Article

Time & Society

2016, Vol. 25(1) 24–39
Parent and peer ! The Author(s) 2015
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DOI: 10.1177/0961463X15577282
and time perspective in tas.sagepub.com

adolescence: Are they

related to satisfaction
with life?
Fiorenzo Laghi
Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy

Susanna Pallini
University of Rome Tre, Rome, Italy

Emma Baumgartner
Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy

Angela Guarino
Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy

Roberto Baiocco
Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy

Abstract
The primary aim of this research was to provide evidence about how adoles-
cents’ self-reported parent/peer attachment and time perspective relate to their
satisfaction with life. A sample of 1211 adolescents completed self-report meas-
ures assessing life satisfaction, time perspective, and the perceived quality of
parent and peer attachment. Results showed statistically significant relationships
among these variables. Boys resulted higher scored than girls in parent trust and
satisfaction with life. Girls resulted higher scored than boys in parent alienation,
peer communication, and negative past. Parent and peer attachment predicted
satisfaction with life, although the variance explained by peer attachment was
low. Negative Past, Hedonistic Present, and Future were signiEcantly associated

Corresponding author:
Fiorenzo Laghi, Department of Developmental and Social Psychology, Faculty of Medicine and
Psychology, Sapienza, University of Rome, Via dei Marsi, 78, 00185 Roma, Italy.
Email: fiorenzo.laghi@uniroma1.it
Laghi et al. 25

with satisfaction with life in the expected directions. The present study has
important implications for future empirical investigation and for clinical
intervention.

Keywords
Satisfaction with life, time perspective, parent attachment, peer attachment,
adolescence

Life satisfaction (LS) is an important construct in the field of positive psych-

ology. According to Diener and Diener (1995), global LS reflects a cognitive
judgment of one’s satisfaction with his or her life as a whole. In this study
we intend to investigate the link among attachment representations, time
perspective (TP), and satisfaction with life in adolescence.
As regards empirical evidences, first, research has found a link in ado-
lescence between LS and attachment representations. Early adolescents
report greater LS when they perceive high levels of maternal affection
and low levels of parental criticism (Bendayan et al., 2013). Significant
relationships between parental attachment and LS have been found
(Jiang et al., 2013). Both parental and peer attachment were positively
related to LS, but parental attachment was the stronger unique predictor
(Ma and Huebner, 2008). According to the latter authors peer attachment
constitutes a mediator between parent attachment and satisfaction with
life in adolescence. Parent attachment is interiorized in the internal working
models of attachment relationships and influences the expectations
about other interpersonal relationship (internal working models (IWM),
Bowlby, 1980, 1982; Pace, 2014; Pace et al., 2012; Tambelli et al., 2012;
Thompson, 2008).
Second, research has evidenced a relationship between satisfaction with
life and TP (see Zhang et al., 2013 for a review). In adolescence, well-being
is particularly related to past and future TP, because adolescents confront
themselves with the accomplishment of several challenges (Carelli et al.,
2011; Worrell and Mello, 2007). These include the process of awareness
and acceptance of past memories involving parents (Havighurst, 1952;
Steca et al., 2009), and the first choices about their future life, in such a
way that the future becomes the dimension where they place the fulfillment
of aspirations and projects (Boyd and Zimbardo, 2005; Laghi et al., 2008,
2011, 2012).
TP seems to be the most significant predictor of LS (Zhang and Howell,
2011): Research has evidenced that a past positive TP was related to LS
(Zimbardo and Boyd, 1999), while a past negative TP was related to lower
26 Time & Society 25(1)

LS (Boniwell et al., 2010; Drake et al., 2008). Also, future TP was positively
related to LS (Lessing, 1972). Lastly, according to Zhang et al. (2013) a
balanced TP was related to increased satisfaction with life.
Third, empirical evidence about gender differences is not consistent.
They differ depending on the specifications or samples considered.
Regarding LS in U.S.A., in early adolescence and adolescence, different
authors (Jiang et al., 2013; Ma and Huebner, 1998; Nickerson and Nagle,
2004) found that girls scored higher than boys; otherwise, in Spain,
Bendayan et al. (2013) found no gender differences in LS. In Italian context,
Caprara and Steca (2005) found that young adults males scores higher
positive thinking than female, while Caprara and Steca (2006) found that
adults males scored significantly higher than women in satisfaction with life.
Several researches have enhanced the relations between satisfaction and
adolescent adjustment (Caprara and Steca, 2005, 2006; Diener and Diener,
1995), or between satisfaction and psychopathological disease (Lewinsohn
et al., 2003), although the role of both time perceptive and attachment
relationships has received less attention.

TP and attachment representations

According to Boyd and Zimbardo (2005) and Laghi et al. (2008), TP is
the individual’s relation with time, a subjective process whereby individuals
parcel their personal and social experiences into temporal categories.
Zimbardo and Boyd (1999) found that girls score higher in Positive Past
and Future than males, while Usunier and Valette-Florence (2007) found
that girls are more Past-Oriented than boys. Andretta et al. (2013)
found that females were more represented in the Pessimists cluster when
compared to males, and males were slightly over-represented in the
Optimists cluster, also if these differences appear small. Greene and
DeBacker (2004) found that boys are more Future-Oriented than girls,
and Zimbardo et al. (1997) found that boys are more Present-Oriented
than girls. Keough et al. (1999) reported significantly higher scores for
females on the Future subscale and significantly higher scores for males
on the Present Hedonistic subscale.
However, several studies evidenced no gender differences (Boniwell et al.,
2010; Bowles, 1999; McCabe and Barnett, 2000; Mello and Worrell, 2006).
TP also involves autobiographical memories about relevant interpersonal
relationships (see Ely and Mercurio, 2011). If research has evidenced a
strong link between TP and LS, and between parental attachment
representations and LS, it is crucial to explore the relationship between
TP and attachment-related representations, which in the attachment
theory have been theorized through the concept of IWM. From a
Laghi et al. 27

theoretical point of view, there is a deep relationship in the concept of TP

and IWM.
On the other hand, IWM are generalized event representations that
comprehend the three temporal dimensions because they imply past mem-
ories, present cognitions, and future expectations. So they summarize the
three time dimensions: past, present, and future (Bartholomew and
Horowitz, 1991; Laghi et al., 2009).
Attachment theorists have amply stated that the process of adolescence
will have a greater probability of success if there is an autonomous closeness
to parents, that is, if there is an emotional and cognitive dependency within
a significant relationship (Bowlby, 1969). The relational dynamic of explor-
ation from a secure base, that in a child manifests itself through childhood
exploratory behavior starting with the caregiver, throughout adolescence
becomes a peculiarity of the state of the mind. They are open to relation-
ships but also capable of thinking and choosing autonomously (Allen, 2008;
Bifulco et al., 2006; Cassidy and Shaver, 1999, 2008).
Parents become ‘‘a psychological secure base’’ from which adolescents
can freely explore their inner world, and as a ‘‘safe haven’’ to which they
can go back to when they feel overwhelmed by negative memories and
emotions. They represent a secure base if the offspring perceive they’re in
a significant relationship with them, in which they are encouraged in their
attempts to reach a cognitive and emotional autonomy (Allen, 2008; Bifulco
et al., 2014; Schimmenti and Bifulco, 2013).
Regarding attachment to parents and peers, research seems almost uni-
vocally to evidence that girls score higher than boys in peers’ attachment
(see the meta-analytic review of Gorrese and Ruggieri (2012)). These gender
differences regard overall trust and communication (Gullone and Robinson,
2005; Nada Raja et al., 1992; Pace and Zavattini, 2011; Ruijten et al., 2011).

The present research

Adolescents’ satisfaction with life is grounded upon time dimensions and
attachment representations because it implies the ways through which ado-
lescents process affects, cognitions, and behaviors associated with past
memories, present representations, and future expectations, overall with
regards to attachment and affective bonds (Crowell et al., 2008; Pace
et al., 2013). For this reason, it can be worthwhile to investigate the roles
that both TP and attachment representations have on satisfaction with life.
The primary aim of this research was to provide first evidence about how
adolescents’ self-reported parent/peer attachment and TP relate to their
satisfaction with life. In this study, we hypothesized that TP and attachment
representations both contribute to satisfaction with life. We used an
28 Time & Society 25(1)

attachment measure which captures adolescents’ perceptions of the quality

of the attachment with both parents and peers, evaluating behavioral and
affective/cognitive dimensions of both actual adolescents’ relationships.
First, gender and age differences between parent and peer attachment,
TP, and satisfaction with life were investigated. More specifically, unique
relationships between parent and peer attachment, TP, and satisfaction with
life were analyzed by performing regression analysis. It was expected that
parent attachment would be able to explain more of the variance of satis-
faction with life than peer attachment. This hypothesis is congruent with
Laible et al. (2000), who have argued in favor of the hierarchical organiza-
tion of attachment models, and with Tambelli et al. (2012), who found that
externalizing problems were predicted only by parental attachment
dimensions.
Second, the extent to which parent and peer attachment relationships
are specific determinants of TP will be studied. Postulated by attachment
perspective, it was hypothesized that adolescents who are higher in parent
and peer attachment are more past positive-oriented and future-oriented,
and less negative past-oriented. This positive attitude toward past and
future perspective and toward their parents and peer representations closely
predict satisfaction with life.

Method
Participants
The sample consisted of 1211 students (489 boys and 722 girls). The average
age of the students was 17.31 (SD ¼ 1.09; range 16–19). Participation was
preceded by an informed-consent procedure that required active consent
from both students and parents. The questionnaires were administered in
the classroom during a regular class period and took approximately 30 min
to complete. Instructions stated that the questionnaires were voluntary
and that responses were anonymous and confidential. All students
responded to the same questionnaire packet, with measures administered
in counterbalanced order to each group of subjects. The study followed the
norms for ethical research approved by the Italian Psychology Association.

Measures
The Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS; Diener et al., 1985) is composed of
five items used to measure one’s global satisfaction with life. Each item is
rated on a seven-point scale (1¼strongly disagree to 7¼strongly agree).
Laghi et al. 29

The results of the five items are summed to produce an overall score (sample
item, ‘‘If could live my life over, I would change almost nothing’’). The
SWLS reflects the cognitive components of one’s satisfaction with life and is
well suited for use with different age groups. In the current study, internal
reliability of SWLS was 0.89.

Attachment to parents
The Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment (IPPA; Armsden and
Greenberg, 1987) was used to measure the quality of parent attachment in ado-
lescence and the affective–cognitive dimension of attachment. It evaluates
the security in the relationship with specific attachment figures and the
adolescent’s trust in the availability and sensitivity of an attachment figure
(sample item, ‘‘My parents respect my feelings’’; a ¼ .78 in the present study),
the quality of communication, which promotes comfort in the relationship
with an attachment figure (sample item, ‘‘When my parents knows that some-
thing is bothering me, they ask me about it’’; a ¼ .81 in the present study) and
the extent of anger, alienation resulting from an unresponsive or inconsist-
ently responsive attachment figure (sample item, ‘‘I don’t get much attention
from my parents’’; a ¼ .84 in the present study). The three scales were rated
on a five-point scale ranging from ‘‘completely untrue’’ to ‘‘completely true’’
and were used to measure the quality of parent attachment in adolescence.

Attachment to peer
Twenty-five item versions of the subscales trust, communication, and alien-
ation of the IPPA (Armsden and Greenberg, 1987) were used to measure
the quality of peer attachment in adolescence. The trust scale measures
the extent to which an adolescent trusts peer to respect and accept his or
her feelings (sample item, ‘‘My friends respect my feelings’’; a ¼ .77 in the
present study). The communication scale measures the extent to which an
adolescent experiences having high quality of communication with peer
(sample item, ‘‘When my friends know that something is bothering me,
they ask me about it’’; a ¼ .80 in the present study). The alienation scale
measures the degree to which an adolescent experiences negative feelings
toward peer (sample item, ‘‘I don’t get much attention from my friends’’;
a ¼ .81 in the present study). Several reviews of attachment instruments
have found the IPPA to be a valid and reliable measure. The Italian version
of the scale has been used in a number of studies, and its reliability and
validity have been shown to be satisfactory (Laghi et al., 2009; Pace et al.,
2011; Tambelli et al., 2012).
30 Time & Society 25(1)

TP
The TP was measured using the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory
(ZTPI; Zimbardo and Boyd, 1999) in its Italian validated version for ado-
lescents (Laghi et al., 2013). This instrument consists of 25-item Likert-type
scale, on which each item has five possible responses (from ‘‘strongly agree’’
to ‘‘strongly disagree’’). The ZTPI is a multidimensional scale which meas-
ures TP in three temporal frames: the past, present, and future, and the
attitude related to each of them. It contains the following five subscales:
Positive Past (sample item ‘‘Familiar childhood sights, sounds, smells often
bring back a flood of wonderful memories’’; a ¼ .80 in the present study),
Negative Past (sample item, ‘‘The past has too many unpleasant memories
that I prefer not to think’’; a ¼ .79 in the present study), Hedonistic Present
(sample item, ‘‘It’s important to put excitement in my life’’; a ¼ .70 in the
present study), Fatalistic Present (sample item, ‘‘Fate determines much in
my life’’; a ¼ .78 in the present study), and Future (sample item, ‘‘I’m able
to resist temptations when I know that there is a work to be done’’; a ¼ .76
in the present study). The Italian short version of the scale has good psy-
chometric properties (internal reliability of the ZTPI ranges from 0.70 to
0.80) and a convergent validity with different measures of attachment secur-
ity and well-being (Laghi et al., 2013).

Results
Preliminary analyses: Gender and age differences
For comparative purposes the sample was divided into two age groups:
16–17 years (N ¼ 700; M ¼ 282; F ¼ 418), 18–19 years (N ¼ 511; M ¼ 207;
F ¼ 304).
Analysis of variance of sex and age as between-subjects factors was con-
ducted for the satisfaction with life scores. The ANOVA only revealed an
effect for sex (F(1, 1209) ¼ 14.07, p < .001, Z2 ¼ .01). There were neither
effects of age, F(1,1209) ¼ 1.17, p ¼ .29, nor significant interactions between
the variables, F(1, 1209) ¼ .24, p ¼ .61. Males obtained higher scores
(M ¼ 23.84; SD ¼ 6.84) than females (M ¼ 22.30; SD ¼ 6.73).
Regarding Parent Attachment, MANOVA analysis revealed main effect
only for sex,  ¼ .98, F(3,1.205) ¼ 4.65, p < .001, Zp2 ¼ .01, and not for age,
 ¼ .99, F(3,1.205) ¼ 4.65, p ¼ .06. There was no effect of interaction
between the variables,  ¼ 1, F(3,1.205)¼ .04, p ¼ .99. Results from the
univariate tests revealed that groups differed on the subscale of Trust,
F(1,1209)¼8.47, p < .001, Zp2 ¼ .04, where males showed a higher mean
score (M ¼ 38.01; SD ¼ 7.62) than females (M ¼ 36.68; SD ¼ 7.59), and
Laghi et al. 31

Alienation, F(1,1209)¼4.60, p < .001, Zp2 ¼ .07, where females (M ¼ 27.43;

SD ¼ 7.74) obtained higher scores than males (M ¼ 26.46; SD ¼ 7.44).
Regarding Peer attachment, MANOVA revealed main effect only for
sex,  ¼ .96, F(3,1.205) ¼ 14.13, p < .001, Zp2 ¼ .03, and not for age,  ¼ 1,
F(3,1.205) ¼ .18, p ¼ .90. There was no effect of interaction between the
variables,  ¼ .99, F(3,1.205)¼ 2.01, p ¼ .11. Results from the univariate
tests revealed that groups differed on the subscale of Communication,
F(1,1209)¼5.77, p < .001, Zp2 ¼ .05, where females showed a higher mean
score (M ¼ 29.60; SD ¼ 6.28) than males (M ¼ 28.55; SD ¼ 6.60).
Regarding TP, MANOVA revealed main effect only for sex,
 ¼ .98, F(5,1.203)¼ 2.66, p < .001, Zp2 ¼ .02, and not for age,  ¼ .99,
F(3,1.205)¼ 1.42, p ¼ .21. There was no effect of interaction between the
variables,  ¼.99, F(3,1.205)¼ 1.07, p ¼ .21. Results from the univariate
tests revealed that groups differed on the subscale of Negative Past,
F(1,1209) ¼ 4.38, p < .001, Zp2 ¼ .03, where females showed a higher
mean score (M ¼ 13.24; SD ¼ 4.37) than males (M ¼ 12.68; SD ¼ 4.24).

Zero order correlation between the attachment, TP,

and satisfaction with life measures
The results of correlation analyses between TP, Parent and Peer
Attachment, and Satisfaction dimensions are shown in Table 1. There
were significant positive correlations between Satisfaction with Life and
Parent and Peer Attachment, Positive Past, Hedonistic Present, and

Table 1. Zero order correlation between the attachment, time perspective, and sat-
isfaction with life measures.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

1. Sex –
2. IPPA-Parents .06 –
3. IPPA-Peer .01 .29** 
4. Positive Past .04 .33** .21** –
5. Negative Past .06 .42** .27** .24** 
6. Fatalistic Present .01 .21** .16** .03 .28** 
7. Hedonistic Present .01 .21** .21** .18* .02 .13** –
8. Future .05 .31** .10** .29** .03 .07 .11* –
9. Satisfaction with Life .11** .52** .27** .23** .34** .16** .21** .25** –
Note: * p < .05, ** p < .01.
32 Time & Society 25(1)

Future. Satisfaction with Life was negatively related to Negative Past and
Fatalistic Present.

Parent and peer attachment, and TP as predictors

of satisfaction with life
Next, using hierarchical multiple regression, we further examined the asso-
ciations between parent, peer attachment, TP, and satisfaction with life.
In the regression, we entered age and gender in the Erst step. Parent and
Peer Attachment were entered in the second step, and TP dimensions in the
third step (Table 2).
The hierarchical multiple regression analysis showed that variables in
Step 1 significantly predicted LS, R2 ¼ .01, F (2,1.208) ¼ 8.22, p < .001,
with gender emerging as a significant predictor,  ¼ .11, p < .001. The inclu-
sion of Parent and Peer Attachment in Step 2 was found to add to the
prediction, R2 ¼ .28, F (4,1.206) ¼ 123.54, p < .001, with both dimensions,
emerging as significant positive predictors,  ¼ .47, p < .001, and  ¼ .13,
p < .001, respectively. The inclusion of Hedonistic Present, Negative Past,
and Future dimensions in the model increased the variance accounted for
by 32%.
Negative Past, Hedonistic Present, and Future were signiEcantly
associated with Satisfaction with life in the expected directions. Peer

Table 2. Hierarchical regression analyses for parent and peer attachment predicting
satisfaction with life.

B SE B B R R2
R2

Step 1 .12 .01 .01

Sex 1.20 .33 .09*
Age .15 .12 .03
Step 2 .54 .29 .28
IPPA-Parent Attachment .13 .01 .36*
IPPA-Peer Attachment .04 .01 .09*
Step 3 .57 .32 .03
ZTPI-Positive Past .01 .04 .01
ZTPI-Negative Past .23 .04 .15*
ZTPI-Fatalistic Present .07 .05 .03
ZTPI-Hedonistic Present .20 .06 .09*
ZTPI-Future .21 .05 .11*
Note: The tabled values for Beta reflect Bs after step 3. * p < .01.
Laghi et al. 33

attachment dimension was related with Satisfaction although the variance

explained was very low,  ¼ .09, p < .01.

Discussion
Overall, this study first evidenced gender differences in most variables con-
sidered; second, the role played by parent and peer attachment in satisfac-
tion with life; finally, the contribution of both TP and attachment
representations to satisfaction with life.
Regarding gender differences our results showed that girls seem to have
better peer communication than boys, which is in line with other studies
(e.g. Gorrese and Ruggieri, 2012; Gullone and Robinson, 2005; Nada Raja
et al., 1992; Ruijten et al., 2011). On the other hand, based on the data, girls
appear to be more pessimistic than boys; in effect, they scored higher
than boys in Negative Past and Parents’ Alienation, and scored lower
than boys in Parents’ Trust and Communication, and Satisfaction with life.
Such gender differences are very peculiar and difficult to explain because
of the limitations presented by convenience sampling strategy. Future
research should extend the recruitment to a stratified sample (e.g. stratified
Socioeconomic status (SES), provenience, and culture). In such a way, it
would be possible to check if the gender differences identified are depending
on the samples considered, or it is possible to extend results to the actual
Italian context. However, our results are consistent with Caprara and Steca
studies: Caprara and Steca (2005) found that male young adults in Italy
scored higher in positive thinking than their female counterparts; addition-
ally, Caprara and Steca (2006) found that adult men scored significantly
higher than women in satisfaction with life.
A possible explanation of this phenomenon is that Italian girls
would perceive parents more demanding than boys because of the several
cultural requests addressed to women. In other countries, the family
work conflict could be present in women and men, but in Italy it is
almost exclusively a feminine problem (e.g. Marshall and Tracy, 2009).
Regarding the relationship between parent/peer attachment and satisfac-
tion with life (LS), the results evidenced a strong relationship between parent
attachment and LS, and a moderate relationship between peer attachment
and LS. In adolescence, according to theoretical and empirical literature, the
attachment bond with parents changes and the importance of peer relation-
ships grows (Allen, 2008). Nevertheless, parents do not lose their importance
in representing a secure base for the construction of new interpersonal bonds
(Allen, 2008). Representations of parents influence the other interpersonal
relationships, as well as social adjustment (Bowlby, 1980, 1982; Thompson,
2008). The results of this study are congruent with both the theoretical
34 Time & Society 25(1)

approach and empirical research related to attachment. For example, Ma

and Huebner (2008) have demonstrated that peer attachment constitutes a
mediator between parent attachment and satisfaction with life in adolescence.
Tambelli et al. (2012), using IPPA, have demonstrated that parental attach-
ment dimensions predict externalizing problems, whereas peer attachment
dimensions predict only internalizing problems.
Both attachment representations and TP are based upon past memories
(Bowlby, 1980, 1982; Ely and Mercurio, 2011), both include present
perceptions, and both regard future expectations. Generally, TP includes
past, present, and future perspective; more specifically, attachment repre-
sentations are grounded on parents’ past memories of attachment, and
correspond to present perceptions, which vice versa influence future expect-
ations about interpersonal relationships. Results, showing that both
Negative Past (related to autobiographical memories), Hedonistic Present
and Future (related to expectations) predicted satisfaction with life, were
consistent with previous research (Boniwell et al., 2010; Drake et al., 2008;
Lessing, 1972).
Individuals with a secure attachment styles have processed past mem-
ories of their parents, and so they develop positive expectations about their
futures. At the same time, they have positive and confident perceptions
about themselves, others, and life, so they have higher chances of being
satisfied with life (Berlin et al., 2008; Bowlby, 1980, 1982; Bretherton and
Munholland, 2008; Thompson, 2008).

Strengths, limitations, and direction for future research

Some limitations of the study must be pointed out. First, the relation
identified in the study is correlational and not causal. For this reason,
this study represents only a first step in understanding the relations
among parents and peer attachment, TP, and satisfaction with life in
adolescent sample. Second, all data were collected using self-report ques-
tionnaires. Studies using multiple informants to assess parent and peer
attachment relationships could be very useful for this topic. Finally, a lon-
gitudinal study would provide perspective and generate data on changes in
satisfaction with life, TP, and attachment relationships across the years. The
lack of racial diversity in this sample also limits the generalizations we can
make as regards to the findings. Replication of the research on groups with
different demographic characteristics might be another possibility for fur-
ther research.
Despite these limitations, the strength of this study is in the analysis of
the contribution of both attachment and TP upon satisfaction with life.
Although the empirical research had broadly examined the influence
Laghi et al. 35

upon the satisfaction with life played by TP (Boniwell et al., 2010; Drake
et al., 2008; Lessing, 1972; Zhang et al., 2013; Zimbardo and Boyd, 1999)
and by attachment representations (Armsden and Greenberg, 1987;
Bendayan et al., 2013; Jiang et al., 2013; Ma and Huebner, 2008;
Nickerson and Nagle, 2004), the present study has highlighted how attach-
ment representations and TP are deeply interrelated, and both contribute to
the satisfaction with life.
Some useful clinical implications can be obtained from the present study.
An understanding of how adolescents perceive their present and future may
provide a basis for developing effective strategies for protecting them from
high-risk behaviors (Andretta et al., 2013; Laghi et al., 2013; Mckay et al.,
2015; Worrell et al., 2013). Furthermore, considering that the parent and
per attachment relationships, and a balanced TP are significant protective
factors, the current results could be useful for programs concerned with
promoting positive youth development.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research,
authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or
publication of this article.

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