See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/260678039

Obtaining S-N curves from crack growth curves: An alternative to self-

similarity

Article  in  International Journal of Fracture · May 2014

DOI: 10.1007/s10704-014-9928-6

CITATIONS READS

15 113

3 authors, including:

Enrique Castillo Alfonso Fernández-Canteli

Universidad de Cantabria University of Oviedo
579 PUBLICATIONS   8,491 CITATIONS    295 PUBLICATIONS   1,831 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

International Symposium on Probabilistic Fatigue & Fracture Approaches Applied to Materials and Structures (ISPFA2017) View project

Fatigue fracture of old metallic structures (i.e. bridges, rails etc.) manufactured at the turn of the 19th and 20th century View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Alfonso Fernández-Canteli on 20 May 2016.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Obtaining S–N curves from crack growth
curves: an alternative to self-similarity

Enrique Castillo, Alfonso Fernández-

Canteli & Dieter Siegele

International Journal of Fracture

ISSN 0376-9429
Volume 187
Number 1

Int J Fract (2014) 187:159-172

DOI 10.1007/s10704-014-9928-6

1 23
Your article is protected by copyright and all
rights are held exclusively by Springer Science
+Business Media Dordrecht. This e-offprint
is for personal use only and shall not be self-
archived in electronic repositories. If you wish
to self-archive your article, please use the
accepted manuscript version for posting on
your own website. You may further deposit
the accepted manuscript version in any
repository, provided it is only made publicly
available 12 months after official publication
or later and provided acknowledgement is
given to the original source of publication
and a link is inserted to the published article
on Springer's website. The link must be
accompanied by the following text: "The final
publication is available at link.springer.com”.

1 23
 Author's personal copy
Int J Fract (2014) 187:159–172
DOI 10.1007/s10704-014-9928-6

ORIGINAL PAPER

Obtaining S–N curves from crack growth curves:

an alternative to self-similarity
Enrique Castillo · Alfonso Fernández-Canteli ·
Dieter Siegele

Received: 20 February 2013 / Accepted: 8 January 2014 / Published online: 23 January 2014
© Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014

Abstract A crack growth model that allows us to
obtain the S–N curves from the crack growth rate curves
is presented in an attempt to harmonize the stress based
and fracture mechanics approaches in lifetime predic-
tion of long cracks propagation. First, using the Buck-
ingham theorem, the crack growth rate curve ddaN −ΔK
is defined over all its range as a cumulative distribution
function based on a normalized dimensionless stress
intensity factor range ΔK + . Then, a relevant theorem
is derived that provides an alternative to self-similarity
allowing significant reduction of experimental plan-
ning. In this way, different a − N crack growth curves
for different stress ranges Δσ and initial crack lengths
a0 can be obtained from a particular crack growth curve
under some conditions. The S–N field is obtained from
the crack growth curves, showing the close relation
between the fracture mechanics and stress approaches.
Finally, the model is applied to a particular set of exper-
imental data to obtain the crack growth rate curve and
E. Castillo (B)
Department of Applied Mathematics,
University of Cantabria, Santander, Spain
e-mail: castie@unican.es
A. Fernández-Canteli
Department of Construction and Fabrication Engineering,
University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain
e-mail: afc@uniovi.es
D. Siegele
Fraunhofer Institut für Werkstoffmechanik,
Freiburg, Germany
e-mail: dieter.siegele@iwm.fraunhofer.de
the S–N curves of a certain material for a subsequent
fatigue lifetime assessment
Keywords Dimensional analysis · Gumbel model ·
Crack growth curves · S–N curves
1 Introduction
S–N curves have been traditionally used as a basic
information to evaluate fatigue damage accumulation,
this being the main cause of failure for a number
of structures and mechanical components. The frac-
ture mechanics approach, based on the application of
crack growth rate curves, emerges as an alternative to
overcome some of the limitations of the stress based
approach, and is contemplated as a procedure of wider
application in fatigue life prediction. In this paper, an
attempt is made to establish the link existing between
these approaches, and to stimulate the synergy of both
approaches and exploit their potentiality.
The correlation between the fatigue crack growth
rate da/d N and the stress intensity factor range ΔK
suggested by Paris and Erdogan (1960) became a valu-
able tool in the lifetime assessment of cracked compo-
nents. The originally derived empirical power-law rela-
tionship between da/d N and ΔK in Paris and Erdogan
(1960) has been employed in a number of studies (see
Carpinteri and Spagnoli 2004; Spagnoli 2005; Ritchie
2005; Pugno et al. 2006) aimed at investigating dif-
ferent factors influencing fatigue crack propagation. In

123
 Author's personal copy
160
view of the, limited applicability of the Paris–Erdogan
equation with respect to e.g., the range of da/dN, the
stress ratio, and the ability to account for crack clo-
sure, several extended models have subsequently been
suggested. Examples are equations from Forman et
al. (1967), Erdogan and Ratwani (1970), Forman and
Mettu (1992); NASGRO (2000) and some others, see
e.g. FKM-Guideline (2009). In particular, the models
proposed by Forman and Mettu (1992) and NASGRO
(2000) provide analytical description of fatigue crack
growth data within the whole range of stress inten-
sity factors, i.e. varying between the threshold and the
critical value at instability. Furthermore, it allows for
the stress ratio (R = σmin /σmax ), the ratio of applied
stress to the yield strength, and, in principal, the plas-
ticity induced crack closure. All the above models
assume certain types of analytical functions for approx-
imating fatigue crack growth data and require proper
algorithms for fitting their parameters. Other models
try to profit from the suggested empirical relationship
between crack growth rate and stress intensity factor
range, using dimensionless variables and parameters
from the very beginning (see Pellas et al. 1977; Agha
et al. 1998; Chantier et al. 2000).
Traditionally, the fracture mechanics approach (see
Bolotin 1998; Fatec-Engineering 1998; Cusumano and
Chatterjee 2000; Castillo and Fernández Canteli 2001;
FKM-Guideline 2009; Castillo et al. 2008; Patil et al.
2008) and the stress based approaches (see Lee et al.
2005; Castillo et al. 1999; Castillo and Fernández-
Canteli 2006), have been considered two different ways
of treating the fatigue problem. But recently, the rela-
tion between S–N curves and crack growth curves has
been analyzed using dimensional analysis and incom-
plete self-similarities by Plekhov et al. (2011), Paggi
and Carpinteri (2009) and Carpinteri and Paggi (2009)
in the deterministic case, that is, considering the mean
S–N and crack growth curves. Carpinteri and Paggi
(2009) explain crack-size and size-scale effects on the
Paris’ and S–N curves and determine an exponent m
different from 2, and also introduce a dependency on
the crack length (with an exponential function), which
seems also to introduce an incomplete self-similarity in
the equations. However, the connections between the
Paris’ and S–N curves in the stochastic case have not
been clearly established (see Castillo and Fernández-
Canteli 2009).
Ciavarella et al. (2008) questions the validity of the
Paris law and analyzes the dependencies between the
123
E. Castillo et al.
c and m parameters using dimensional analysis and
incomplete self-similarities.
In this paper, a new approach is suggested that
employs the dimensional analysis and specific features
of a typical da/d N versus ΔK curve. Namely, being
properly normalized, the latter reveals properties of a
cumulative distribution function (cdf) that are utilized
when fitting experimental data, taking advantage not
only of all the existing families of cdfs, but of some
parameter estimation methods and their properties. In
addition, the stochastic character of the S–N and crack
growth curves is considered.
While integrating the crack growth rate differential
equation, we discovered that, if the dimensionless geo-
metric factor Y is written in a certain form, all crack
growth curves, no matter the initial crack length or
stress range Δσ , can be written in terms of a partic-
ular crack growth curve for a given Δσ0 and initial
crack length a0 . To make this theoretical and practi-
cal result available to readers, we provide a theorem in
which this property is clearly stated and proposed as a
relevant alternative to self-similarity.
We point out that some additional effects on the
crack growth rate curve, such as those resulting from
loss of constraint conditions (crack and specimen
geometry and size), material features, test conditions,
etc. are not represented in the proposed model. For the
moment, we restrict the validity of the model to long
cracks or, possibly, to physically small cracks.
Finally, it is shown that this theorem allows us to
obtain a relation between crack growth curves and the
S–N field, showing the close connection between the
fracture mechanics and the residual lifetime, suggest-
ing a unified methodology in the practice of fatigue
design.
In summary, the main contributions of the paper
are:
1. A proposal for a new crack growth rate model
formulated using cumulative distribution functions
(cdfs) to reproduce the experimentally observed S
shape.
2. The proposed model is stochastic, that is, the result-
ing S-N and the crack growth curves are random.
3. An alternative is presented to the self-similarity
assumption to analyze the effect of Δσ on crack
growth curves. This allows substantial savings in
the laboratory tests required to characterize the
material behavior.
 Author's personal copy
Obtaining S–N curves from crack growth curves 161

4. The S–N curves are derived from crack growth ΔK th threshold stress intensity factor range.
curves for any stress range. ΔK up limit stress intensity factor range.
5. The effect of the stress ratio R is considered based Kc material characteristic fracture toughness.
on experimental observations, which seem to con- N number of cycles.
firm incomplete self-similarity for the R effect. N0 reference number of cycles.
p probability.
The paper is organized as follows. In Sect. 2 we iden-
W specimen width.
tify the set of variables involved in our fatigue problem
σy yield strength.
and the set of dimensionless ratios consistent with the
Buckingham theorem. We also describe under which Using the Buckingham theorem and selecting the nor-
conditions the model is valid, and propose an alterna- malizing variables W , K c and N0 , this set of 15 vari-
tive approach which permits us to transform the crack ables can be reduced to the following set of 12 dimen-
growth rate curve as a cumulative distribution function sionless ratios:1
taking advantage of the accumulated statistical experi- a ∗ a0 ∗ B ∗ h
ence. This, together with the formulation of a relevant a∗ = , a0 = ,B = ,h = ,
W W W W
theorem, allows us to derive the family of crack growth K max K max − K min ΔK th
curves for any stress range and initial crack size from a R∗ = , ΔK ∗ = ∗
, ΔK th = ,
K min Kc Kc
unique reference crack growth curve. We also present ΔK up N D
∗
the Gumbel model as an example. In Sect. 4 an exam- ΔK up = , N∗ = , p ∗ = p, D ∗ = ,
Kc N0 W
ple of application is given to illustrate the proposed √
σy W
methods. In Sect. 5 we obtain the Wöhler curves from σ y∗ = , (1)
the crack growth curves and discuss how they can be Kc
used together to solve the fatigue problem in an inte- which guarantee that any existing physical relation
grated way. Section 6 deals with the relation between among the initial 15 variables can be written as a func-
the crack length and the lifetime cumulative distrib- tion of the 12 ratios in (1). Since we are interested in
ution functions. In Sect. 7 the influence of the stress the crack length, this relation can be written as
ratio is considered. Finally, Sect. 8 provides some con- 
clusions. a ∗ = g a0∗ , B ∗ , h ∗ , ΔK ∗ , R ∗ , ΔK th
∗ ∗
, ΔK up , N ∗,

p ∗ , D ∗ , σ y∗ . (2)
2 Proposed model
Assuming that the specimen size properties B ∗ and
In this section the new crack growth model, is presented D ∗ , the specimen material properties h ∗ , σ y∗ , and the
as an alternative approach without making use of any stress ratio R ∗ are given (fixed), and that a deterministic
similarity or self-similarity assumptions (see Spagnoli approach implying no consideration of p ∗ are selected,
2005; Ritchie 2005 or Carpinteri and Paggi 2007). we have

2.1 Dimensional analysis of the problem a ∗ = g a0∗ , B̂ ∗ , ĥ ∗ , ΔK ∗ , R̂ ∗ , ΔK th
∗ ∗
, ΔK up , N ∗ , p̂ ∗ ,

D̂ ∗ , σ̂ y∗
For the sake of simplicity, and in accordance with for-
mer dimensional analysis (see Barenblatt 1996; Carpin- = q(a0∗ , ΔK ∗ , N ∗ , ΔK th
∗ ∗
, ΔK up ), (3)
teri and Paggi 2007), the following list of 15 variables where the carat refers to variables the values of which
involved in the crack growth problem, is considered: are given.
a crack length. It is common (see, for example, Plekhov et al. 2011
a0 initial crack length. and Fig. 1) to assume that the crack growth rate is a
B specimen thickness. function of ΔK ∗ , that is,
D macro characteristic structural size. da ∗
h micro characteristic length (grain size). = q2 (ΔK ∗ (a ∗ (N ∗ )), ΔK th
∗ ∗
, ΔK up ), (4)
dN∗
K min minimum applied stress intensity factor.
K max maximum applied stress intensity factor. 1 In this paper we mark dimensionless ratios with an asterisk.

123
 Author's personal copy
162 E. Castillo et al.

log (da*/dN*) 2.2 Crack growth instability condition

In the proposed model, two different competing mecha-

Asymptotic failure nisms are contemplated: (a) a mechanism related to the
stable crack growth, which theoretically would con-
tinue until da/d N → ∞, and (b) a mechanism asso-
Real failure ciated with the unstable crack propagation (see Fig. 1).
According to the conventional view (see Carpinteri and
Paggi 2007), both mechanisms merge to a unique fail-
ΔK *th ΔK *f ΔK*up
ure mode, so that
ΔK *
da
lim = ∞. (6)
K max →K c dN

Instead, the proposed model considers the parame-

ter ΔK up∗ which represents the asymptotic value of
∗
ΔK associated with da/d N → ∞, not necessarily
Fig. 1 Crack growth rate curve. Schematic representation of
identified with ΔK f = (1 − R)K c , resulting from the
the crack growth rate curve showing the real and the asymptotic Griffith–Irwin instability condition2
failures, that is, the roles played by ΔK f and ΔK up Accordingly, the above crack growth instability con-
dition is represented by
in which we have assumed that ΔK ∗ depends on ΔK ∗f ≤ ΔK up
∗
and ΔK ∗ = ΔK up
∗
for da ∗ /d N ∗ → ∞.
N ∗ throughout a ∗ . Equation (4) can be considered
an extended Paris’ law that satisfies the dimensional
requirements. We note that in Paris’ law 2.3 Statement of the model

da ∗ ≤ ΔK ∗ ≤ ΔK ∗ , where ΔK ∗ and ΔK ∗
Since ΔK th
= CΔK m , (5) up th up
dN are the lower and upper bounds of ΔK ∗ (see Fig. 1),
we consider the normalized variable
the proportionality constant C is not dimensionless, its
∗
log ΔK ∗ − log ΔK th
physical dimensions cannot be known until the expo-
ΔK ∗ + = ∗ − log ΔK ∗
, (7)
nent m is estimated, and the physical dimensions of C log ΔK up th
are material dependent. These are very serious short-
comings that the dimensional analysis is able to over- which takes values in the interval [0, 1].
come (see Castillo and Fernández-Canteli 2009 p. 6 Since many cdf are increasing, S-shape functions,
and 130, and Plekhov et al. 2011, for example). and have images in the interval [0, 1], their inverses (the
Integrating (4) and using the initial condition a ∗ (0) quantile functions) are good candidates to reproduce
∗ ∗
= a0∗ , we get the crack growth rate curves giving log dad N(N∗ ) in terms
a ∗ = q1 (a0∗ , ΔK ∗ (a ∗ (N ∗ )), ΔK th
∗ ∗
, ΔK up ), of ΔK ∗ (see Fig. 1).
More precisely, we can write
which is a simplified form of (3).
If incomplete self-similarity must be satisfied, then da ∗ (N ∗ )
log
additional requirements are imposed to the selected dN∗
cumulative distribution functions (cdf). 2 Permitting the critical failure to be distinct from the static crit-
In summary, using the Buckingham theorem and ical Griffith’s instability, it would permit to have a size effect
well known empirically based simplifications, the crack for integrating Paris’ law which is compatible with the threshold
growth curves can be obtained by solving the problem and the static toughness limits. Both of these depend on size a
to a −1/2 power, whereas the usual Paris’ law has a size effect
(4), which is a deterministic representation of crack which depends on Paris modulus m. This could be an alternative
growth curves for a given specimen geometry and mate- solution to what is suggested in Ciavarella (2012). However, this
rial under constant stress ratio R ∗ . interesting problem should be studied in a later paper.

123
 Author's personal copy
Obtaining S–N curves from crack growth curves
= F −1 (ΔK ∗ + (a ∗ (N ∗ )))
 
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
−1 log (Δσ Z (a (N ))) − log ΔK th
=F ∗ − log ΔK ∗
log ΔK up th
where F()˙ is a cumulative distribution function,3
√ ∗
ΔK ∗ = Δσ ∗ Y ∗ πa we have considered (7) and

Z (a ∗ (N ∗ )) = Y ∗ (a ∗ (N ∗ )) a ∗ (N ∗ )π .
Equation (8) is equivalent to
da ∗ (N ∗ )  
∗
= V Δσ ∗ Z (a ∗ (N ∗ )) , (9)
dN
  ∗ 
log u−log ΔK th
where V (u) = exp F −1 log ΔK ∗ −log ΔK ∗ .
up th
The shape of the crack growth rate curve associ-
ated with the shape of the cdf in the suggested model is
attributed to the steady microstructural changes experi-
enced by the material during the whole fatigue process
(see Anderson 2005).
Since there are very well known families of cdfs,
we can use these families of functions and the corre-
sponding estimation methods, and apply them to crack
growth models. In particular we can use adequate fami-
lies to incorporate the double-knee effect. This implies
reproducing not only the intermediate part (Paris’ law)
but the whole crack growth rate curve.
Interesting alternative models to Paris’ law have
163
(sometimes strong) assumptions or some other prop-
erties. This implies an important simplification. Unfor-
tunately, incomplete self-similarity is not supported by
some experimental results. However, in Appendix 1 we
provide in Lemma 1 and Theorems 1 and 2 an interest-
ing alternative, which is valid if the Z (a ∗ (N ∗ )) function
is in one of the following forms:
(8)
T exp(U a ∗ )
Z (a ∗ ) = , (10)
(Qa ∗ + T )ρ
where T, U, Q and ρ are arbitrary constants. We shall
see that the experimental data in Sect. 4 confirm the
validity of one of the functions in (10).
From a practical point of view, this will allow us
to discover how the crack growth curve changes with
Δσ ∗ (an alternative to the incomplete self-similarity
assumption with respect to Δσ ∗ ).
A practical method to solve differential equation (9)
is given in Theorem 1, which provides the solution for
the differential equation (9) for any Δσ and initial value
a(0) = a0∗ in terms of a given function S(·). However,
from a practical point of view, Theorem 2 in Sect. 1 is
more relevant. It states that if a0∗ (N ∗ ) is the solution
for the differential equation (9) for Δσ = Δσ0 and
a ∗ (0) = a0∗ , then, the function
a ∗ (N ∗ )

been given by other authors (see, for example, Plekhov 1
∗  k ∗ ∗ −1  −1  
= Z −1 Z a0  N +a0 Z Z (a1∗ ) ,
et al. 2011 or Carpinteri and Paggi 2011). 
(11)

2.4 Solving the differential equation in (9)
Equation (9) is a differential equation in the function
a ∗ (N ∗ ). Solving this differential equation for Δσ ∗ =
Δσ0∗ and the initial condition a ∗ (0) = a0∗ we obtain
the crack growth curve a ∗ (N ) in terms of N ∗ for a
given initial crack size a0∗ , when the loading parameter
is constant Δσ ∗ = Δσ0∗ .
Once the differential equation has been solved for
this particular case, one important question arises:
should the differential equation be solved for a dif-
ferent constant load Δσ ∗ and initial crack size a1∗ ?.
The answer to this question is: In general, yes, but
it is negative if we use incomplete self-similarity
3 Considering F()˙ a cdf is not restrictive here, because the
inverse of any increasing function defined in the range [0, 1]
is a cdf.
is the solution of the same differential equation for
Δσ1
Δσ = Δσ1 and a ∗ (0) = a1∗ , where  = Δσ 0
.
Once Eq. (9) is solved for particular values of Δσ ∗
= Δσ0∗ and a ∗ (0) = a0∗ , Theorem 2 allows us to obtain
the crack growth curve for any other combination of
Δσ ∗ = Δσ1∗ and a ∗ (0) = a1∗ in a closed form. There-
fore, it reveals the effect of Δσ ∗ and a0∗ and it is an alter-
native to the corresponding incomplete self-similarity
assumption.
2.5 The Gumbel model
Since our model uses cumulative distribution functions,
to complete the model we need to select such a func-
tion. It is convenient to select some well known fam-
ilies as candidates, for example the normal, Gumbel,
Weibull or Frechet families, for maxima and minima

123
 Author's personal copy
164 E. Castillo et al.

(see Castillo and Sarabia 1992 of Castillo and Hadi The Buckingham theorem provides a relation among
1997). a set of dimensional ratios (dimensionless variables).
As one example, which has shown to be convenient Unfortunately, this theorem guarantees the existence
to solve the example in Sect. 4, we consider the max- of this relation but does not provide its mathematical
Gumbel family (see Castillo et al. 2005a): structure. It is here where incomplete self-similarity
  conditions play a fundamental role, because they permit
α−x us to determine this structure partially or totally. In
F(x) = exp − exp ; γ > 0, (12)
γ other words, if incomplete self-similarity conditions
apply for some dimensional ratio r1 , then the initial
leading to the model relation can be simplified to a function that separates
∗   the role of the different ratios and r1 appears as a factor
log ΔK ∗ − log ΔK th da ∗
∗ − log ΔK ∗
= F log raised to a power α1 (see, for example, Plekhov et al.
log ΔK up th dN∗
  2011). If all ratios satisfy incomplete self-similarity,
∗ 
α−log ddaN ∗ then we get a formula expressed as products of ratios
= exp −exp ,
γ raised to powers.
Consider, for example, the following expression that
(13)
results after using the Buckingham theorem in the crack
which depends on four parameters α, γ , ΔK th and growth problem:
ΔK up .    
da ΔK 2 K I C σ y2 d σ y2 a ωd 2
= , , ,
dN σy ΔK K I2C K I2C χ
2.5.1 Parameter estimation
= (1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ) . (16)
Since the maximum likelihood method is not justified where is the unknown relation, and 1 , . . . , 4 are
here (because the measure times are selected in a deter- the dimensionless ratios. If we assume that incomplete
ministic way), we can estimate the parameters ΔK th , self-similarity conditions hold for the ratio 1 = KΔKIC
,
ΔK up , α and γ by least-squares techniques. We can then we get
minimize the sum of squared errors measured in the  
   
ΔK scale, that is, we da ΔK 2 K I C α1 σ y2 d σ y2 a ωd 2
= , ,
dN σy ΔK K I2C K I2C χ
∗ ∗
Minimize Q(α, γ , ΔK th
∗ ,ΔK ∗
, ΔK up ), (14) = (2 , 3 , 4 ) , (17)
α,γ ,ΔK th up

and assuming that incomplete self-similarity holds for

∗ , ΔK ∗ ) is given by
where Q(α, γ , ΔK th up all ratios we get:

n
     α2  α3  α
log ΔK i∗ − log ΔK th
∗ ∗
− (log ΔK up ∗
− log ΔK th ) da ΔK 2 K I C α1 σ y2 d σ y2 a ωd 2 4
= 1 ,
i=1 dN σy ΔK K I2C K I2C χ
 2
α − a ∗ i
× exp − exp , (15) where 1 is a constant. This implies that the mathe-
γ matical structure of the crack growth rate function is

∗
where a ∗ i = da ∗
d N i and ΔK i , i = 1, 2, . . . , n are the
known.
In this paper we present an alternative to self-
data points.
similarity to obtain this mathematical structure in a
different form, that consists of the following parts:
da ∗
3 Alternative to self-similarity 1. First, we write dN∗ as:
da ∗  
∗ ∗ ∗
In this section we summarize the previous proposals = g1 ΔK , ΔK , ΔK
and explain how they constitute an alternative to self- dN∗ 
th up

similarity. × g2 B̂ ∗ , ĥ ∗ , R̂ ∗ , D̂ ∗ , σ̂ y∗ , (18)

123
 Author's personal copy
Obtaining S–N curves from crack growth curves 165

and since we assume fixed values of B̂ ∗ , ĥ ∗ , R̂ ∗ , D̂ ∗ a

0.010
and σ̂ y∗ , we obtain 0.005

da ∗  
∗ ∗ ∗
= g1 ΔK , ΔK , ΔK 1 . (19) 0.001
dN∗ th up

da*/dN
-4
5 x 10

This assumption implies separate effects of the two 1 x 10

-4
-5
groups of variables involved in the two factors and 5 x 10

is much weaker than complete or incomplete self- -5

1 x 10
similarity.
2. Second, we assume that the function (19) is of the 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
form:   ΔK*
∗
log ΔK ∗ − log ΔK th
da ∗
= g3 ∗ − log ΔK ∗
. (20) b
dN∗ log ΔK up th 10 5
This seemingly safe assumption is not as much safe
as it appears because we use the fact that the vari-

da /dN
100
ables ΔK up∗ and ΔK ∗ are the asymptotes of the

*
th
0.1
crack growth rate curve.
3. Third, based on experimental evidence that indi- -4
10
cates an S shape for the crack growth rate curve,
we use a quantile function, that is, the inverse of a 10
-7
cumulative distribution function, as the g3 function: 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 2.0 5.0 10.0
  ΔK*
∗ − log ΔK ∗
da ∗ log ΔK
= F −1 ∗ − log ΔK ∗
th
. (21)
dN∗ log ΔK up th
Fig. 2 Experimental data and crack growth rate model. a Detail
of the fitted ddaN versus ΔK curve in the left zone for the particular
We note that since any increasing function defined structure steel studied. b The data and the extrapolation
on the interval [0, 1] is the inverse of a cdf, this is
not a restriction.
4. Fourth, we use the special structures in (10) for Minimizing the function in (14), the parameter esti-
function Z (·) in order to satisfy Theorem 1 and mates were
obtain a closed form for a ∗ in terms of Δσ , N ∗ and
∗
the initial crack size [see (22)]. α = −4.5155, γ = 4.8092, log ΔK th = −2.7981,
∗
These steps together supply the mathematical struc- log ΔK up = 2.5709,
ture of the crack growth law, analogously to the self-
similarity steps. which implies ΔK = 12 MPa and ΔK up ∗ = 2615 MPa,

which corresponds to an asymptotic value.

4 Example of practical application
In order to illustrate how the proposed method can be
used in practice, we apply the Gumbel model described
in Sect. 2.5 to the case of an experimental data set,
containing 239 data points, obtained at the Fraun-
hofer IWM for a particular structure steel. Center crack
extension (CCT) specimens were used for the determi-
nation of the crack growth rate data.
We have selected the following normalizing vari-
ables:
N0 = 1000 cycles, D = W = 24 mm,
B = 10 mm, K c = 200 MPa m1/2 .
∗
The experimental data and the fitted ddaN ∗ versus
ΔK ∗ curve for the material studied are shown in Fig. 2,
showing that a good fit has been obtained. While figure
2a concentrates on the data zone, the lower figure shows
the whole range of ΔK ∗ + . We note that, due to the lack
of data on the right hand side part, the extrapolation to
this area using the estimated parameter values must be
done with care. But a conservative solution could be
∗ = ΔK ∗ .
obtained by letting ΔK up f
Figure 3 shows the reference crack growth curve
obtained by integrating Equation (9), using the Math-
ematica procedure DSolve, which uses a Runge–Kutta
method. It corresponds to Δσ = 90 MPa and a0 = 3.2
mm.

123
 Author's personal copy
166 E. Castillo et al.

a Δσ = 150 Δσ = 120 Δσ = 105 Δσ = 90 Similarly, in Fig. 3b, the crack growth curves for
1.0 different initial crack lengths (a0 = 3.2, 4.2, 5.9 and
Δσ∗ = 0.75 Δσ∗ = 0.60 Δσ∗ = 0.52 Δσ∗ = 0.45
8.6 mm) for Δσ = 90 MPa are also obtained from
Eq. (11).
0.8
5 Crack growth and Wöhler curves
a0 = 3.2 mm
a* 0.6
The relevance of Theorem 2 goes beyond formula (11)
and its practical implications, which has already been
pointed out by the previous examples and figures. In
0.4
this section we show how this theorem can be used
to derive the Wöhler field,4 that is, the lifetime curves
0.2 Reference crack
from the crack growth curves.
a*0 = 0.1333 growth curve Theorem 2 relates the failure crack length a ∗f with
0 5 10 15 20 the initial crack length A∗0 5 and the lifetime N ∗f , that is,

1
∗ k ∗  
N* 
a ∗f = Z −1 Z a0  N f + a0∗ −1 Z −1 Z (A∗0 )

b a0 = 8.6 mma a0 = 5.9 mma a 0 = 4.2 mm a0 = 3.2 mm
1.0 (22)

and it relates the initial crack length with the lifetime

Δσ∗ = 0.45
0.8
as

1
∗  ∗ −1
−1  
A∗0 = Z −1 Z a0 a0 Z Z (a ∗f ) − k N ∗f ,

a* 0.6 (23)

where a ∗f is determined from the condition of fracture

0.4 and static loading:

1
a ∗f = . (24)
0.2 Reference crack (Y ∗ (a ∗f )σmax
∗ )2 π
a*0 = 0.1333 growth curve
0 5 10 15 20
And, according to (10), we have taken
N*
Z (a ∗ ) = (Qa ∗ + T )ρ
Fig. 3 Illustration of the practical use of Theorem 1. a Crack
growth curves resulting from the same initial crack length and = (0.126115617a ∗ + 0.9701834)30 , (25)
different values of Δσ ∗ using the reference crack growth curve.
b Crack growth curves resulting for the same Δσ ∗ and different where the coefficients have been fitted by least squares
values of the initial crack length a0∗ using the reference crack to the data and is practically identical to the commonly
growth curve for a0∗ = a0 /W = 0.133 used expression (see Anderson 2005):
√
Z (a ∗ ) = Y ∗ (a ∗ ) a ∗

= sec(πa ∗ )(1−0.025(2a ∗ )2
The importance of this curve is that it permits obtain- √
ing any other crack growth curve for different values + 0.06(2a ∗ )4 ) πa ∗ , (26)
of Δσ and/or a0 , based on Eqs. (10) and (11) of Theo-
4 The S–N curves obtained in this paper correspond to propaga-
rem 2.
tion S–N curves, that is, the initiation stage has been ignored so
To illustrate, in Fig. 3a the reference curve for Δσ = far.
90 MPa is shown in addition to the crack growth curves 5 In this paper we refer to random variables by upper case letters,
for Δσ = 105, 120 and 150 MPa for the same initial and to the particular values of these random variables by the
crack length. They have been obtained using Eq. (11). corresponding lower case letters.

123
 Author's personal copy
Obtaining S–N curves from crack growth curves 167

1.6 0.35

1.4
0.30
Z a

1.2
a0 = 3.2 mm
0.25
1
Δσ*
a0 = 5.9 mm
0.8 0.15
a0 = 4.2 mm
0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008
a 0.10

Fig. 4 A comparison of expressions (25) and (26) showing an

almost perfect match 0.05 a0 = 8.6 mm

0 200 400 600 800 1000

obtaining an almost perfect fit (see Fig. 4). This guar- N *

antees that the function in (25) of the form (10) is satis-

factory and that the assumptions in Theorem 1 are valid
at least for this case.
If the crack length associated with percentile p is
denoted a ∗p , we obtain the Wöhler field (see Pascual
and Meeker 1999; Castillo et al. 2007), that is,
Fig. 5 Wöhler curves obtained using Eq. (27). The curves have
been obtained for initial crack lengths a0 = 3.2, 4.2, 5.9 and
8.6 mm and a failure crack length a ∗f = 0.5 (a f = 12 mm) from
Eq. (27). For comparison the conventional Wöhler curves for
p = 0.50 are included

1
∗  ∗ −1
−1   words, for a small initial damage a ∗p , the lifetime is
a ∗p = Z −1 Z a0 a0 Z Z (a ∗f ) −k N ∗f
 essentially determined by a ∗p and not by a ∗f . In addi-
= F A−1
∗ (1 − p) (27) tion, since the derivative of the reference crack function
0 a0∗ (N ∗ ) is small for small values of N ∗ , small differ-
or ences in the initial values of the crack length lead to

 
  large variations in the lifetime.
a0∗ −1 Z −1 Z (a ∗f ) − a0∗ −1 Z −1 Z (a ∗p )
N ∗f = , To illustrate the proposed method we use the exam-
k ple in Sect. 4. Figure 5 shows the percentiles of the
(28) Wöhler curves corresponding to initial crack sizes
a0 = 3.2, 4.2, 5.9 and 8.6 mm for a failure crack size
which is the equation of the p percentile curve of the
a ∗f = 0.5 (a f = 12 mm). Note that the fatigue limit is
Wöhler field or the curve associated with initial crack
dependent on the percentile (see Pascual and Meeker
length a ∗p .
1999). This is also in agreement with the model pro-
Note that to know the shape of the percentiles of
posed by Castillo and Fernández Canteli (2001) when
the Wöhler field, we do not need to know FA∗0 (a0∗ ).
the initial crack length for a0 is understood as the
However, to quantify them, that is, to identify the per-
amaxmax which, being a characteristics for the surface
centile associated with a particular value of p, the cdf
finishing of the sample tested, represents the maximum
FA∗0 (a0∗ ) is required. Fortunately, it can be calculated
value of the crack size that could asymptotically be
from FN ∗f (N ∗f ) using Eq. (30).
reached by the maximum crack size in the sample.
It is interesting to point out that Eq. (28) if a ∗f → ∞,
The relation between the crack growth curves and
can be approximated as
the Wöhler field is schematically illustrated in Fig. 6,

  where the probability density function of the initial
N ∗ 0up − a0∗ −1 Z −1 Z (a ∗p ) crack length and the probability density function of
N ∗f ≈ , (29)
k the lifetime for a stress range Δσi are shown, together
with the relation implied by the crack growth curves.
where N ∗ 0up is the asymptotic value of N ∗ for the crack Note that the two lifetime densities in the two figures
growth curve associated with Δσ0∗ and a0∗ . In other must be identical.

123
 Author's personal copy
168 E. Castillo et al.

Δσ concept of the S–N field and the initial crack size [see
Wöhler field
p1 p2 p3 Castillo and Fernández Canteli 2001)]. This assigns a
particular S–N field to a given surface finishing.

6 Relation between the crack length and the

lifetime cumulative distribution functions

Δσi In this section we show how Theorem 2 can be used to

a Δσi
derive the cdf of the initial crack size or the cdf of the
fatigue lifetime for given Δσ ∗ .
Equation (27) permits obtaining the cumulative dis-
N tribution function of a0∗ from the cumulative distribu-
Δσi Δσi tion function of N ∗f , as follows
FA∗0 (a0∗ ) = Pr(A∗0 ≤ a0∗ )

  
−1 1 ∗ ∗ k ∗ ∗
= Pr Z Z a0 u(a f )−() N f ≤ a0

    
∗
u(a ∗f ) − a0∗ −1 Z −1 Z ∗ (a0∗ )
= Pr N f ≥
k
ac     
u(a ∗f ) − a0∗ −1 Z −1 Z ∗ (a0∗ )
= 1 − FN ∗f .
k
Reference curve
(30)
Crack growth field
a0
where

N
u(a) = a0∗ −1 Z −1 (Z (a)) .
Fig. 6 Correspondence between crack growth and Wöhler This implies that the statistical information FN ∗ (N ∗ )
curves. Schematic representation of the relation between the
densities of the crack length and lifetime. The lifetime density associated with a particular stress range of the Wöhler
obtained from the crack growth curves must coincide with the field, together with the reference crack growth curve
lifetime density resulting from the Wöhler curves a0∗ (·) allows us to determine the cumulative distribu-
tion function FA∗0 (a0∗ ) of the initial crack length. Thus,
by combining fatigue tests for a given Δσ and R with
In general, the lifetimes represented by the S–N field crack growth experiments we can determine FA∗0 (a0∗ ).
resulting from the crack growth rate curves assuming Similarly, we have
such long cracks, would be conservative or even very
∗ ∗
conservative with respect to the S–N field obtained
from direct testing of samples exhibiting surfaces as
those provided by machining, grinding and polished.
This can be attributed to the absence of the initiation
phase in the former S–N curves. Further, according
to Fernández Canteli et al. (2012), the methodology
proposed provides probabilistic basis for development
of the Kitagawa-Takahashi-El Haddad diagram as an
extension of the finite lifetime generalized concept of
Ciavarella and Monno (2006). This will be the aim of
future work. Assuming a unique ΔK th for the material
(under the same constraint conditions but irrespective
of the surface finishing) the model establishes a rela-
tion between the percentile curves in the probabilistic
123
 
1
FN ∗f (n ∗f ) = 1− FA∗0 Z −1 Z a0 u(a f ) − k n ∗f .

(31)
Analogously, this implies that the cumulative distri-
bution function of the initial crack length a0∗ , together
with the reference crack growth curve a0∗ (·) allows
us to determine the cumulative distribution function
FN ∗f (n ∗f ) of the lifetime.
7 Effect of the stress level or stress ratio
According to Molent et al. (2006), Carpinteri and Paggi
(2007), Jones et al. (2007), the crack growth rate Equa-
tion (9) can be replaced by
 Author's personal copy
Obtaining S–N curves from crack growth curves
da ∗ (N ∗ )  
∗
= V Δσ ∗ (1 − R)β1 a ∗ γ1 Z (a ∗ (N ∗ )) ,
dN
to take into account the effect of R and to correct for
experimental observations which show deviations from
the Paris law. The (1 − R)β1 term in the formula is
supported by the experimental results of Oberwinkler
et al. (2009), which indicate that the effect of R on
the crack growth rate curve is simply a translation, i.e.
causing practically no change in the shape of this curve.
In addition, incomplete self-similarity considerations
support the inclusions of both factors (1−R)β1 and a ∗ γ1
in (32). However, this assumption needs to be validated
for different materials.
We note that the theory developed in the previous
sections is still valid for Eq. (32). In fact, we just need
to redefine:
Δσ1 (1 − R)β0
=
Δσ0 (1 − R)β1
and
 (provided by a particular stress range of the Wöh-
Z (a ∗ (N ∗ )) = (a ∗ )γ1 Y ∗ (a ∗ (N ∗ )) a ∗ (N ∗ )π .
Note that this permits obtaining the crack growth
curves for different stress ranges and levels (different
R and Δσ values) from the crack growth curve for a
given stress level and range (i.e. for given R = R0
and Δσ = Δσ0 values). As a consequence, Lemma 1
and Theorems 1 and 2 play an even more relevant role,
which is an interesting alternative to the similarity and
self-similarity assumptions commonly used for deriv-
ing simplified models.
8 Conclusions
The following conclusions can be drawn from the mate-
rial developed in this paper:
1. An identification of the variables involved in the
crack growth and the S–N field fatigue problem has
been done, and a subsequent dimensional analy-
sis has been performed in order to identify what
the assumptions and the simplifications used in the
statement of the model are. This clarifies the cases
in which the proposed model is valid, and allows
169
us to determine what assumptions need to be vali-
dated.
(32) 2. Proposing the normalized variable ΔK + , which
takes values in the range [0, 1], allows us to use S-
shaped cumulative distribution functions to repro-
duce the relation between ΔK + and ddaN . This per-
mits incorporation of a wide range of models com-
ing from the statistical field to solve the crack
growth problem.
3. If the function Z (a ∗ (N ∗ )) is of the form given in
(10), as it is confirmed by the data in Sect. 4, theo-
rem 2 allows us to obtain the crack growth curves
for any Δσ and initial crack growth length a0 , from
a reference crack growth curve, corresponding to
any arbitrary values of Δσ and a0 . This allows us
important savings in laboratory tests to discover
fatigue material behavior.
4. The proposed model provides an analytical expres-
sion of the crack growth rate curve by fitting exper-
imental data using a least squares technique, to
(33)
be used in the design of structural elements and
machines.
5. The statistical information contained in FN ∗f (N ∗f )
(34) ler field), together with the reference crack growth
curve a0∗ (·) allows determination of the cumulative
distribution function FA∗0 (a0∗ ) of the initial crack
length. Similarly, the cumulative distribution func-
tion FA∗0 (a0∗ ) of the initial crack length allows us
to determine the lifetime cumulative distribution
function FN ∗f (N ∗f ).
6. The cumulative distribution function FA∗0 (a0∗ ) of the
initial crack length a0∗ , together with the reference
crack growth curve a0∗ (·) allows us to determine
the cumulative distribution function FN ∗f (N ∗f ) of
the lifetime, for any given Δσ ∗ .
7. The Wöhler field can be obtained from the FN ∗f (N ∗f )
or FA∗0 (a0∗ ) and the reference crack growth curve
a0∗ (·). This has important practical implications.
8. The effect of the stress ratio R on the crack growth
curves can be taken into account by a simple change
in the definition of the dimensionless ratio  [see
(33)], thanks to the experimental observation of the
fact that the effect of R is just a translation of the
crack growth rate curves.
Acknowledgments The authors are indebted to the Spanish
Ministry of Science and Innovation MICINN (Project BIA2010-
19920) for financial support of this work.
123
 Author's personal copy
170 E. Castillo et al.

Appendix: Basis for the proposed alternative to self- which is a differential equation with solutions
similarity
∗ T exp(U a ∗ ) if r = 1
Z (a ) = (44)
The following lemma and theorems provide an alter- (Qa ∗ + T )ρ if r
= 1,
native to the self-similarity assumption to derive the
effect of Δσ ∗ . where

Lemma 1 The only functions that are permitted to fac- Q = U (1 − r ); T = C(1 − r ); ρ = 1/(1 − r ).
torize the function In other words, the two functions in (36).
 
ΔK ∗
Z  Z −1 Theorem 1 If the function Z (a ∗ ) is of one of the forms
Δσ ∗ in (10), the solution with initial value a(0) = a0∗ of the
as the product of two single argument functions differential equation
g1 (Δσ ∗ ) and g2 (ΔK ∗ ), that is,
  da ∗ (N ∗ )
ΔK ∗ = V (ΔK ∗ (N ∗ )) = V (Δσ ∗ Z (a ∗ (N ∗ )))
Z  Z −1 = g1 (Δσ ∗ )g2 (ΔK ∗ ) (35) dN∗
Δσ ∗ (45)
are
is

T exp(U a ∗ ) ∗ ∗ 1 −1 
−1
∗
Z (a ) = (36) a (N ) = Z S (Δσ ∗ )k N ∗
(Qa ∗ + T )ρ Δσ ∗

∗ ∗

where T , U , Q and ρ are arbitrary constants. + S(Δσ Z (a0 )) , (46)

Proof If Eq. (35) holds, letting where

 
G(x) = Z  Z −1 (x) ΔK ∗  (N ∗ )d N ∗
(37) S(ΔK ∗ (N ∗ )) = ,
g2 (ΔK ∗ (N ∗ ))V (ΔK ∗ (N ∗ ))
we have (47)
 
ΔK ∗ g2 (ΔK ∗ ) = U ΔK ∗ 1−k and U and k are constants,
G = g1 (Δσ )g2 (ΔK ∗ ), (38)
Δσ which can be obtained from Z (·) [see (37) to (41)].

which is a functional equation of Pexider type, with Proof From (45), taking inverses and derivatives we
solution (see Aczél 1966; Castillo and Ruiz Cobo 1992; get
Castillo et al. 2005b)  
∗ ∗ −1 ΔK ∗ (N ∗ )
G(x) = U x r x (39) a (N ) = Z (48)
Δσ
−r
g1 (Δσ ) = A(Δσ ) (40)
U and
g2 (ΔK ∗ ) = (ΔK ∗ )r , (41)
A
ΔK ∗  (N ∗ ) = Δσ Z  (a ∗ (N ∗ ))a ∗  (N ∗ ), (49)
where A, U and r are arbitrary constants.
Thus, (37) transforms to
that is,


G(x) = Dx r = Z  Z −1 (x) (42) ΔK ∗  (N ∗ ) = Δσ Z  (a ∗ (N ∗ ))V (Δσ Z (a ∗ (N ∗ )))
 
ΔK ∗ (N ∗ )
= Δσ Z  Z −1 V (ΔK ∗ (N ∗ ))
and letting x = Z (a ∗ ) we obtain Δσ
= Δσ g1 (Δσ )g2 (ΔK ∗ (N ∗ ))V (ΔK ∗ (N ∗ )),
 
G(Z (a ∗ )) = D Z (a ∗ )r = Z  a ∗ , (43) (50)

123
 Author's personal copy
Obtaining S–N curves from crack growth curves 171

where we have used the factorization property (35) of Proof According to Theorem 1, we have

1 −1

the function in (10).

From (50) we obtain a0∗ (N ∗ ) = Z −1 S (Δσ0 )k N ∗
Δσ0

ΔK ∗  (N ∗ ) + S(Δσ0 Z (a0∗ )) (58)
= Δσ g1 (Δσ ), (51)
g2 (ΔK ∗ (N ∗ ))V (ΔK ∗ (N ∗ )) and from (58), equating q0 (N ∗ ) to Δσ0 Z (a0∗ (N ∗ )), we
obtain
and integrating we have
 q0 (N ∗ ) = Δσ0 Z (a0∗ (N ∗ ))
ΔK ∗  (N ∗ )d N ∗
S(ΔK ∗ (N ∗ )) =

g2 (ΔK ∗ (N ∗ ))V (ΔK ∗ (N ∗ )) = S −1 (Δσ0 )k N ∗ + S(Δσ0 Z (a0∗ )) . (59)
= Δσ g1 (Δσ )N ∗ + C, (52)
This, using inverse functions in both equations, gives
where C is a constant, which can be obtained for N ∗ =  
t
0, that is, q0−1 (t) = a0∗ −1 Z −1
Δσ0
S(ΔK 0∗ ) = S(ΔK ∗ (0)) = C ⇔ C = S(Δσ Z (a ∗ (0))). S(t) − S(Δσ0 Z (a0∗ ))
= , (60)
(53) (Δσ0 )k
and, similarly to (46), we can use (59) and (60) to check
From (45), (52) and (53), we have that
ΔK ∗ (N ∗ ) = Δσ Z (a ∗ (N ∗ )) q1 (N ∗ ) = Δσ Z (a ∗ (N ∗ ))


= S −1 Δσ g1 (Δσ )N ∗
 = S −1 (Δσ1 )k N ∗ + S(Δσ1 Z (a1∗ )) (61)
+ S(Δσ Z (a ∗ (0))) (54)
 
= q0 k N ∗ + q0−1 Δσ z ∗ (a1∗ ) , (62)
and using (48) we obtain

∗ ∗ −1 1
 which, using the first equations in (59) and (60), leads
a (N ) = Z S −1 Δσ g1 (Δσ )N ∗
Δσ to (57).

+ S(Δσ Z (a ∗ (0))) . (55)
Finally, since according to (40) and taking, without References
loss of generality, A = 1 we have
Aczél J (1966) Lectures on functional equations and their appli-
g1 (Δσ ) = (Δσ )−r ⇔ Δσ g1 (Δσ ) cations. Mathematics in science and engineering, vol 19. Aca-
1
demic Press, New York
= (Δσ )1−r = (Δσ ) ρ = (Δσ )k (56)
Agha HY, Béranger AS, Billardon R, Hild F (1998) High-cycle
and from (55) we get (46). fatigue behaviour of spheroidal graphite cast iron. Fatigue
Fract Eng Mater Struct 21:287–296
Theorem 2 (Effect of loading and initial crack size on Anderson TL (2005) Fracture mechanics. Fundamentals and
crack growth) Under the assumptions of Theorem 1, if applications. CRC, Taylor and Francis, Boca Raton
Barenblatt GI (1996) Scaling, selfsimilarity, and intermediate
a0∗ (N ∗ ) is the solution of the differential equation (9) asymptotics. Cambridge texts in applied mathematics. Cam-
for Δσ = Δσ0 and a ∗ (0) = a0∗ , then, the function bridge University Press, New York

1
∗ k ∗
Bolotin VV (1998) Mechanics of fatigue. CRC Press, Boca Raton
a ∗ (N ∗ ) = Z −1 Z a0  N Carpinteri A, Paggi M (2007) Self-similarity and crack growth
 instability in the correlation between the paris’ constants. Eng
   Fract Mech 74:1041–1053
+ a0∗ −1 Z −1 Z (a1∗ ) , (57) Carpinteri A, Paggi M (2009) A unified interpretation of the
power laws in fatigue and the analytical correlations between
is the solution of the same differential equation for cyclic properties of engineering materials. Int J Fatigue
Δσ = Δσ1 and a ∗ (0) = a1∗ , where for simplicity of 31(10):1524–1531
notation we have denoted Carpinteri A, Paggi M (2011) Dimensional analysis and fractal
modeling of fatigue crack growth. J ASTM Int 8(10):1–13
Δσ1
= . Carpinteri A, Spagnoli A (2004) A fractal analysis of size effect
Δσ0 on fatigue crack growth. Int J Fatigue 26:125–133

123
 Author's personal copy
172
Castillo E, Fernández Canteli A (2001) Model for lifetime eval-
uation and prediction. Int J Fract 107:117–137
Castillo E, Fernández-Canteli A (2006) A parametric lifetime
model for the prediction of high cycle fatigue based on stress
level and amplitude. Fatigue Fract Eng Mater Struct 29:1031–
1038
Castillo E, Fernández-Canteli A (2009) A unified statistical
methodology for modeling fatigue damage. Springer, Berlin
Castillo E, Hadi AS (1997) Fitting the generalized Pareto distri-
bution to data. J Am Stat Assoc 92(440):1609–1620
Castillo E, Ruiz Cobo MR (1992) Functional equations and mod-
elling in science and engineering, Monographs and textbooks
in pure and applied mathematics, vol 161. Marcel Dekker,
New York
Castillo E, Sarabia JM (1992) Engineering analysis of extreme
value data. ASCE J Waterway Port Coastal Ocean Eng
118:129–146
Castillo E, Fernández Canteli A, Hadi A (1999) On fitting a
fatigue model to data. Int J Fatigue 21:97–106
Castillo E, Hadi AS, Balakrishnan N, Sarabia JM (2005a)
Extreme value and related models with applications in engi-
neering and science. Wiley, New York
Castillo E, Iglesias A, Ruíz-Cobo R (2005b) Functional equa-
tions in applied sciences, mathematics in science and engi-
neering, vol 199. Elsevier, Amsterdam
Castillo E, Fernández-Canteli A, Hadi AS, López-Aenlle M
(2007) A fatigue model with local sensitivity analysis. Fatigue
Fract Eng Mater Struct 30:149–168
Castillo E, Fernández-Canteli A, Pinto H, Ruiz-Ripoll ML (2008)
A statistical model for crack growth based on tension and
compression Wöhler fields. Eng Fract Mech 75:4439–4449
Chantier I, Bobet V, Billardon R, Hild F (2000) A probabilistic
approach to predict the very high-cycle fatigue behaviour of
spheroidal graphite cast iron structures. Fatigue Fract Eng
Mater Struct 23:173–180
Ciavarella M (2012) A simple approximate expression for finite
life fatigue behaviour in the presence of crack-likeor blunt-
notches. Fatigue Fract Eng Mater Struct 35(3):247–256
Ciavarella M, Monno F (2006) On the possible generalizations of
the kitagawa-takahashi diagram and of the el haddad equation
to finite life. Int J Fatigue 28:1826–1837
Ciavarella M, Paggi M, Carpinteri A (2008) One, no one, and
one hundred thousand crack propagation laws: a general-
ized barenblatt and botvina dimensional analysis approach to
fatigue crack growth. J Mech Phys Solids 56(12):3416–3432
Cusumano JP, Chatterjee A (2000) Steps towards a qualitative
dynamics of damage evolution. Int J Solids Struct 37:6397–
6417
Erdogan F, Ratwani M (1970) Fatigue and fracture of cylindrical
shells containing a circumferential crack. Int J Fract Mech
6:379–392
Fatec-Engineering,(1998) Luftfahrttechnisches Handbuch,
Handbuch Struktur Berechnung (HSB). Rissfortschrittsgle-
ichung mit Berücksichtigung von Temperatur, R-Verhältnis,
Threshold-Bereich und Bereich instabilen Risswachstums
123
View publication stats
E. Castillo et al.
Fernández Canteli A, Brighenti R, Castillo E (2012) Towards a
probabilistic concept of the Kitagawa–Takahashi diagram. In:
The 4th conference on crack paths, Gaeta, Italy
FKM-Guideline (2009) Fracture mechanics proof of strength for
engineering components. Frankfurt/Main, Germany
Forman RG, Mettu SR (1992) Behavior of surface and corner
cracks subjected to tensile and bending loads in ti 6al-4v
alloy. In: Ernst HA, Saxena A, McDowell DL (eds) Frac-
ture mechanics: twenty-second symposium, vol 1. American
Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, ASTM STP
1131, pp 519–546
Forman RG, Kearney VE, Engle RM (1967) Numerical analysis
of crack propagation in cyclic loaded structures. Trans ASME
J Basic Eng 89:459–463
Jones R, Molent L, Pitt S (2007) Crack growth from small flaws.
Int J Fatigue 29:1658–1667
Lee YL, Pan J, Hathaway R, Barkey M (2005) Fatigue testing
analysis (theory and practice). Elsevier, Burlington
Molent L, Jones R, Barter S, Pitt S (2006) Recent developments in
fatigue crack growth assessment. Int J Fatigue 28(12):1759–
1768
NASGRO (2000) Fatigue crack growth computer program NAS-
GRO Version 3.0—reference manual
Oberwinkler B, Oberwinkler C, Redik S, Leitner H (2009)
Analysis of short crack growth for two representative light
metals. In: Proceedings of the international conference on
fracture, Ottawa, Canada
Paggi M, Carpinteri A (2009) Fractal and multifractal approaches
for the analysis of crack-size dependent scaling laws in
fatigue. Chaos Solitons Fractals 40(3):1136–1145
Paris P, Erdogan F (1960) A critical analysis of crack propagation
laws. J Basic Eng 85:528–534
Pascual FG, Meeker WQ (1999) Estimating fatigue curves with
the random fatigue-limit model. Technometrics 41:277–302
Patil N, Mahadevan P, Chatterjee A (2008) A constructive empir-
ical theory for metal fatigue under block cyclic loading. Proc
R Soc A 464:1161–1179
Pellas J, Baudin G, Robert M (1977) Mesure et calcul du seuil
de fissuration après surcharge. Recherche Aérospatiale 3:191–
201
Plekhov O, Paggi M, Naimark O, Carpinteri A (2011) A dimen-
sional analysis interpretation to grain size and loading fre-
quency dependencies of the paris and Wöhler curves. Int J
Fatigue 33(3):477–483
Pugno N, Ciavarella M, Cornetti P, Carpinteri A (2006) A gener-
alized paris’ law for fatigue crack growth. J Mech Phys Solids
54:1333–1349
Ritchie RO (2005) Incomplete self-similarity and fatigue-crack
growth. Int J Fract 132:197–203
Spagnoli A (2005) Self similarity and fractals in the paris range
of fatigue crack growth. Mech Mater 37:519–529