Indigenous Australians

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"Australian peoples" redirects here. For other people of Australia, see

Australians.

Indigenous Australians
(Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders)

Total population

649,171 (2016)
2.8% of Australia's population (2016)[1]

Population distribution by state/territory

New South Wales

216,176 (2.89%)

Queensland
186,842 (3.97%)

Western Australia
75,978 (3.07%)

Northern Territory
58,248 (25.45%)

Victoria
47,748 (0.81%)

South Australia
34,184 (2.04%)

Tasmania
23,572 (4.62%)

Australian Capital Territory

6,508 (1.64%)
Languages

Several hundred Indigenous Australian languages (many extinct or nearly so),

Australian English, Australian Aboriginal English, Torres Strait Creole, Kriol

Religion

Christianity 73%
Non-religious 24%
Traditional Aboriginal religion 1%

Related ethnic groups

Papuans, Melanesians

Indigenous Australians are the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people of
Australia, descended from groups that existed in Australia and surrounding islands
prior to British colonisation. The time of arrival of the first Indigenous
Australians is a matter of debate among researchers. The earliest definitely human
remains found in Australia are those of Mungo Man LM3 and Mungo Lady, which have
been dated to around 50,000 years BP.[2] Recent archaeological evidence from the
analysis of charcoal and artefacts revealing human use suggests a date as early as
65,000 BP.[3][4] Luminescence dating has suggested habitation in Arnhem Land as far
back as 60,000 years BP.[5] Genetic research has inferred a date of habitation as
early as 80,000 years BP. Other estimates have ranged up to 100,000 years[6] and
125,000 years ago.[7]

Although there are a number of commonalities between indigenous Aboriginal

Australians, there is also a great diversity among different Indigenous communities
and societies in Australia, each with its own mixture of cultures, customs and
languages. In present-day Australia these groups are further divided into local
communities.[8] At the time of initial European settlement, over 250 languages were
spoken; it is currently estimated that 120 to 145 of these remain in use, but only
13 of these are not considered endangered.[9][10] Aboriginal people today mostly
speak English, with Aboriginal phrases and words being added to create Australian
Aboriginal English (which also has a tangible influence of Indigenous languages in
the phonology and grammatical structure). The population of Indigenous Australians
at the time of permanent European settlement is contentious and has been estimated
at between 318,000[11] and 1,000,000[12] with the distribution being similar to
that of the current Australian population, the majority living in the south-east,
centred along the Murray River.[13] A population collapse principally from disease
followed European invasion[14][15] beginning with a smallpox epidemic spreading
three years after the arrival of Europeans. Massacres and war by British settlers
also contributed to depopulation.[16][17] The characterisation of this violence as
genocide is controversial and disputed.[18]

Since 1995, the Australian Aboriginal Flag and the Torres Strait Islander Flag have
been among the official flags of Australia.

Contents [hide]
1 Indigenous Australia 1.1 Terminology
1.2 Regional groups
1.3 Torres Strait Islanders
1.4 The terms "black" and "blackfella"
2 History 2.1 Migration to Australia
2.2 Before European contact
2.3 British colonisation
2.4 Early 20th century
2.5 Late 20th century to present

3 Society, language, culture, and technology 3.1 Languages

3.2 Belief systems
3.3 Music
3.4 Art
3.5 Literature
3.6 Film
3.7 Traditional recreation and sport
3.8 Technology

4 Genetics
5 Population 5.1 Definition
5.2 Inclusion in the National Census
5.3 Demographics

6 Groups and communities

7 Contemporary issues 7.1 Identity
7.2 Stolen Generations
7.3 Political representation

7.4 Age characteristics

7.5 Life expectancy
7.6 Education
7.7 Employment
7.8 Health
7.9 Crime and imprisonment
7.10 Substance abuse
7.11 Native title and sovereignty
7.12 Stolen wages
7.13 Cross-cultural miscommunication

8 Prominent Indigenous Australians

9 See also
10 Notes
11 References
12 Sources
13 External links

Indigenous Australia[edit]

See also: Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders

The Australian Aboriginal Flag

Terminology[edit]

In 1870, during the period of scientific racism, Thomas Huxley categorised

Indigenous Australians as part of the Australoid race.[19] Today such views are no
longer held. There are significant differences in social, cultural and linguistic
customs between the various Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander groups.

The word aboriginal has been in the English language since at least the 16th
century, to mean, "first or earliest known, indigenous". It comes from the Latin
word aborigines, derived from ab (from) and origo (origin, beginning).[20] The word
was used in Australia to describe its indigenous peoples as early as 1789. It soon
became capitalised and employed as the common name to refer to all Indigenous
Australians.

Strictly speaking, Aborigine is the noun and Aboriginal the adjectival form, but
the latter is often also employed as a noun. Use of either Aborigine(s) or
Aboriginal(s) to refer to individuals has acquired negative connotations in some
sectors of the community, and it is generally regarded as insensitive and even
offensive.[21][22] The more accepted expression is Aboriginal Australians or
Aboriginal people. The term Indigenous Australians, which also includes Torres
Strait Islander peoples, has found increasing acceptance, particularly since the
1980s.[23]

Regional groups[edit]

Main article: List of Indigenous Australian group names

The broad term Aboriginal Australians includes many regional groups that often
identify under names from local Indigenous languages. These include:

Men and boys playing a game of gorri, 1922Murrawarri people � see Murrawarri
Republic and Murawari language;
Koori (or Koorie) in New South Wales and Victoria (Victorian Aborigines);
Ngunnawal in the Australian Capital Territory and surrounding areas of New South
Wales;
Goorie in South East Queensland and some parts of northern New South Wales;
Murrdi in Southwest and Central Queensland;
Murri used in Queensland and northern New South Wales where specific collective
names (such as Gorrie or Murrdi) are not used;
Nyungar in southern Western Australia;
Yamatji in central Western Australia;
Wangai in the Western Australian Goldfields;
Nunga in southern South Australia;
Anangu in northern South Australia, and neighbouring parts of Western Australia and
Northern Territory;
Yapa in western central Northern Territory;
Arrernte in central Australia;
Yolngu in eastern Arnhem Land (NT);
Bininj in Western Arnhem Land (NT);
Tiwi on Tiwi Islands off Arnhem Land.
Anindilyakwa on Groote Eylandt off Arnhem Land;
Palawah (or Pallawah) in Tasmania.

Men from Bathurst Island, 1939

These larger groups may be further subdivided; for example, Anangu (meaning a
person from Australia's central desert region) recognises localised subdivisions
such as Pitjantjatjara, Yankunytjatjara, Ngaanyatjarra, Luritja and Antikirinya. It
is estimated that prior to the arrival of British settlers, the population of
Indigenous Australians was approximately 318,000�750,000 across the continent.[12]

Torres Strait Islanders[edit]

Map of Torres Strait Islands

Main article: Torres Strait Islanders

The Torres Strait Islanders possess a heritage and cultural history distinct from
Aboriginal traditions. The eastern Torres Strait Islanders in particular are
related to the Papuan peoples of New Guinea, and speak a Papuan language.[24]
Accordingly, they are not generally included under the designation "Aboriginal
Australians". This has been another factor in the promotion of the more inclusive
term "Indigenous Australians". Six percent of Indigenous Australians identify
themselves fully as Torres Strait Islanders. A further 4% of Indigenous Australians
identify themselves as having both Torres Strait Islander and Aboriginal heritage.
[25]

The Torres Strait Islands comprise over 100 islands[26] which were annexed by
Queensland in 1879.[26] Many Indigenous organisations incorporate the phrase
"Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander" to highlight the distinctiveness and
importance of Torres Strait Islanders in Australia's Indigenous population.

Eddie Mabo was from "Mer" or Murray Island in the Torres Strait, which the famous
Mabo decision of 1992 involved.[26]

The terms "black" and "blackfella"[edit]

Further information: Blackfella

The term "black" has been used to refer to Indigenous Australians since European
settlement.[27] While originally related to skin colour, the term is used today to
indicate Aboriginal heritage or culture in general and refers to any people of such
heritage regardless of their level of skin pigmentation.[28]

In the 1970s, many Aboriginal activists, such as Gary Foley, proudly embraced the
term "black", and writer Kevin Gilbert's ground-breaking book from the time was
entitled Living Black. The book included interviews with several members of the
Aboriginal community, including Robert Jabanungga, reflecting on contemporary
Aboriginal culture. A less formal term, used by Indigenous Australians themselves
and not normally derogatory, is "blackfellas", as distinguished from "whitefellas".

History[edit]

Main articles: History of Indigenous Australians, Prehistory of Australia, and

Australian archaeology

See also: Aboriginal Australians � Origins

Wiki letter w.svg

This article is missing information about pre-European contact technology. Please
expand the article to include this information. Further details may exist on the
talk page. (January 2016)

Migration to Australia[edit]

Artwork depicting the first contact that was made with the Gweagal Aboriginal
people and Captain James Cook and his crew on the shores of the Kurnell Peninsula,
New South Wales
Several settlements of humans in Australia have been dated around 49,000 years
ago,.[29][30] Luminescence dating of sediments surrounding stone artefacts at
Madjedbebe, a rock shelter in northern Australia, indicates human activity at
65,000 years BP.[31] Genetic studies appear to support an arrival date of 50-70,000
years ago.[32]

The earliest anatomically modern human remains found in Australia (and outside of
Africa) are those of Mungo Man; they have been dated at 42,000 years old.[2][33]
The initial comparison of the mitochondrial DNA from the skeleton known as Lake
Mungo 3 (LM3) with that of ancient and modern Aborigines indicated that Mungo Man
is not related to Australian Aborigines.[34] However, these findings have been met
with a general lack of acceptance in scientific communities.[citation needed] The
sequence has been criticised as there has been no independent testing, and it has
been suggested that the results may be due to posthumous modification and thermal
degradation of the DNA.[35][36][37][38] Although the contested results seem to
indicate that Mungo Man may have been an extinct subspecies that diverged before
the most recent common ancestor of contemporary humans,[34] the administrative body
for the Mungo National Park believes that present-day local Aborigines are
descended from the Lake Mungo remains.[39] Independent DNA testing is unlikely as
the Indigenous custodians are not expected to allow further invasive
investigations.[40]

It is generally believed that Aboriginal people are the descendants of a single

migration into the continent, a people that split from the first modern human
populations to leave Africa 64,000 to 75,000 years ago,[41] although a minority
proposed an earlier theory that there were three waves of migration,[42] most
likely island hopping by boat during periods of low sea levels (see Prehistory of
Australia). Recent work with mitochondrial DNA suggests a founder population of
between 1,000 and 3,000 women to produce the genetic diversity observed, which
suggests "that initial colonization of the continent would have required deliberate
organized sea travel, involving hundreds of people".[43] Aboriginal people seem to
have lived a long time in the same environment as the now extinct Australian
megafauna.[44]