Power Electronics wy 333 John G. Kassakian Martin F. Schlecht George C. Verghese Massachusetts Institute of Technology neh AO rOrnaNE OOK. nal. cASKAMLIGD w ADDISON-WESLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY Reading. Massachusets » Menlo Park, Califia « New York Don Mills, Ontario « Wokingham, England » Ameterdam * Bonn Sydney « Singapore * Tokyo # Madrid « San Juan « Milan » PatiThis took is inthe Addison-Wesley Series in Blecrcal Rngneering Many of te cesignations used by manutactaers and sells to dstingulsh hee products are caine 28 wademark. Waere tions ap prin this bak, and Adgison- Wesley was aware ofa trademark claim, the designations have been pnd i ill caps or ll caps Litrary of Congress Cotaloing-in Publication Data 7 Kasi, ft 0 eneips of power elerois / Job G. Keke, Marin F. Seta, George cere eles inde ISBN 0201-06987 Power sestonice Sesh Marin Vrs, Gemge CI Te. TRIS? AL ea1st-8a0 0.4906 or ‘Copyrghe @1991 by Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, te Alt rights reserved. No pat ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored in a revcval system, or Wapamited, in any fem oF BY any means, siecooie,wechaneal,phctocopying recording, or eherwise, witout the prior writen persion f th pablshr.Prntd ia the United States of Americ. 123456789 10HAss94929291 To our familiesPreface WE éesigned this txt specifically to rach the subject of power electronics. Al- though the coverage is broad, we develop topics in sufiient depth to expose the {Fundamental principles, concepts, techniques, methods, and circuits necesary for you to understand and design power electronic systems for applications a diverse ‘8 5-W switching converter and a 500-MW high-voltage de transmission terminal ‘Traditionally, power electronics has been considered and taught ae an aggre ame of separate disciplines; for example, moter drives, élde converters, or static rectifier systems. Almost invariably students are exposed to power electonics in only one context, depending on the perspective athe book or the instructor, More- over, those who aequire an understanding of power electronics “on the job” usually have limited exposure ro the subject, However, all applications of power electronics share a common base, and we have tied 1o make this fact clear i this book ‘The book is divided into four pants. Each part begins with an overview chapter ‘hat establishes a context forthe remaining chapters ofthe part, These overviews sare substantial enough to stand independently ar ae intended to do so for certain reaching purposes. Part "Form and Function,” is the backbone ofthe book. In it we present the ‘elationship between the form, or topology, of power circuits and the function these circuits perform. ‘The common features of ercuts that perform the basic electrical nergy conversion functions—acide, defde, defac, and ac/a0—e introduced in is par. But the real purpose of Part lis to present a way of thinking about power electronic circuits and visualizing their behavior that can be extended to new situations and can serve as the basis for synthesis-as well as analysis, ln Part I, “Dynamics and Control,” we consider the unique problems of mod- ling and controlling power electronic systems, We present analytical appronches to modeling their dynamic behavior and show how to use these approdches in designing and evaluating practical feedback contol systems. Because ofits role in sibility evaluation and its potential importance in the design of fully digital control systems, we also prevent the advanced topic of sampled-data modeling and control in Par I In Past 11, “Components,” we diseuss the behavior and characterization of the elements from which power electronic circuits are constructed, A substantial portion of Par Ill is devoted to semiconductor devices, going beyond the ideal ‘Switch models for these devices that suficed for Parts 1 and Hl, We believe this viiPreface ‘eniphasis tobe correct, not only because the major technological advances in power lectroics have been due to the availablity ef new semiconductor devices or ‘he significant improvement in the performance of conventional devices, but also because the future expansion of applications of power electronics wil rly heavily ‘on continued semiconductor device innovations, A thorough, bat admittedly rapid, review of magnetics is also presented in Part I. Because magnetic components are almost always unique tothe application, the goal ofthe magnetics chepter i, ‘0 provide a practical foundation forthe design of magnetic components for power electronic ciruis. In Patt TV, “Ancillary Isues,” we address a vaicty of important ational topics that must be consiered inthe design of any practical system. We examine tate and base dives, snubbes, forced commutation circuits, and thermal modeling nd heat sinking ‘A course in power electronics might wse this book ia one of several ways art in its entity, and the Overview chapters in Pars TI through IV would serve wel a the basis for an advanced undergraduate or first graduate subject. Chapter 22 ("Gate and Base Drives for Power Semiconductor Devices”) might also be included. A more advanced graduate course might skim Part I and address Pat I in deal. Other courses may be tailored to need by selecting various chapters From ns Il though IV. Each chapter in Pars J Ill, and 1V is roatvelysef-contined. Selections from Part Il ean be made in at Feast two ways. Chapter 11 (Dynamics ") andthe fist few sections of Chapter 14 Peedback ‘Contzl Design”) may be used together in course that emphasizes control of power clectronies systems. An advanced graduate course could well include Chapters 12 (Staie-Space Models") and 13 (‘Linear and Piecewise Linear Models", and the latr sections of Chapter 14, which consider advanced topies in modeling, stability ‘valuation, and contro. ‘We use examples extensively in this book to ilustate concepts or techniques inoduced in the text and also to introduce ways of thinking about problems, methods of analysis, ad the use of approximations. The examples also form the basis for many of the end-of chapter problems, and the creative instucter ean use them to generate addtional exereiges, problems. of examples. ‘We designed the end-of-chaptr problems to stimulate thinking about the ma terial presented in te chapter. That is, they ae not intended as exercises to drill students in the use of particular equations in the tex. Often, we introduce new circuits, conceps, or ways of appreaching problems by using previous discussions inthe tex as the bass for considering the new material. We also present practical ‘vacations of cites cigeussed in the text. “The notes and bibliography atthe end of each chapter point you to selected papers inthe esearch literature and to books that underlie, complement, or extend the material in the chapter. These bibliographies however, are not exhaustive For a number of years, much of this text has been used et MIT in noe form for graduate subjects in power electronics and machine control. It has therefore Preface ix benefited significantly from surgestions, critiques, and reviews provided by many of our students and colleagues. Though they are too numerous to list by name, ‘we are very grateful to each of them. We are particularly indebted to Prof Malik Ebulak ofthe University of Akron and Prof. David Torrey of Worcester Polytech nic Institute, each of whom carefully appraised this wotk from the perspectives (Of both student and teacher. In addition, we wish to acknowledge the conuibu- tions and valuable advice provided by our other manuscript reviewers: Donald J Bosack (Northern Iino University}, W. Gerard Hurley (University of Limer- jek), J. Ben Klaasens (Delft University of Technology). Philip Kevin (University Of liliois at Urbans), David Luchaco (Latin Electronics Compan), Daniel M. ‘Mitchell (Collins Defense Communications, Rockwell International Corporation). F. Lai Pagola (Universidad Pontfcix Comillas), and Rudy Severne (Springtime Enterprises). The photograph from which the cover is rendered was taken by Larry Silva of MIT, and we thank him for permission to use it We are grateful to the ‘corporate members ofthe MIT/Industy Power Electrons Collegium for their sup- port and encouragement, Las'y, we thank the Addison-Wesley team, Whiting this book would have been a much more dificult task without their patience, guidance, snd text. John G. Kasakian Martin F. Schlecht George C. Verghese ‘Cambridge, MAContents Chapter 1 1 PARTI Chapter 2 2 22 23 24 25 Chapter 3 Introduction 1 Power Electronic Cireuits Power Semiconductor Switches 2 124 The Diode 4 122 The Transistor 4 123 The Thyristor 4 Transformers 5 Nomenclature & Notes and Bibliography 8 FORM AND FUNCTION 9 Form and Function: An Overview 11 ‘The Functions of « Power Circuit 1 acide Converters 221 Basic Topology and Energy Flow 13, 22.2 Fitering 17 elde Converters 20 23.1 Basic Topology 21 tite Converers 23 24.1 Topologies 23 Influence of Switch Implementation 25 Problems 28 Introduction to Rectifier Cireuits 31 Power Flow in Electrical Networks 32 Holf-Wave Rectifiers 33 3.2.1 Half-Wave Rectifier with Resistive Load 33 3.22 Halt-Wave Rectifier with Inductive Lose 34 323 Halt-Wave Rectifier with Freewheeling Diode 37 3.24 Circuit Replacement by Equivalent Source 40xii Contents 33 34 Chapter 4 4a 42 43 Chapter 5 3a 52 34 Chapter 6 323. The Periadic Steady State 40 a2 Side Reactance and Curent Commutation 41 33.1 Conumutation Procesees and Equivalent Circuits 41 332. Bifects of Commutation 44 Messures and Effects of Distonion 45, Bal Power Factor 46 43.4.2 Total Harmen Distonion 50 (Notes and Bibliography 52 Problems $3 Bridge and Polyphase Rectifier Circuits 55 ‘The Single-Phase Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier 56 4.141 Ouput Voitage and Power Factor ofthe Single-Phase Bridge $8 41.2 Commutation and Regulation in the Single-Phase Bridge 60 An Introduction to Polyphase Rectifier Cicute 62 ‘Commutation in Polyphase Rectifiers 66 43.1 Commutation in the 3-Pulse Rectifier 66 43.2 Commutation in the 6-Pulse Bridge Rectifier 69 Notes and Bibliography 74 Problems 74 Phase-Controlled Converters 79 Single-Phase Configurations 80 5.1. Halt Wave Contolled Rectifier with Resistive Load 80 5.1.2 Fall-Wave Phase-Contalled Bridge Rectifier 83 5.13 Converter Power Factor 86 Phase Control with ae-Side Resetance —&8 Inversion Limits 91 333.1 Commutation Failure 91 532 Margin Angle 94 Phase-Controlled 3Phase Converers 96 Notes and Bibliography 97 Problems 97 High-Frequency Switching de/de Converters 103 The deide Converter Topology 104 ‘The Canonical Switching Cell 109 The Direct Converter 110 63:1 The de Conversion Rati of the Direct Converer 111 6.3.2 Implementation of Switches 112 6a 6s 66 63 Chapter 7 ma 12 13 8 as Chapter 8 al 82 contents xitl 63.3 About the Duty Ratio 116 “The Indirect Switching Converter 117 641 The de Conversion Ratio of the Indirect Converter 17, 642 Implementation of Switches 118 64.3 _Varitions on the Basi Indirect Converter Topology (19 “The Choice of Capacitor and Indvcor Values 122 65.1 Ripple Frequency Model fr the Direct Converter 123 65.2 A Ripple-Frequerey Model for the Iniect Convener 124 6.53 Minimum L and C for the Ditect Comwener 125 65.4 Minimum L and C for the Indirect Convener 128, 655 Calculations for the Up/Down and Cuk Converters 129 Semiconductor Device Suesses 130 {Converter Operation with Discontimious Condvetion 132 Notes and Bibliography 134 Problems 134 Isolated High-Frequency de/dc Converters 199 ‘The Single-Ended Isolated Forward Converter 140 7.1.1 Magnetizing Current and Clamping 140 712 A Transtormer-Coupled Clamp 144 713 The looletod Hybrid Bridge 146 74 Switch Stesses in the Single-Ended Isolated Converter 46 ‘The Double-Ended Isolated Forward Converter 148 72:1 The Double-Ended Bridge Converter 148 122 The Double-Ended Isolated Half-Bridge Conveer 152 The Flyback Convener 155 Effects of Trnsformer Leakage Inductance 1ST TAL Leskage Effects inthe Single-Ended Converter 157 Converters with Multiple Outputs 161 Notes and Bibliography ol Probleme 162 Variable-Frequency de/ac Converters 167 ‘The Basic Varable-Frequency Bridge Converer 168 Bul} Bridge Converters with Nonvnity Power Factor Lowds 169 8.12 Power Contol for a Load Containing an ac Voltage Source 170 8.1.3 The Curent-Source Inverter 172 Harmonic Reduction 173 82.1 Harmonic Elimination 174xIV_ Contents 83 84 85 Chapter 9 ou 92. 93 9s 96 97 Chapter 10 10. 102 £22 Harmonic Cancelistion 176, Palse-Width Modulated de/ac Converters 179 83.1 Waveshaping and Unfolding 179 832 The High-Frequency Bridge Convester 183 83.3 Generation of a(t) forthe PWM Inverter 185, ‘Transformer-Coupled Converters 186 84.1 High-Frequency Transformer Isolation 186 3Phase Coaverters 188 5.1 Evolution ofthe 3-Phase Inverter Cieuit 188 85.2 Harmonies in 3-Phase Inverter-Deiven Loads 191 Notes and Bibliography 193 Problems 193, Resonant Converters 197 {A Review of Second-Order System Behavior 199 9.1.1 The Time-Domain Response 199 9.1.2. The Prequency-Domain Response 200 ‘The Voltage Source Series Resonant Converter 202 92.1 The Filter 202 9.2.2 Conteot of the Output Waveform 202 9.2.3. Implementation of Switches 205 9.2.4 Values for Land C208 9.2.3 Switching Losses 208 ‘The Curent Source Parallel Resonant Convener 212 Modified Resonant Converter Topologies 217 9.4.1 Spiiing the Inductor in the Voltage-Source Converter 217 9.42 Repositioning the Load for Lower Distortion 221 ‘The Bridge Topology 221 95.1 Power Control 222 Discontinuous Mode Control 223 96.1. Basie Discontinuous Modo Operstion 223 Resonant defde Converters” 226 87.1 Basic Topologies 227 9.7.2. Single-Ended Topologies 228 Hotes and Bibliography 230 Problems 231 acfae Converters 235, nergy Storage Requirements in a de-Link Converter 237 ‘The Naturally Commutated Cyeloconvener 241 102.1 Principles of Operation 241 1022 Cycloconvertes with Polyphase Ourpurs 245 PART IT Chapter 11 tt 12 ua Ma ns Chapter 12 m1 n2 23 4 25 126 127 128 Contents, Notes and Bibliography 247 Problems 247 DYNAMICS AND CONTROL — 251 Dynamics and Control: An Overview 253 Control System Configuration 254 Model Selection” 259 112.1 The Need for Dynamic Models 259 ‘Obtaining Dynamic Models by Cireuit Averaging 261 HIB. Averaging a Variable 262 1132 Averaging a Circuit 263) 1133. Averaging s Switching Funetion 265 1134 Averaging a Switch 269 1135 A Generalization: The Local w-Component 273 Linearized Models 274 114 Linearization 204 M42 Linearizing a Circuit 275, 114.3. Linearizing the Averaged Switch 277 Feedback Control 280 11.5. The Classical LTY Contot Configuration 280 1152 Nominal Stability — 284 11353 Nominal Performance 287 L3@ Robustness 290 Notes and Bibliography 203 Problems 295 State-Space Models 299 Features of Stste-Space Models 300 12.1.1 State Variables, Inputs, and Outputs 301 CContinuous-Time Models 301 State-Space Models for Electrical Circuits 303, Properties of Solutions 308. 124.1 The Stat Propeny 308 1242 Numerical Solution 309 1243. The Continty Property 311 Discrete-Time or Sampled-Data Models 3213 Notstion 315 Generalized State-Space Models 319 Models for Controllers and Interconnected Systems 323 Notes and Bibliography 325 Probleme 326 xvxvi Contents Chapter 13 Ba 2 83 4 Bs 56 Chapter 14 at 42 43 4a PART IIL Chapter 15, 13. 82 153 Isa Linear and Piecewise Linear Models. 329 Linearization 329 Linesrizing Continuous‘Time Models 330 ‘Analysis of Continuous-Time LT Models 333, 133.1 Transform-Domain Solution 334 1332 Time-Domain Solution 338 Piecewise LTI Models 344 Lineaizing Discrete-Time Models 347 ‘Analysis of Disrete-Time LTT Models 352 136.1 Time-Domain Solution 352 1362 TeansformDomain Solution 353 1363 Transfer Functions and Frequency Response 357 Notes and Bibliography 360 Problems: 362 Feedback Control Design 365 Classical Contol Design 366 T4.1 The Nyquist Stability Criterion 366 14.12 A Design Approach 368 M13 Using Bode Plots 370 14.14 Designing the Bode Plots ofthe Loop Gsin 373, Multloop Coatrot 379 142. Current-Mode Control 380 State Feedback 289 143.1 Pole Placement by LT State Feedback 390 14132. Nonlinear State Feedback 293 Digital Control 395 Notes and Bibliography 309 Problems 409 COMPONENTS AND DEVICES 403 Components: An Overview 405 Practical Semiconductor Switches 406 Practical Energy Storage Elements 407 Power Semiconductor Devices 407 [53.1 The Poner Diode 408 (532 The Power Transistor 410 1333 The Tayristor 420 Capacivors 425 154.1 Film Capacitors 426 1542 Electrolytic Capacitors 426 155 Chapter 16 6 62 163 164 Chapter 17 ma m2 3 i14 1543 Multilayer Ceramic Capacitors 427 Inductors and Transformers 428 15.5.1 Magoetic Materials 429 1552 Magnetic Core Geometries 429 1553. Losses in Magnetic Components 430 Problems 431 Contents xvii Review of Semiconductor Devices 435 Blementary Physics of Semiconductors 435 IG..1 Charge Carters in Semiconductor 435. 16.1.2 Charge Transpor in Semiconductors 16.13. Toe po Junction in Thermal Equilibrium Simple Diode Analysis 446 16.2.1 Dependence of the SCL Width on 2, 439 an 446 1622 Ineremental Capacitance of the SCL” 44 1623 Carrier Concentrations atthe Edge ofthe 1624 Determination of Diode Curent 448 ‘Te Bipolar Transistor 452 163.1 Physical Model and Terminal Curents 1632 Device Parameters 454 SCL 47 4s 16.33. The Bbere-Moll Model of an npn Transisioe 457 1634 Saturation 458 The MOSFET 438 164.1 MOSFET Characteristics 460 1642 The Dependence of Von Substrate Poe Motes and Bibliography — 462 Problems 463, Power Diodes 469 “The Bipolar Diode under Reverse Blas 469 A7LA Leakage Current 469 12. Avalanche Breakdown 472 The pin Diode 475 172.1 Forward Blas 477 172.2 Minotty Corser Diffusion Currents in th Regions 481 172.3. Reduction of Lat High Current Levels 1724 Temperature Dependence of J 483 ‘Switching Transitions in a pin Diode 484 173. Forward Recovery 484 1732 Reverse Recovery 486 “The Scotty Barier Diode 488, 174.1 The Schottky Barrier 488 ial 482 12 End 433xvlll Contents Chapter 18 18 182 183 184 ies 186 187 183 189 18.10 ww 162 183 ists eas 1816 Chapter 19 19.1 192 193 1742. Forward Biss 490 1743 Reverse Biss 494 174A. Switch Transitions in a Schodky Diode 495 1745. Selection of Barior Metal 495 Notes and Bibliography 496 Problems 497 Power Transistors 499 Straciute of the Power BIT 499 Operating Regions ofthe Power BIT 500 182.1 The Cutoff Region SOL 1822 Forwant-Active Region S04 1623 Quasi-Saturation Region 505 Quasi-Satuation Volege 510 Hard-Saturation Region SLL Common Emitter-Current Gain 512 18.5.1 About the Current-Gain Parameter 513 ‘Temperature Dependence of 8 S16 Switching Transitions 516 miter Current Focusing during Tun-O® S21 Second Breakdown 522 ‘Thermal Instability 526 Structure of the Power MOSFET 526 Ga-State Resistance of the MOSFET 528 ISI2L Resistnce of the Extended Drain Region 529 16122 Resistance of the Neck Region S31 18.123 Resistance of the Accumulation Layer 532 18.124 Resistance ofthe Channel $32 18.125 Temperature Dependence of Rosin 533 Dynamic Performance of the Power MOSFET 533, ‘The Body Diode of a Vertical Power MOSFET 536 ‘The Parssitc Bipolar Transistor 536 ‘The Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor 536 Notes and Bibliography S38 Problems 539 Thyristors S41 The SCR Siete SAL Overview of SCR Operation 542 1921 The Of Ste 543 1922 The Regenerative Tum-On Process S44 192.3 ‘The On State $45 ‘The OH State S45, 194 19s 196 97 Chapter 20 201 202 203 204 05 Contents xix 193.1 The Reverse Blocking Voltage 545 1832 The Forward Blocking Voltage S48 19.33 Temperature Dependence of the SCR Voliage Limits 550 ‘The Turm-On Process $51 18.4.1 The Gate-Cathode Shor _ 552 1942 Curent Spreading During Turn On 583 ‘The Turn-Off Process 354 195.1 Tum-Of Time and Rate Blfeets 585 ‘The Gate Tum-Off Thyrister (GTO) $57 y Other Thyrstor Stuctures $59 19.7.1 The Reverse Conducting Thyristor 560 19.72 The TRIAC 360 18.73 The MOS Controlled Thyrstor S6L Notes and Bibliography — S63 Problems 563, Magnetic Components 565, ‘The Inductor $66 20.1.1 Calculating Inductance $67 20.12. Electric Circuit Analogs 569 20.1.3 Second-Order Effects in Determining Inductance $74 20.14 Energy Storage 575 Saturation, Hysteresis, and Residual Flux $77 202.1 Saturation 378 202.2. Residual Flux Density 578 Losses in Magnetic Components S8L 203.1 Copper Loss S81 2032 Core Loss S83 2033 A Simple Lost Model $84 2034 Why Use aCore? 586 Transformers 587 20.1 The Ideal Transformer $88 2042 Magnetizing Inductance |” 589 2043 Leakage Inductance S91 20.64 Equations for a Nonidea! Transformer 594 2045 Energy Storage Transformers 596 20.66 Current and Potential Transformers $97 208.7 Transformers with More Than Two Windings $99 Magnet Material Properties 600 Notes and Bibliography 601 Problems 6022X Contents PART IV Chapter 21 aut 22 13 aa Chapter 22 24 Chapter 23 23.1 22 233 ANCILLARY ISSUES 607 Ancillary Issues: An Overview 609 Gate and Base Drives 609 DILL BIT Base Drives 609 212 MOSFET Gate Drives. 610 2113. Thyristor Gate Drives 611 ‘Thyristor Commutation Cirevits 612 212.1 A Simple Commutation Circuit 612 212.2. Limitations of Forced Commutation 613 2123. Types of Commutation Ciruits 614 Saubbing 614 ‘Thermal Considerations 616 QUAL Thermal Models 616 2142 Heatsinking 617 Problems 618 Gate and Base Drives 621 Bipolar Transistor Base Drives 622 22.1.1 The Turn-On Problem — 622 2212 ‘The Tum-Off Problem 624 22.13 The Darlington Connection 625 22.14 Practical implementation 626 22LS Transformer-Coupled Drives 629 22.1.6 Proportional Base Drives 632 221.7 Emiter Switching 634 MOSFET Gate Drives 636 22.21 Gate-Drive Requirements 636 22.2.2 Parallel Operation of MOSFETs 038 ‘Thyristor Gate Drives 639 22311 Gate-Drive Requirements 639 223.2. Optically [slated Drives 641 223.3 Tansformer-lsolated Drives 643 2234 GTO Gate Drives 646 Notes and Bibliography — 648. Problems 649 ‘Thyristor Commutation Circuits 653 Voltage Commutation 653, Curent Commutation 658 Energy Recovery 662 233.1 Complementary Commutation 664 2532. An nergy Recovery Network 666 Chapter 24 24 242 243 2a 245 2466 249 Chapter 25 24 252 253. Contents xxi Notes and Bibliography 667 Problems 667 Saubber Circuits and Clamps 671 ‘The Tum-Off Soubber 672 24.11 Turm-Off Dissipation and the SOA 672 2412 A Basic TumOff Srubber 674 2413 A More Practical Snubber 676 ‘The Torn-On Snubber 675 242.1 Tum-On Dissipation and the SOA 676 2422. A Basie Turn-On Saubber 677 2423 A Practical Turm-On Srubber 678 ‘A Combined Turm-On/Tum-Off Snubber 679 ‘Altemative Placements of the Saubber Circuits 682 Dissipation in Snubser Circuits 683 245.1. Separate Tura-On and Tur-Off Soubbers 683 2452 The Combined Snubber 684 245.3 Increased Circuit Dissipation Caused by Smubbers 684 Energy Recovery Smubter Circuits 686 Volage Clamps 688, Notes ad Bibliography 689 Problems 630 ‘Thermal Modeling and Heat Sinking 693 Static Thermal Models 694 25.L41 Analog Relations for the de Case 694 2512 Themmal Resisance 696 ‘Thermal Imertaces 698 252.1 Practical Inerfaces 701 252.2 The Convective Interface 701 ‘Transient Thermal Models 703 253.1 & Lamped Model and Trensie"Thermal Impedance 708 Notes and Bibliography 709 Problems 710 List of Symbols 713 Index 715Ll z Chapter 1 Introduction IN this chapter we describe power electronics and present a bref introduction to semiconductor switching devices and magnetic components. An introduction 10 those ciouit elements is necessary because Wwe utilize them in Part I, although we do not discuss them In detail until Part II, We leo introduce nomencleture thet ‘we use throughout the book, POWER ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS “The dominant application of electronics today is to process information. The com- puter industry isthe biggest user of semiconductor devices, and consumer elec- tronics, ineluding eameras, is second. While all these applications require power (from & wall plug or 2 battery), their primary Function isto process information: to take the digital optical signal produced by a compact disk and transform it into an analog audio signal, for instance, Power electron cieults re principally ‘concemed with processing energy. They convert electrical energy from the form supplied by a source to the form required by a load, For example, the part of a ‘computer that takes the at mains voltage and changes it tothe 5-V de required by the logic chips is » power electronic circuit (ften abbreviated as power cieui) ‘In many applications the conversion process conchides with mechanical motion, In ‘hese eases the power circuit converts electric energy tothe form requited by the electromechanical transducer, such as a de motor. Efficiency is an important concern in any energy processing system, for the Aitference between the energy into the system and the energy out i ususlly con ‘verted to heat. Although the cost of energy is sometimes a consideration, the most ‘unpleasant consequence of generating heat is that i¢ must be removed frm the system, This consideration alone dictates the sie of power electronic apparatus “Therefore a power circuit must be designed to operste as efficiently as posible. The ficiency of very Inge systems exceeds 9%, High efficiency is achieved by wsinga 2. Chapter 1 Introduction | nol ouput | ate —— |e} i \ meat | | Je} varane LI tates [I swact [| conro i tre | Se rica] | [| sates. YT \ Figure 1.1 A biock diagram ofa typical power electronic system. the power semiconductors as switches (where thelr volage is nearly zero when they ate on, and their current is nearly zero when they are off) to minimize their Ussipation | The only other components in the basie power circuit are inductors and capacitors, so the ideal power eteut is lossless A power electronic system consists of much more han @ power circult. The boc: diagrarn ofa typical system is shown in Fig, [.1, Switching creates wave- forms with harmonics that may be undesirable because they interfere with proper operation of the Toad or other equipment, so Bllers are often employed at the inputs and oatpus ofthe power citelt. The system load, which may be electrics or elec- tromechanica, is controlled via the feedback of electrical and/or eletromechanical variables toa control circuit, This control circuit processes the feedback signals and ives the switches inthe power circuit acconling to the demands ofthese signals. ‘The system also includes mectianical elements, such as heatsinks and structures 'o suppor the physically lage components ofthe power circuit. 1,2 POWER SEMICONDUCTOR SWITCHES ‘The hasic semiconductor devices used as switches in power electronic circuits are the bipolar and Schottky diodes, the bipolar junction transistor BIT). the metal- axide-temiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET), and a class of latching bipe- lar devices known as thyristors, the most eommon of which i he slican controlled rectifier (SCR). Their circuit symbols and operating regions fn the w+ plane are shown in Fig. 1.2. We discuss these and other hybrid devices in detail in Part ill "acetone, wa ier vlge reps 2 ea we done coer tem xpi the oak oH on : =~ —|—- aa ‘Source : a , Gate i : as swliches in power electronic eircults ieult symbols and operating regions for semiconductor devices weed (a) the diode; (b) the (npn) bipolar junction trensietor (BJT) () the (n-chaninel)-power metal- oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET!) the silicon controlled rectifier (SCR).A. Chapter 1 Introduction What follows is bref description of the salient operating characteristics of each device shown in Fig. 1-2 Thi information allows us to present the basic operation of poner electronic creuits without first considering Part It 1.2.1 The Diode "The diode, whose symbol and variable definitions are shown in Fig. 12(8), is an uncontrollable semiconductor swith, It is uncontrollable because whether it s on of off is determined by the voltages and currents in the network, not by any ection tve ean take, When on, ite anode current, 4g, is pasitive. When olf, its anode tuthode voliage, vay, fs negative. The diode Switches in response tothe behavior ofits terminal variables. I i i off andthe circuit causes vg. 10 ty t0 go postive, the diode will tin on. fon, the die will rum off i the circuit tries co Foro> iy to go negative 1.2.2 The Transistor ‘Transistors, whether of the bipolar or MOS type, ae fully contotable switches. “They possess a third terminal (the base terminal forthe BIT and the gare terminal for the MOSFET) from which we can tur the device on and off. The symbols and terminal variables for the npn BIT and n-channel power MOSFET ate shown in Fig. 1.20 and (e. Both of these devices can carry curt in anly one direction, 1nd for the npn BIT and achannel MOSFET shown inthe figure, these directions tue ig > 0 and ip > 0, respectively. When off, they can support only one polarity of vallage, which, for the transistors shown, ae tog > 0 and Ung > 0, These ‘oltege and current polarities are reversed for the pnp BIT and the pechannel MOSFET. But, for reasons discussed in Par IT, apn and n-channel devices are the ‘most commonly used types of power transistrs 1.2.3 The Thyristor “The only member of the thyristor family thar we describe inthis introduction is the SCR, whose circuit symbol is show in Fig, 1.2(@. Its switch that in some ‘ways canbe thought of a3 a “semiconirolable” diode If no sigaal is applied to the fate, the device will emain off, independent of the polarity of vx To tum the SCR on, «bret pulse of current, fg. is applied tothe gate terminal during atime ‘when tye > O. This initiates a regenerative turn-on process that quigkly latches the SCR in the on stat, in which Uy % O and the gate no longer bas any contro lover the device. Wheat in this on-state, the SCR can conduct only postive ty tums off when i, ties to go negative. So once on, ibe SCR behaves asa diode In summary, the SCR isa diode whose turn-on can be inhibited by not applying & gate pulse. Fe me of °K nse of 0" eters he Ore xa af se word cat, Kt main “oy oun” athe gael Section 1.8 Transformers 5 1.3 TRANSFORMERS ‘Trafome ae prominent fate of power ksi cats, We ea tem xtesvt a Pan i (Chapter 30, te flowing ioducaon oh theron Fe Beas een Pts I esforners ae cnplyed a rovie loon nd he ep-po tep- down ofa vakages and caens. Tele! renomer shown fv Le fat {wording oN an Ny tums. Dats en the deco fhe wang Ira Yotgs sped bane ndings ht th do pte te ded en of the ter wigs ely one ntsc) a ao postive is emia varias te defied late tthe dt soon in i. 1) i eal nae at the following ternal eaionp aM ay “2 A straightforward application of these relations shows that if an impedance of value 2; is connected to terminals 1-1’, an impedance of value Z, = (N/M), is ‘measured at terminals 2-2". Using (J) and (1-2), we ean also show thet %2, = ~Ysig that i, the instantaneous power into one port is equal to the instantaneous power out of the other. The ideal transformer neither dissipates nor sores energy. A transformer is ideal if it obeys (1.1) and (1.2), but no practical ransformer {is idea. In most transformers, the principle departures from ideal result in some voltage and current being “los” in the transformation, 20 terminal vatables are not precisely related by (J.1) and (1.2). A model that represents these effets is shown, in Fig. 130). Some of the terminal curent ¥ is shunted through the magnetizing See: cee tg by taf fete pa ee a i | t 1 seat \ Id | Le @ Figure 1.3. (al The ideal transformer model, (b) Amore practieal model, in which i eter of magmetizing instance, and leakage Uy and Ln)6 chapter 1 Introduction Figure 14 (al The model of Fig. 1.S(). with the magnetizing inductance placed ‘on the Ny side of the ideal transformer. (b) The mode! of Fig. 1b). simplified by reflecting ZL through the ideal transformer and com- Ding i with Le inductance Landis called the magnetizing current, So whereas iy and iy ae still related by (/-]) and (/.2), the real terminal curren 4, and dare net. Similarly, the teal terminal voltages v and v differ from vy and v by the drops scross Le, anc ‘Dy. which ar called leakage inductances, in Chapter 20 we descrite the physical onigns of these effec. Figure 1.30) shows L, across the winging IV. We can, however, rect i through the idea! transformer go that it appears across the MY, winding, a8 shown in Fig. l(a}. Sometimes we do this because the results analytically more convenient to se, Although two leakage inductances, ane for each winding, ae shown in Fig. 1.3(), they ae often combined by reflecting one trough the Weal transformes. If the voltage drop across this inductor is small relative to the voltage across Ly. then [,, can be moved inside this reflected inductance without introducing ‘mich ofan errr, and the two leakage inductances can be combined, The resulting approximate model is shown in Fig. 1.4(0). ‘Another useful model transformation isto reflect the entire cireut on one side ofthe ideal transformer tothe ether side. 4 transformation of this kin is shown in Fig. 15, There, not ony has the magnetizing inductance been reflected to the Ny side, but the tes ofthe Ny side eteut, C, and R,. has also been “brought through” the ideal transformer. OF cource, the isolation function i lest in the transformation, ‘which makes the technigue inappropriate forthe analysis of some circuits. "We can calculte or measure the leakage and magnetizing inductances of trans- formers, and we sometimes construct transformers fo have speciic values fr these parameters. And, even though we have been discussing only two winding tran Section 1.8 Transformers 7 ‘ormers,sunitar but somewhat more complicated considerations apply to the mod- ling of transformers with more than two windings. Other practical considerations, such a5 the resistance of the windings or Toass in the core, are represented by the adcition of appropriate elements to the model of Fig. 1300. Figures 1.3(0) and 1.4 show the schematic transformer representation that we se throughout this book, The circuit model being used to describe & transformer willbe enclosed in a dashed box. The model frequently has an teal transformer as one of is clements, represented by windings with adjacent double bars. Some schematic conventions ulize the double bars represent an ion core, But we use the bars to indicate the coupled windings of an ideal transformer when it appests inside s dashed box. Ths conveation avoids ambiguity and schematic cuter when = than two windings ate involved, Figure L8_(@) At. sformer with an RC load on the 1; side, () The areult ‘of fa} with all the My, side componente reflected to te IY, sie o that ‘the Ideal transformer can be elltinated from the transformer model8 Chapter 1 Introduction 1 PART I 1.4 NOMENCLATURE [Because we discuss several different kinds of variables, we need to establish their Aefinitions now to avoid contusion later. 1 Varies tat may be dine dependent ae represented by onerese name oct a ey, When necessary for area, the ime dependence is explily indicted for example 0 2. Nwiables that ate constant are sepresnted by wppeesse names, such Vi Tm Va 4. The average vate or de component of a proc variable is dented by angle bracket afund the vr, fr example, (,) = V, Nos tht he average vale F iS constant and ce epesated by an Uppers name orm an 4. A lal average i defined in Chapter 11 and is inated by an overbar, Bor 5p, Not tet he ost average ia ft of tne Fe tee Function p= Teh | 6, Harmonic components of & nonsinusodal periodic waveform are indicated | ty nonstop representng he harmonise For eae tat ett te 1. Camploe amplitudes of sini fnetion at ereseted by hated uppercase ut) = Vcor(ut + 6) = Re(Vel*e") = Re(Pe) “The complex amplitude of u() is 7 = Vel The prefix “Re means “real part i Notes and Bibliography ‘We have incuged an annotated bibliography a he ead of most chaps. I provides sours i (of aditonal information on topes tat you might want to pursue fetes.Chapter 2 21 POWER eitectronic circuits change the cheractor of electrical energy: from de to ac, from one voltage level to encther, oF in some other way. We refer to such citcuits generically as converters, staic converters (because they contain 90 ‘moving pars), power processors, or power conditioners. The part of the system ‘hat acually manipulate the Now of energy is the power circuit. Ie i th frame forthe rest of the system's components, such 26 the control circuit o the thermal ‘management parts. “The power circuit has a base topology to which we add ether circuit elements ‘hac perform ancillary functions, such as prtection against transion overvotages and filtering to eliminate electromagnetic interference, Although these oer ele ‘ments are important, they do not affect the function of the power circus. Their purpose is to modify cern aspects of the power circuit's behavier, such asthe rates of rise of curens or voltages, The study of « power circuit with all these ‘ditional elements can quickly become dominated by particulars rather than fun- damenals. Therefore we concern ourselves only with the basic Forms of power cireats in Pari T of tis book. We describe methods of building on these basic structures to transform them into practical power circuits, snd evenly into eye tems, in Parts, I, and TV, In Part I we show how a desired conversion function influences the form, topology, of the power circuit. We also use these forms to usirae the analytic tools and ways of thinking that you should apply when studying. a power circuit, In most cases we keep both the function andthe form simple. Where we preset 1 more advanced topology, our goel isto show the connection between it and is simpler form—and the benefits gained from the added complexity. ‘THE FUNCTIONS OF A POWER CIRCUIT Before we can specify the form of a power circuit, we must define its function. In general, its Function isto alter the characteristics of electrical energy provided by uw12. Chapter 2 Form and Function: An Overview coe extemal system to those required by another. For instance, the power supply for a computer must convert the sinusoidal mains energy (60 Ha, 110 V rms in the United States) toa 5 V de waveform. Another example iss power circuit for ddeving a variable speed ac moter, which might draw power tom a battery and Geliver a sinusoidal curent waveform to the motor. “The types of fanetions that a power circuit can perform are limited only by the characteristics of electic power that are to be altered. As already mentioned, the transformations from ac fo do and from de to ac are (wo possible functions. Twetfacing systems with waveforms that are similarly shaped, bat have different amplitudes, is another. If bath waveforms are constant in time, we call the power ‘rout a dolde converter, and if both ace altemating, we call the eieuit an ac/ac Converter. In the later case, we might want ro change the frequency or phase 38 ‘vel as the amplitude. {tis important that you not think of a power cieuit’s function as fixed for all time, The value of such a cieuit is not fast is ability to alec the form of tleotie energy, but also ils ability to do so in response to a control signal. Por instance, we ean make the output of a camputer power supply remain at 5 V even though the amplitude of the wily waveform changes by more than :£20%, In some applications, sch a8 light dimmers, the ene function ofthe power iret isto provide thi Controllability 'A power circuit provides an interface between two other systems extemal t0| it and therefore imposes reaoaships between the voltage and curent waveforms fat one port and those atthe other. Exactly wit waveforms exist at these ports ‘pends not only on these relationships Bu also on how the two extemal systems respond to being slated in this manner. Thus itis important always to describe the operation of a power elruit inthe context of the extemal systems to which it is connected Tn cers situations one externa system, such a5 a voltage souie, wil ditate fa waveform at one por independent of the power circuit or the other extemal ‘System, In tese eases, we teat the waveform as an Input to be processed by the power eituit to create an ouput, The extemal system atthe output then defines the covariable (he curent in this ase) atts port, and we work backwatd through the power circuit to determine the shape ofthe covariable's waveform atthe input. Fecause of their simplicity, we often use these cases when presenting the initial topologies in the fllowing chapters “The direction of energy flow usually determines whether pons serve as input ‘or output. However, many power circuits are capable of processing bidirectional power, and identifying thei ports 2s input or output leads to ambiguity. This am Dignity is aggravated by the fact chat the types of semiconductor devices used 10 construct the eieuit also constrtn the dtection af power, Thus we could construct ‘wo identical topologies to process power in opposite directions. This is an impor- tant issue, which we address frequently, for it emphasizes that two visually distinct create can behave similarly i i 2.2, 2.2. Section 2.2 ac/de Converters 13 ‘The basic form of a power circuit stems primarily from the need to provide efficient energy conversion. This nced precludes the use of a transistor operating sa linear ampli, regariless ofits designed power level. For almost all energy conversion applications, such a circuit technique simply dissipates too much enerey relative (othe amount it processes. Similarly, using a resistor in conjunction with ‘an energy storage element is nt a pracical way to make a low- or high-pass filter ina power cicuit. All elements in the basic power circuit, atleast in their idl form, must be lossless. This requirement leaves us with two kinds oF components \with which to build power circuits: switches (semiconductor devices tha are either fully on or of) and energy storage elements (inductors and capacitors). AC/DC CONVERTERS Without regard forthe ditection of ener fw, cle convecers comprise the branes cas of power esto il, Tey ae preset in every pce of ae Operate eleconc equipment ated large comput ey oe ted extensively i natal contol and processes, sch swale seed mor dive, induction hatig, plating, and the eectlyic procs of chemical Beate of i ymmety th bate converter tpelogy cape of die sonal power fat the ste topology can cover se to de ts. Ronis reason we nl aac ay Sgt the one of the" and "inthe name Yale stave” 1 Basic Topology and Energy Flow Our first example of a power circuit is one chat creates a de voltage from an ac voltage source. In this case, the power circu produces a waveform that has fan average value (the 6 voltage) from one that does not (the a¢ source). Using switches configure in the ropology of Fig. 2.1(8) produces the desired waveform, Because one ofthe two external networks connected to the converter iss resistor, there is no ambiguity aboot input cr ouput pons. Energy must flow from the source te the resistor. When the ac voltage is postive, closing the tvo switches marked P and leaving the two switches marked NV open connects the input voltage 10 ‘be output in the postive sense. When the se voltage is negative, reversing the states of the switches reverses the connection of the ae voltage source to the ouput terminals, resulting in an output voltage that is again positive ‘The waveform vg in Fig. 2.1(2) has a de component (equal to 2V,/'2), but it also contains unwanted 2c components that we can remove by the addition of energy storage elements. For instance if we use 2 low-pass LC filter as shown {0 mie const we sar apie fr «fw spltion,Adbawgh we epee etc, ‘tr don of poner che eclectic ea a hi otk te dese ecg14 Chapter 2 Form and Function: An Overview 1 L 1 i ‘ 1 an 1 \ 1 “| $e Poe td \ [ 1 ile BI i i f+ Powers —o] J —Ponercest > +] » Figure 2:1 (a) A power eircult, consioting only of svitches, that converts an ac voltage, vq, 19 one containing a do component, vg. (b) The ac/de ‘converter of (a) with the addition of filter elements L and C to remove the unwanted ac components from vg Section 2.2 ac/de Converters 15 % 7 =h e a i 2 x ve 5 of ee o o Figure 22 (a) The converter topology of Fig. 2.1fa) connected and controlled to provice inversion. (0) Tne conventional way of drawing the bridge ‘converter of (a. in Fig. 2.100), most of the ac components in the voltage waveform created by the switches will appear across the inductor instead of atthe output. As part of the design proces, we must choose element values large enough to achieve the level of attenuation desired. ‘An selde converter in which energy flows from the ac network to the de net- ‘work is called a recier. However, using an energy source such as a battery for the dc extemal system, as Fig. 2.2(a) shows, allows energy to flow in the other direction. The cteuit is then called an inverter. Note thatthe same power cizcuit provides both functions. In practice the external networks and switch implementa- tion and contol determine the function. The topology of this connection of Four ‘witches scaled a bridge. It is used extensively in power electronics and is usually rawa as shown in Fig. 2.200). EXAMPLE 2.1 ‘A Converter Linking Two Sources If the inductor andor the capacitor in th 1ow-pse fer in the topology of Fig. 2.1) i lage enough, he output volage wil be constant at Vy, = 292/x. We may now replace the ‘sapeior and resistor with a volage source ofthis value, as shown in Fig. 230, witoat16 ‘Chapter 2 Form and Function: An Overview o ° re 2.8 (a) The converter opsogy of Fg. 2.109 with the ld restr and ter Pique 28 psotor replaced 6 awe source cau to Ue averae a ofthe SGldiedveage sq. 0) Weveloms reeling when te ois ae ne ‘pale fo ge as Snag ngs! vse 0° ssi j Seetion 2.2 ac/de Converters 17 hanging he operation ofthe crt, We now havea convener whose Forts are connesed to souces capable of supplying energy, Whit isthe iection of power? "The answer i tat all obvious, bcaste we eaapot determine ig without krowledge ofthe epatating history ofthe switches, aad the dvection of iy ermine the deton of power. What we can do is write an expesion for fy items of oy (ich 5 explisly Aetermined by he swctes) and Vi: ae Ef eos en ‘igure 2) shows the volage 1j—Vgg = vy, forte case where the switches are controled so ha conduton temates beeen the P and 1 switches at zeo-rosings of TRE erage value of tis voagecaleulted over an tterval = is wo=4 [ (Ws 28) ae raking no net change in ig. This oadtion is known as operation inthe pric sendy sire, because the cbeuit i in the same state a the beginning a end of each swicing riod. I wer very lrg (L = oo) ig woulé na vary even daring the eral. I the Swices wereconrole in this manner forall ine, ete would never be an average value of vohuge acres L an iy forver woul be zero, "However, we conl the pening and closing of witches, Shifting the switching inns by an angle cfm the 2er-1esiags Of tg, 38 shown in Fig. 2.30), ceaes a nonzero average volage across L. This votge eatses the cument {0 change, decressing (gone ‘negaive) inthis ease. When the current teaches te vale cemesponding to the deed power, he switching time are changed ta the zeo-rosings of ty (Fg. 23), The average ‘alte of, now ooee sain ver and ig temas consti [Note that because we have choten a de source voltage equal tothe maxim possible vale ofthe component of vg, we esrnot control the switches fo ve a postive average le to vz. Ths We reset the ereit 1 energy ow from the do network tothe a& network, A smaller value of Vg, Would yer fw i either dreton, This ie, contlled 1 describe, is one example of acess of eral clad phase conroled converters. We Canis ther in detail in Chap 5. a2 2.2.2 Filtering The wse of basic power electronic converter topologies, such as the basic acide converter topology of Fig. 2.1), fequently results in deviation from the desired waveform by one or more of the por variables. In these eatee we must modity the topology by adding fers to remove the unvanted components from the port variables. Figure 2.1(b) shows one way of doing ths for the de side of the acide converter. Lats now consider this issue more generally. ‘We can obiain a simpler altemstive 1a the Alter of Fig. 2.1() by removing the ‘capacitor and making the inductor very large, The resulting filter has a single pole at wo 1/r-= R/L, Placing this pole ata frequency tha is very low compaced tothe ‘tong frequency yields an inductor (and resistor) current that is neatly constant18. Chapter 2 Form and Function: An Overview by 6 ® Figure 2.4. (a) The ac/de convertor topology of Fig. 2.1(a), with a ret order low pass filter (RL) on the de side and a second-order low-paae filter (L,C,) on the ae side. (o) An alternative and more effective ac side flr’ ‘some value Z,- But the curent in the ac soures j,i now a square wave instead ‘fa sinusoid, which is undesirabe for reasons we discuss in Chapter 3. We must ‘eraploy another filter to eliminate all but the Fundamental component from iy Figure 24(a) shows the acfde converter topology of Fig. 2.10) withthe iter ‘on the de side modifed as in the preceding discussion and a second order filter consisting of L, and C, on the ae side. The alternate action of the P and NV ‘switches creates the square-wave current i, by altemately reversing the direction of Lg, as its reflected through the switches to the de sie, The characteristics ofthe ar network connected to the converter strongly influence the form of the ac file. Inthis ease the network is simply the source, ve, which ideally has an incremental Jmpedance of zero at any frequency. Therefore a shunt filter alone will not work, and the filter topology must present an impedance (20, in tis ease in series with the source at all but (ideally) the fundamental frequency. In practice the low-pass ac filter does not work very well. The reason is that the fist, and largest, undesirable harmonic of ji the third. Because iti so close poset Section 2.2 ac/de Converters 19 to the fundamental, the fier pole cannot be placed at frequency that stongly atenuates te tird without aso influencing the fundamental. Figure 2.4(0) shows an alternative Her circuit. I uses 9 series tap, Ly and Cy, to shunt the third harmonic from the output, and the low-pass filter, Ly and Cy, 10 emove harmonies from the fifth and above, "From these examples you can see thatthe introduction of filters complicates the basic power circuit ropology required to perform the conversion function, It 8 ‘equally ipoctan’ that you recognize the inluence ofthe external networks on the form and effectiveness ofthe filter circuits, When these filters are part ofthe power circuit. you can determine the performance of the converter only in the context of an application that specitis the characteristics ofthe external networks. EXAMPLE 2.2 ‘A Resonant Converter In Example 2.1 ve dicated a way of comboling power by varying the pas angle be- ‘een the zeo-cronlags of te ae WaveToom and the evitching times, When the 36 por (ofthe converter incorporates sesonant Sir, we vrmetimes can use an altemative contol tecaigue bused onthe suoagvataton with fequency ofthe uansfe function of the iter. gure 25(a is an acdc convener witha series resonant Aer onthe ae side. Tis topology, costing of a split source and aly (wo switches, i known as 2 halide. ry © ° i o Figure 2.6 (a) A hale-oidge ac/de converter topology employing a seis tuned A- {Gr onthe se sii. fy The seatonship Getwoen the nfiteredwolage, ‘und the outpavllage sa, when Oe iter Cuned to the swt iequency wn20 Chapter 2 Form end Funetion: An Overview : teria ned ote anger Figure 25 shows he wavefoms dy when he ler tnd CH tee That the echingenny’o, il ote son ene w= 1) VEC. Ie Qf he es REC cat hh spr sy ne newy sinter aviching fuente t= Wem determine tmp ofthe ong fom te mogtde he wince Y Gu) Wa = RYGUNM, ere Vz, denotes the amplitude ofthe fndamental (2) component of Ya “The fagritue of YG) is shown in Fig. 2.6. Switching at fequeney higher than a allows the fle to sil do a good jo of removing harmonies fram vg. The apd tention Drovide by the Ser reduces the slmos sinusoid ouput voltage. This by varying the ching frequency, we can cont he power daivere to the fad reir as ‘og YG ges [Figure 2.6 Admittance ao a function of equency for the REC circu on these eide orig 28 comer ove menbr ‘The oplgy of Fi. 2.5 i kno a srt rena cf a fiy of wide some calle roo omer geste ten ply So inn ean hphqusey se mavefoms, fer fe indonesian Now the ene of power sonel thar we ju dcosd rsh sryng out Frey. Thess ay apicaion hype of cone mt ane resi Pat teeny 2.3 DC/DC CONVERTERS Used exteselyin poner spl for econ equipment, dle comers co tl te flow of energy btwn va deste The ise ager ae he Cutpt ofthe af eanver: and nar tthe eer evap egsied ty he eteconies—s Vand 15 V for xample, These covers ts ed a betery rowed equipment and to coma ie spee fe mots nay aon pplication, sch Urry power fois or tne operating am id i Section 2.9 de/de Converters 21 igure 2.7, Basic de/de converter topology. The conversion ratio Vj/¥, ean waxy between “1 nil or catenary. In relatively high-power applications, such as traction, the ede converter is known a8 a chopper. 2.3.1 Baste Topology ‘The base dee converter topology is shown in Fig. 2.7. The striking featur ofthis circuits its similarity tothe ade converter topology shown in Fig. 21(b), In fact, the only difference isthe contol of switches. In the ded converter, the switches are controlled to produce a voltage y, that contains a nonzero de component. This Component is then extracted by the low-pass LC fier to produce the output de voltage V4, As before, we altemately operate the P and JV switches, instetd of leaving ‘ach set closed for exactly half the cycle as we did inthe aefde converter, here we control them to have asymmetric on-imes so thet vy contains ade component. For example, if we leave the P switches on for thee guarters of the switching period the voltage vy shown in Fig. 2.7 resuls. I has an average value of V7. In this circuit we can obtain an average vltage between V, and —V; by adjusting the relative conduction periods ofthe two sets of switches. The faction of is switching Period during whieh a switch is on is known a the diy ratio D of the switch, Howe the duty ratio of the P switches is 0.75, and that ofthe V switches is 0.25, EXAMPLE 2.3 A Simplified de/de Converter ‘Topology We can spy the opology of Fig 2:7 by requtng an output voltage of only one pola for example, 0 < Vz < Vy, The cite of Fig, 2.8, which contsns Only two suites, fe sufiiem 10 do the Job. AS we tur these swiches on and off sequel, the vlogs waveform iney eeata steps between Vand 0.