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Whey and Whey Powders: Production and Uses

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Ramos O.L., Pereira R.N., Rodrigues R.M., Teixeira J.A., Vicente A.A. and Malcata F.X. (2016) Whey and Whey
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 Author's personal copy

Whey and Whey Powders: Production and Uses

OL Ramos, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal; University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
RN Pereira, RM Rodrigues, JA Teixeira, and AA Vicente, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal
FX Malcata, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal; Faculdade de Engenharia da Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
ã 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Whey
Whey is the liquid remaining from the precipitation and curd
removal during cheese manufacture. Like milk, whey may have
different origins (e.g., goat, sheep, and buffalo), but the most
relevant in terms of production volume and economical value
is that obtained from cow milk processing; this will be the
main focus of this text. Whey generally represents a volume
fraction of 90% in milk and is classified in two different types:
sweet whey, resulting from rennet-coagulated cheese with a pH
of at least 5.6; and acid whey, obtained from acid-coagulated
cheese with a pH below 5.1.
Up until very recently, whey resulting from the curd during
manufacture of cheese was regarded as a polluting effluent
from the dairy industry, being commonly discarded in rivers
or lands (without any treatment), thus resulting in a serious
environmental problem due to its high production volumes
and organic content. This paradigm has been changed due to
the combination of three critical driving forces: (i) legislation,
(ii) potential of whey proteins, and (iii) evolution of technol-
ogy. In short, legislative regulations, together with the growing
consumer concern regarding environmental problems and
incentives to recycle whenever possible, forced the dairy indus-
try to explore other approaches to managing whey as a waste.
Since Ancient Greece, whey has been claimed to be a cure for
many illnesses, used as a medicine or as skin balm. Nowadays,
the potential of a vast range of whey proteins and their pep-
tides with great potential health benefits is well known.
Despite these, application of whey or whey powder in human
food products was always very limited due to the uneven
composition of whey solids. However, the developments of
separation technologies relying on selective porous
membranes are allowing superior isolation and fractionation
of whey components, which are undoubtedly becoming one of
the most widespread additives in food. Consequently, over the
last 40 years, the number of commercial and technological
applications using whey has increased considerably. Digestion
processes were applied as an important step to minimize the
pollution problem caused by the deposition of this by-product
through the use of enzymes and microorganisms, resulting in
the production of commodities for other industries, such as
monosaccharides and amino acids. Recently, whey gained
interest as a food ingredient, coming into use as a technological
agent particularly through whey proteins, achieving a unique
blend between nutritional and functional properties with
applications both in food and health.
Whey is a turbid yellowish liquid, consisting in its majority
(90–94%) of water, while also having a high and diverse
organic content. Its composition and characteristics may vary
according to origin and producing method. Lactose is the
major organic fraction present in whey, followed by proteins,
minerals, lactic acid, and lipids. The general whey composition
and its major applications are summarized in Table 1. Other
minor components encompass citric acid, nonprotein nitrogen
compounds (urea and uric acid), and vitamins of the
B-complex.
Whey Proteins
Whey proteins are the most economically and technologically
interesting fraction in whey. These proteins are globular mol-
ecules with a substantial content of a-helix motifs, in which the
acidic/basic and hydrophobic/hydrophilic amino acids are
distributed in a fairly balanced way along their polypeptide
chains.
Whey protein fraction is mainly constituted by b-
lactoglobulin (b-Lg), a-lactalbumin (a-La), immunoglobulins
(IGs), bovine serum albumin (BSA), lactoferrin (LF), and lac-
toperoxidase (LP), representing at least 50%, 20%, 10%, 10%,
3%, and 0.3%, respectively. The general physiochemical prop-
erties of whey proteins are listed in Table 2.
Whey Protein System
Since the 1920s, efforts have been made to concentrate whey,
essentially using heat-drying methods. However, these efforts
never resulted in commercial and technological interest once
the characteristics of the obtained product (i.e., yellow-
brownish colour) and their composition (i.e., high content of
lactose and denatured protein), coupled with the high costs of
the process, limited their use. Later, with the implementation
of an innovative process (i.e., spray drying), the thermal deg-
radation of whey components, as well as the cost associated to
its concentration reduced significantly. Nevertheless, not until
the 1970s, with the utilization of membrane filtration, was it
possible to achieve an efficient separation and concentration of
whey protein fractions while preserving their integrity. This
technique employs semipermeable surfaces (membranes)
with specific pore sizes, where the permeate flows though
while the retentate is blocked based on size/molecular weight.
Throughout the combination of successive filtrations steps, it is
possible to produce protein fractions with different composi-
tions and degrees of purity. These fractions can then result in a
dry product if followed by a spray-drying process. This tech-
nology leads to a selective concentration of proteins, which
after drying is called whey protein concentrate (WPC). This
whey product contains different protein concentrations (usu-
ally ranging from 35% to 80%) and appreciable amounts of
lactose and minerals, thus fitting several applications. Further
purification, often conjugating other techniques as

498 Encyclopedia of Food and Health http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-384947-2.00747-9

The Encyclopedia of Food and Health, (2016), vol. 5, pp. 498-505
 Author's personal copy
Whey and Whey Powders: Production and Uses 499

ion-exchange chromatography, allows the achievement of hydrolyses, and selective precipitation combined with centri-
higher degrees of purity with residual or no lactose content fugation and dialysis, it is yet possible to obtain pure whey
and higher desalination, resulting in whey protein isolate protein fractions. Figure 1 shows the main whey protein pro-
(WPI) containing at least 90% protein. With the application cessing approaches to obtain different whey protein sub-
of more advanced techniques, such as chromatography, partial products and products, and purer fractions.
Nowadays, whey protein fractions have a vast range of
applications in several areas. Nutrition is by far the most
Table 1 Whey composition profile, their relative concentration,
important, although there is growing interest in the pharma-
and main applications
ceutical field, particularly regarding enriched whey protein
Whey Concentration ingredients, essentially due to their biological activities.
component (g l1) Applications Concentrated whey is typically incorporated in animal feed
or used as a component in growing media for bacteria, yeast,
Lactose 45–60 Browning agent, sweet syrups, and algae. Small quantities may also be incorporated in human
fermentation substrate
food, although its high salt and lactose contents, together with
Proteins 6–11 Nutrition, technological agents,
low protein composition (
10%), do not make it attractive for
bioactive compounds
Minerals 8–10 Nutrition, fertilizers, growing medium this purpose.
Lactic acid 0.5–9 Food preservative, acidulant, Among concentrated whey products, WPI followed by WPC
biodegradable plastic component gather suitable characteristics for food applications such as
Lipids 0.6–5 Nutrition higher protein and amino acid contents; low calorie, fat, and
sodium contents; absence of pathogens and toxic compounds;
biocompatibility and generally recognized as safe status; ready
Table 2 Composition of major proteins in bovine whey, their availability; and inexpensive products. Some of these potential
relative concentration, molecular weight (Mw), and number of amino food applications will be discussed below in a critical manner.
acid residues

Amino acid Whey Protein Biological Properties

Whey protein Concentration (g l1) Mw (kDa) residues
The development of new processing technologies and more
Total 7.0 – – sophisticated analytical methods has allowed better insight
b-Lactoglobulin 3.5 18.3 162 into the nutritional and biological properties of whey proteins
a-Lactalbumin 1.2 14.2 123 and whey-derived products and their role in human health,
a
Immunoglobulins 0.7 150–900
including prevention of diseases and health conditions. Whey
Bovine serum albumin 0.4 66.4 583
proteins exhibit a range of biological activities that influence
Lactoferrin 0.02–0.35 80.0 700
Lactoperoxidase 0.01–0.03 78.5 612 digestion, metabolic responses to absorbed nutrients, growth
and development of specific organs, and resistance to disease.
a
Variable values. Other biological activities of the individual whey proteins, and

Whey

Centrifugation/
Micro Filtration

Whey protein Dialysis/Ion exchange

Ultra Filtration concentrate chromatography

Demineralization Nano Filtration

Reverse osmosis Fractioning

Microorganisms Demineralized Water Minerals Lactose WPC WPI Pure protein

Casein micelles whey powder fractions
Fat globules
Figure 1 Liquid whey processing strategies to obtain protein-based ingredients.

The Encyclopedia of Food and Health, (2016), vol. 5, pp. 498-505

 Author's personal copy
500 Whey and Whey Powders: Production and Uses

of their fragments obtained by hydrolysis (termed bioactive
peptides), include antihypertensive, antimicrobial, opioid,
antioxidant, antiviral, immunomodulant, anticarcinogenic, or
mineral binding. The main biological activities of whey pro-
teins are summarized in Table 3.
The physiological effect of whey proteins can be attributed
to their fast digestion, which leads to a rapid increase in
serum amino acids after ingestion. After exercising, people
enter in a form of metabolic stress that requires immediate
availability of usable energy, which can be gathered by the
consumption of essential amino acids (e.g., leucine,
Table 3 Biological activities and potential health benefits of whey
protein consumption
Protein Biological activity
isoleucine, and valine). Therefore, whey proteins, via their
composite amino acid residues and/or associated com-
pounds, can provide substrates and bioactive components
that permit extending the overall benefits of regular physical
activity. Thus, whey proteins have been the protein source
choice by elite athletes, in addition to those people whose
health is compromised. Moreover, these proteins can contrib-
ute to improving muscle strength and reducing the tendency
for bone breaking. These features are once again directly
related to the unique amino acid sequences. Furthermore,
whey protein dairy consumption has been shown to play an
important role as a metabolic regulator in protein and glu-
cose homoeostasis and in lipid metabolism; this allows better
weight control, lower plasma and liver cholesterol, and lower
plasma triacylglycerol levels, and helps to reduce fat deposi-
tion and improve insulin sensitivity.

Whole whey Prevention of cancer (e.g., breast and intestinal

protein cancer) b-Lactoglobumin
Increment of gluthatione levels b-Lg is a small, soluble, and globular protein. Its actual biolog-
Increase of tumor cell vulnerability ical functions are still unclear; however, it can bind to small
HIV treatment hydrophobic ligands acting as carrier systems of these com-
Antimicrobial activities pounds, for example, retinol, fatty acids, triacylglycerols, aro-
Increment of satiety response matic compounds, vitamin D, cholesterol, palmitic acid, and
Increment in plasma amino acids,
calcium. Reported biological activities for b-Lg are summarized
cholecystokinin, and glucagon-like peptide
in Table 3. The homology of b-Lg tertiary structure with the
b-Lactoglobulin Transporter of retinol, palmitate, vitamin D,
cholesterol, fatty acids, and triglycerides plasma retinol-binding protein, as well as its high stability to
Protection during passage through the stomach proteolytic activity of digestive enzymes, has suggested that this
conditions protein can act as a resistant carrier of retinol. Moreover, its
Development and transfer of passive immunity high stability at low pH protects hydrophobic molecules dur-
Regulation of mammary gland metabolism ing passage through the stomach, in order to permit a specified
Anticarcinogenic activity delivery of such compounds to receptors located in the intes-
Immunomodulatory activity tine, thus facilitating the digestion of milk lipids.
a-Lactalbumin Anticarcinogenic activity b-Lg plays also an important role in developing passive
Lactose synthesis
immunity with immunoglobulin G and in its transference to
Treatment of chronic stress-induced disease
the newborn, and in regulation of phosphorus metabolism at
Bovine serum Synthesis of lipids
albumin Antimutagenic activity
the mammary gland. The amino acid content of this protein is
Antioxidant activity rather important because, besides stimulating muscle growth,
Anticarcinogenic activity it is a rich source of cysteine, which is essential for synthesis of
Immunoglobulins Immunomodulatory activity glutathione, an anticarcinogenic tripeptide produced by the
Growth and development liver for protection against intestinal tumors.
Disease protection through passive immunity The high nutritional and functional value of b-Lg is now
Antibacterial activity widely recognized and has made of this protein an ingredient
Antifungal activity of high quality in the formulation of modern foods and
Opioid activity
beverages.
HIV treatment
Lactoferrin Antimicrobial activity
Antifungal activity
Antiviral activity a-Lactalbumin
Antithrombotic activity a-La is a small and globular protein rich in cysteine, essential as
Immunomodulatory activity a coenzyme for the biosynthesis of lactose – an important
Antiproliferative activity source of energy. Some important bioactivities have been
Lactoperoxidase Antimicrobial activity reported for a-La (see Table 3).
Antifungal activity a-La contributes to reducing the risk of incidence of some
Immunomodulatory activity cancers (e.g., breast and colon cancer), as it constrains cell
division when present in intestinal cell lines. This whey protein
Source: Hernández-Ledesma, B., Ramos, M. and Gómez-Ruiz, J. Á. (2011). Bioactive
components of ovine and caprine cheese whey. Small Ruminant Research 101(1–3),
has also been associated with the treatment of chronic stress-
196–204. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.smallrumres.2011.09.040; Madureira, A. R., induced cognitive decline due to its high tryptophan content
Tavares, T., Gomes, A. M. P., Pintado, M. E. and Malcata, F. X. (2010). Invited review: (
6%); tryptophan (as a precursor of serotonin) is important
physiological properties of bioactive peptides obtained from whey proteins. Journal of for maintaining the essential levels of serotonin in the brain for
Dairy Science 93(2), 437–455. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.3168/jds.2009-2566. good cognitive performance.

The Encyclopedia of Food and Health, (2016), vol. 5, pp. 498-505

 Author's personal copy
Bovine serum albumin
BSA is not synthesized in the mammary gland; it appears in
milk through passage from the blood stream. Due to its size
and structure, BSA can bind to fatty acids, which are stored in
the human body as fat, or to free fatty acids and flavor
compounds, hence participating in synthesis of lipids (which
are a part of all outer and inner cell membranes) and in energy
production. Moreover, this whey protein has revealed antiox-
idant activity, thus protecting lipids against phenolic
oxidation, and potent inhibitory activity against breast cancer
cell proliferation through modulation of activities of the auto-
crine growth regulatory factors (see Table 3).
Immunoglobulins
IGs represent the most abundant of the established bioactive
proteins found in whey. IGs constitute a complex group of
globular proteins produced by B-lymphocytes, making a signif-
icant contribution to the whey protein content, besides exerting
an important immunological role. IGs are present in the serum
and physiological fluids of all mammals; some of them attach to
surfaces where they behave as receptors, whereas others function
as antibodies that are released in the blood and lymph. These
whey proteins protect the gut mucosa against pathogenic
microorganisms; impart passive immunity; combat infections,
providing protection against diseases, particularly in a neonate
until its own immune system is developed; improve physical
performance and recovery times in athletes; and allow faster
recuperation of immunocompromised persons. Important bio-
logical properties of IGs are summarized in Table 3.
Lactoferrin
Lactoferrin, also known as lactotransferrin, is a globular multi-
functional protein that binds, transports, and supplies the
organism with iron. It is present in the human body as a
secretor protein and is synthesized by glandular epithelial
cells and mature neutrophils. LF possesses antimicrobial activ-
ity attributed to the aforementioned iron-binding property, as
it makes such cation unavailable to the (otherwise active)
microorganisms, or by direct binding to their microbial mem-
brane. The antimicrobial activity of this protein is not restricted
to bacteria, but is available also to a wide range of other
microorganisms, including fungi and some viruses (Table 3).
LF plays a relevant role upon stimulation of the immune
system, owing to the increase of macrophage activity mediated
thereby, as well as upon induction of inflammatory cytokines,
stimulation of proliferation of lymphocytes, and activation of
monocyte (natural killer) and neutrophil cells. This whey pro-
tein also stimulates humoral immune response to sheep red
blood cells, promotes appropriate intestinal and peripheral spe-
cific antibody response, and modulates production of lympho-
kines. Moreover, LF has been shown to potentiate bone growth
enhancement properties manifested through stimulation of
growth of osteoblasts and inhibition of osteoclasts (Table 3).
Lactoperoxidase
LP is a member of the family of mammalian peroxidases, and is
an important part of the natural host defense system in mam-
mals, which provides protection against invading microorgan-
isms. This protein, combined with LF, displays suppressive
The Encyclopedia of Food and Health, (2016), vol. 5, pp. 498-505
Whey and Whey Powders: Production and Uses 501
effects on mitogen-activated lymphocyte proliferation. LP
also regulates expression of genes involved in the metabolism,
immunity, apoptosis, and cell cycle of epithelial intestinal
cells, while also displaying an important role in controlling
microorganism growth in milk from lactating animals, and in
cell-mediated pathogen killing. Additionally, this whey protein
plays a significant function in oral health care, promoting the
inhibition of harmful microorganisms associated with gingivi-
tis and oral irritation, and combating both the causes and
effects of halitosis. Biological activities for LP are summarized
in Table 3.
Other Bioactive Components in Whey
Lactose and oligosaccharides
Lactose is the major carbohydrate in whey and is a valuable
nutrient because it favors the intestinal absorption of essential
minerals such as calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and phos-
phorous (P), and the use of vitamin C. On the other hand,
whey oligosaccharides possess prebiotic and anti-infective
properties. Many of these oligosaccharides contain sialic acid;
this compound present in whey seems to promote several
positive effects in the human body, with particular relevance
during the development of the infant’s brain.
Minerals
Many major and trace minerals play an important role in the
physiology and metabolism of the human body. The most
abundant elements are Ca, sodium (Na), P, Mg, and potassium
(K), while those present in minor amounts encompass zinc
(Zn), iron (Fe), copper (Cu), and manganese (Mn). The levels
of Ca, P, Mg, Zn, Fe, and Cu are higher in sheep than in cow
whey; the opposite appears to be the case for K and Na. Goat
whey contains about 134 mg of Ca and 121 mg of P per 100 g.
Na and K are almost entirely soluble and fully available in
whey, whereas Ca, Mg, and P are associated in different pro-
portions to the colloidal suspension of casein micelles and,
therefore, are partly retained in the curd during cheese-making.
The presence and concentration of these minerals, essential for
the proper functioning of the human body, varies depending
on the element and on the needs of each person.
Vitamins
Vitamins are physiological, biochemical, and metabolical bio-
active molecules of small dimension and low molecular
weight, being divided into liposoluble and water-soluble vita-
mins according to their solubility. They are essential for the
growth, development, and normal maintenance of human
organisms. However, humans do not have the capacity to
synthesize vitamins, except vitamins D and B3, meaning that
they must obtain them through external sources. Therefore,
whey appears as a suitable source of these compounds, as it is
extremely rich in vitamins. However, part of the liposoluble
vitamins remain in the curd during cheese-making, whereas
water-soluble vitamins go into the whey. In the literature, it is
described that sheep whey is richer than cow whey for most of
the vitamins. For instance, goat and sheep whey have higher
amounts of vitamin A than do their cow counterparts. How-
ever, goat whey has a significant dearth of folic acid and
vitamin B12 compared to cow whey.
 Author's personal copy
502 Whey and Whey Powders: Production and Uses
Applications
Industrial Applications – Overview
Whey ingredients are an excellent way to increase the overall
nutritional value of foods. For example, whey ingredients with
low protein content, such as WPC, are frequently used in low-
value products such as dairy and bakery. More purified prod-
ucts such as WPI are used in high-value products such as meat,
seafood, confectionaries, health foods, infant formula, and
sports supplements. Besides nutritional aspects, these ingredi-
ents have found several applications as technological agents
regarding gelation, thermal stability, foam formation, or emul-
sification. Additionally, pure fractions of whey proteins have
the potential to enable the development of novel food prod-
ucts with improved functionalities, as well as new applications
in nutrition, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries.
Figure 2 summarizes some of the most relevant industrial
applications of whey components in food. In particular, func-
tional properties of WPC and WPI are very interesting and
render these two whey protein ingredients extremely versatile.
They support the development of food products, as follows:
• Improve aeration in bakery and confectionary products.
• Improve color and taste by interaction between proteins
and lactose during thermal processing (Maillard reactions)
in candy products (e.g., toffees, caramels, and cooked
syrups).
• Replace skim milk powder in dairy product formulations
(e.g., yogurt, ice cream, and milk chocolate drinks).
• Improve quality of meat and fish due to emulsion, gelation,
and hydrophilic attributes.
• Develop infant formula with nutritional benefits by adapt-
ing infant formula to that of human milk.
• Increase bioavailability of salts such as Ca and Zn in elderly
foods.
• Develop dietetic foods with high satiety value – low fat and
high protein content, with an excellent amino acid
composition.
• Develop nutraceuticals due to the presence of important
bioactive proteins (e.g., LF and LP).
WHEY
INGREDIENTS
Dairy
Confectionary Bakery Meat/Fish
Chocolate
Chocolate Bread Hams
Drinks
Candies Biscuits Yoghurt Surimi
Aerated
Cakes Ice Cream Comminuted
Confections
Figure 2 Various industrial applications of whey ingredients. Adapted from de Wit, J. N. (2001). Lecturer’s handbook on whey and whey products.
Brussels: European Whey Products Association.
The Encyclopedia of Food and Health, (2016), vol. 5, pp. 498-505
Together with the applications listed above, whey proteins are
being successfully used in the production of edible films and
coatings, with the purpose of improving the shelf life of perish-
able food products. In addition, the by-products of whey protein
concentration (i.e., lactose and Ca-rich milk) are also valuable,
as previously shown. They are becoming increasingly useful in
pharmaceutical and dietary supplement food markets. Lactose is
mainly used as an excipient in tablet processing, and the milk
minerals are used for the fortification of various foods and
beverages with Ca. In the following subsections, the use of
whey components for the development of both bioactive pack-
aging systems and functional foods will be pointed out.
Bioactive Packaging
Food packaging has evolved considerably during the last
decades to have new functionalities and to assist in meeting
the demands of extremely stringent markets that constantly
trigger the development of stable and fresh food products.
Depending on the type of food, packaging materials need
to fulfill different requirements in terms of light, moisture,
water vapor, and gas (i.e., oxygen and carbon dioxide) barriers
in order to avoid color or taste deterioration, loss of nutritional
value, and eventually growth of potential pathogens.
To fulfill these requirements, there is an ongoing interest
in sustainable packaging materials throughout the use of
renewable/biodegradable and edible biopolymers (e.g., pro-
teins, polysaccharides, and lipids), in an attempt to replace
environmentally unfriendly petroleum-based plastic films,
which are still widely used in the packaging industry. Whey is
one of the most promising biopolymers in the field of packag-
ing. Currently, the best potential applications of whey protein-
based edible films lie in protective coatings for foods. When
applied on surfaces of food as a coating, these films can protect
food from chemical or microbial degradation, thus lengthen-
ing product shelf life and maintaining high product quality.
Further, edible films and coatings manufactured from whey
proteins have demonstrated mechanical and barrier properties
better than competitive protein-based (e.g., corn zein, wheat
Dietetic Infant
Nutraceuticals Pharmaceuticals
Foods Formula
Slimming Bioactive Nutritional
Term Drugs
Foods Proteins
Elderly Foods Pre-term Prebiotics Inhalers
Clinical
Follow-on Prebiotics Tablets
Foods
 Author's personal copy
Whey and Whey Powders: Production and Uses 503

gluten, and soy protein isolate) or polysaccharide-based (e.g.,
starch, cellulose, carrageenan, and pectin) films.
Whey protein films and coatings have already been applied
in several food products such as peanuts, walnuts, frozen
salmon, fruits, and breakfast cereals, aiming for good aroma,
fat, moisture, and gas oxygen barriers. They also have the
potential to improve the appearance of food products by add-
ing gloss. Several examples of whey protein-based coating and
film applications are described. In particular, these have the
potential to increase the shelf life of roasted peanuts by reduc-
ing lipid oxidation and avoiding the appearance of rancid off-
flavors. Fresh-cut fruits and vegetables can also be better pre-
served due to the minimization of both moisture loss and
oxidative browning. These coatings also provide an efficient
protection of frozen salmon against lipid oxidation and water
loss. In addition to the aforementioned features, those edible
films can be the vectors of various bioactive agents, such as
antimicrobials, antioxidants, nutraceuticals, or even flavors
and colorants, enhancing not only food quality and safety,
but also functionality while providing some health benefits
for the consumer. Films or coatings carrying antioxidants in
their composition have shown promise for minimizing rancid-
ity in meat products. Active antimicrobials approved for use in
contact with foods (e.g., nisin, sorbic acid, and potassium
sorbate) can be incorporated in whey protein film matrices
protecting food from microbial spoilage. Current research on
antimicrobial packaging and coatings is being directed toward
the surface protection of cheese, meat, and fruit products. In
fact, antimicrobial food packaging using edible whey protein
films is starting to be envisioned as a part of the hurdle tech-
nology, thus reducing the risk of pathogen contamination and
extending the shelf life of perishable food products, when in
combination with other processes. In addition, whey protein
edible films can be employed to carry flavor compounds, thus
providing a way to minimize the deleterious effects of aroma
loss. Flavor and aroma can be incorporated into a coating for
delayed release in order to improve the flavor profile of the
food. This release can occur during the intermediate steps of
food preparation (heating or rehydration), or even in the
mouth by mastication.
Development of Functional Foods
Food and pharmaceutical industries are constantly triggering
the development of novel products with a strong nutraceutical
function using whey or whey-derived ingredients (e.g., WPC
and WPI) as a valuable source. The list of nutraceutical com-
pounds associated to whey-derived products includes vita-
mins, probiotic cultures, and bioactive peptides, and the
scientific evidence to support health benefits, either by preven-
tion or treatment of some diseases, is steadily growing. As
previously shown, a diverse group of bioactive proteins with
antimicrobial activity can be obtained from whey, such as in
the case of LP, lysozyme, and LF.
However, whey proteins and their properties have been
extensively studied not only due to their importance as food
ingredients, but also due to their ability to serve as vehicles for
bioactive compounds. Gelation properties of globular proteins
such as b-Lg allow the development of micro- and
nanostructures such as microgels, nanohydrogels, nanofibrils,
and nanotubes. Figure 3 illustrates the wide range of structures
(macro, micro, and nano) that can be developed for the

MACRO
Bulk liquid
Gels
Films
Particles and Beads

WPC/WPI,
β-Lg, α-La, BSA
and LF
as vehicle for
bioactives

NANO
MICRO
Nano-spheres particles
Micro-spheres particles
Core shell nano-
Core shell micro- structures
structures
Emulsions
Emuslsions
Nanotubes

Figure 3 Globular whey protein systems used as vehicles of bioactive compounds in foods.

The Encyclopedia of Food and Health, (2016), vol. 5, pp. 498-505

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504 Whey and Whey Powders: Production and Uses
encapsulation and controlled release of bioactive compounds
using whey proteins as a carrier system. Microgels have been
specifically targeted for two main functions: (1) as a means to
tune more precisely the texture and mouthfeel of food,
especially as a replacement for fat; and (2) to encapsulate
functional food ingredients or other nutraceuticals that have
potential health benefits (e.g., vitamins, flavor volatiles, anti-
oxidants, omega-3 fatty acids, phytosterols, flavonoids, and
folic acid). Regarding nanostructures, the swelling capability
is the most important characteristic feature and is attributed to
the presence of hydrophilic moieties such as hydroxyl, amino,
and carboxyl groups in the protein structure. These structures,
known as nanohydrogels, can absorb or expel water in
response to several stimuli as small changes in pH or temper-
ature. This capability is responsible for their soft and elastic
properties, but more important, it makes protein nanohydro-
gels an ideal structure for use in the encapsulation and con-
trolled release of bioactive compounds in specified sites of the
gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Further, the ability of globular whey
proteins to form gel networks under cold conditions is also
attracting attention due to the possibility of applicating these
structures in novel food and nonfood areas. The formation of
cold-set gels opens interesting opportunities for food proteins
as carriers of heat-sensitive nutraceutical compounds.
Whey proteins can be used in clinical foods aiming at
providing supplemented nutritional support to persons/
patients who are incapable of digesting adequate amounts of
conventional food products or who have special nutritional
needs. After a starting stage of digestion and absorption in the
stomach (under acidic conditions and pepsin), dietary whey
proteins can be further hydrolyzed by pancreatic enzymes
(chymosin and chymotrypsin), resulting in a combination of
unique amino acids and small peptides with remarkable phys-
iological functions (e.g., stimulation of growth factor and
blood flood regulation). In vitro hydrolyzed whey proteins
can also be used on patients with deficient enzymatic digestion
or with specific diseases, having the need of parenteral diets
(i.e., small amino acids and peptides injected directly into the
blood stream) and enteral diets (i.e., oral diets containing
larger peptides that can be further digested in the GI tract).
However, in this case, food formulae demand high levels of
purity and low allergenicity, thus entering in the category
of hypoallergenic foods. Lactose, also a major component
of whey, can be used as an excipient in the formulation of
pharmaceuticals such as tablets, capsules, and inhalers. Lactose
has a wide range of derivatives, including lactobionic acid
(produced by oxidation), lactulose (produced by isomeriza-
tion), lactitol (produced by hydrogenation), galacto-
oligosacccharides (produced by hydrolysis and chain
extension), galactose, and glucose (produced by hydrolysis).
This range of derivatives has great versatility acting as nutri-
tional supplements, as carriers of antibiotics and protection
against diseases (e.g., colon cancer).
Concluding Remarks
There is now increasing evidence that many whey components,
particularly proteins and their factions (peptides), are effective
in reducing the risk of developing some diet-related chronic
The Encyclopedia of Food and Health, (2016), vol. 5, pp. 498-505
diseases. As a result, there is growing interest by the dairy, food,
and pharmaceutical industries to design and formulate prod-
ucts (e.g., functional foods) that incorporate bioactive compo-
nents of whey proteins, nutraceuticals, or active medicinal
agents in an effort to meet consumer trends for health and
well-being. In fact, the dairy industry has achieved a leading
role in the development of functional foods and has already
commercialized several products that boost the immune sys-
tem, kill pathogenic microorganisms, or reduce blood pres-
sure. Also, fractionation and marketing of bioactive whey
ingredients has emerged as a lucrative new sector for dairy
industries and specialized bio-industries. In leading dairy
countries, this industrial sector is moving from commodity
marketing to the ingredient marketing business, which entails
good prospects for adding more value to the products. Current
challenges in the exploitation of bioactive components are
their maximal recovery from milk, colostrum, whey, and milk
fat; their stability in different food matrices; and their optimal
bioavailability in the body in order to deliver expected health
effects. To meet these challenges, it is crucial to develop appro-
priate technologies and product concepts, as well as to verify
their bioavailability not only upon ingestion, but also through
the digestive tract, and after absorption through the intestinal
walls into the blood circulation system using in vivo tests.
Acknowledgments
Oscar L. Ramos and Ricardo N. Pereira gratefully acknowledge
their postdoctoral grants (SFRH/BPD/80766/2011 and SFRH/
BPD/81887/2011, respectively) from Fundação para a Ciência
e Tecnologia (FCT, Portugal). All authors thank FCT Strategic
Project PEst-OE/EQB/LA0023/2013 and Project ‘BioEnv – Bio-
technology and Bioengineering for a sustainable world,’ REF.
NORTE-07-0124-FEDER-000048, cofunded by Programa
Operacional Regional do Norte (ON.2 – O Novo Norte),
QREN, FEDER.
See also: Dairy Products: Dietary and Medical Importance; Milk:
Sources and Composition; Whey and Whey Powders: Fermentation of
Whey; Whey and Whey Powders, Principles and Applications of
Dialysis.
Further Reading
Bonnaillie LM and Tomasula PM (2009) Whey protein fractionation. In: Whey
processing, functionality and health benefits, pp. 15–38. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-
Blackwell.
Dangaran K, Tomasula PM, and Qi P (2009) Structure and function of protein-based
edible films and coatings. In: Embuscado ME and Huber KC (eds.) Edible films and
coatings for food applications. London, New York: Springer, Dordrecht, Heidelberg.
de Wit JN (2001) Lecturer´s handbook on whey and whey products. Brussels: European
Whey Products Association.
Hernández-Ledesma B, Ramos M, and Gómez-Ruiz JÁ (2011) Bioactive components of
ovine and caprine cheese whey. Small Ruminant Research 101(1–3): 196–204.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.smallrumres.2011.09.040.
Khwaldia K, Perez C, Banon S, Desobry S, and Hardy J (2004) Milk proteins for edible
films and coatings. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 44(4): 239–251.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10408690490464906.
 Author's personal copy
Kilara A and Vaghela MN (2004) Whey proteins. In: Yada RY (ed.) Proteins in food
processing. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Korhonen HJ (2006) Technological and health aspects of bioactive components of milk.
International Dairy Journal 16(11): 1227–1228.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
idairyj.2006.07.001.
Madureira AR, Pereira CI, Gomes AMP, Pintado ME, and Malcata FX (2007) Bovine
whey proteins – overview on their main biological properties. Food Research
International 40(10): 1197–1211.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2007.07.005.
Madureira AR, Tavares T, Gomes AMP, Pintado ME, and Malcata FX (2010) Invited
review: physiological properties of bioactive peptides obtained from whey proteins.
Journal of Dairy Science 93(2): 437–455.http://dx.doi.org/10.3168/jds.2009-2566.
Prazeres AR, Carvalho F, and Rivas J (2012) Cheese whey management: a review.
Journal of Environmental Management 110: 48–68.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
jenvman.2012.05.018.
Ramos OL, Fernandes JC, Silva SI, Pintado ME, and Malcata FX (2012) Edible films and
coatings from whey proteins: a review on formulation, and on mechanical and
bioactive properties. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 52(6):
533–552. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2010.500528.
The Encyclopedia of Food and Health, (2016), vol. 5, pp. 498-505
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Relevant Websites
http://www.bythewhey.com/.
http://www.dairyglobalnutrition.org/NutrInfo/content.cfm?
ItemNumber¼88387&navItemNumber¼88574.
http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/263371.php.
http://www.milkingredients.ca/index-eng.php?id¼194.
http://www.nutritionexpress.com/showarticle.aspx?articleid¼307.