The Energy Consumption in Refrigerated Warehouses (2016)

EcoProduction.
Environmental Issues in Logistics and Manufacturing
Pawel Zajac
The Energy
Consumption
in Refrigerated
Warehouses
EcoProduction
Environmental Issues in Logistics and Manufacturing
Series editor
Paulina Golinska, Poznan, Poland
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Pawel Zajac
The Energy Consumption

in Refrigerated Warehouses
123
Pawel Zajac
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Wrocław University of Science
and Technology
Wrocław
Poland
ISSN 2193-4614 ISSN 2193-4622 (electronic)

EcoProduction
ISBN 978-3-319-40897-2 ISBN 978-3-319-40898-9 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-40898-9
Library of Congress Control Number: 2016942041
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016

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Contents
1 The Construction and Operation of Modern Warehouses . . . ..... 1

1.1 Energetically Favorable Warehouse Location and Size . . . . ..... 1
1.2 Methods for Effective Use of Warehouse Area and Volume
in Order to Reduce Energy Intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 3
1.3 Minimizing Heat Exchange with the Environment During
Logistics Operations—Reloading Bays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 10
1.4 Automatic Rack Stackers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 12
1.5 Means of Carrying Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 13
1.6 Warehousing Program—Reducing the Energy Intensity
of Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 14
1.7 Automatic Identification in Warehouse Logistics Systems
as a Mean to Reduce the Energy Intensity
of Logistics Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 16
1.8 Insulation Systems for Storage Rooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 19
2 Indicators and Measures of Energy Efficiency the Warehouse . . . . . 23
3 Warehouse Energy Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.1 Heat Flux from the Permeation Through Construction Barriers . . . 30
3.2 Heat Flux Brought to the Premises Through Ventilation . . . . . . . . 32
3.3 Operating Heat Fluxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.4 Other Sources of Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4 Improvement Concepts in Terms of Energy Savings . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.1 Energy-Efficient Means of Cargo Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.2 Energy-Efficient Lighting Systems in Warehouses . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.2.1 Incandescent Lamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.2.2 Halogen Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.2.3 Fluorescent Lamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.2.4 High-Intensity Discharge Lamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.2.5 LED Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.2.6 Comparison of Light Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
v
vi Contents
4.3 Innovative Systems to Support Picking Processes and Reduce

Energy Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.3.1 Pick-by-Voice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.3.2 Pick-by-Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.3.3 Pick-by-Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.3.4 Pick-o-Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.3.5 Pick-by-Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.3.6 Pick-Radar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.3.7 Pick&Go . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.4 Energy-Efficient Air Conditioning and Heating Systems . . . . . . . . 56
4.5 Heat Pumps and Solar Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.5.1 Liquid Solar Collectors and Photovoltaic Cells . . . . . . . . . 63
5 Conceptual Design of a Cold Room . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 71
5.1 Project Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 71
5.2 Warehouse Size. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 71
5.3 The Calculation of Cycle Times of Transport and the Number
of Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
5.3.1 Forklifts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
5.3.2 Rack Stackers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
5.4 Number of Reloading Bays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.5 Conveyors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5.6 Warehouse Lighting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.7 Energy Balance of the Designed Warehouse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.7.1 Heat Flux from the Permeation Through Construction
Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.7.2 Operating Heat Fluxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5.7.3 Heat Flux Supplied Through Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
5.7.4 Total Heat Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.7.5 Cooling Power of Chillers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.8 Solar Photovoltaic Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Summary
1. The study shows that there are many factors that affect the energy intensity
of the functioning of warehouses. Decisions projecting the amount of energy
consumption are made from the design stage of a storage facility, to the deci-
sions associated with daily operations, e.g. determining the minimal freight
transport routes during order picking.
2. The technical and organizational solutions that affect the energy intensity of a
warehouse include:
– establishing a location for the warehouse that would be favorable
energy-wise,
– favorable warehouse alignment relative to the compass,
– the warehouse size, taking into account the minimum heat fluxes penetrating
the partitions,
– the use of storage technology on racks or on the floor to decrease storage
space,
– the use of reloading bays to minimize heat loss,
– the use of the most energy-efficient means of transporting freight,
– warehouse automation: the use of conveyors, stacker cranes, unmanned
forklift trucks, etc.,
– optimization of operating cycles of equipment,
– optimizing the distribution of cargo in accordance with the frequency of
pickup,
– the use of automatic identification,
– applying appropriate insulation panels to reduce the heat flux penetration
through barriers,
– kinetic energy recovery by means of transport,
– recovery of potential energy contained in the cargo units stored,
– the use of energy-efficient batteries and supercapacitors,
– choosing the most energy-efficient light source,
vii
viii Summary
– the use of natural sunlight,

– the use of systems that reduce energy consumption by lighting systems,
– the use of systems supporting the picking process,
– heat recovery from the air conditioning and heating systems,
– the use of heat pumps,
– the use of liquid solar collectors,
– the use of photovoltaic cells,
– controlling the position of solar panels,
3. The evaluation of the energy consumption in the warehouse uses the warehouse
energy efficiency indicators. They allow seeing the impact of various areas
of the warehouse operation which are characterized by high energy consump-
tion. This allows planning solutions and actions aimed at reducing the energy
intensity of the operation. The indicators can also be considered key perfor-
mance indicators (KPIs) and help to assess the degree of achievement of energy
goals in the warehouse.
4. The energy balance of the warehouse is used to determine the heat flow in the
system. Individual heat fluxes are calculated. The streams include heat fluxes
from people and machinery working in the warehouse, heat fluxes penetrating
through the walls and ceiling of the warehouse, heat fluxes from the goods, and
from the warehouse lighting.
5. The paper presents a description of the existing and feasible solutions listed in
section 2, to reduce the energy intensity of the operation of the facility. It also
presents key indicators of energy efficiency of the warehouse and their mea-
surements. The energy balance of the warehouse was calculated. After
considering the directions for reducing the energy intensity, presuppositions
were developed for a design of an energy-efficient cold store. The calculations
for the design of the warehouse have confirmed the anticipated marked decline
in energy consumption of energy-efficient storage compared to conventional
warehouses.
6. Below is the calculated and estimated impact of each solution introduced into
the conceptual design of the cold store (as well as several solutions not
implemented, but taken into account) to reduce energy intensity:
– optimal size of the facility:
• reduction in the flow of heat permeating through the partitions in the
storage area Q_ skł by 24.3 % (Sect. 5.2.)
• reducing the total flux penetration through the barriers Q_ I by approx.
10 % (according to the author’s estimate based on Sect. 5.2.)
– the use of natural sunlight:
• reducing energy consumption for lighting by using only natural light—
100 % (at the cost of slightly increased heat flux penetration through the
roof) (Sect. 5.6.)
Summary ix
• reducing energy consumption for lighting by using 75% natural light—

75% (at the cost of slightly increased heat flux penetration through the
roof) (Sect. 5.6.)
• reducing energy consumption for lighting by using motion sensors—
approximately 75 %
– warehouse automation
• reducing energy consumption for lighting by automating the warehouse
—80 % (assumed based on the difference in illumination—Sect. 5.6.)
u
• the use of conveyors instead of forklift trucks - reduction of heat flux Q_ III
from machinery by 51.11 % (comparing the values from Sect. 5.7.2)
• reducing the total flux penetration through the barriers Q_ I by approxi-
mately 2% (according to the author’s estimate)
• reducing the heat flux from people by 51.22 % (based on Sect. 5.7.2)
– minimizing the operating speed of devices
• reducing the consumption of kinetic energy by forklifts by approx. 43 %
(according to the author’s estimate based on the example in Sect. 4.1.)
– the use of machines with energy recovery during lowering of cargo
• recovering approximately 90 % of the potential energy of cargo stored in
the shelves (according to the author’s estimate based on Sect. 4.1.)
– the use of a heat pump
• the electricity consumption by the refrigeration unit halved (through the
use of low temperature heat source)—Sects. 5.7.5 and 4.5.
– the use of photovoltaic cells
• providing energy from solar radiation at the level of 7.33 % of the energy
used by the chiller to keep the required weather conditions (Sect. 5.8.)
– the use of systems supporting the picking process
• heat fluxes from the equipment and people reduced by approximately 3 %
(according to the author’s estimate)
• reducing energy consumption for internal transport by approximately 3 %
(according to the author’s estimate)
– optimizing the distribution of cargo in accordance with the frequency of
pickup
• reduced energy consumption of stacker cranes (value difficult to estimate,
depends on the structure of product items)
7. The proposed changes lead to a significant reduction in energy used for the
operation of the warehouse. There are many factors contributing to the possi-
bility of reducing the energy intensity of warehouses. A precise estimate of
x Summary
some of the values of energy improvement is only possible by using systematic

measurements and key indicators of energy efficiency. However, the study
included opportunities and courses of action supported by calculations of the
expected impact on reducing energy intensity.
Introduction
The functioning of warehouses is indisputably linked to the consumption of energy

in various forms. With the increasing concern of the entire humanity to reduce
energy consumption, this issue also applies to warehouses. Among the various
forms and varieties of warehouses, cold and heated stores are characterized by a
relatively high demand for energy. Modern warehouse buildings often reach a space
of several tens of thousands of square meters. The energy demand of this kind of
structures is enormous. Warehouse designers and users are looking for solutions to
reduce the energy consumption of these facilities and thus reduce the cost of their
operation.
Technical solutions are sought to reduce the energy consumption of equipment
and processes related to internal transport in order to reduce heat loss through walls
and through ventilation, as well as an efficient control of processes associated with
the operation of storage facilities.
Currently, prices of electricity, most commonly used in warehouses, and the
prices of fuel as a source of energy, continue to rise. The politics of European
countries is conducive to reducing energy intensity. Not only is the economic aspect
raised, but also ecological one. Renewable energy sources contribute to environ-
mental protection. Investments in such sources are often subsidized.
The characteristics of storage buildings can both promote energy-efficient
solutions and pose a threat to the issue of low energy consumption. An example
would be the large area characterizing warehouse buildings. On the one hand it can
be effectively used to acquire cheaper solar energy; on the other hand, it is a source
of high heat loss. The development of new technologies creates new possibilities,
e.g. the use of solar energy and other renewable sources. Dissemination of new,
previously unused equipment leads to lowering their production costs. Several years
ago, such devices as solar panels or photovoltaic cells were rare; nowadays, they are
standard in many buildings.
In the first quarter of 2013 more than 7 million m2 of warehouse space were
offered in Poland. This number continues to grow thanks to the development of the
economy, which represents opportunities for erecting warehouses that are modern
and economically competitive thanks to their low energy consumption. What is
xi
xii Introduction
needed, however, is a comprehensive approach to the issue of energy consumption

including the design of facilities, equipment and management systems used in
warehousing.
The scope of work includes:
– the analysis of the construction and operation of modern warehouses (including
automated, intelligent, and zero-energy warehouses)
– presentation of the measurements and evaluation of indicators of warehouse
operation,
– warehouse energy balance,
– improvement concepts in terms of energy savings in the various areas of
operation,
– cold storage conceptual design,
– projected improvement of the energy status of warehousing.
Chapter 1
The Construction and Operation
of Modern Warehouses
Modern low- or zero-energy warehouses have solutions for reducing the energy
consumption in warehouse buildings and storage processes. The chapter describes
solutions dedicated to energy consumption in warehousing, as well as the Author’s
own ideas to adapt other solutions to storage systems.
1.1 Energetically Favorable Warehouse Location and Size
Warehouses are usually located near important industrial centers, urban areas, at the
junctions of major transport routes. None of these locations, however, has any
relation to a warehouse’s energy consumption. The energy consumption of ware-
houses of the same type and size will be the same for location at the junction of
pan-European transport corridors and in uninhabited areas away from main roads.
Yes, such location is important for energy consumption in transport, but has no
effect on the energy consumption of the warehouse itself. The issue of optimal
location of logistics facilities in terms of external transport can be solved with a
known structure of material flow, the level of fixed costs and investment costs based
on such methods as balanced center of gravity; this, however, is not the subject of
this work.
The energy intensity of a warehouse has to do with its location in relation to the
world. The most sunlit side at the Polish latitude is the south side. Due to the heat
radiation coming from the sun, cool spaces should not be located on this side of the
building. However, this is the appropriate location for the office/social section of the
warehouse, where good sunshine and higher temperatures are usually desirable.
High neighboring buildings, forests, and hills can provide a natural barrier to the
sun. They also constitute an obstacle to the wind, which would otherwise increase
heat exchange with the environment. In Poland, the wind usually blows from the
west. The southern direction also represents a significant proportion of the wind
directions occurring in our country. So, the side that is best suited for a warehouse,
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 1
P. Zajac, The Energy Consumption in Refrigerated Warehouses,
EcoProduction, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-40898-9_1
2 1 The Construction and Operation of Modern Warehouses
particularly cold storage, is north and northeast. The least preferred side is south
and southwest. In the case of warehouses, where the temperature is high, south is
the most preferred side because of the sunlight. The presence of reservoirs and
waterways is significant, as they tend to lower temperature fluctuations during the
day and in a year, and also change humidity.
An innovative solution involves underground storage. In such structures, there is
no problem with high heat loss through the walls. The soil provides protection
against unfavorable temperature fluctuations and maintains the temperature at a
similar level throughout the year. However, building an underground warehouse
means high investment costs and is still applied on a very small scale.
The size of the shelving zone in the warehouse for the storage quantitation
depends, e.g., on
(a) type of product, storage technologies, annual turnover of cargo units, stock
turnover ratio and the stacking ratio, type and form of stocks, their product
range, size, weight, etc.,
(b) type of cargo units,
(c) the required maximum warehouse capacity expressed in cargo units,
(d) daily flow of cargo units through the warehouse, broken down into input and
output,
(e) buffer stock of cargo units on input and output.
The dimensions of the surface of the shelving area should consider minimizing
the movement of the means of transport. As shown in, the ratio of the length of the
shelving area to its width should be approximately 2:1. When planning the height of
the shelving area, one should consider minimizing the road traveled by the means of
transport (taking into account the vertical movement of the transport tool—e.g.,
forklift forks). The important factors include not only the sum of the movements in
all axes (x, y, z), but also the duration depending on the acceleration and maximum
speed in an axis, as well as handling times.
The road traveled by the means of transport in horizontal and vertical directions
translates into the amount of energy used for the transport process. However, the
movement of cargo to a height of 1 m will not consume the same amount of energy
as in the case of the movement of cargo by 1 m horizontally. In the case of
horizontal movements, the energy will be used almost entirely on work connected
with overcoming the resistance and the braking work (converted into heat in
ordinary means of transport), while in the case of movement in the vertical plane,
energy will be consumed mainly for work related to overcoming the force of gravity
when lifting and the work of braking when lowering the cargo or transport tools.
The force of gravity will depend on the lifted mass to a much larger extent than the
force of motion resistance or braking force in case of horizontal movements. So, the
optimal stacking height in terms of energy consumed in transport processes, and
thus the height of the warehouse, will largely depend on the type of cargo.
Calculations of the energy consumed by the means of transporting cargo are carried
in Sect. 4.1.
1.1 Energetically Favorable Warehouse Location and Size 3
In addition to the storage area, a warehouse typically includes the following

areas:
• discharge,
• reception,
• picking area,
• technical/social area.
While designing the location of these areas, one may consider their emissions
and absorption of heat, and put them in the most favorable spot in terms of energy
(e.g., on the southern edge or above the storage area).
1.2 Methods for Effective Use of Warehouse Area

and Volume in Order to Reduce Energy Intensity
The size of the warehouse is certainly closely related to its heat exchange with the
environment. The more external surfaces a warehouse has, the more heat passes
through its walls. The layout of the warehouse storage area must therefore be
changed so that it has the most compact form possible; the bulk of the storage area
should be close in shape to a cube.
One should seek to minimize the following indicators:
(a) the degree of effective use of space

Am m2
am ¼ ð1:1Þ
Zmax CU
(b) the degree of effective use of volume

Vm m3
bm ¼ ð1:2Þ
Zmax CU
where:
Am warehouse area [m2],
Vm storage capacity [m3],
Zmax maximum storage capacity [CU],
CU cargo units
To design a warehouse that efficiently uses its area and volume, one should
explore the technology for the storage of loading units (Fig. 1.1).
Green ellipses on the drawing mark the technologies that have a high storage
space filling coefficient.
Fig. 1.1 Classification of cargo unit storage. Source Author’s own work based on
Rackless floor storage in stacks is mostly used in storage yards, where there is a
large volume and a small number of product items. The advantages of this system
are
– low investment costs (no racks)
– possibility of forming any size of blocks of cargo and placing them in arbitrarily
selected locations in the warehouse.
The disadvantages include:
– wide handling roads between rows/blocks due to the most commonly used
front-loading forklifts. This reduces the effective use of storage space.
– heavy loads on cargo on the bottom—restricts the height of the cargo stack,
– the need to apply the LIFO principle—last in, first out—difficult access to
low-lying cargo.
The rack storage technology, which allows for a reduction of storage space, is
based on the drive-in racks technology (Fig. 1.2). They feature the possibility of the
truck or fork carriage driving into the rack. This technology allows reducing the
number of corridors between racks, and thus reducing storage space. It also elim-
inates the drawback of storage in piles—cargo can be stacked at high altitudes by
relieving the lower layers of cargo. These racks may be used in a pass-through and
blind layout. In the blind shelving system, they usually adhere to the wall. Their
design can involve applying the LIFO principle. However, the FIFO principle
1.2 Methods for Effective Use … 5
Fig. 1.2 Drive-in racks a blind b pass-through. Source Author’s own work based on
(first in, first out) can be applied in pass-through racks due to access to cargo from
both sides of the rack.
The need for forklift to drive in between the racks, and hence the need to
maintain filling in the vertical direction (from top to bottom or from bottom to top),
can be eliminated through the use of satellite trucks. These are automatic units with
their own drive and power source. Lifted together with the pallet by the forklift and
placed on the edge of the shelf, they can move their load deeper inside the rack and
place it where they meet another item on the rack. The satellite truck then deposits
its cargo by lowering it and goes back to the forklift (Fig. 1.3).
A special type of pass-through racks are gravity flow racks (Fig. 1.4). The flow
of cargo units takes place automatically thanks to the forces of gravity. Shelves are
inclined at an angle of 3–4°. So, there is no need for a truck or carriage to drive into
the rack, which allows for lower energy consumption by these means of transport.
Instead of rigid transverse beams, the shelves feature rollers on which the cargo
units slide down. The rollers can be fitted with special brakes (Fig. 1.5) that prevent
excessive speed of movement, particularly of heavy loads. The lower storage areas
are fitted with roller tracks, which allow inserting the forks into the pallets. At the
edge, there are also separators for easy pick up of pallets and to prevent them from
falling off shelves (Fig. 1.6).
One way of narrowing corridors between racks may involve using appropriate
means of transport. Instead of using front-loading forklifts that need a wide han-
dling road, sidecars can be used. Another way to reduce the width of the corridors is
the introduction of automatic rack stackers. They take up little space due to their
construction and precise handling. They also allow for high storage operations.
Fig. 1.3 Satellite truck. Source Author’s own work based on
Drive-through racks (Fig. 1.7) are another way to improve the efficient use of
storage space. The racks can slide on rails embedded in the floor or along a
magnetic or inductive line. They allow maintaining the advantages of static
framework and shelving racks—including the accessibility of any socket and any
shelf in the rack. In connection with the reduction of energy consumption, the racks
cooperate with a lighting system, allowing the illumination of used space only (see
Sect. 4.2). However, additional energy is consumed by motors responsible for
maneuvering shelves. This type of storage technology does not work well with high
inventory turnover.
Fig. 1.4 Gravity flow racks.

Source Author’s own work
based on
Fig. 1.5 Rollerstrip with a

stopping roller. Source
Author’s own work based on
Paternoster racks come in two variants:

– racks moving horizontally (Fig. 1.8a),
– racks moving vertically (Fig. 1.8b).
They are used for the storage of small loads; they provide a good use of space
and can be coated with thermal insulation. In this technology, the operator may stay
at their workstation all the time, with no need for any additional means of transport
Fig. 1.6 Pallet separator. Source Author’s own work based on
Fig. 1.7 Drive-through

racks. Source Author’s own
work based on
or lifting equipment. The necessary goods are collected from the access point
located on the ergonomic level. The low-temperature air from the inside of built-up
insulating panels may escape only through this small access window. If necessary,
the window may be closed with insulating blinds.
Fig. 1.8 Paternoster racks. Source Author’s own work based on
Dynamic storage on means of transport features the possibility of a very efficient

use of storage space. It is also characterized by a high degree of flexibility.
However, it is not effective in terms of storage height, and is also uneconomical.
According to earlier assumptions implying a compact storage area resembling a
cube, one should strive to reach a width/length/height ratio of 1:1:1. While the
design of a long and wide warehouse poses no problems, storage at high altitude
entails difficulties in the design of shelving systems. High-bay warehouses enable
storage at high altitudes (there is no fixed bottom value designating high storage,
although the sets the limit at 5.5 m). Storage in this type of warehouses usually is
done on pallets in framework racks, but also using satellite systems. Pallets are very
often stacked using automatic rack stackers, but high storage lifting carts are also
used.
Due to the stability of the structure, free-standing racks are used to a height of
approx. 10 m. In a high-bay warehouse allowing for storage above 10 m, the racks
are the supporting structure of the roof and walls. During the construction of such a
warehouse, the racks are erected before the walls (Fig. 1.9). Racks are formed
integrally with the walls and ceiling of the building.
Fig. 1.9 Construction of a self-supporting warehouse. Source Author’s own work based on
1.3 Minimizing Heat Exchange with the Environment

During Logistics Operations—Reloading Bays
Reloading bays in warehouses contribute to heat exchange with its surroundings.

Any openings in the warehouse are critical points that affect the energy balance. In
order to reduce this phenomenon, thoroughly seal the space between the warehouse
walls and the walls of the docked vehicle. This allows the lack of air exchange
(especially important in windy conditions and at low or high temperatures), and
thus reduce heat loss and the changes in climatic parameters prevailing in the
warehouse (humidity, chemical composition). At the same time, heat losses are
reduced through changes in the construction of gates. Steel sections are insulated
with polyurethane rigid foam filling them, which reduces the coefficient of heat
transfer through the gates.
Fast rolling of sectional or spiral doors limits the time of air exchange with the
environment. Another factor that reduces energy loss is to seal the reloading bays.
Normally used curtains are not enough to ensure the least possible heat loss.
Pneumatic seals are best for various types of vehicles. Thoroughly adhering to the
vehicle’s trailer (Fig. 1.10), they do not allow for air flow. Pumping air into the
sleeves around the trailer is done by the fan working during reloading.
Even the most airtight security systems around the trailer are not able to elim-
inate energy losses as well as double protection in the form of isolated corridor
1.3 Minimizing Heat Exchange with the Environment … 11
Fig. 1.10 Visualization of a pneumatic bay curtain. Source Author’s own work based on
between the bay, the docked vehicle and the warehouse. In this solution, one of
the gates is placed between the warehouse and the corridor (built in the building or
in the form of an outhouse), while the second gate separates the corridor from the
external environment. Goods are collected in the corridor, leaving at least one
gate closed at all times. Figure 1.11 shows the reloading house set against a
warehouse.
Fig. 1.11 Isolated reloading

house. Source Author’s own
work based on
1.4 Automatic Rack Stackers
Automatic rack stackers allow for quick and maintenance-free stacking of cargo
units in the racks. They occupy very little space, and thus allow the use of narrow
corridors between racks, thereby increasing the efficiency of storage space. Suited
for work in cold storage at low temperatures, where maneuvering a forklift truck
becomes dangerous because of the slippery surface and requires employees to work
in harsh conditions. Automatic stackers also allow for precise and fast handling of
high-bay warehouses.
Due to the general structure of the bearing structure, they are divided into:
– single-column stackers for storage height Hp(max) 15 m,
– double-column stackers for storage height Hp(max) 15 m,
The stackers can also be divided into
– suspended stackers with the chassis along the upper rail,
– traveling stackers with the chassis along the lower rail,
Suspended stackers are moving on rails attached to the upper part of the rack,
whereas traveling stackers are moving on rails embedded in the floor, with addi-
tional upper rail to ensure stability of the stacker in case of high-bay storage
(Fig. 1.12).
1.4 Automatic Rack Stackers 13
Fig. 1.12 Suspended single-column traveling stackers for storing heavy goods, for high storage
and a suspended double-column traveling stacker with two carts. Source fot. author
Stacker movement is executed through three main working groups:

– driving assemblies moving the stacker along the rack,
– lifting assemblies moving the stacker cart up and down,
– cargo handling assemblies moving cargo units perpendicular to the racks.
The vertical and horizontal movements in a plane parallel to the front of shelves
can be done simultaneously, while movement perpendicular to the shelves is
executed when the stacker cart is set to meet the appropriate slot in the rack.
1.5 Means of Carrying Loads
The means of carrying loads, or conveyors, allow for easy, even automatic transfer
of cargo along predetermined routes with low energy consumption. They are highly
efficient. Traffic along the conveyors can be carried out based on the processes of
rolling, carrying, and feeding.
Roller conveyors are commonly used in warehouses (Fig. 1.13). These con-
veyors are broken down into:
– shaft conveyors,
– roller conveyors,
– ball conveyors,
– disc conveyors.
Fig. 1.13 Diagrams of roller

conveyors: shaft conveyor,
roller conveyor. Source fot.
author
Moving loads on rolling elements can be done manually, under gravity or by

means of a motor rotating the rolling elements. Pallets are most commonly moved
using roller conveyors, with driven roller installed between the inert rollers.
Change in the conveying direction is done with special modular elements such as:
– Rotary roller table at the intersection of conveyor routes,
– Mobile roller junctions rotated about an acute angle to change the direction of
conveyance,
– shaft arch segments,
– raised shaft conveyor segments to change the level of cargo conveyance.
In automated warehouses with a high cargo turnover, they replace the conven-
tional means of transport. They allow the reduction of storage space through a small
area occupancy and opportunities for running process lines on many levels. They
cooperate well with checkpoints utilizing automatic identification of goods. They
cooperate both with moving floors systems in commercial vehicles, lifting and
floating carts, lifts and stackers.
1.6 Warehousing Program—Reducing the Energy

Intensity of Processes
Loads in the warehouse should not be stored at random. One needs a well thought
out program for storage, which should already be implemented at the system design
stage. This program should take into account
1.6 Warehousing Program—Reducing the Energy Intensity of Processes 15
– the product range structure of stored commodity groups,

– storage conditions,
– the physical form of the goods in delivery and release,
– warehouse stock for cargo assortments,
– rotation,
– the size of one-time delivery and release,
– the product range of goods released on order,
– the method of delivery and receipt.
The appropriate grouping of goods allows reducing and shortening the amount
of transportation and handling operations. This helps to reduce energy consumption
in the transport system.
Some items are taken less often, others more often. Therefore, in line with the
criteria of ABC analysis of inventory, one can identify three groups (Pareto law):
– group A, where 20 % of items represent approx. 80 % of the accumulated value
of a feature,
– group B, where 30 % of items represent approx. 15 % of the accumulated value
of a feature,
– group C, where 50 % of items represent approx. 5 % of the accumulated value
of a feature.
A graphical representation of inventory groups is shown in Fig. 1.14:
The ABC analysis thus allows classifying units stored in the warehouse in three
groups
– A (representing a small fraction of the total but generating the largest value)
– B (moderate significance),
– C (including most of all cargo units, but generating little value).
Fig. 1.14 ABC analysis—

bar graph. Source Author’s
own work based on
Fig. 1.15 Distribution of inventory by ABC analysis in vertical layout—availability of goods.

Source Author’s own work based on
The criterion of turnover, collection frequency, is usually the main criterion in

determining storage sites. Other criteria may nevertheless constitute a barrier for
storage locations determined by using the ABC method.
Goods from group A are subject to the highest rotation and should therefore
occupy the most accessible space in the warehouse. The issue should be considered
in two layouts—horizontal (horizontal storage) and vertical (vertical storage). In
horizontal arrangement, the most important factor is the frequency of orders. The
most frequently procured goods should be as close to release or packing stations as
possible. In the vertical arrangement, the most important factor is the amount of
goods ordered. Goods ordered in the largest quantities should be in the optimal
range of means of transport or employee (Fig. 1.15).
Of course, the location of stocks depends on the horizontal layout of the
warehouse. Figure 1.16 shows the location of groups of goods in the three most
commonly used systems: pass-through, angular and radial. The factor determining
the location is the distribution of the material inputs and outputs.
1.7 Automatic Identification in Warehouse Logistics

Systems as a Mean to Reduce the Energy Intensity
of Logistics Processes
With the current state of the art, automatic identification has become an indis-
pensable element of material flow management. This greatly simplifies the flow of
information, which is inextricably bound up with the concept of logistics. High
performance, simplicity and accuracy (only 1 error per 3,000,000 barcodes scanned
compared with 10,000 errors when entering text from the keyboard) are the main
features of automatic identification.
1.7 Automatic Identification in Warehouse Logistics Systems … 17
Fig. 1.16 Distribution of inventory by ABC analysis in horizontal layout in warehouses:

pass-through, angular and radial. Source Author’s own work based on
Automatic identification allows for beneficial energy automation of logistics

processes. Thanks to high performance, it is possible to use a small storage area.
Automatic identification systems often work with automated conveyor systems.
Cargo units at the entrance to the storage system are entered into the computer
system using a barcode or RFID tag identifier. Devices automatically reading the
information contained in bar codes or transponders. Devices used for reading can be
any kind of handheld terminals, whether stationary, portable, or fixed base stations
reading information from the labels or transponders on cargo units moving past
them, for example by means of conveyance.
Providing the information on the cargo input to the computer system may be
followed by a decision to assign the correct location in the warehouse. This
information is transmitted to subsequent links in the system, e.g., automatic sorting
system, which transfers the cargo to the appropriate conveyor leading to the
appropriate row of racks. Thanks to the information system, the stacker receiving
the cargo also has information about a particular slot to which the cargo should be
transported. The entire system reduces unnecessary transport processes, optimizes
the transport path and locates cargo units according to their most appropriate
assortment group (see ABC analysis in Sect. 1.6).
The whole system informing of the right destination for cargo units is based on
location codes. These are digits determining subsequent locations separated with,
e.g., a dot or a dash. A sample locator code may contain numbers representing the
storage area, the rack row, the column in a row, and the rack slot number (e.g.,
01.10.25.1001). Another common way to describe the location is giving the
number, row, bay, and slot. Such structure of information may also serve the
employees picking the goods. Information about the place of collection or with-
drawal of cargo in the form of a locator code can be shown, e.g., on the monitor
screen mounted on the forklift. It is also possible with picking-support systems,
e.g., Pick-by-Voice.
Logistic labels (Fig. 1.17) applied at the cargo units contain information such as
– the name and logo of the manufacturer,
– address information of the manufacturer,
– batch number,
Fig. 1.17 Example of a

logistic label. Source
1.7 Automatic Identification in Warehouse Logistics Systems … 19
– date of production,
– shelf life,
– dimensions,
– location, etc.
The lower part of the logistic label is the code section. The type of encoded
information can be identified by the application identifiers (AIs). Identifiers rep-
resented by numbers in brackets and coded indicate the type of information encoded
by consecutive numbers, e.g., (11)131028 means the Application Identifier number
11 which stands for “Date of production.” This means that the goods have been
produced on 2013-10-08 (YY-MM-DD format). 300 application identifiers are
currently used.
The most frequently used barcodes are EAN 13, EAN-8, and EAN 128. They
contain information about
– EAN 8: the first three digits are the country code, for example 590—Poland,
next four digits are the identification number of the goods, and at the end there is
the control digit to prevent errors in reading the barcode,
– EAN 13: The first three digits are the country code, the next four digits are
number of the coding unit, the five consecutive digits are the identification
number of the goods and at the end there is a control digit,
– EAN 128: has the ability to encode alphanumeric characters and is used, among
others, on logistic labels.
A newer reading technique involves the RFID radio technology. Transponders
placed in cargo units, pallets or individual products, approach a short distance to the
base station which emits energy and reads or records information. This technology,
however, is still not perfect; it is characterized by a large number of unread
information and is sensitive to radio interference.
1.8 Insulation Systems for Storage Rooms
Good thermal insulation in refrigerated rooms is a very important element in the

pursuit of low energy intensity of warehouse buildings. It is especially important in
the case of warehouses where there are temperatures that are significantly different
from the ambient temperature. The primary purpose of thermal insulation in
warehouse facilities should be reducing the amount of heat permeating the exterior
walls of insulated rooms. This applies both to heat transfer from the outside, for
example during hot summer days, and the heat transfer from inside the warehouse
to the external environment. While only a small number of warehouses have interior
cooling systems for high temperatures (which is related to the type of products
stored in the warehouse—e.g., machine parts, household appliances, electronics are
resistant to high temperatures), most warehouses are additionally heated during
winter. The main reason for heating is the need to maintain appropriate working
conditions for employees.
An additional feature that should characterize the insulation system should be a
lack of propensity to condense moisture both on the surface and inside the insu-
lating barrier. Such condensation of water vapor contained in the air inside a cold
room will occur if the temperature of the insulation’s wall surface drops below the
dew point associated with the air temperature in the warm room and the relative
humidity of that air. In fact, condensation can occur even at lower temperature
differences due to the fluctuations in temperature and humidity and the thermal
inertia of the insulating materials. Therefore, we shall assume a 5 % safety margin
and a correction factor taking into account the thermal inertia. Formulas for the
calculation are given in Chap. 5.
In addition, the insulation should meet the appropriate conditions for durability,
flammability, protection against rodents, etc.
The primary factor determining the effectiveness of the thermal insulation is its
thickness. The thicker the insulating layer, the smaller the heat transfer coefficient
of the insulation, which is a measure describing the heat transfer through the
insulating barriers (see Section Three). Heat transfer is also affected by
material-specific thermal conductivity and the heat transfer coefficient at the surface
of the insulation. Figure 1.18 shows a diagram of the temperature distribution of the
insulating barrier.
Insulation walls are usually built of finished panels. An insulating material of
low thermal conductivity is generally polyurethane foam or later generation foam,
e.g., polyisocyanurate foam. They achieve thermal conductivity coefficients of
approx. kiz = 0.02–0.03 mWK The foam is tightly enclosed with sheet cladding, e.g.,
steel protected against corrosion. An important element is the pressfit joint between
panels that ensures the continuity of insulation. In addition, when connecting the
panels, sealing may be applied between them on-site. Figure 1.19 shows the
structure of insulation panels.
The panels can be attached to both side walls of the warehouse and suspended
ceilings. Another way of insulation involves spraying polyurethane foam inside
Fig. 1.18 Diagram of the temperature distribution in the insulation. Source Author’s own work
1.8 Insulation Systems for Storage Rooms 21
Fig. 1.19 Structure of

insulation panels (Steel sheet,
PU foam, Tongue-groove
joint between panels,
Sealant). Source fot. Author
the warehouse. Panels with an outer polyester shell or made of modified

polyvinyl chloride are also used. The thickness of the insulation panels is usually
100–200 mm.
When it comes to construction of thermally insulated cold rooms, the issue of the
so-called thermal bridges is very important. These are metallic connections between
the external and internal cladding. Heat penetrates through these elements. The aim
is to eliminate this type of connection through various design solutions of mounting
fasteners. Comparing the thermal conductivity of polyurethane foam kPU = 0.035
W W
m K with steel conductivity kST = 40 m K, it can easily be seen that mounting
connectors in the form of screws, bolts, etc., with total cross-sectional area of
0.001 m2 emit the same amount of heat as 1 m2 of wall insulated with polyurethane
foam. In the global heat loss calculations for a cooled facility, it is often assumed
that heat loss through thermal bridges is at 10 % of the losses through the insulated
walls.
Chapter 2
Indicators and Measures of Energy
Efficiency the Warehouse
Measures to improve the energy efficiency of a warehouse and reduce its power
consumption can bring more or less satisfactory results. The aim is to maximize the
reduction of energy consumption with the lowest possible investment cost, and
taking into account the environmental aspects (renewable energy). Reducing energy
intensity means lower energy costs for the company.
To be able to assess the degree of energy intensity of a warehouse, one can use
indicators. The energy consumption of a warehouse is influenced by many factors.
The various functional areas of the warehouse have a different impact on the total
energy consumption of the storage system. Knowledge about energy efficiency
indicators can help spot areas particularly important to reduce energy intensity. It
also allows noting what factors have the greatest impact on energy consumption and
promotes seeking improvements in these areas.
The basic physical values used in reducing the energy intensity are energy, work,
and power:
• Energy—“physical value used to quantitatively describe various processes and
effects”,
• Work—“a scalar value which is a measure of energy given to a physical
system”,
• Power—“a value characterizing a physical system in terms of energy”.
Apart from work, the second means of transferring energy is heat, defined as
“the amount of heat, energy and labor are the same value.” Their SI unit is the joule
(J). The work of one joule is performed by moving the force point 1 N in accor-
dance with its direction by 1 m.
1 J ¼ 1 Nm ¼ 1 Ws ¼ 1 kg m2 =s2 ð2:1Þ
The unit of power is the watt (W). It is the ratio of the amount of energy, heat, or
work to time.

24 2 Indicators and Measures of Energy Efficiency the Warehouse
1 W ¼ 1 J=s ¼ 1 Nm=s ð2:2Þ
In practice, the most commonly used unit of work, energy, and heat is not joule
or watt second, but a kilowatt-hour (kWh). 1 kWh is equivalent to the consumption
of energy by a device in an hour of work and with the power of 1000 W, or 1 kWh.
The global energy consumption in the warehouse is made up of the following
several components:
Eglob ¼ Eosw þ Esr:tran: þ Eklim þ Eurz þ Eprac ð2:3Þ
where
Eośw the energy used for lighting the warehouse
Eśr.tran. the energy consumed by transport in the warehouse (both conveyors and
means of transport)
Eklim energy consumed to maintain appropriate weather conditions in the
warehouse (e.g., consumed for heating, cooling, humidification and
dehumidification, air distribution throughout the warehouse)
Eurz energy consumed by other equipment, e.g., blinds, automatic identification
units, etc.
Eprac energy emitted by people working in the warehouse
Energy consumption can be related to time units, e.g.,

kWh kWh kWh
; ;
day year h
However, you can also specify the total energy consumption per cargo unit
passing through the warehouse:

kWh
CU
This indicator is often used in practice; it also allows determining the cost of
energy consumption generated by a cargo unit in the warehouse.
In addition to the references to the cargo unit, one can refer to the unit of area or
volume of the warehouse or storage area:

kWh kWh
;
m2 m3
Such reference is most often used when determining the energy used for heating
or cooling.
Usable energy delivered to the warehouse, usually in the form of electricity,
heat, or solar radiation is converted into another form of energy (mechanical kinetic
2 Indicators and Measures of Energy Efficiency the Warehouse 25
and potential, thermal, light…). However, not all energy is used for the desired
purpose. Examples are incandescent lamps that can only convert 5 % of energy into
light; the rest of the energy is converted into heat. Therefore, one must introduce
indicators pointing to the share of the types of output energy obtained from the
input energy, e.g., the ratio of light energy to heat energy obtained from electricity:
Elighen

Een ¼ ½% ð2:4Þ
Eheaten
In the case of energy recovery, one can use the indicators depicting its share in
total usable energy used for a process in which the energy is recovered, or the ratio
of energy recovered in all processes to total energy:
Erecov: in proc:
ratio of energy recovered in the process ¼ ð2:5Þ
Etotal process
Erecov
ratio of total energy recovered ¼ ð2:6Þ
Eglob
Further indicators determine the energy consumption by the components of total

energy. They allow measuring the share of energy consumed by a group of
processes:
Elight
consumption indicator Elight ¼ ð2:7Þ
Eglob
Etran:
consumption indicator Etran: ¼ ð2:8Þ
Eglob
Eaircon
consumption indicator Eaircon ¼ ð2:9Þ
Eglob
Eeq
consumption indicator Eeq ¼ ð2:10Þ
Eglob
The indicators showing the share of the consumption of various types of energy
in the warehouse are also important, for example
Eel
electricity consumption index Eel ¼ ð2:11Þ
Eglob
Etherm
thermal consumption index Etherm ¼ ð2:12Þ
Eglob
Erec
renewable energy consumption index Erec ¼ ð2:13Þ
Eglob
The indicators indirectly affecting energy consumption are
heated volume Vheat

index of heated warehouse space ¼ ð2:14Þ
unheated volume Vnheat
– effective use of space ratio (see Sect. 1.2)

Am m2
am ¼
Zmax CU
– Volume efficiency index (see Sect. 1.2)

Vm m3
bm ¼
Zmax CU
– the rate of effective use of equipment
idling time tidle

¼ ð2:15Þ
total operation time ttotal
– indicators of cargo movements

(a) vertical
total distance traveled by cargo units in the Y-axis h m i

ð2:16Þ
the number of cargo units CU
(b) horizontal
total distance traveled by cargo units in the X-axis h m i

ð2:17Þ
the number of cargo units CU
– the rate of empty runs of means of transport
the total distance traveled by the means of transport without cargo

ð2:18Þ
the total distance traveled by means of transport
2 Indicators and Measures of Energy Efficiency the Warehouse 27
– lighting time indicator
warehouse lighting time tlight

¼ ð2:19Þ
total time ttotal
– area ratio of insulated walls
insulated wall area

ð2:20Þ
uninsulated wall area
– area ratio of external walls
the outer wall surface area

ð2:21Þ
the total wall surface area
– indicator of direct air exchange with the environment (for air exchange in open
reloading bays, open doors, and windows)
the sum of the products of air exchange times with the environment and the area of
the maximum cross-section of the exchange
X
ðtexch:i Aexch:i Þ sm2 ð2:22Þ
i
The economic analysis related to energy intensity can also take into account the
division between energy consumed depending on and regardless of the number of
rotating cargo units. The consumption of these energies generates appropriate costs
(formula 2.23). Energy consumed regardless of the number of units generates fixed
costs (e.g., energy used for heating, cooling, and ventilation). This energy depends
primarily on the coefficients of heat transfer through the warehouse walls and
ceiling, the surface of the walls and the temperature difference between the envi-
ronment and the warehouse interior. Variable costs are generated by the use of
energy to ensure the rotation of the cargo units. This energy can primarily include
the energy consumed by the means of transport, but also for lighting.
KEglob ¼ Kvariable þ Kfixed ð2:23Þ
The indicators that show the share of energy generating variable costs can also
be introduced:
Evar
ð2:24Þ
Eglob
The same goes for the energy generating fixed costs:
Efix
ð2:25Þ
Eglob
The indicators presented in this chapter can be considered key performance

indicators (KPIs) and help to assess the degree of achievement of energy goals in
the warehouse.
Chapter 3
Warehouse Energy Balance
Designing warehouses, especially those with special temperature conditions,

requires knowledge on the necessary cooling capacity to maintain the predeter-
mined temperature. For this purpose, a warehouse energy balance is made.
The basic energy balance has the following form:
X X
Ed; i ¼ Ew; k þ DEu ð3:1Þ
i k
where:
Ed; i stream of the i-th energy supplied
Ew; k stream of the k-th energy output
DEu stream of energy accumulated in the building
Viewing the energy balance in this way does not allow for a separate determi-
nation of the amount of man-made energy delivered and the energy provided by
natural factors. Both types of energy sources are included in one and the same
stream of energy supplied. The equation allows defining part of the stream of
energy supplied, which is maintained thanks to the so-called balance shield
(beneficial effect for heating, unfavorable for cooling purposes). The rest of the
energy is outputted from the building. The size of the energy flux should be at peak
in the case of cooling, and minimal in the case of heating.
Equation (3.1) expresses the so-called transient thermal state, in which the
temperature fluctuates over time. It is usually assumed that the warehouse is run-
ning in a steady state when temperature is constant and stable. Therefore, products
stored in the cold room should be previously frozen in freezers to the appropriate
storage temperature.
It becomes necessary to better define the heat flows that are supplied or released
from the warehouse. The calculation for the power needed for refrigeration or
heating must take into account the basic source of heat fluxes

30 3 Warehouse Energy Balance
– heat flux permeating through room partitions in the warehouse (including

sunlight)—walls, roof, floor,
– heat flux received from the stored goods during their storage,
– heat flux supplied during ventilation of storage rooms,
– operating heat fluxes (they come from people staying inside the warehouse,
lighting, means of transportation, of other machinery, and equipment).
The total heat flux Q_ całk can therefore be expressed as follows:
Q_ całk ¼ Q_ I þ Q_ II þ Q_ III þ Q_ IV ð3:2Þ
where:
Q_ I heat flux from the permeation through construction barriers
Q_ II heat flux brought to the premises through ventilation
Q_ III operating heat fluxes
Q_ IV heat flux coming from the goods subject to heat treatment
Equation (3.2) expresses the heat balance of the warehouse including a freezer
room.
3.1 Heat Flux from the Permeation Through Construction

Barriers
Much of the energy, especially in large-area buildings which definitely include

warehouses, is lost due to permeation through the construction barriers. This
involves not only permeation through walls, but also through the floor and ceiling.
The phenomenon of permeation through partitions and the type of thermal insu-
lation are described in Sect. 1.8. Permeation consists of three phases
– heat transfer through a partition from the environment having a higher
temperature,
– heat conduction through the partition,
– heat release to the environment with a lower temperature.
Each stage is characterized by a unit heat flow density q [W/m2]

qa1 ¼ a1 tp1 tw1 ð3:3Þ
ki
qk ¼ ðtw1 tw2 Þ ð3:4Þ
si

qa2 ¼ a2 tw2 tp2 ð3:5Þ
3.1 Heat Flux from the Permeation Through Construction Barriers 31
where:
qa1 density of the heat flux received by the partition [W/m2]
qk density of the heat flux passing through the partition [W/m2]
qa2 density of the heat flux given to the environment by the partition [W/m2]
a heat transfer coefficient [W/m2K]
tw surface temperature 1—warmer, 2—cooler [K]
tp air temperature 1—warmer, 2—cooler [K]
k thermal conductivity of barrier material [W/mK]
si thickness of the i-th layer [m]
Figure 3.1 shows an example of a layered partition with referred factors
The heat flux penetrating through the partitions is
Q_ I ¼ A q ¼ A k Dt ð3:6Þ
where:
k barrier heat transfer coefficient [W/m2K],
Dt ¼ tp1 tp2 ;
A area of the barrier [m2]

The inverse heat transfer coefficient k is the heat transfer resistance R. It is the
sum total of resistances characterizing each of the three stages of heat transfer
R ¼ Ra1 þ Rk þ Ra2 ð3:7Þ
Heat conduction resistances are the inverse heat transfer and conduction coef-
ficients. Thus, we get the equation for the barrier heat transfer coefficient k
1
k¼ P si ð3:8Þ
1
a1 þ ki þ 1
a2
i
Fig. 3.1 Penetration of a heat

flux through a construction
barrier. Source Author’s own
work based on
3.2 Heat Flux Brought to the Premises Through

Ventilation
Warehouse ventilation is a process that in part occurs automatically (natural ven-

tilation caused by pressure differences due to the flow of air through gaps in
windows, doors, leaks in walls and the roof, through open windows, doors and
gates, through air vents and roof vents), as well as the intended effect of venting
equipment.
In case of significant differences in the temperatures outside and inside due to
warehouse ventilation, the air outflow is accompanied by energy loss or a power
draw. Therefore, the aim is to minimize air exchange and to recover heat
(see Sect. 4.4). However, it is recommended to replace the air in the amount of
n replacements per day for food products
– in chambers—cold rooms n = 2–6
– in chambers—freezers n = 0.5–1
On the other hand, the source gives the following values for air replacement:
– for chambers normally operated in positive temperatures
70
n ¼ pffiffiffiffi ð3:9Þ
V
– for low-temperature cold storage and lightly loaded cooling chambers
50
V
– for freezers and cold stores for fruit and vegetables
30
V
Heat flux Q_ II supplied daily as a result of ventilation is

kJ
Q_ II ¼ Vcham n qair Dh ð3:12Þ
day
where:
Vcham chamber volume [m3],
n the number of air replacements [1/day],
qair air density [kg/m3],
Dh enthalpy difference of humid air [kJ/kg]
3.3 Operating Heat Fluxes 33
3.3 Operating Heat Fluxes
Operating heat fluxes Q_ III consist of heat fluxes coming from

– people Q_ lIII
– lighting Q_ oIII
– machinery Q_ uIII
Q_ III ¼ Q_ lIII þ Q_ oIII þ Q_ uIII ð3:13Þ
The value of the heat flux Q_ lIII coming from people (employees) is
Q_ L n z
Q_ lIII ¼ ½W ð3:14Þ
24
where:
Q_ L total heat flux [W/person],
N number of employees,
z working time [h/day].
According to the source, the value of flux Q_ L for a hard-working person is about
350 W/person. This value depends on the temperature inside the chamber (greater
heat production in the body), and whether the work is light or heavy.
h For
i instance,
at −25 °C, the heat flux from an employee will be Q_ L ¼ 420 person , while at
W
h i
W
+10 °C, it will be only 210 person . A hard-working person emits even 4.5 times
more energy than a person sitting still.
The heat flux Q_ oIII from lighting is
Pel z
Q_ oIII ¼ ½W] ð3:15Þ
24
where:
Pel lighting power [W],
z lighting time [h/day].
The heat flux Q_ uIII from machinery is (where equipment motors are installed
inside the warehouse)
z X n
Q_ uIII ¼ Ps ½W ð3:16Þ
24 i¼1 i
where:
Psi power of electric motors [W],
z runtime of the motors [h/day].
3.4 Other Sources of Heat
In the case of storage of fruits and vegetables, the heat from the metabolic processes
of these plants may generate a significant heat flux. The value of this heat flux
depends primarily on the storage temperature and the type of plants. These pro-
cesses do not take place at temperatures below 0 °C. The amount of energy pro-
duced increases with the increasing storage temperature. Below are some examples
and values of energy released by vegetables and fruits, which cause much heat (See
Table 3.1)
Rapidly growing plants (cauliflower, asparagus, broccoli) give off much more
heat than the slowly growing plants. 100 tons of fresh cauliflower during the first
day after being picked releases as much energy as burning 100 kg of coal. For this
reason, to operate a cold room rationally, one must choose cooling equipment
powerful enough to maintain a constant temperature between the inside and the
outside, while the batch for the cold room should be prefrozen in freezers—as the
initial stage of storage.
Supplying the cooling chamber with goods at a temperature higher than the
temperature prevailing in the chamber is a source of heat. One way to avoid this
phenomenon involves precooling or pre-freezing with special techniques, using
batch processing stations in close proximity to the warehouse. However, in the
course of this process, the heat of the batch Qw released by the goods will be
Qw ¼ m cw Dt ½J ð3:17Þ
where:
m the weight of the goods [kg], h i
cw the specific heat of the goods J ,
kgK
Dt temperature difference between the goods and the air in the chamber [K].
Table 3.1 Respiration heat of some vegetables and fruits

Species Respiration heat [kJ/day]
0 °C 5 °C 20 °C
Early pears 607–1140 1710–3611 9120–20901
Blackberries 532–2432 2127–2850 12047–20294
Broccoli 4332–4978 8019–37163 64644–79236
Champignon 6536–10147 16493 61299–73573
Source Author’s own work based on
3.4 Other Sources of Heat 35
Cooling or heating equipment of appropriate power must be installed to cover

the heat losses resulting from the heat fluxes described in this chapter penetrating
outside or inside. Total energy input to the warehouse equals the total energy
released therefrom. The thermodynamic cycle in a refrigeration unit, or a heat pump
after compression and without taking into account the energy losses of additional
drives, show the following relationship:
Q_ cool þ Pcomp ¼ Q_ cond ð3:18Þ
where:
Q_ cool cooling capacity (heat flux removed by the device) [W],
Pcomp power supplied to the compressor [W],
Q_ cond thermal efficiency of the condenser (heat flux transmitted to the environ-
ment) [W]
The compressor loses heat, due to which the energy supplied in the form of
power Pskr is not entirely converted into the heat flux Q_ skr . Thus, coefficient a is
used, which, depending on the design of the compressor, the operating temperature
and the insulation, is approximately 0.8–0.9.
Q_ cond ¼ Q_ cool þ a Pcomp ð3:19Þ
Typically, the efficiency of a device is somewhere between (0, 1). However,

thanks to the influx of low-temperature heat, the value of efficiency
(investment-to-effect ratio) may be greater than 1. Efficiency is always greater than
1 in the case of heat pumps, and sometimes in the case of refrigerators. In the
literature, this efficiency is called the cooling or heating efficiency coefficient. The e
coefficient is, respectively
– for cooler
Q_ cool
ecool ¼ ð3:20Þ
Pcomp
– for heat pump
Q_ cond
eheat ¼ ð3:21Þ
Pcomp
Even greater ratios can be obtained in the case of implementation of both heating
and cooling
– in a cooling system
Q_ cool þ Q_ cond:effect:
ecool:heat ¼ ð3:22Þ
Pcomp
– in a heating system
Q_ cond þ Q_ cool:effect:
eheat:cool ¼ ð3:23Þ
Pcomp
Chapter 4
Improvement Concepts in Terms
of Energy Savings
This chapter presents the concepts of innovative solutions that can help to reduce
the energy intensity of warehouses with a view to innovative solutions used in a
small proportion of warehouses, or just entering the market. It also presents some
optimization methods to decrease energy consumption.
4.1 Energy-Efficient Means of Cargo Handling
The means of transport most commonly used in warehouses, i.e., forklifts, consume
considerable amounts of energy. Their energy intensity can be reduced by opti-
mizing their transport routes and energy recovery. Optimizing the design of the
warehouse and goods distribution in accordance with the frequency of pickup is
described in Sect. 1.6. Determining the optimal transport routes upon picking goods
is more and more frequently done using computer programs, whose use is described
in Sect. 4.3.
The total energy required to transport the pallets by a forklift truck may be
expressed by the following equation:
Etotal ¼ Ed þ Epl þ Efork ð4:1Þ
where:
Ed energy used to drive the truck
Epl energy used to lift the pallet,
Efork energy used for the fork’s operation
In the movement of a forklift truck, as well as a stacker crane or other means of
handling, several specific operations can be distinguished during the operating cycle
(Fig. 4.1).

38 4 Improvement Concepts in Terms of Energy Savings
Fig. 4.1 Work cycle of a forklift truck during loading of the vehicle (horizontal and vertical
view). Source Author’s own work based on
Table 4.1 Forklift operations during one working cycle during loading
Operation designation Description of operation
1–2 Withdrawal of an empty truck from inside the vehicle
2–3 Driving forward towards the rack slot
3–4 Raising the fork to the slot’s height
4–5 Inserting the fork in the pallet rack
5–6 Lifting the pallet with the goods
6–7 Sliding out the pallet with goods
7–8 Lowering the fork
8–9 Truck withdrawal
9–10 Driving forward towards the vehicle
10–11 Placing the pallet with goods inside the vehicle
Table 4.1 lists the operations carried out by a forklift in one cycle of loading the
vehicle. Operations, which consist of starting, driving, and braking, have been
shaded.
Figure 4.2 shows the graph of the speed of the truck, depending on the route for
those sections where the truck moves about the warehouse.
Optimizing transport routes reduces the distance that the means of transport have
to cross and the number of turns or handling operations they are to perform.
Vehicles can drive with a certain maximum speed. Speed is reduced between
activities (except for those that may take place simultaneously); the speed is then
increased to a fixed value, provided the acceleration and duration of activities
allow it.
4.1 Energy-Efficient Means of Cargo Handling 39
Fig. 4.2 Progress of the truck’s speed and distance during the work cycle. Source Author’s own
work
The truck consumes energy Ej required to accelerate to a certain speed (Vp max
for empty truck and Vl max for a loaded truck) and to overcome the resistance
occurring both during acceleration and at maximum speed. A vehicle moving at a
certain speed has kinetic energy which is converted into heat when the vehicle
brakes. There is a chance to recover this energy by converting it into electricity.
Energy can be recovered not only during driving operations, but also other
activities, mainly related to the raising and lowering of goods. The sources of
potential energy include all cargo items placed on shelves above floor level.
Moving the cargo down causes a negative increment of potential energy, creating
the possibility to recover that energy during lowering.
Ep ¼ mc gh ð4:2Þ
where:
mw total weight of loaded or empty truck,
mc weight of the lifted or lowered cargo with fork,
h cargo lifting height
As a result of lowering the cargo, potential energy can be converted into kinetic
energy Ek . (Formula 4.3); bear in mind the principle of conservation of energy.
mw V 2
Ek ¼ ð4:3Þ
2
To further describe the capabilities for kinetic energy recovery, the fundamental
equation of motion was analyzed (4.4). There is a relationship between the truck’s
speed and its thrust
dV
nm þ Wc ðVÞ ¼ Ft ðVÞ ð4:4Þ
dt
where:
n rotating mass ratio,
m weight of the truck (or truck with cargo),
Wc forklift motion resistances,
Ft traction forces
Forklift motion resistance while moving around the warehouse on a flat surface
primarily involves rolling resistance. Aerodynamic drag, wheel alignment, and
suspension have a negligible effect on the motion resistance. So the motion resis-
tances include
Wc ðVÞ ¼ Q ft ð4:5Þ
where
ft coefficient of rolling resistance
The rotating mass coefficient found in the equation for motion refers to the
weight of such components as wheels or rotating parts of the engine. The coefficient
ranges between 1:05 1:5. In the case of forklifts it can be estimated at 1.1.
The traction chart for a forklift is shown in Fig. 4.3:
Restrictions on the movement of the truck include surface adhesion and maxi-
mum speed. The maximum speed of the forklift depends on the driving force and
resistance to motion (the balance of traction forces and the resistance to motion is
shown in Fig. 4.3).
The maximum power at the wheels is
Fmax ¼ QN l1 ð4:6Þ
Fig. 4.3 Characteristics of a truck’s traction as a function of driving speed. Source Author’s own
work based on
where
QN weight driven, pressing the drive wheels to the ground (depends on the mass
distribution of the truck, and for a truck driven in all axes, it is the weight of
the whole truck)
l1 coefficient of the wheels grip to the ground
Accelerating the truck requires work which is the product of the traction force
and the path traveled by the truck. Figure 4.4 marks in red the work performed
during acceleration and limited by the traction force. Aside from friction, the
amount of work done is the amount of kinetic energy gained during acceleration.
This energy can be recovered during braking. The amount of energy gained during
braking (green area below the ordinates axis) will be reduced accordingly by the
efficiency of energy recovery devices. The figure also marks in blue the energy lost
due to motion friction when driving at a constant speed, which cannot be recovered.
The amount of energy obtainable from the potential energy is dependent on the
height at which the cargo units are stored. Usually, however, it is possible to
achieve several times greater energy recovery from potential energy of the cargo
than the kinetic energy consumed by the vehicle. This means that devices operating
in the exit area of the warehouse could theoretically be powered with only
recovered energy. This would allow reducing the weight of batteries. The only
necessity would be to install the so-called supercapacitors to store the energy of
each lowering operation. Unfortunately, the designs currently in use do not allow
for the recovery of energy when lowering loads due to the application for lifting.
Energy recovery would require an electric motor for the lifting assemblies. One
Fig. 4.4 Forklift acceleration work. Source Author’s own work

should, however, consider the possible benefits of refitting the lowering and raising
mechanisms from hydrostatic transmissions to electric.
Energy recovery during braking is enabled by the use of supercapacitors. These
capacitors allow for storing the braking energy in a very large capacitance, while
also providing the possibility of hundreds of thousands of charging and discharging
cycles. They are capable of rapid accumulation and discharge of energy with high
power density.
Unlike conventional batteries, supercapacitors involve no chemical reactions.
They are made from porous carbon plates, the surface of which can be up to
3000 m2/g. It is through such a large area and narrow distance separating the
charges attracted by the electrodes that the supercapacitors have the ability to
accumulate huge amounts of energy. The design of and distribution of charges in a
supercapacitor is shown in Fig. 4.5.
A supercapacitor works both with an electric motor and with a traditional battery
(Fig. 4.6). Between them, there are devices capable of obtaining the right kind of
current. During energy recovery, the motor forwards a high-power density current
to the supercapacitor. This has the ability to transfer the energy back to the motor,
for example, when the vehicle accelerates again. It can also provide power to the
battery, although the charging process takes long. After the supercapacitor has run
out of power, the electric motor uses the energy stored in the battery.
Fig. 4.5 Distribution of

charges in a supercapacitor.
based on
Fig. 4.6 The flow of

electricity in the device with
the possibility of energy
recovery. Source Author’s
own work
Energy consumption on the increases in kinetic energy can be limited by

reducing the speed of transport. In the event when, having calculated the minimum
number of transport means having to work to support an instantaneous flow of
cargo units, we are dealing with breaks in the work of these transport means, we can
reduce the speed and acceleration rate to the value at which there will be no
interruptions in the equipment’s operation. With a lower speed, less power will be
consumed on increases in the kinetic energy which is proportional to the square of
the velocity of transport.
Example
• hourly flow of cargo units supplied: kWE = 200 [cu/h]
• the average duration of the forklift’s operating cycle t = 20 s
• the ratio of the truck’s driving time at maximum speed to the truck’s remaining
work time: 0.6
• maximum forklift speed Vmax = 3 m/s
The number of forklift cycles per hour
3600 s
¼ 180
20 s
• The required number of forklifts: 2

• the total time required to carry cargoes: 20 s 200 = 4000 s
• total downtime of forklifts: 2 3600 − 4000 s = 3200 s
• total time trucks driving with a maximum speed 0.6 4000 s = 2400 s
• the average weight of the vehicle (loaded and unloaded): 2500 kg
• increase in kinetic energy achieved by accelerating the forklift to a maximum

speed of 3 m/s
2
2500 kg 3 m
s ¼ 11; 250 J
DEk1 ¼
2
• estimate of the possibility of reducing the maximum speed (excluding time for
acceleration and deceleration of vehicles):
• distance traveled by forklifts

m
S¼3 2400 s ¼ 7200 m
s
• reduced forklift speed (with increased working time to eliminate downtime)
7200 m m
V¼ 1:67
0:6 2 3600 s s
– increase in kinetic energy achieved by accelerating the forklift to a maximum

speed of 3 m/s:
2
2500 kg 1:67 m
s
DEk2 ¼ 3472:22 J
2
– reducing the rate of energy consumption to produce kinetic energy
Ek1 Ek2 11; 250 J 3472:22 J

¼ 69 %
Ek1 11; 250 J
Thus, in this case, reducing the speed allowed for an approximately 69 %

reduction in energy consumption for vehicle acceleration. Optimizing the speed of
vehicles can be recommended especially for warehouses where unmanned AGV
forklifts are used, where increasing the working time of equipment does not
increase the cost of staff salaries.
In closed warehouses, the most common type of forklifts used is forklifts with
electric power source, drawing energy from built-in batteries. Essentially, only
lead-acid batteries are currently offered on the market.
In the lead-acid batteries, lead is the negative electrode (anode) and lead dioxide
is the positive (cathode). Both the anode and the cathode are immersed in a solution
of sulfuric acid H2SO4. The chemical process occurring in the battery is described
by the following equation:
discharging
Pb þ PbO2 þ H2 SO4 þ 2H2 SO4 !
PbSO4 þ 2H2 O
charging
The difference between the potentials of electrodes is less than 2.2 V. The lead
electrode very slowly releases hydrogen. This allows charging the battery.
When the battery works, the voltage in the cell is almost constant at
approx. 2.2 V. However, when it drops to 1.8 V, it begins to decrease rapidly due
to the buildup of an excessive amount of lead sulfate. The resultant fine crystalline
dust reduces battery capacity. There is therefore a need to stop drawing electricity
from the battery and recharge it. Do not allow severe battery discharge (above
70 %). The energy efficiency of this type of battery is high and according to is 80 %
at current efficiency of 98 %.
As previously mentioned, electric forklift trucks are currently using primarily
lead-acid batteries. However, research is carried out on the possibilities of using
other types of rechargeable batteries. The search for a different kind of batteries is
primarily conducted in terms of higher capacity devices, eliminating toxicity
(harmful sulfuric acid), increasing the maximum number of cycles, shortening the
charging time and the ability to recharge the batteries (no need for a spare battery
for the device). Advanced research in the field of batteries is carried in the auto-
motive industry. Characteristic of some of the batteries used in electric vehicles is
shown in Table 4.2.
One of the major sources of unwanted heat in a cold store is the people.
Employees also need appropriate heated areas where they can take a break at work
to warm up. This implies a demand for energy to compensate for the heat supplied
and the energy used for heating. Workers in harsh cold conditions may be replaced
by automated lines for freight transport. These devices may include, e.g., an
automatic conveyor or stacker cranes.
The relatively new and complex devices are unmanned automatically controlled
AGVs (Automatic Guided Vehicles). Individual units are part of a system of
AGVS, computer-controlled with supervision of a person (or several people), who
can preside in a separate cabin (room) overlooking the area of activity of vehicles.
The AGVS system consists of
– devices for identifying the vehicle’s position in space,
– devices for identifying the place of cargo pickup and deposition,
– devices controlling the location of vehicle bearing elements relative to the cargo
and storage slots,
– collision avoidance systems,
– IT equipment—cooperation with the warehouse management system.
Unmanned vehicles can run on strictly defined tracks. The simplest system for
vehicle guidance is the one based on the physical guidance, e.g., in the form of rails.
An equally simple, although burdened by errors, are way guidance systems
based on the method of measuring displacement distances and angles. The system
in the vehicle counts the sum of the distances and angles of displacement, thereby
establishing its position relative to the initial position. Due to measuring errors
resulting from several factors, it is not possible to precisely pick up cargo and travel
long distances.
A more flexible system is one in which vehicles have sensors allowing them to
navigate through predefined routes. Navigating the vehicle can be realized, e.g.,
using magnetic lines placed under the floor surface. The vehicle has two coils. The
vehicle should move along magnetic lines in such a way that the lines are always
between the coils.
One of the most common ways involves induction guidance. This is done
through induction lines flushed beneath the floor surface. The antenna mounted on
the vehicle detects the magnetic field along the induction line.
Another way of automated guidance of vehicles involves vision systems.
Vehicles are intended to move along visible light-emitting lines or photo-reflexive
lines that reflect light generated by the vehicle. Movement along the lines is pro-
vided by light sensors fitted to vehicles.
46
Table 4.2 Characteristics of some types of batteries

Type of cell Charging time Impact on Cost Capacity Resistance to Working Voltage Self-discharge
the (PLN/Wh) (Wh/kg) the number of temp. (°C) (V) (%/month)
environment cycles (discharging)
Lead-acid 3h Toxic 0.3–0.9 25–40 500–1000 −20 to 60 2.1 5
Nickel-metal 60 % in 15 min.; Nontoxic 3–9 55–70 500 −20 to 60 1.2 30
hydride recharge in the
next 2 h
Ni-Cd 60 % in 15 min.; Toxic 1.5–4.5 30–50 1000 −40 to 60 1.2 20
recharge in the
next 6 h
Sodium-sulfur 6h Risky to use 0.3–3 150 200–1500 0
Zinc-air 5 min Non-toxic 0.45–1.5 70–85 600 1.5 0.5
Lithium-ion 3h Risky to use 115–150 4500 −20 to 60 3.6 10
4 Improvement Concepts in Terms of Energy Savings
Maintenance-free carts must be equipped with safety systems to provide pro-

tection against collisions with other carts, poles, shelves, and people. A common
safeguard involves laser range finders that penetrate the space in front of the trucks.
They can emit warning beeps or light signals when they detect an obstacle in the
area, or stop the vehicles after crossing the border of the alarm zone. Restarting the
vehicles may only be possible after the obstacles have been removed manually and
the possible cause of the stop checked. The final safeguard in the event of a
collision are bumpers mounted in vehicles.
4.2 Energy-Efficient Lighting Systems in Warehouses
High consumption of electricity needed for lighting warehouses in a company

generates high costs. “Traditional lighting system currently contributes to 70 % of
the energy consumed”. The most commonly used light sources include
– incandescent lamps,
– halogen lamps,
– fluorescent lamps,
– high-intensity discharge lamps,
– LED systems
4.2.1 Incandescent Lamps
In the so-called “light bulbs,” the component responsible for illumination is a

refractory tungsten wire placed in a glass bulb filled with an inert gas. A feature of
this light source is that it resembles natural sunlight and renders the color of objects
well. Unfortunately, they are characterized by low durability and low efficiency (8–
21 lm/W). Only 5 % of the energy produced by incandescent lamps is converted
into light, while 95 % of the energy is converted into heat.
4.2.2 Halogen Lamps
They have a tungsten filament surrounded by inert gas preventing its spraying
(which causes darkening of the bulb) and a small amount of a halogen to regenerate
the filament. The reaction of decomposition of a chemical compound formed from
tungsten and halogen at temperatures near the temperature of the filament results in
the formation of tungsten and halogen. The evaporated tungsten moves from the
bulb to the filament. This makes it possible to increase the temperature of the
filament (up to 3200 K). This results in greater efficiency, up to 18 lm/W. Halogen
lamps are characterized by rapid ignition and good color rendering. Energy con-
sumption compared to incandescent lamps is reduced by 30 50 %, their lifetime
is far longer (although reduced using dimmers).
4.2.3 Fluorescent Lamps
Fluorescent lamps are also called luminous tubes, commonly referred to as

energy-saving light bulbs. They are characterized by a luminous efficacy of
50 lm/W. “Light is emitted by phosphor excitated by UV radiation, caused by a
glow discharge in a gas-filled tube”. Electricity consumption is 80 % lower than
that of incandescent lamps.
4.2.4 High-Intensity Discharge Lamps
High-intensity discharge lamps emit light from the discharge in vapor, e.g., sodium
under high pressure of 104 Pa.
High-intensity sodium lamps feature the highest efficacy among all available
light sources, equal to 130 lm/W. Unfortunately, however, they feature very poor
color rendition and a monochrome yellow light.
Metal halide lamps are characterized by one of the best color rendering among
artificial light sources.
Mercury lamps are characterized by the lowest degree of light energy transfor-
mation and energy savings among discharge lamps.
4.2.5 LED Systems
LED lighting systems are becoming increasingly popular. This is certainly due to
several times the savings compared to standard light sources, very long life and
reverse proportions of the conversion of electrical energy into heat and light energy
compared to incandescent bulbs.
4.2.6 Comparison of Light Sources
Table 4.3 summarizes the basic types of light sources used in warehouses.
Savings from using energy-saving light sources are only one aspect of reducing
the energy consumption of lighting systems. If possible, motion sensors should be
installed to reduce energy consumption in unused areas of the warehouse. This
4.2 Energy-Efficient Lighting Systems in Warehouses 49
Table 4.3 Comparison of light sources

Type of light Energy savings Durability Luminous The degree of
source compared to (h) efficacy transformation of
incandescent (lm/W) electrical energy into
lamps (%) light (%)
Incandescent – Up to 8–21 5
lamps 1500
Halogen 30–50 Up to 18 20
lamps 5000
Fluorescent 80 7500– 50 20
lamps 20,000
Mercury 40 20,000– 36–61 15
lamps 24,000
Sodium 50 Approx. 80–130 30
lamps 24,000
Metal halide 60 7500– 65–115 21
lamps 15,000
LED systems 800–900 Approx. 30–150 Approx. 90
100,000
solution can help to significantly reduce energy consumption in warehouses with

low turnover of goods.
Dimming systems have a similar role, with the task of changing the light
intensity according to the needs. Usually, however, lights are not turned off com-
pletely, because of the accommodative ability of the human eye. The most suitable
light source for frequent switching and changes in intensity are LED systems,
which are characterized by high resistance to these changes and high response rate.
Even for halogen lamps, in case of using sensors reducing the light intensity, the
time required to achieve the target intensity is too long and the lamps’ durability is
lowered by frequent intensity reduction.
The standard PN-EN 12464-1:2004 requires the warehouse storage areas with
shelves to feature light intensity at
– 20 lx for passages without staff,
– 150 lx for passages with staff and control stations.
The least expensive (because it’s free) source of light is solar energy. Apartments
use it through windows. The windows, however, generate increased heat losses as a
result of the large heat transfer coefficient. Moreover, in warehouses the distances
from windows are large and the additional obstacles for sunlight are posed by the
cargo placed on the shelves. The only way to deliver daylight to the warehouse is
using the roof for this purpose. An innovative solution that is just entering the
market is the Solatube lighting system. It has been designed for the purpose of large
buildings, so it has a chance to prove itself in large-scale warehouses as well.
The elements of the system are comprised of three areas (Fig. 4.7)
Fig. 4.7 Daylight lighting system components. Source Author’s own work
– area catching the light from the roof surface,

– area transferring light from the roof to its destination,
– delivering area, which diffuses the light around the room.
The drawback of this system is that it provides light only during the day. The
light intensity is dependent on weather outside the building. However, it may be
adjusted with a hinged compartment mounted in a tube. The impact of the angle of
the sun can be compensated through special domes in the light capture area (1),
which are designed to refract sunlight, so that it ends up in the interior of the tube
carrying the light. In addition, a reflector can be mounted, which also aims to
redirect incident sunlight at a low angle. The tube (2) has a highly reflective
material inside which, as the manufacturer states, allows reflecting the light on the
level of 99.7 % and moving it over a distance of up to 30 m. The idea of how the
tube transfers sunlight is shown in Fig. 4.6. The light delivery area (3) can have
various kinds of lenses mounted in such a way as to allow scattering or focusing the
light to any extent and change its color.
The system should cooperate with the usual energy-efficient artificial light
systems. However, depending on the working hours of the warehouse and the
number of elements used, it gives tangible benefits in the form of reduced energy
consumption and lower costs.
The color of the walls inside the warehouse also has importance for energy
consumption. By painting the walls with bright colors that reflect light well, the
performance of the lighting system can be improved.
Regardless of the type of light source, zonal motion detectors must be used to
sequentially illuminate the areas where the employees move or means of transport
are driven. In this way, the areas where nothing happens will not be illuminated
unnecessarily.
4.3 Innovative Systems to Support Picking Processes and Reduce … 51
4.3 Innovative Systems to Support Picking Processes

and Reduce Energy Consumption
Manual and semi-automatic picking are processes that can also be analyzed in order
to reduce their energy intensity. The main problems affecting the poor performance
order picking processes using conventional picking cards or scanning devices
include
– a large percentage of incorrectly picked orders,
– a long time for the worker searching for a suitable storage site,
– too long path to travel for the employee to pick the order,
– difficulties in writing by employees working in cold rooms, wearing thick work
gloves,
– restricted movement and manipulation by workers caused by picking instru-
ments or equipment held in the hands,
– difficulty in the appropriate arrangements of the goods on the carrier,
– long transportation time to the release area.
The “Pick by…” picking support systems are used to direct the employee to a
suitable storage site and lead them to the proper place, often along an optimal
transport path. They significantly increase the efficiency of the picking process.
There are more and more varieties of these systems. The most significant are
– Pick-by-Voice
– Pick-by-Point
– Pick-by-Light
– Pick-o-Light
– Pick-by-Frame
– Pick-Radar
– Pick&Go
4.3.1 Pick-by-Voice
Pick-by-voice based on voice communication. The system generates an optimal

transport path. The employee shall be notified of the storage location and the
quantity of goods for picking through automated voice commands heard in wireless
headphones. This information is confirmed by scanning the code, e.g., on a rack
slot, or at the terminal. The terminal (Fig. 4.8) can be attached at the employee’s hip
belt, which allows carrying a larger battery to supply both the wireless headphones
and the terminal.
Fig. 4.8 Wi-Fi terminal with

a headset. Source Author’s
own work based on
4.3.2 Pick-by-Point
This system (Fig. 4.9) uses light as the indicator of the picking place. The source of
this light can be located either on a rack or on a movable head that is able to mark
different storage locations by turning. The system has a low cost of installation and
cooperates with other systems, mostly Pick-by-Voice, to inform about the quantity
of goods to be picked and received. Receipt (confirmation of the quantities or place
of storage) is possible thanks to a wireless-action button (Pick-Remote-Key),
through a voice command issued by the employee to the microphone in the
Pick-by-Voice system, or using Pick-Radar light curtain described below.
4.3.3 Pick-by-Light
Displays located on strips along the shelves are elements of the Pick-by-Light
system (Fig. 4.10). They are located at each rack slot or at any place for load
carriers. The displays, usually equipped with LEDs, indicate the amount of cargo to
Fig. 4.9 Light indication of

the storage place in the
Pick-by-Point system. Source
Fig. 4.10 Pick-by-Light

system. Source Author’s own
work based on
be taken and have a receipt button and other buttons for scrolling through infor-
mation. The displays are connected together and communicate information on the
cargo collected to the central system.
4.3.4 Pick-o-Light
The access point of paternoster racks has a mounted panel with LEDs or laser
pointers that indicate the exact location of the goods taken (Fig. 4.11). The system
Fig. 4.11 Pick-o-Light System. Source Author’s own work

allows eliminating errors and improves efficiency, especially for small pieces.
A modernized version of the Pick-o-Light Vario has only four diodes, but they are
moving.
4.3.5 Pick-by-Frame
It is a system which uses a frame with displays that are mounted on carts fitted with
sockets (Fig. 4.12). Frames are attached to carts for the duration of picking. The
display attached to the frame at each slot shows information about the product to be
taken—the place of picking and cumulative quantity. The displays in the storage
Fig. 4.12 Pick-by-Frame

work
Fig. 4.13 Pick-Radar

work
area show the number of items for pickup from the site. Pickup is acknowledged by
pressing the button on the frame, and the frame detaches from the truck once the
pickup is complete.
4.3.6 Pick-Radar
The system uses a light curtain to inform the employee about the exact place of
product pickup (Fig. 4.13). The curtain in front of the racks displays three surfaces:
pickup (green), prohibited (red), and a virtual button (blue). The employee should
reach for the product behind the green surface and confirm receipt using the virtual
button. If they reach behind the closed red curtain area, an alarm is triggered.
4.3.7 Pick&Go
It is a system of pickup using automatic forklift trucks that carry out the operator’s
commands. They were introduced to the market by STILL in 2011. The central
transport control system sends the automatic forklift, giving it information about
where the operator should go in the storage area. While the truck moves auto-
matically, the operator is informed of the exact location of the goods to be picked.
Using the Pick-by-Voice system, they confirm the information given in headphones
on storage space and the number of cargo units to be picked. They put the goods on
the pallet, and the truck automatically goes to a designated storage place for the
picked order.
4.4 Energy-Efficient Air Conditioning and Heating

Systems
Maintaining appropriate weather conditions in the warehouse is inseparably con-

nected with energy consumption. Maintaining appropriate weather conditions is
associated with maintaining an appropriate temperature and humidity in the
warehouse. For these purposes, several hydrothermal air treatment processes are
carried out
– mixing the air streams.
– heating,
– cooling,
– drying,
– humidification.
However, the energy required for such processes can be recovered to some
extent in heat recovery. “Heat recovery in ventilation and air conditioning systems
involves the use of heat from the exhaust air to preheat the air supply”. Energy
recovery involves special devices that use the temperature difference between input
and output air streams (sensible heat recovery), and condensation and absorption of
moisture in the case of heat recovery from the moisture (latent heat). The processes
involved in heat recovery are
– recirculation (part of the exhaust air is mixed with the air supply)
– recuperation (heat exchange between the air streams does not take place directly
through mixing, but indirectly through a separating partition)
– recovery (alternate wash of the same exchanger surface with the two air streams,
the exchange of heat and humidity).
Heat recovery from the air itself without heat recovery from moisture occurs
when the temperature of the air supply is higher than the dew point of exhaust air.
There is no condensation of moisture (Fig. 4.14a).
Thermodynamic phenomena occurring in air conditioning can be analyzed on
the Moliere air diagram. This diagram examines the thermodynamic h itransforma-
g
tions of the function of temperature h and its absolute humidity x m3 . It allows
quickly estimating the energy required to carry out the transformation.
The recovery of latent heat (coming from moisture) occurs when the temperature
of the heat supply drops below the dew point of exhaust air (Fig. 4.10b).
4.4 Energy-Efficient Air Conditioning and Heating Systems 57
Fig. 4.14 The course of the heat recovery process in regenerative and recuperative devices.
a Recovery of sensible heat. b Recovery of sensible and latent heat. Source Author’s own work
based on
Condensation of water vapor takes place in the exhaust air. As a result of recovering
both latent and sensible heat, the air supply stream is heated.
As previously mentioned, the recovery of moisture involves the use of regen-
erative heat exchangers. As a result of condensation of moisture, which is deposited
on the surface of the rotating heat exchanger with a conventional aluminum rotor,
the air supply is moisturized as well as warmed, which allows for the elimination of
additional humidification processes. Whereas in case of absorption, which occurs in
the heat exchanger with a rotor coated with a hygroscopic material (mostly LiCl),
moisture exchange takes place without condensation. This is possible due to
moisture absorption by this hygroscopic material. The processes of heat recovery
with moisture recovery are shown in Fig. 4.15. In the case of recovery through
absorption, the air preheating to avoid condensation was also shown.
The highest efficiency (over 80 %) characterizes rotating heat exchangers. The
construction of such a heat exchanger is shown in Fig. 4.16. Number (1) indicates the
air supply, (2) exhaust, and (3) wash chamber to prevent the ingress of contaminants
from the air coming out of the room to the air supply, and a drive motor (4).
Heat recovery equipment is installed in the air handling unit at the position
shown in Fig. 4.17, where: (1) fan, (2) heat recovery system, (3) filter (4) heater
(5) cooler (6) spray humidifier.
Fig. 4.15 The process of heat recovery with moisture recovery. a Recovery process through
condensation. b Recovery process through absorption. Source Author’s own work based on
Fig. 4.16 Schematic diagram of a rotary heat exchanger. Source Author’s own work
4.5 Heat Pumps and Solar Cells 59
Fig. 4.17 Schematic diagram of the air handling unit with heat recovery. Source Author’s own
work based on
4.5 Heat Pumps and Solar Cells
The heat pump or rather heating compressor (formal name, which, however, was
replaced in Poland by the standards in force, with a common name “heat pump” and
is found in the foreign literature under the same name, e.g., Wärmepumpe), has
much in common with all the terms used in the two names
• Pump, compressor—the installation uses it to provide a pressure difference and
transport the working medium contained in the circuit,
• Heat—is taken from the environment,
• Heating—is used for heating.
In terms of structural design, the heat pump is the same as the chiller com-
pressor. The difference lies in the fact that the heat of the condenser is used. This
heat can be used to heat up the interior, the foundations, hot water for sanitary
purposes.
Although the earliest heat pumps were already known in the early years of the
last century, they are still considered an alternative energy source. In recent years,
however, their popularity has been growing. This is due to both the popularization
of environmentally friendly energy sources and the decrease in the cost of heating
using heat pumps. First of all, they are popular among owners of detached houses,
despite the high investment costs.
Heat pumps involve collecting heat from a source with a low temperature,
usually from the ground, and passing this heat onto another source with a higher
temperature. In practice, this task is currently being implemented usually by
combined cycle (identical to the circulation in a steam cooler, although involving
different temperatures). Figure 4.18 shows a simple flow diagram of a compression
heat pump.
The system consists of four basic elements. The compressor denoted in the figure
above with numeral 4 is reached by the working medium in a gaseous state at a low
Fig. 4.18 The principle of a

heat pump. Source Author’s
own work
temperature and low pressure. The compressor increases the pressure and temper-
ature. The working fluid then goes to the condenser (1). In this heat exchanger, the
heat is transferred through liquefying the agent in gaseous form. The cooled liquid
is sent to the throttle valve (2), which is followed by lowering the pressure and
temperature of the liquid. Next, the working fluid in liquid form gets into the heat
exchanger known as an evaporator (3). There, the liquid is boiled and evaporated—
the working fluid passes to the gaseous state. This is followed by absorption of heat
from the environment. The working fluid then goes back to the compressor to form
a closed loop.
The installation of the heat pump will be even more cost-effective for higher
performance coefficient (efficiency)
8 thermal energy received at 9
>
< >
=
performance coefficient the upper source level
¼ ð4:7Þ
ðefficiency ) : heat pump driving energy >
> ;
According to, this coefficient ranges “0.5–4.5, and even reaches 9”. The coef-
ficient depends primarily on
– the type of heat pump,
– the temperature difference between the lower and upper source (is inversely
proportional).
The coefficient of performance is given for different temperatures of atmospheric
air. In our climate, with an average annual temperature of approx. 2 °C, the
coefficient is an average of approx. 3.5. Obviously, it is higher for high tempera-
tures and is approx. 5 for the temperature of 10 °C, and for low temperatures it is 2–
2.5 (at −15 °C).
In single-family homes mainly compressor heat pump of a few to over a dozen
kW are used. They are powered by an electric motor fueled by readily available
electricity. They often cooperate with other heating systems. In warehouses,
however, absorption heat pumps should first and foremost be used. They are much
less common, although they are characterized by a much greater efficiency and
Fig. 4.19 The idea of

compression and absorption
heat pumps. L Work, Q Heat
flux: Qg In upper source, Qd
In lower source, Qz In
external source,
T Temperature: Td Lower
source, Tg Upper source, Tot
Environment, Tz External
source. Source Author’s own
work based on
reliability factors. Warehouses are often located a short distance from production
plants. The processes working in them generate a large amount of waste energy.
The principle of operation of an absorption heat pump is similar to the operation
of compressor heat pump. An additional element, from which the system draws
heat, is waste energy derived, e.g., from municipal water, waste gases, water vapor.
Comparison of heat in the compressor and absorber heat pumps is shown in
Fig. 4.19.
The use of an absorption heat pump is justified only when we have a free source
of heat at high temperature. Where, instead of a high temperature heat source
electrical heating is used, the heating performance coefficient is less than one and
the use of a heat pump is not justified.
In warehouses, high-temperature heat can be recovered, e.g., from air condi-
tioning, refrigeration, or from industrial sources. Absorption heat pumps use
two-component solutions as the working medium. They improve the boiling point
of the solution relative to the boiling point of the clear solution. Schematic diagram
of the operation of an absorption heat pump is presented in Fig. 4.20. (4) recovered
drive heat is supplied to the boiler. The working medium, e.g., ammonia from an
aqueous solution is absorbed (similar to evaporation), and goes to the condenser (5),
performing the previously described thermodynamic processes occurring in the
compression heat pump. Vapor from the evaporator (1) reaches the absorber
(2) where it is reabsorbed by the evaporated solution coming from the boiler (4).
Here, absorption releases heat, which enters the heating system. As seen in
Fig. 4.20, in an absorption heat pump, the compressor usually powered by elec-
tricity is replaced by the so-called thermal compressor. The energy in the com-
pressor is obtained without expense from recoverable waste sources, or is in some
parts supplied, e.g., by gas burners. This results in a much greater efficiency of such
Fig. 4.20 Schematic diagram

of the operation of an
absorption heat pump. Source
heat pumps. According to the reimbursement of such installations already takes

place even less than one year after installing the system.
Heat sources harvested at low temperatures are shown in the following graphic:
(Fig. 4.21).
Fig. 4.21 Low temperature

heat sources. Source Author’s
own work based on
There are many arguments for and against the use of heat pumps. Here are the
most important ones
Advantages Disadvantages
∙ Reduces cost of energy consumption ∙ High investment costs
∙ Possibility of using waste heat ∙ Necessity of arranging an individual
design for each project
∙ Possibility of using heat pumps for both heating ∙ Low efficiency with dry surface when
and cooling in different seasons or simultaneously pumping heat from the ground
∙ The use of renewable sources of energy
∙ Reduction or complete elimination of emissions to
the environment (especially useful in areas with
stringent emission requirements or in highly
industrialized areas, where warehouses are often
located)
4.5.1 Liquid Solar Collectors and Photovoltaic Cells
Solar energy is an energy source that is widely available and used by the nature. It is
the most potent source of energy reaching our planet’s surface. Moreover, solar
energy will be reaching the planet for several billion years. It is stored both in the
soil (which is used, e.g., by heat pumps), water reservoirs and similar natural
“energy batteries”.
Humans had also learned to use solar energy. It can be used both for heating
buildings and obtaining electricity. This is done respectively by solar collectors and
photovoltaic cells, also known as photocells. To use solar energy to the greatest
extent possible, both types of devices have to abide by the same principles.
The sun, as a high-temperature heat source, emits energy h in ithe form of thermal
radiation with the power (solar constant) of 1.35–1.44 kW m2 . This radiation is
weakened by passing through the atmosphere.
The main factor influencing the power collected by solar panels is the angle of
the sun relative to the plane of the device. Figure 4.22 illustrates this
relationship. Most power can be obtained at perpendicular incidence of sunlight.
Apart from the loss of energy independent of the angle of incidence, radiation at a
power density of 1000 W/m2 allows obtaining power of 1000 W/m2 of the col-
lector. For the same power density, but at a radiation incidence angle of 45°, the
sunlight falling on a larger surface would allow obtaining only 769 W/m2. This is
connected with the concept of irradiation E dependent on the cosine of the angle of
incidence of flux ɸ on surface A
Fig. 4.22 Effect of the angle

of incidence on the power
collected by a solar collector.
based on
Fig. 4.23 Calculation of

spacing between the
collectors. Source Author’s
own work
d/
E¼ cosa ð4:8Þ
dA
Poland has a pretty good insolation (hours of sunshine per year—see Fig. 4.23).
It is better than, e.g., in Germany and does not differ much from the conditions
found in Southern France and Northern Spain. In our country there are from 1400 to
1700 h of sunshine during the year; in Wroclaw there are 1600. In contrast, inso-
lation (the radiation flux per unit area in time) in Wroclaw is in the range of 1080–
1120 kWh/m2 per year [23] (Fig. 4.24).
It would seem that irradiance (radiation flux per area unit) will be the largest in
clear weather. However, very often it happens to be greater when there are clouds in
the sky, provided they do not cover the sky entirely—the collectors receive addi-
tional diffused radiation reflected from the underside of the clouds.
Fig. 4.24 Follower

mechanism. Source Author’s
own work
Installations can be adapted to the changing angle of the sun. You should
consider the volatility resulting from changes in both the seasons and time of day.
Figure 4.25 shows these relationships for our latitude.
The calculation of the angle of incidence is not difficult. For example, for early
spring and autumn, when the sun’s rays fall perpendicularly to the equator, in the
city of Wroclaw lying at latitude of 51°6′, the sun at noon will shine at the fol-
lowing angle:
90 51 60 ¼ 38 540
Whereas on the first day of summer, when the sun falls perpendicular to the
Tropic of Cancer lying at the latitude of 23°26′, it will be
Fig. 4.25 Schematic structure and energy balance of a flat plate collector. Source Author’s own
work
90 ð51 60 23 260 Þ ¼ 62 200
Similarly, on the first day of summer, this angle will be
90 ð51 60 þ 23 260 Þ ¼ 15 280
When designing solar installations, one must also ensure adequate spacing
between the collectors (Fig. 4.26). This spacing is
H sinð180 ða þ bÞÞ
s¼ ð4:9Þ
sinb
To compensate for the variable angle of incidence of solar radiation, collectors

can be attached to special following mechanisms (see Fig. 4.24), which rotate the
collector around two axes (perpendicular and parallel to the roof of the warehouse).
The actual energy yield is as follows:
– 22 % for liquid collectors,
– 7 % for photovoltaic cells.
Energy losses result from losses in the photocell, in batteries and transmission
losses (in the case of photovoltaic cells). In a liquid collector, these include heater
losses, release to the environment, optical loss, storage tank loss, processing losses,
and pipeline losses (Fig. 4.27).
Liquid collectors are the most common form of thermal solar collectors. The
schematic structure of a flat plate collector and the energy balance are shown in
Fig. 4.28.
The sun’s rays heat the aluminum absorber plate which transfers heat via a
permanent connection with copper pipes to the working medium flowing through
the pipes (the most common is paraffin). The absorber is blackened with a special
Fig. 4.26 Diagram of the

vacuum tube and the heat
transfer to the liquid. Source
Author’s own work
Fig. 4.27 Chart of the

performance of the three types
of liquid solar collectors.
TINOX coating that allows absorbing up to 95 % of the energy. Insulation plays a

very important role, especially at low ambient temperatures.
A newer generation of liquid collectors is vacuum tube collectors. The absorber
sheet was cut into strips and placed in tubes filled with vacuum—the best of all
insulators. To get rid of the issues with the tightness of the vacuum tube, modules
were used, in which the working medium is enclosed in the so-called heat tubes
(Fig. 4.26). They use the principle of combined cycle—the heated liquid is evap-
orated from the bottom of the tube and then condensed in the top part to release
heat. This heat is released through the upper walls of the tube into the main liquid
system, to which the sleeve tube is attached.
Figure 4.27 is a graph of the efficiency of the three types of collectors. The red
line marks the efficiency of the vacuum collector, the blue one—flat plate collector,
and the green one—the plain collector of blackened uninsulated tube (Fig. 4.27).
Fig. 4.28 Diagram of a photovoltaic cell. Source Author’s own work
The main task of liquid collectors involves heating water. Warehouses consume
a small amount of hot water, so photovoltaic panels that provide electricity may
prove to be more useful. Liquid collectors, however, may be combined with heat
pumps, which promote their use on the roofs of warehouses. However, the price of
photovoltaic systems for the time being is high; according to, in 2011 it was approx.
2300 € for a 1 kW system. The result is that the current return on investment is only
achievable after approx. 10 years. However, there is a clear downward trend in
prices of cells with an increase in electricity prices. In addition, many countries,
e.g., Germany, offer favorable rates for electricity produced with photocells, equal
about seven times the basic price of electricity. Also in Poland, subsidies for
business investments can be acquired, e.g., from the National Fund for
Environmental Protection and Water Management.
Converting solar radiation into electricity uses the so-called photovoltaic effect.
The process uses silicon-based semiconductors. Photovoltaic cells are composed of
a P-type semiconductor layer (characterized by a shortage of electrons) and a
spaced N-type semiconductor layer (excess electrons). By emitting photons, solar
energy produces a difference in potential between the layers. The photons reach
both the upper layer and the lower layer (through the thin upper layer) (Fig. 4.28).
The cells are connected in parallel and in series to increase the current and
voltage, respectively. The individual panels have up to 300 W nominal power. The
lifetime of panels is several decades. The efficiency of the best of photovoltaics—on

the basis of a single crystal of silicon—reaches up to 20 %.
Storage buildings are characterized by very large areas. Even a flat warehouse
with a height of approx. 5.5 m and volume of approx. 10,000 units of cargo in
racking storage can have an area of over 6000 m2. This is comparable to the
full-size football pitch. Such a great area can be used to recover energy from solar
radiation. Solar installations are successfully installed on small roofs of houses, and
could also be mounted freely on the roofs of warehouses. With pitched roofs,
equipment is mounted on the south side of buildings for greater efficiency, but the
best results can be achieved through the use of moving panels, which can easily be
used on flat roofs of warehouses. You can use both photovoltaic cells that produce
electricity used in large quantities in forklifts, stacker cranes between racks,
lighting, etc., as well as for heating water in order to work with a heat pump with
the task of heating or cooling storage buildings.
In practice, the synergistic effects of the use of various types of heat and cooling
sources can only be achieved when they are integrated into heating or cooling
systems. Due to the daily variation of energy demand, these systems are fitted with
batteries (storage) such as hot water tanks. Then, when demand drops, the energy is
stored in the tank. When there is a growing demand, the energy is taken from the
storage. This particularly applies to using solar collectors and heat pumps.
Chapter 5
Conceptual Design of a Cold Room
5.1 Project Assumptions
The designed refrigerated storage is to act as a distribution center of frozen products

in the form of frozen fruits and vegetables, ice cream, fish, delicatessen products such
as pizzas, casseroles, pies, etc. These products must be stored at −20 to −18 °C.
Due to temperature variations, the lower value of −20 °C was adopted for the
calculation. The key assumptions are included in Table 5.1.
These assumptions form the basis for further studies on the use of individual
solutions, such as the nature of the mean of internal transport, type of reloading
bays, etc. These solutions should be taken into account to strive for low-energy
consumption of the entire storage system. The analysis which aims to choose design
solutions is presented in further parts of this section.
5.2 Warehouse Size
Determining the size of the warehouse is one of the main stages of the project. The
most important part of the warehouse is its storage area. It has a determined size,
strictly depending on the number of shelves and the number of cargo units to be
kept there. Calculation of storage space precedes the necessary calculations of the
flow of cargo units.
Calculation of the flow of cargo units
– annual inflow of cargo units
Pwe ¼ 470 000 ½CU/year ð5:1Þ

72 5 Conceptual Design of a Cold Room
Table 5.1 Prerequisites for the conceptual design of a cold room

Type of cargo carrier Euro pallet (800 1200 1000 mm)
Estimated cooling temperature Tcooling ¼ 30 C
The annual inflow of cargo units to the system Pwe = 470,000 cu/year
The method of cargo delivery to the warehouse trucks
The method of receiving cargo from the warehouse trucks
The number of working days in the year nR = 365
Number of shifts per day 2
Duration of shifts 8h
Delivery accumulation (unevenness) factor 1.2
The value of the required warehouse stock 2%
The maximum height of the hall with shelves 20 m
The minimum height of the hall with shelves 5m
– delivery accumulation (unevenness) factor
ks ¼ 1:2
– number of working days in the year
nR ¼ 365 ½d
– daily delivery stream
ks
we ¼ Pwe
kD ¼ 1546 ½CU/d ð5:2Þ
nR
– stocks rotation ratio
RZWE ¼ 15
– the operating delivery reserve time
nR
NCWE ¼ ¼ 25 ½days ð5:3Þ
RZWE
– number of cargo units delivered during the period NCWE
kwe ¼ NCWE kD
we ¼ 38;650 ½CU/d ð5:4Þ
– buffer stock (2 %)
Bzwe ¼ 2 % kD
we 31 ½CU ð5:5Þ
5.2 Warehouse Size 73
– maximum storage capacity
Zmax ¼ Bzwe þ kwe ¼ 38;681 ½CU ð5:6Þ
Calculation of the size of the storage area

– the number of layers of shelves
nw ¼ 7
– length module of the rack slot
bg ¼ 1:4 ½m
– width module of the rack slot
lg ¼ 1 ½m
– handling road width
msz ¼ 1:4 ½m
This value is used for calculations for static storage on framework shelves. In the
case of storage in flow racks, storage was assumed at 10 CU, which in combination
with the use of narrow stacker cranes provides an opportunity to reduce the number
of corridors and their width. For ease of calculation, however, subsequent units in a
flow rack were treated as new modules joined together as in static storage on
framework shelves, and the width of the handling road was assumed as msz =
0.35 m, which, for 10 CU, gives the width of the corridor required by the stacker
crane.
– number of corridors between racks
mk ¼ 31 ðsee notes aboveÞ
– storage module

M ¼ 2 bg þ lg msz ¼ 3:15 m2 ð5:7Þ
– area occupied by the rack unit
Zmax
AR ¼ M ¼ 8703:2 m2 ð5:8Þ
2 nw
– rack unit height
HR ¼ nw hg ¼ 9:8 ½m ð5:9Þ
– gross height of rack slot
hg ¼ 1:4 m
– net height of usable storage area
HS ¼ HR þ h0 ¼ 10:3 ½m ð5:10Þ
– handling height above the shelves
h0 ¼ 0:5 m
– width of the shelf zone

RR ¼ 2 bg þ msz mk ¼ 97:65 ½m ð5:11Þ
– length of the shelf zone
AR
LR ¼ ¼ 89:13 ½m ð5:12Þ
RR
However, the value LR needs to be rounded up enough to fill the entire height of
the rack slot and make the number of rack slots the same in every row and column
of the shelves.
– the number of rack slots along the length of the shelving zone
LR
ng ¼ ¼ 89:13 ð5:13Þ
lg
For these reasons, this number must also be rounded up.

– Operating length of the storage area
LS ¼ lmp þ lmt þ LR ¼ 103:53 ½m ð5:14Þ
– handling length in front of the storage area
lmp ¼ 8:4 ½m

5.2 Warehouse Size 75
– handling length at the back of the storage area
lmt ¼ 6 ½m
– Operating width of the storage area
BS ¼ RR þ 2 be ¼ 101:25 ½m ð5:15Þ
– the width of the sidewall corridor
be ¼ 1:8 ½m
– operating area of the storage area

AS ¼ BS LS ¼ 10;482:08 m2 ð5:16Þ
– volume of the operating storage area

VS ¼ AS HS ¼ 107;965:44 m2 ð5:17Þ
Calculations of associated areas

cumulative storage area (i.e., low), accompanying the shelving zone

A0 ¼ ð0:45 þ 0:55 þ 0:25Þ AS ¼ 13;102:6 m2 ð5:18Þ
– the surface of the outer cargo handling front

AFP ¼ 0:1 ðAS þ A0 Þ ¼ 2358:47 m2 ð5:19Þ
– maneuvering square area surrounding the warehouse

APM ¼ 0:3 ðAS þ A0 Þ ¼ 7075:4 m2 ð5:20Þ
– the total usable area of the proposed LSTM

AM ¼ AS þ A0 þ AFP þ APM ¼ 33;018 m2 ð5:21Þ
– usable warehouse height in the low area
H0 ¼ 4:8 ½m
Calculations for the volume and the surface and volume indicators
– the total usable volume of the proposed LSTM
Vm ¼ ðAS HS Þ þ ðA0 H0 Þ ¼ 170;857:92 ½m3 ð5:22Þ
– surface indicator
2
Am m
am ¼ ¼ 0:85 ð5:23Þ
Zmax CU
– volume indicator
2
Vm m
aV ¼ ¼ 4:4 ð5:24Þ
Zmax CU
Further calculations on the flow of cargo units

– daily stream of CU releases

CU
kwy j ¼ 0:5 kD
we ¼ 773 ð5:25Þ
d
– daily stream of CU releases

CU
kwy n ¼ 0:5 kz kD
we ¼ 1159:5 ð5:26Þ
d
– filling correction factor
kz ¼ 1:5
– Number of homogeneous pallet units released per year:

CU
Pwy j ¼ nr kwy j ¼ 282;145 ð5:27Þ
year
Table 5.2 Comparison of warehouse space

Static storage in Static storage in
row racks flow racks
AS 13;851:88 ½m2 10;482:08 ½m2
The percentage of the height of storage area in 4.69 % 5.47 %
the total size
The percentage of the length of storage area in 44.99 % 52.4 %
the total size
The percentage of the width of storage area in 58.14 % 51.25 %
the total size
5.2 Warehouse Size
77
Fig. 5.1 Layout of the design warehouse. Source Author’s own work
– Number of homogeneous pallet units picked per year:

CU
Pwy n ¼ nr kwy n ¼ 423;217:5 ð5:28Þ
year
Table 5.2 presents a comparison of the occupied warehouse space for static and
dynamic storage in flow racks.
So thanks to the use of flow racks, storage surface was reduced by 24.3 %. This
results in a lower wall surface, and thus a smaller amount of heat lost through the
storage area. The building also took on a more compact form with better dimension
ratios, which also reduces the surface for heat exchange with the environment.
The layout of the design warehouse is shown in Fig. 5.1.
5.3 The Calculation of Cycle Times of Transport

and the Number of Devices
5.3.1 Forklifts
The chapter includes calculations for forklift trucks, even though they are not used
in the designed cold store due to the high energy intensity of processes (forklifts
consume more energy than conveyors and usually require an operator). However,
calculations were made in order to compare the use of forklifts with the use of a
conveyor system. It was assumed that the forklifts work in the picking area and load
and unload goods from trucks. Forklifts transmit cargo units to conveyors that
deliver them to the stacker crane and then receive the units from it.
Distance the forklifts travel in one direction is calculated by entering the coor-
dinates of checkpoints that must be crossed by carts. Coordinates of checkpoints.
The beginning of the coordinate system was assumed to be in the upper left corner
of the warehouse (see Fig. 5.1). Coordinate values are shown in Table 5.3. To
calculate the average distance traveled by a forklift, the estimate assumes movement
parallel to the axes of the coordinate system (see Fig. 5.2), except for driving in the
corridors of the reloading bay and inside vehicles that are arranged at an angle of
45°. A diagram of forklift transport routes is shown in Fig. 5.2. The blue lines
represent additional sections traveled when maneuvering the trucks. Table 5.4
presents the characteristics of forklift routes. It was assumed that universal forklifts
are working in the loading zone and the picking trucks—in the loading and picking
areas.
Calculations of cycle times for forklift transport
Table 5.5 provides the basic assumptions of the times required for the calcula-
tion of the transport cycle times of forklifts.
5.3 The Calculation of Cycle Times of Transport and the Number of Devices 79
Table 5.3 Positions of discharge and receiving points on the routes of forklifts
Designation Description Distance from the
center of coordinates
[m]
Wwe Y position of the station located in the middle point −60.55
of units collection from the vehicle
Wwe X position of the station located in the middle point 74.6
of units collection from the vehicle
KJ Y position of middle discharge station located in the −92.17
entrance area (possible quality control and
identification)
KJ X position of middle discharge station located in the 10.8
entrance area (possible quality control and
identification)
KO2 Y position of middle pickup position from the −141.2
pickup area
KO2 X position of middle pickup position from the 283.91
pickup area
Kowe Y position of middle entry position from the pickup −92
area
ZSwy X position of middle vehicle loading station 315.66
ZSwy Y position of middle vehicle loading station −80.05
Kowe X position of middle entry position from the pickup 221.16
area
KO1 Y position of middle dropoff position in the pickup −141.2
area
KO1 X position of middle dropoff position in the pickup 241.84
area
Fig. 5.2 Schematic of forklift transport routes. Source Author’s own work
– the length of the route in one direction (as measured by X and Y in Table 5.3)
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi

L ¼ jX21 X11 j þ jY21 Y11 j 2 2 Lx45 2 L2x45 ½m ð5:29Þ
Table 5.4 Characteristics of forklift routes

Designation Symbol of Distance Number The flow rate of the stream of
transport route [m] of turns goods
Without With
picking picking
[CU/d] [CU/d]
CT1 Wwe − KJ 76.93 4 1546 0
CT10 KO2 − ZSwy 74.41 4 773 1159.5
CT7 Kowe-KO1 22.56 2 1546 0
Table 5.5 The components of the transport cycle time of forklifts

Standard driving time of forklift with a cargo at a distance of 1 m tVł ¼ 0:009 min
m
Standard driving time of forklift with a cargo at a distance of 1 m tVb ¼ 0:006 min
m
Duration of manual work of the truck operator tr ¼ 0:7 min
The average value of acceleration and stopping time top ¼ 0:035 min
Average lifting/lowering time tg;d ¼ 0:05 min
Duration of fork entry/exit into/out of pallet tw ¼ 0:085 min
Steering time with stopping tzs ¼ 0:09 min
Turn time while driving t1s ¼ 0:07 min
where
X X coordinate of the start/end point [m]
Y Y coordinate of the start/end point [m]
h qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffii
2 2 Lx45 2 Lx45 2 difference in driving distance along the axis
running at an angle of 45° to the X-axis [m]
Lx45 length of the route driven at an angle of 45° to the
X-axis, projected onto the X-axis [m]
– duration of the transport cycle
tCT ¼ 2tł þ LðtV þ tVB Þ þ ts þ tr þ tZK ½min ð5:30Þ
where
tł the average time duration of cargo picking and release [min]
ts total duration of turns while driving [min]
tZK the total time spent on changing direction (forward-backward) [min]
tł ¼ 2top þ 2tg;d þ 2tw þ tZS ½min ð5:31Þ
ts ¼ ts1 number of turns ½min ð5:32Þ

tZK ¼ 2top þ tVł Szk nZK ð5:33Þ
where
Szk extra traveling distance when changing direction (forward-backward) [m]
nZK the number of changes of direction (forward-backward)
The following results were obtained:

• CT1 cycle time
tCT1 ¼ 3:109 min
• CT7 cycle time
tCT7 ¼ 2:863 min
• CT10 cycle time
tCT10 ¼ 3:071 min
Calculations of the workload and the required number of forklifts

Table 5.6 contains the assumptions needed to calculate the daily workload of
forklifts.
It is assumed that the entrance to the warehouse uses universal trucks, and the
output and picking area use electric carts.
• Universal trucks:
– The daily workload of universal trucks for CT1
kweD tCT1 workload

Rstu1 ¼ ¼ 80:1 ð5:34Þ
60 day
– number of engine-powered fork trucks
Rstu1
¼7 ð5:35Þ
Tci ksti
Table 5.6 Assumptions for System running time Tci ¼ 16 h

the calculation of the daily
The number of shifts per day 2
workload of forklifts
Duration of shifts tz ¼ 8 h
The working time usage factor ksti ¼ 0:8
• Electric forklifts:
– The daily workload of trucks for CT7
kweD tCT7 workload

Rstu2 ¼ ¼ 73:77 ð5:36Þ
60 day
– The daily workload of trucks handling CUs for CT10
kwy j tCT10 workload

Rstu3 ¼ ¼ 39:57 ð5:37Þ
60 day
– The daily workload of trucks handling CUs for CT10
kwy n tCT10 workload

Rstu4 ¼ ¼ 59:35 ð5:38Þ
60 day
– number of electric picking trucks
Rstu2 þ Rstu3 þ Rstu4

¼ 14 ð5:39Þ
Tci ksti
5.3.2 Rack Stackers
Table 5.7 shows the assumed values needed to calculate the transport cycle times of
stacker cranes.
As stated in savings in the work of stacker cranes can be made assuming the
relation
Vy H
¼ ð5:40Þ
Vx L
Table 5.7 Values for the calculation of the transport cycle times of stacker cranes
Driving acceleration bx ¼ 0:25 m s2
Lifting acceleration by ¼ 0:29 m s2
Position control time and automation switching time t0 ¼ 12 s
Duration of extending, lifting and reversing the fork twid ¼ 13 s
The length of the rack corridor L ¼ 89:13 m
The height of the rack corridor H ¼ 10:3 m
Step of the system selecting/feeding the load in a rack slot Z ¼ 1:4 m
The cycle time of the stacker crane operating with a duty cycle consisting of
placing the cargo unit in the rack (simple cycle) is
4 L
t1 ¼ t0 þ 2twid þ 2tb þ ð5:41Þ
3 Vx
where

Vx Vy
tb ¼ 0:5 þ ð5:42Þ
bx by
A simple cycle can only manage a single cargo unit during the cycle.
A combined cycle, on the other hand, allows for placing one cargo unit in the rack
and collecting another unit in the same cycle. Pay attention to the location of flow
racks and plan their arrangement in such a way so that the stacker could perform
combined cycles using less energy for empty runs. Figure 5.3 shows the schematic
arrangement of flow racks that allow the stacker crane to perform simple cycles
only, and Fig. 5.4 shows the one allowing both simple and combined cycles.
The duration of a combined cycle is

4 14 L
t2 ¼ 2t0 þ 4twid þ 3tb þ þ ð5:43Þ
3 30 Vx
The optimal speeds of the stacker cranes are

– driving speed Vx :
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi m
Vx ¼ 0:5 Lbx ¼ 2:37 2 ð5:44Þ
s
Fig. 5.3 Location of flow racks and the cycle of the stacker crane. Source Author’s own work
Fig. 5.4 Location of flow racks and the cycle of the stacker crane. Source Author’s own work
– lifting and lowering speeds Vy :
H m
Vy ffi 0:5 Vx ¼ 0:14 2 ð5:45Þ
L s
– fork extension and retraction speed Vz :

pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi m
Vz ¼ 0:5 Zbx ¼ 0:3 2 ð5:46Þ
s
The acceleration and deceleration time tb according to formula (5.42) will be:

2:37 0:14
tb ¼ 0:5 þ ¼ 4:98 s
0:25 0:29
The duration of the combined and simple cycle of the stacker crane are as
follows:

4 14 89:13 m
t2 ¼ 2 12 þ 4 13 s þ 3 4:98 s þ þ ¼ 159;24 s
3 30 2:37 m
s2
4 89:13 m
t1 ¼ 12 þ 2 13 s þ 2 4:98 s þ ¼ 98:55 s
3 2:37 m
s2
As can be seen, in addition to the energy savings with the use of combined
cycles instead of simple cycles, we can save 2 98:55 s 159:24 s 38 s. But in
reality there is no simultaneous demand for placement and pickup of cargo units in
Fig. 5.5 The use of static framework shelves at extreme ends. Source Author’s own work
shelves at all times. The project assumed that 70 % of the cargo units are handled
by stacker cranes using simple cycles, and 30 % with combined cycles. The daily
workload of a stacker crane is

0:3 þ t2
Ru ¼2 kwe 0:7 t1 þ
2

ð5:47Þ
0:3 159:24
Ru ¼2 1546 0:7 98:55 þ ¼ 287;158:7 s ¼ 79:77 h
2
Number of stacker cranes required
Ru 79:77 h
¼ ffi7 ð5:48Þ
Tci ksti 16 h 0:8
In the case of stacker cranes being used between the flow racks, it is advanta-
geous to use framework shelves at extreme ends to provide an opportunity to work
the rack from both sides (Fig. 5.5):
5.4 Number of Reloading Bays
It was assumed that the supplies are carried out by 1200 trucks capable of
accommodating up to 34 Euro pallets each.
Calculation of the number of loading bays for trucks at the entrance
The calculations were made for the delivery period NCWE
– the number of trucks delivering goods in the period NCWE
npWE ¼ 1200
– the number of CU/vehicle: 34

– average number of CU/vehicle:
1200
¼ 32:21 ð5:49Þ
kwe
– the average time of unloading 1 vehicle
tCT1 34 ¼ 108:84 min ð5:50Þ
– handling time of the vehicle
tmanip ¼ 5 min
– loading time of all vehicles at one reloading bay (taking into account the number
of vehicles, tCT1 and tmanip.)
tzałWE ¼ tCT1 npWE þ tmanip npWE ¼ 136;610:6 min ð5:51Þ
where
npWE the number of trucks delivering goods in the period NCWE
– time available during the period
tdysp ¼ 16 NCWE ¼ 400 h ð5:52Þ
– minimum number of reloading bays
tzałWE
ndokWE ¼ ¼ 5:69 ð5:53Þ
tdysp
which gives the rounding up of 6 loading bays.

Calculation of the number of loading bays for trucks at the exit
The calculations were made for the period of daily releases
– number of trucks
npWY ¼ 65
– number of CU/car: 34
– average number of CU/car:
5.4 Number of Reloading Bays 87
65
¼ 29:73 ð5:54Þ
kwy j þ kwy n
– the average loading time of 1 car
tCT10 34 ¼ 91:97 min ð5:55Þ
– handling time of the car
tmanip ¼ 5 min
– loading time of all cars (including their number, tCT10 and tmanip.)
tzałWY ¼ tCT10 npWY þ tmanip npWY ¼ 6303:22 min ð5:56Þ
where
npWY the number of trucks delivering goods in the period NCWE
– daily time available
D
tdysp ¼ 16 h
– minimum number of reloading bays
tzałWY
ndokWY ¼ ¼ 6:57 ð5:57Þ
tdysp
which gives the rounding up of 7 loading bays.
5.5 Conveyors
The use of conveyors in the refrigeration warehouse can improve the performance
of freight transport from the front gate to the storage area and back. The conveyor
system usually allows for less use of space and reduces the number of employees
working in unfavorable conditions of the cold store. Therefore, in the proposed cold
storage warehouse, conveyors were used both in the receiving and release areas, as
well as the picking area.
Below are the calculations for the performance of a conveyor system working in
a warehouse in a continuous (noncyclical) manner. The maximum capacity Wmax1
of a single conveyor line depends on its velocity Vp and spacing a between the
geometric centers of subsequent cargo units

Vp 1
Wmax1 ¼ 3600 ð5:58Þ
a h
Assumed data
hmi
Vp ¼ 0:6
s
a ¼ 1:2 m þ 0:3 m ¼ 1:5 m

0:6 1
Wmax1 ¼ 3600 ¼ 1440
1:5 m h
This performance meets the condition
khwy Wmax1
khwe ð5:59Þ
121 1440
97
However, the maximum performance is reduced when using turntables designed

to change the direction of the pallet. The performance of the turntable Wo is

Vob 1
Wo ¼ 3600 þ ð5:60Þ
bo 2to
where
Vob linear velocity of freight transport on the turntable [m/s]
bo length of the turntable [m]
to duration of cargo rotation by turntable [s].
After substituting the appropriate values, the performance of one turntable is

0:3 1 1
Wo ¼ 3600 þ ¼ 990
2 24 h
The turntable is the bottleneck in the designed conveyor system, but its per-
formance meets the condition (5.59). This means that the conveyor system in the
narrowest section may consist of a single line equipped with turntables.
A diagram of the conveyor system used is shown in Fig. 5.1.
5.6 Warehouse Lighting
Lighting in the warehouse can be supported by natural light. The chapter compares
the energy consumption for lighting in case of ordinary lighting with the most
energy-efficient LED lamps, and a combination of an LED system with daylight.
5.6 Warehouse Lighting 89
Table 5.8 Assumptions for LED lighting

Price 1 kWh Kp ¼ PLN 0:61
Lamp power PLED ¼ 150 ½W
Number of LED lamps with a given power at the area 10 lamps per 600 m2
Table 5.8 shows the assumptions to calculate the amount of energy consumed
and its costs for lighting with LEDs.
Thus, the total amount n1 of the lamps required is
10
n1 ¼ Am ¼ 550 ð5:61Þ
600 m2
The cost of 1 h of lighting the warehouse will be
PLED n1 Kp
Kgo1 ¼ ¼ 50:33 PLN ð5:62Þ
1000
Fig. 5.6 Deployment of natural lighting lamps—150 lux. Source Author’s own work
With an annual warehouse lighting costs amounting to
Kro1 ¼ Kgo1 365 16 ¼ 293;898 PLN ð5:63Þ
Figure 5.6 shows the deployment of the necessary equipment to provide natural
light in the warehouse.
Illuminating the storage area with natural light at the required level of 150 lux
takes 110 units. In the absence of the employees’ continued access to the corridors
between racks, the standard allows for light intensity of 20 lux. Then the deploy-
ment of lamps may look like this (Fig. 5.7).
In this case, less expensive and less efficient lamps were used, and even then
their number was limited to 56 pieces. In the absence of access of people between
the racks (which is the case in storage with stacker cranes), natural lighting can
work independently, without the support of a traditional system. Table 5.9 shows
the investment and operating costs and the lighting power (see Sect. 5.7) for
lighting storage areas with both methods of lighting.
Fig. 5.7 Deployment of natural lighting lamps—20 lux. Source Author’s own work
5.7 Energy Balance of the Designed Warehouse 91
Table 5.9 Summary of lighting costs

Type of lighting Investment costs Operating Total power of electric
costs lamps [W]
Natural light − 100 lux PLN PLN 0 0
1763 ∙ 110 = PLN
193930
Natural light − 20 lux PLN PLN 0 0
1286 ∙ 110 = PLN
141460
Artificial LED lighting PLN PLN 8250
1100 ∙ 174 = PLN 92979
191400
Natural light PLN 191400 PLN 2062.5
(75 %) + artificial (25 %) 23244
5.7 Energy Balance of the Designed Warehouse
5.7.1 Heat Flux from the Permeation Through Construction

Barriers
The calculation assumed outside surface temperatures included in Table 5.10 and
the heat transfer coefficients for the outside air temperature of 30 °C.
For an insulating material with a thermal conductivity kiz = kPU = 0.035 mWK
0.035 [W/m2 K] after converting the Eq. (3.8) we obtained

1 1 1
siz ¼ kiz þ ½m ð5:64Þ
ki a1 a2
The following values of heat transfer coefficients were assumed a½3

W
a1 ¼ 23
m2 K

W
a2 ¼ 10:1 2
m K
Table 5.10 Thermal characteristics of warehouse space

Area Temperature [°C] Heat transfer coefficient [W/m2 K]
Warehouse roof 42 0.1
Northern walls of the warehouse 30 0.13
Southern walls of the warehouse 40 0.11
Western walls of the warehouse 30 0.11
Eastern walls of the warehouse 40 0.11
Warehouse floor area 15 0.2
With the preestablished values ki the required insulation thickness was

determined
– roof insulation thickness

1 1 1
sis:roof ¼ 0:035 þ ¼ 0:345 m ¼ 34:5 cm ð5:65Þ
0:1 23 10:1
– insulation thickness in southern, western, and eastern walls

1 1 1
sis:south;west;east ¼ 0:035 þ ¼ 0:314 m ¼ 31:4 cm ð5:66Þ
0:11 23 10:1
– insulation thickness in the northern wall

1 1 1
sis:north ¼ 0:035 þ ¼ 0:264 m ¼ 26:4 cm ð5:67Þ
0:13 23 10:1
Temperature difference in the storage area, picking area, and reloading bays is
Dtstor ¼ 30 C ð20 CÞ ¼ 50 C ð5:68Þ
Whereas for other areas (social, office, technical)
Dtother ¼ 30 C ð20 CÞ ¼ 10 C ð5:69Þ
According to formula 3.6, the heat flux penetrating through the barriers is
Q_ I ¼ A q ¼ A k Dt ð5:70Þ
Heat flux is the sum of the heat fluxes penetrating through the storage, handling
and picking areas, reloading bays, as well as through the social office and technical
sections
Q_ I ¼ Q_ stor þ Q_ pick;fp þ Q_ soc ð5:71Þ
Q_ skł ¼ ðHs þ h0 Þ Ls 0:13 Dtstor:north þ ðHs þ h0 Þ Ls 0:12 Dtstor:south þ As Dtstor:roof 0:1

þ As Dtskł:podł 0:2 þ 0:11 ðHs þ h0 H0 Þ BS Dtstor:west
þ 0:11 ðHs þ h0 H0 Þ BS Dtstor:east ¼ 188;792 W
ð5:72Þ
Similarly, further fluxes were calculated. The calculation results are shown below
Q_ pick;fp ¼ 79;620 W
The heat flux absorbed by social areas
Q_ soc1 ¼ 4434 W
Heat flux released to the colder parts of the warehouse by social areas
Q_ soc2 ¼ 40;489 W
The total heat flux lost through the partitions of the warehouse is
Q_ I ¼ Q_ stor þ Q_ pick;fp Q_ soc1 þ Q_ soc2 ¼ 304;465 W 304:5 kW ð5:73Þ
5.7.2 Operating Heat Fluxes
– heat flux from people

According to formula 3.14 it equals
Q_ L n z 420 20 16
Q_ lIII ¼ ¼ ¼ 5600 W ¼ 5:6 kW ð5:74Þ
24 24
It has been assumed that 20 people are working in the warehouse, assuming that
the warehouse is automated. In the case of warehouse with forklifts instead of
conveyors, at least 21 more people would be working on 21 forklifts, which doubles
the heat flux.
– The heat flux from lighting
According to formula (3.15) it equals
Pel z ð150 550Þ 16

Q_ oIII ¼ ¼ ¼ 55;000 W ¼ 55 kW ð5:75Þ
24 24
– heat flux from machinery

z X n
16
Q_ uIII ¼ Ps ¼ Pforklifts þ Pstackers þ Pconveyors þ Pother
24 i¼1 i 24
ð5:76Þ
16 kh
¼ ðPw nww þ þ Pu nu þ Pp nconv þ Ppu
24 Wmax1
• Variant I selected with conveyors replacing forklifts
Q_ uIII ¼ 102;388:9 W 102:4 kW
• Variant II with forklifts in the handling section
Q_ uIII ¼ 209;450 W 209:45 kW
where
Pw ¼ 1000 W power of 1 forklift
nww ¼ 0 ðvariant IÞ or 21 ðvariant IIÞ the number of forklifts
Pu ¼ 9000 W power of 1 stacker crane
nu ¼ 7 the number of stacker cranes
Pp ¼ 4000 W conveyor module power
ncon ¼ 210 ðvariant IÞ or 63 ðvariant IIÞ the number of conveyor modules
kh ¼ 121 flow of cargo units
Wmax1 ¼ 1440 conveyor performance
Ppu ¼ 20;000 W power of other equipment in the
warehouse
The total operating heat flux Q_ III is
Q_ III ¼ Q_ III ¼ Q_ lIII þ Q_ oIII þ Q_ uIII ¼ 163 kW ð5:77Þ
5.7.3 Heat Flux Supplied Through Ventilation
kJ
Q_ II ¼ Vpick n qarea Dh ¼ 1;459;297 ¼ 16:89 kW ð5:78Þ
day
where
Vkom ¼ Vm ¼ 170;857:9 m3

30 1
n¼ p ffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ 0:073 ½BO
Vm h
h i
kJ
ðqpow DhÞ for outdoor temperature +30 °C of −20 °C, it is 117 m3
5.7.4 Total Heat Flux
Goods reach the distribution center frozen, so the heat flux Q_ IV ¼ 0

The total heat flux Q_ całk will be:
Q_ całk ¼ Q_ I þ Q_ II þ Q_ III þ Q_ IV ¼ 484:39 kW ð5:79Þ
The share of individual heat fluxes is shown in the charts below and in Fig. 5.8.
5.7.5 Cooling Power of Chillers
Diagram of the heating circulation in the chiller and its design is shown in Fig. 5.9.
The demand for cooling capacity is
Q_ par ¼ Q_ total ¼ 484:39 kW ð5:80Þ
where
Q_ par heat flux absorbed by the evaporator
Q_ par
Pspr ¼ ð5:81Þ
ecool a
The demand for power by the chiller for a cold store design will be
Q_ par 484:39 kW
Pspr ¼ ¼ 302:74 kW
ecool a 2 0:8
Fig. 5.8 Sankey diagram—the flow of heat fluxes. Source Author’s own work
Fig. 5.9 Diagram of the circuit and design of a chiller. Source Author’s own work
where
a ¼ 0:8
ecool ¼ 2ðfor heat pumpÞ
Using a heat pump allows reducing the demand for power in proportion to the
coefficient echł of 0.5–4.5 or even nine.
5.8 Solar Photovoltaic Cells
The surface of a roof situated high above the storage area is AS ¼ 10;482 m2 . The
surface of roofs above the accompanying areas is A0 ¼ 13;103 m2 . However, a
large height difference results in that a large part of the lower roof surface will
remain in the shade, so it was decided to only install solar panels above the storage
area, and only a part of the surrounding areas. Following mechanisms were used to
adjust the position of solar panels, to maintain the perpendicular angle of incidence
of sunlight on the surface of the panels, which allowed achieving the maximum
irradiance (see Sect. 4.5).
The minimum distance between the solar panels according to the formula (4.9) is
H sinð180 ða þ bÞÞ 0:6 sinð180 ð23 270 þ 23 270 ÞÞ

s¼ ¼ 1:1 m
sin b sin 23 270
ð5:82Þ
Fig. 5.10 Cross section through a warehouse
where
H panel height [m]
The spacing between the panels due to their size and pitch angles is shown in
Fig. 4.26.
The calculated spacing between the panels allows fitting the roof over the
storage area with LsS ¼ 103:53
1:1 94 rows of panels turned southwards. Each of the
rows can have a maximum length (assuming 5 m free area) BS 5 m 96 m. This
gives a total area of Apan.stor panels above the storage area
Apan:stor ¼ 94 96 m 0:6 m ¼ 5414:4 m2 ð5:83Þ
Panels can also be installed on a flat surface on the east side using the length
a = c − b of the warehouse (Fig. 5.10).
b ¼ ctga ð10:3 m 4:8 mÞ ½m ð5:84Þ
b ¼ ctgð23 270 Þ ð10:3 m 4:8 mÞ 12:68 m
a¼cb ð5:85Þ
where
c ¼ 90:6 m
a ¼ 90:6 m 12:68 m ¼ 77:92 m ð5:86Þ
The calculated spacing between the panels allows fitting the roof over the
storage area with as ¼ 77:92 m
1:1 m 70 rows of panels. The surface of the eastern side
panels is
Apan:east ¼ 70 ðLS 5 mÞ 0:6 m ¼ 4116 m2 ð5:87Þ
The total area of the panels is as follows

5.8 Solar Photovoltaic Cells 99
Apan:total ¼ Apan:stor þ Apan:east ¼ 9530:4 m2 ð5:88Þ
Actual electricity yield for use of photovoltaic cells is 7 %. The amount of

energy Esol extracted from cells during sunny weather during the year will be
kWh
Emsol:sł ¼ 0:07 1100 9530:4 m2 ¼ 733;840:8 kWh ð5:89Þ
m2
In Wroclaw, the number of sunny hours per year is approximately 1550.

Assuming that during the remaining time, the cells receive 30 % of solar radiation,
the annual amount of energy obtained will be
½ð365 24Þ 1550 0:3 þ 1550

Esol:rzecz ¼ Esol:sł ¼ 310;887:96 kWh ð5:90Þ
ð365 24Þ
The average power output reached with the use of photovoltaic cells will be
Esol:rzecz ½kWh 1;310;887:96 kWh

Pfot ¼ ¼ ¼ 35:49 kW ð5:91Þ
365 24 8760
35:49 kW
The calculated power output of photovoltaic cells is 484:39 kW
7:33 % of the
warehouse’s demand for power.
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EcoProduction.

Environmental Issues in Logistics and Manufacturing

Environmental Issues in Logistics and Manufacturing

The EcoProduction Series is a forum for presenting emerging environmental issues

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/10152

The Energy Consumption

ISSN 2193-4614 ISSN 2193-4622 (electronic)

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

1 The Construction and Operation of Modern Warehouses . . . ..... 1

4.3 Innovative Systems to Support Picking Processes and Reduce

– the use of natural sunlight,

• reducing energy consumption for lighting by using 75% natural light—

some of the values of energy improvement is only possible by using systematic

The functioning of warehouses is indisputably linked to the consumption of energy

needed, however, is a comprehensive approach to the issue of energy consumption

1.1 Energetically Favorable Warehouse Location and Size

In addition to the storage area, a warehouse typically includes the following

1.2 Methods for Effective Use of Warehouse Area

(b) the degree of effective use of volume

Fig. 1.3 Satellite truck. Source Author’s own work based on

Fig. 1.4 Gravity flow racks.

Fig. 1.5 Rollerstrip with a

Paternoster racks come in two variants:

Fig. 1.6 Pallet separator. Source Author’s own work based on

Fig. 1.7 Drive-through

Fig. 1.8 Paternoster racks. Source Author’s own work based on

Dynamic storage on means of transport features the possibility of a very efﬁcient

1.3 Minimizing Heat Exchange with the Environment

Reloading bays in warehouses contribute to heat exchange with its surroundings.

Fig. 1.11 Isolated reloading

1.4 Automatic Rack Stackers

Stacker movement is executed through three main working groups:

1.5 Means of Carrying Loads

Fig. 1.13 Diagrams of roller

Moving loads on rolling elements can be done manually, under gravity or by

1.6 Warehousing Program—Reducing the Energy

– the product range structure of stored commodity groups,

Fig. 1.14 ABC analysis—

Fig. 1.15 Distribution of inventory by ABC analysis in vertical layout—availability of goods.

The criterion of turnover, collection frequency, is usually the main criterion in

1.7 Automatic Identiﬁcation in Warehouse Logistics

Fig. 1.16 Distribution of inventory by ABC analysis in horizontal layout in warehouses:

Automatic identiﬁcation allows for beneﬁcial energy automation of logistics

Fig. 1.17 Example of a

1.8 Insulation Systems for Storage Rooms

Good thermal insulation in refrigerated rooms is a very important element in the

Fig. 1.19 Structure of

the warehouse. Panels with an outer polyester shell or made of modiﬁed

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 23

1 W ¼ 1 J=s ¼ 1 Nm=s ð2:2Þ

Eglob ¼ Eosw þ Esr:tran: þ Eklim þ Eurz þ Eprac ð2:3Þ

Energy consumption can be related to time units, e.g.,

Further indicators determine the energy consumption by the components of total

The indicators indirectly affecting energy consumption are

heated volume Vheat

– effective use of space ratio (see Sect. 1.2)

– Volume efﬁciency index (see Sect. 1.2)

– the rate of effective use of equipment

idling time tidle

– indicators of cargo movements

total distance traveled by cargo units in the Y-axis h m i

total distance traveled by cargo units in the X-axis h m i

Ek1 Ek2 11; 250 J 3472:22 J