 32cm .

6.An air tight container large enough to take the sample.

7.Filter papers and funnel.

Procedure

(I) Take about 500g of sample and place it in the pycnometer.

(II) Pour distilled water into it until it is full.

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(III) Eliminate the entrapped air by rotating the pycnometer on its side
,the hole in the apex of the cone being covered with a finger.

(IV) Wipe out the outer surface of pycnometer and weigh it (W)

(V) Transfer the contents of the pycnometer into a tray , care being taken
to ensure that all the aggregate is transferred .

(VI) Refill the pycnometer with distilled water to the same level .

(VII) Find out the weight (W1)

(VIII) drink water from the sample through a filter paper .

(IX) Place the sample in oven in a tray at a temperature of 100ºC to 110º C

for 24±0.5 hours ,during which period ,it is stirred occasionally to facilitate
drying .

(X) Cool the sample and weigh it (W2)

Calculation

Apparent specific gravity = (weight of dry sample/weight of equal volume

of water )

= W2/(W2- (W-W2))

Result
Specific gravity of fine aggregate =«2.60««««««..

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Flakiness index and Elongation Index of
Coarse Aggregates

AIM:

of an aggregate is the percentage by weight of particles whose

greatest dimension (length) is greater than nine-fifths (1.8times) their
mean dimension. This test is not applicable for sizes smaller than
6.3mm.

i. to determine the elongation index of the given aggregates

ii. to determine the flakiness index of the given aggregates

APPARATUS:

The apparatus for the shape tests consists of the following:

(i) A standard thickness gauge

(ii) A standard length gauge
(iii) IS sieves of sizes 63, 50 40, 31.5, 25, 20, 16, 12.5,10 and
6.3mm
(iv) A balance of capacity 5kg, readable and accurate up to 1 gm.

THEORY:

The particle shape of aggregates is determined by the percentages of

flaky and elongated particles contained in it. For base course
and constructionof bituminous and cement concrete types, the
presence of flaky and elongated particles are considered undesirable
as these cause inherent weakness with possibilities of breaking down
under heavy loads. Thus, evaluation of shape of the particles,
particularly with reference to flakiness and elongation is necessary.

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 The Flakiness index of aggregates is the percentage by weight of
particles whose least dimension (thickness) is less than three- fifths
(0.6times) of their mean dimension. This test is not applicable to sizes
smaller than 6.3mm.

The Elongation index

PROCEDURE:

(i) Sieve the sample through the IS sieves (as specified in the table).
(ii) Take a minimum of 200 pieces of each fraction to be tested and
weigh them.
(iii) In order to separate the flaky materials, gauge each fraction for
thickness on a thickness gauge. The width of the slot used should
be of the dimensions specified in column (4) of the table for the
appropriate size of the material.
(iv) Weigh the flaky material passing the gauge to an accuracy of at
least 0.1 per cent of the test sample.
(v) In order to separate the elongated materials, gauge each fraction
for length on a length gauge. The width of the slot used should be
of the dimensions specified in column (6) of the table for the
appropriate size of the material.
(vi) Weigh the elongated material retained on the gauge to an
accuracy of at least 0.1 per cent of the test sample.

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OBSERVATIONS TABLE:

Size of aggregatesWeight
of Weight of Weight of
fraction aggregate Lengt aggregate
Passing
Retaine consisting Thicknes s in each h s in each
throug s gauge fraction gauge fraction
d on IS
h IS of at size, mm passing size, retained
Sieve,
Sieve, least thickness mm on length
mm
mm 200 gauge,mm gauge,mm
pieces,g
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
63 50 W1 23.90 X1 - -
50 40 W2 27.00 X2 81.00 Y1
40 31.5 W3 19.50 X3 58.00 Y2
31.5 25 W4 16.95 X4 - -
25 20 W5 13.50 X5 40.5 Y3
20 16 W6 10.80 X6 32.4 Y4
16 12.5 W7 8.55 X7 25.5 Y5
12.5 10 W8 6.75 X8 20.2 Y6
10 6.3 W9 4.89 X9 14.7 Y7
Total W= X= Y=

OBSERVATIONS:

Flakiness Index = (X1+ X2+«..) / (W1 + W2 + «.) X 100

Elongation Index = (Y1 + Y2 + «) / (W1 + W2 + «.) X 100

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RESULT:

i) Flakiness Index = 13% (bituminous macadam)

ii) Elongation Index = 12.5% (bituminous macadam)

RECOMMENDED VALUE:

The shape tests give only a rough idea of the relative shapes of
aggregates. Flaky and elongated particles should be avoided in
pavement construction, particularly in surface course. If such
particles are present in appreciable proportions, the strength of
pavement layer would be adversely affected due to possibility of
breaking under loads. Workability is reduced for cement concrete.
IRC recommendations for maximum limits of flakiness index are as
given.

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DETERMINATION OF LOS ANGELES ABRASION VALUE

AIM:

(i) to determine the Los Angeles abrasion value.

(ii) to find the suitability of aggregates for use in road construction.

APPARATUS:

The apparatus as per IS: 2386 (Part IV) ² 1963 consists of:

(i) Los Angeles Machine: It consists of a hollow steel cylinder, closed at both
the ends with an internal diameter of 700 mm and length 500 mm and
capable of rotating about its horizontal axis. A removable steel shaft
projecting radially 88 mm into cylinder and extending full length (i.e.500
mm) is mounted firmly on the interior of cylinder. The shelf is placed at a
distance 1250 mm minimum from the opening in the direction of rotation.

(ii) Abrasive charge: Cast iron or steel balls, approximately 48mm in

diameter and each weighing between 390 to 445g; six to twelve balls are
required.

(iii) Sieve: 1.70, 2.36,4.75,6.3,10,12.5,20,25,40,50,63,80 mm IS Sieves.

(iv) Balance of capacity 5kg or 10kg

(v) Drying oven

(vi) Miscellaneous like tray

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THEORY:

The aggregate used in surface course of the highway pavements are

subjected to wearing due to movement of traffic. When vehicles move on
the road, the soil particles present between the pneumatic tyres and road
surface cause abrasion of road aggregates. The steel reamed wheels of
animal driven vehicles also cause considerable abrasion of the road surface.
Therefore, the roadaggregates should be hard enough to resist abrasion.
Resistance to abrasion of aggregate is determined in laboratory by Los
Angeles test machine. The principle of Los Angeles abrasion test is to
produce abrasive action by use of standard steel balls which when mixed
with aggregates and rotated in a drum for specific number of revolutions
also causes impact on aggregates. The percentage wear of the aggregates
due to rubbing with steel balls is determined and is known as Los Angeles
Abrasion Value.

PROCEDURE:

The test sample consists of clean aggregates dried in oven at 105° ² 110°C.
The sample should conform to any of the gradings shown in table 1.
(i)c Select the grading to be used in the test such that it conforms to
the grading to be used inconstruction, to the maximum extent
possible.

(ii)c Take 5 kg of sample for gradings A, B, C & D and 10 kg for

gradings E, F & G.

(iii)c
(iv)c Choose the abrasive charge as per Table 2 depending on
grading of aggregates.

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 (v)c Place the aggregates and abrasive charge on the cylinder and
fix the cover.

(vi)cRotate the machine at a speed of 30 ² 33 revolutions per

minute. The number of revolutions is 500 for gradings A, B, C &
D and 1000 for gradings E, F & G. The machine should be
balanced and driven such that there is uniform peripheral
speed.
(vi) The machine is stopped after the desired number of revolutions
and material is discharged to a tray.

(vii)c The entire stone dust is sieved on 1.70 mm IS sieve.

(viii)c The material coarser than 1.7mm size is weighed correct to one
gram.

OBSERVATIONS:

Original weight of aggregate sample = W1 g

Weight of aggregate sample retained = W2 g
Weight passing 1.7mm IS sieve = W1 - W2 g
Abrasion Value = (W1 - W2 ) / W1 X 100

RESULT:
Los Angeles Abrasion Value =39 % (bituminous macadam)
= 19 % (bituminous concrete surface course)

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RECOMMENDED VALUE:

Los Angeles test is commonly used to evaluate the hardness of aggregates.

The test has more acceptability because the resistance to abrasion and
impact is determined simultaneously. Depending upon the value, the
suitability of aggregates for different road constructions can be judged as
per IRC specifications as given:

Sl Aggregate impact value not

Type of pavement
No more than

1. Wearing Course 30

a) Bituminous surface dressing

b) Penetration macadam

c) Bituminous carpet concrete

d) Cement concrete

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 Bitumen bound macadam base
2. 35
course

WBM base course with bitumen

3. 40
surfacing

4 Cement concrete base course 45

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WATER ABSORPTION TEST

AIM:

To determine the water absorption ofaggregates

APPARATUS:

The apparatus consists of the following

(a) A balance of capacity about 3kg, to weigh accurate 0.5g, and of such a
type and shape as to permit weighing of the sample container when
suspended in water.

(b) A thermostatically controlled oven to maintain temperature at 100-

110° C.

(c) A wire basket of not more than 6.3 mm mesh or a perforated container
of convenient size with thin wire hangers for suspending it from the
balance.

(d) A container for filling water and suspending the basket

(e) An air tight container of capacity similar to that of the basket
(f) A shallow tray and two absorbent clothes, each not less than 75x45cm.

THEORY:

The specific gravity of an aggregate is considered to be a measure of

strength or quality of the material. Stones having low specific gravity are
generally weaker than those with higher specific gravity values.

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PROCEDURE:

(i)c About 2 kg of
(ii)c aggregate sample is washed thoroughly to remove fines,
drained and placed in wire basket and immersed in distilled
water at a temperature between 22- 32º C and a cover of at
least 5cm of water above the top of basket.

(iii)c Immediately after immersion the entrapped air is removed

from the sample by lifting the basket containing it 25 mm
above the base of the tank and allowing it to drop at the rate
of about one drop per second. The basket and aggregate
should remain completely immersed in water for a period of 24
hour afterwards.

(iv)c The basket and the sample are weighed while suspended in
water at a temperature of 22° ² 32°C. The weight while
suspended in water is noted =W1g.

(v) The basket and aggregates are removed from water and
allowed to drain for a few minutes, after which
the aggregates are transferred to the dry absorbent clothes. The
empty basket is then returned to the tank of water jolted 25
times and weighed in water=W2g. .

(vi) The aggregates placed on the absorbent clothes are

surface dried till no further moisture could be removed by this
cloth. Then the aggregates are transferred to the second dry
cloth spread in single layer and allowed to dry for at least 10

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 minutes until the aggregates are completely surface dry. The
surface dried aggregate is then weighed =W3 g
(vii) The aggregate is placed in a shallow tray and kept in an
oven maintained at a temperature of 110° C for 24 hrs. It is then
removed from the oven, cooled in an air tight container and
weighted=W4 g.

(1) Specific gravity = (dry weight of the aggregate /Weight of

equal volume of water)
(2) Apparent specific gravity = (dry weight of the
aggregate/Weight of equal volume of water excluding air voids
in aggregate)

OBSERVATIONS:

Weight of saturated aggregate suspended in water with basket = W1 g

Weight of basket suspended in water = W2 g
Weight of saturated aggregate in water = W1 ² W2 g
Weight of saturated surface dry aggregate in air = W3 g
Weight of water equal to the volume of the aggregate = W3²(W1²W2)g
Weight of oven dry aggregate = W4 g
(1) Specific gravity = W3 / (W3² (W1² W2))
(2) Apparent specific gravity = W4 / (W4² (W1² W2))
(3) Water Absorption = ((W3 ² W4) / W4) X 100

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RESULT:

Water Absorption =0.49%

RECOMMENDED VALUE:
The size of the aggregate and whether it has been artificially heated
should be indicated. ISI specifies three methods of testing for the
determination of the specific gravity of aggregates, according to the size of
the aggregates. The three size ranges used are aggregates larger than 10
mm, 40 mm and smaller than 10 mm. The specific gravity of aggregates
normally used in road constructionranges from about 2.5 to 3.0 with an
average of about 2.68. Though high specific gravity is considered as an
indication of high strength, it is not possible to judge the suitability of a
sample road aggregate without finding the mechanical properties such as
aggregate crushing, impact and abrasion values. Water absorption shall
not be more than 0.6 per unit by weight.

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(2) TESTS ON BITUMEN

PENETRATION TEST

AIM:

(i) To determine the consistency of bituminous material

(ii) To assess the suitability of bitumen for use under different climatic
conditions and various types of construction.

APPARATUS:

(i) Container: A flat bottomed cylindrical metallic dish 55 mm in diameter

and 35 mm in depth is required. If the penetration is of the order of 225 or
more, dish of 70mm diameter and 45mm depth is required.

(ii) Needle: A straight, highly polished, cylindrical hard steel rod.

(iii)Water bath: Water bath maintained at 25° ± 0.1 °C, containing not less
than 10 litres of water, the sample being immersed to a depth not less than
100 mm from top& supported on perforated shelf not less than 50 mm
from bottom of the bath.

(iv)Transfer dish or tray: Should provide support to the container & should
not rock it. It should be of such capacity as to completely immerse
container during test.

(v) Penetration apparatus: Should be such that it allows needle to

penetrate without much friction& is accurately calibrated to give results in
one tenth of a millimeter.

(vi)Thermometer: Range 0- 44 °C and in readable upto 0.20 C.

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(vii)Time measuring device: With an accuracy of l second.

THEORY:

Penetration value is a measure of hardness or consistency of bituminous

material. It is the vertical distance traversed or penetrated by the point of
a standard needle in to the bituminous material under specific conditions
of load, time and temperature. This distance is measured in one tenths of a
millimeter. This test is used for evaluating consistency of bitumen. It is not
regarded as suitable for use in connection with the testing of road tar
because of the high surface tension exhibited by these materials.

PROCEDURE:

(i) Preparation of test specimen: Soften the material to a pouring

consistency at a temperature not more than 60°C for tars and 90°C for
bitumen above the approximate softening point and stir it thoroughly

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until it is homogeneous and is free from air bubbles and water. Pour the
melt into the container to a depth at least

10mm in excess of the expected penetration. Protect the sample from dust
and allow it to cool in an atmosphere at a temperature between 15° to 30°
C for one hour. Then place it along with the transfer dish in the water bath
at 25° ± 0.1 °C, unless otherwise stated.

(ii) Fill the transfer dish with water from the water bath to depth sufficient
to cover the container completely, place the sample in it and put it upon
the stand of the penetration apparatus.

(iii) Clean the needle with benzene, dry it and load with the weight. The
total moving load required is 100 ± 0.25 gms, including the weight of the
needle, carrier and super-imposed weights.

(iv) Adjust the needle to make contact with the surface of the sample. This
may be done by placing the needlepoint in contact with its image reflected
by the surface of the bituminous material.

(i) Make the pointer of the dial to read zero or note the initial dial reading.

(ii) Release the needle for exactly five seconds.

(vi) Adjust the penetration machine to measure the distance penetrated.

(vii)Make at least 3 readings at points on the surface of the sample not less
than 10 mm apart and not less than l0mm from the side of the dish. After
each test return the sample and transfer dish to the water bath and wash
the needle clean with benzene and dry it. In case of material of penetration
greater than 225, three determinations on each of the two identical test
specimens using a separate needle for each determination should be made,
leaving the needle in the sample on completion of each determination to
avoid disturbance of the specimen.
PRECAUTIONS:

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(i) There should be no movement of the container while needle penetrates
into sample.

(ii) The sample should be free from any extraneous matter.

(iii)The needle should be cleaned with benzene and dried before

penetration.

OBSERVATIONS

Actual test temperature = 35 °C

RESULT:
33.5mm (bituminous macadam)

RECOMMENDED VALUE:

Penetration test is a commonly adopted test on bitumen to grade the

material in terms of its hardness. A 80/100 grade bitumen indicates that its
penetration value lies between 80 & 100.Grading of bitumen helps to assess
its suitability in different climatic conditions and types ofconstruction. For
bituminous macadam and penetration macadam, IRC suggests bitumen
grades 30/40, 60/70, 80/100. In warmer regions, lower penetration grades
are preferred to avoid softening whereas higher penetration grades like
180/200 are used in colder regions to prevent the occurrence of excessive
brittleness. High penetration grade is used in spray application works.

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DETERMINING SOFTENING POINT OF BITUMEN

This test is done to determine the softening point of asphaltic bitumen

and fluxed native asphalt, road tar, coal tar pitch and blown type
bitumen as per IS: 1205 ² 1978. The principle behind this test is that
softening point is the temperature at which the substance attains a
particular degree of softening under specified condition of the test.
The apparatus required for this test :-

i) Ring and ball apparatus

ii) Thermometer ² Low Range : -2 to 80oC, Graduation 0.2oC ² High
Range : 30 to 200oC, Graduation 0.5oC

PREPARATION OF SAMPLE

i) The sample should be just sufficient to fill the ring. The excess
sample should be cut off by a knife.
ii) Heat the material between 75 and 100oC. Stir it to remove air

bubbles and water, and filter it through IS

Sieve 30, if necessary.

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 iii) Heat the rings and apply glycerine. Fill the material in it and cool
it for 30 minutes.

iv) Remove excess material with the help of a warmed, sharp knife.

Procedure to determine Softening Point Of Bitumen

A) Materials of softening point below 80o C:

i) Assemble the apparatus with the rings, thermometer and ball

guides in position.

ii) Fill the beaker with boiled distilled water at a temperature 5.0 ±
0.5oC per minute.

iii) With the help of a stirrer, stir the liquid and apply heat to the
beaker at a temperature of 5.0 ± 0.5oC per minute.

iv) Apply heat until the material softens and allow the ball to pass
through the ring.

v) Record the temperature at which the ball touches the bottom,

which is nothing but the softening point of that material.

B) Materials of softening point above 80oC:

The procedure is the same as described above. The only difference is

that instead of water, glycerine is used and the starting temperature
of the test is 35oC.

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 Record the temperature at which the ball touches the bottom.

RESULTS

softei poit below 80o C: 50 deree celsius

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DETERMINING BITUMEN CONTENT

BITUMEN CONTENT

This test is done to determine the bitumen content as per ASTM 2172.
The apparatus needed to determine bitumen content are ²

i) Centrifuge extractor
ii) Miscellaneous ² bowl, filter paper, balance and commercial
benzene.

A sample of 500g is taken.

Procedure to determine bitumen content

i) If the mixture is not soft enough to separate with a trowel,place

1000g of it in a large pan and warm upto 100oC to separate the
particles of the mixture uniformly.
ii) Place the sample (Weight ¶A·) in the centrifuge extractor. Cover the
sample with benzene, put the filter paper on it with the cover plate
tightly fitted on the bowl.

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 iii) Start the centrifuge extractor, revolving slowly and gradually
increase the speed until the solvent ceases to flow from the outlet.

iv) Allow the centrifuge extractor to stop. Add 200ml benzene and
repeat the procedure.

v) Repeat the procedure at least thrice, so that the extract is clear and
not darker than the light straw colour and record the volume of total
extract in the graduated vessel.

vi) Remove the filter paper from the bowl and dry in the oven at 110 +
5oC. After 24hours, take the weight of the extracted sample (Weight
¶B·).
[(A-B)/B]×100 %

Repeat the test thrice and average the results.

RESULTS

Bitumen content = 7.86%

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DETERMINING SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF BITUMEN

This test is done to determine the specific gravity of semi-solid

bitumen road tars, creosote and anthracene oil as per IS: 1202 ² 1978.
The principle is that it is the ratio of mass of a given volume of
bitumen to the mass of an equal volume of water, both taken at a
recorded/specified temperature.
The apparatus needed to determine specific gravity of bitumen is

i) Specific gravity bottles of 50ml capacity

ii) Water bath
iii) Bath thermometer ² Range 0 to 44oC, Graduation 0.2oC
Take the sample (half the volume of the specific gravity bottles).

Procedure to determine specific gravity of bitumen

i) Clean, dry and weigh the specific gravity bottle along with the
stopper (Weight ¶A·).

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 ii) Fill the specific gravity bottle with freshly boiled distilled water and
insert the stopper firmly. Keep it in the water bath having a
temperature of 27.0 + 1oC for not less than half an hour and weigh it
(Weight ¶B·).
iii) Weigh the specific gravity bottle about half-filled with the
material (Weight ¶C·).

iv) Weigh the specific gravity bottle about half-filled with the
material and the other half with distilled water (Weight ¶D·).

v) Weigh the specific gravity bottle completely filled with the material
(Weight ¶E·).

i) Specific gravity (Solids and semi-solids) = (C-A )/[ ( B-A) - (D-C)]

ii) Specific gravity (Liquids) = (E-A)/(B-A)
The average of the two results should be reported.

RESULTS

Specific gravity of bitumen = 0.99

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DETERMINING FLASH AND FIRE POINT OF
BITUMEN

This test is done to determine the flash point and the fire point of
asphaltic bitumen and fluxed native asphalt, cutback bitumen and
blown type bitumen as per IS: 1209 ² 1978. The principle behind this
test is given below :

Flash Point ² The flash point of a material is the lowest temperature

at which the application of test flame causes the vapours from the
material to momentarily catch fire in the form of a flash under
specified conditions of the test.

Fire Point ² The fire point is the lowest temperature at which the
application of test flame causes the material to ignite and burn at
least for 5 seconds under specified conditions of the test.
The apparatus required for this test is
i) Pensky-Martens apparatus
ii) Thermometer- Low Range : - 7 to 110oC, Graduation 0.5oC
High Range : 90 to 370oC, Graduation 2oC
The sample should be just sufficient to fill the cup upto the mark given
on it.

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 Procedure to determine the Flash And Fire Point Of Bitumen

A) FLASH POINT

i) Soften the bitumen between 75 and 100oC. Stir it thoroughly to

remove air bubbles and water.
ii) Fill the cup with the material to be tested upto the filling mark.
Place it on the bath. Fix the open clip. Insert the thermometer of high
or low range as per requirement and also the stirrer, to stir it.

iii) Light the test flame, adjust it. Supply heat at such a rate that the
temperature increase, recorded by the thermometer is neither less
than 5oC nor more than 6oC per minute.
iv) Open flash point is taken as that temperature when a flash first
appears at any point on the surface of the material in the cup. Take
care that the bluish halo that sometimes surrounds the test flame is
not confused with the true flash. Discontinue the stirring during the
application of the test
flame.
v) Flash point should be taken as the temperature read on the
thermometer at the time the flash occurs.

B) FIRE POINT

i) After flash point, heating should be continued at such a rate that

the increase in temperature recorded by the thermometer is neither
less than 5oC nor more than 6oC per minute.
ii) The test flame should be lighted and adjusted so that it is of the size
of a bead 4mm in dia.

RESULTS

The min. Flash point of test is 177.5 degree Celsius

i) The flash point should be taken as the temperature read on the

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 thermometer at the time of the flame application that causes a
distinct flash in the interior of the cup.
ii) The fire point should be taken as the temperature read on the
thermometer at which the application of test flame causes the
material to ignite and burn for at least 5 seconds.

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NAME OF WORK 1:

NEW LOAD OF 2500 KW ON HT SYSTEM OF SUPPLY UNDER MLHT CAT IN

F/O ADDL. DIRECTOR , ISMANDH KHERA DABOUR VILL. AREA IN C-133
SH : RESTORATION OF ROAD CUT MADE BY BSES IN KHERA DABOUR
VILL AREA IN C-133 NGZ.

öc FTC NO. : 09/066/66/1076/039/11/C-133/DN-2/03/11/88

öc
öc TENDER AMOUNT: 499797
öc UNIT/ESTIMATED RATE: 499797
öc CONTRACTUAL AMOUNT: 499797/-
öc TIME OF COMPLETION: 2 MONTHS
öc HEAD OF ACCOUNT : 66-1076
öc TENDER NO.: 654
öc NIT NO: UNIT RATE

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NAME OF WORK 2:
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R/R OF CUT BY DJB FOR WORK P/L/J INTERNAL SEWAGE
SYSTEM IN RURAL VILL. PAPRAWAT ROSHAN PURA AND
DEENPUR ALONG WITH PERIPHERIAL SEWER BY TRENCHLESS
METHOD FOR RELIANCE FRESH IN NJAFGARH IN C-134 SH: R/R
OF CUT BY RMC FROM DAYA SINGH HS. TO MAIN BIJWASAN
ROAD IN DEENPUR VILL IN C-134 NGZ.

öcFTC NO. : 09/066/66/1076/039/11/C-134/DN-2/03/11/79

öcTENDER AMOUNT : 499913
öcUNIT/ESTIMATED RATE : 499913
öcCONTRACTUAL AMOUNT: 499913/-
öcTIME OF COMPLETION: 2 MONTH
öcHEAD OF ACCOUNT : 66-1076
öcTENDER NO.:717
öc NIT NO: UNIT RATE

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COST ESTIMATION

Description quantity rate unit Amountc

Earth work available in surface or 1008 1989=87 m2 200.58

volume not exceeding 30 cm in depth but
exceeding 1.5 m width As well as 10 m2 on
plan including disposal of excavated
earth, lead up to 50 m & lift up to 1.5m .
disposed soil to be leveled and neatly
dressed: All kind of soil

Pdg & laying 75 mm thick compacted bed 504 62=35 m2 31799.00

of dry brick agg of 45mm thick i/c
spreding well ramming consolidating &
grouting with jamuna sand
including finishing smooth etc.
complete as per direction of engineer ²in
-change
Providing and fixing kota stone shape _ 31=20 m2 -
:20mm thick & 150 mm wide

Providing and laying c.c 100.80 4411=00 m3 444629.00

With ready mixed concrete from batchig
plant . The ready mixed concrete shall be
laid and finished with screed board
vibrator ,vacuum dewatering process and
finally finished by floating by breaming
with wire brush etc complete as per
specification and direction of engineer of
change
Deduct for using of M-20 grade 100.80 131=00 m3 13205.00
concreteinstead of
M-25 grade concrete in c.c pavement

Carriage of material by mechanical 118.80 140=00 m3 16632.00

transport i/c loading /unloading and
stacking with lime moorrum ,building
rubbish

›6c
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NAME OF WORK 3:

R/R OF CUT BY DJB FOR WORK P/L/J INTERNAL SEWARAGE

SYSTEM IN RURAL VILL. PAPRAWAT ROSHAN PURA AND
DEENPUR ALONG WITH PERIPHERIAL SEWER BY TRENCHLESS
METHOD FOR RELIANCE FRESH IN NJAFGARH IN C-134 SH : R/R
OF CUT BY RMC FOR MASJID TO SUBBEY TO RANJAN HS. TO
BHOOP HS. IN DEENPUR C-134 NGZ.

öcFTC NO. : 09/066/66/1076/039/11/C-134/DN-2/03/11/79

öcTENDER AMOUNT: 497514
öc UNIT/ESTIMATED RATE : 497514
öcCONTRACTUAL AMOUNT :497514/-
öcTIME OF COMPLETION: 2 MONTH
öcHEAD OF ACCOUNT : 66-1076
öcTENDER NO. : 596
öcNIT NO: UNIT RATE

›[c
c
COST ESTIMATION

Description quantity rate unit Amountc

Earth work available in surface or 1008 1989=87 m2 200.58

volume not exceeding 30 cm in depth but
exceeding 1.5 m width As well as 10 m2 on
plan including disposal of excavated
earth, lead up to 50 m & lift up to 1.5m .
disposed soil to be leveled and neatly
dressed: All kind of soil

Pdg & laying 75 mm thick compacted bed 472.5 62=35 m2 29460.00

of dry brick agg of 45mm thick i/c
spreding well ramming consolidating &
grouting with jamuna sand
including finishing smooth etc.
complete as per direction of engineer ²in
-change
Providing and fixing kota stone shape _ 31=20 m2 -
:20mm thick & 150 mm wide
Providing and laying c.c 100.80 4411=00 m3 444629.00
With ready mixed concrete from batchig
plant . The ready mixed concrete shall be
laid and finished with screed board
vibrator ,vacuum dewatering process and
finally finished by floating by breaming
with wire brush etc complete as per
specification and direction of engineer of
change
Deduct for using of M-20 grade 100.80 131=00 m3 13205.00
concreteinstead of
M-25 grade concrete in c.c pavement
Carriage of material by mechanical 118.80 140=00 m3 16632.00
transport i/c loading /unloading and
stacking with lime moorrum ,building
rubbish

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