Manufacturing Process Technology Assignment

Manufacturing Process Technology Assignment 01 K0155118 2011
TEESSIDE UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
MANUFACTURING PROCESS TECHNOLOGY
ASSIGNMENT
BY
Victor Obinnaya Chikezie Nwosu
K0155118
MSc Environmental Technology
Supervisor: Professor Farhad Nabhani
18th April 2011
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DEDICATION
I dedicate this work to the Almighty God for his grace and goodness, which have
greatly bestowed on me.
This work is also dedicated to my late Granduncle, Mazi Joseph Chinedo Irokwo (Ye
je) of blessed memory, may his gentle soul rest in the bosom of our Lord Jesus Christ
Amen.
Also, I want to dedicate this work to the entire Nwosu family for the love, commitment
and care throughout writing this work.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost, I thank the Almighty God, the author of life and the universe for
giving me the grace and strength throughout the writing of this work
This work would not be complete without mentioning the efforts put by Professor
Farhad Nabhani, Biomechanics and manufacturing, Teesside University. Finally, I want
to thank my practical group members, friends and siblings.
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TABLES OF CONTENTS
Title Page
Dedication
Acknowledgement
Table of Contents
List of Figures
List of Tables
Abstract
CHAPTER ONE
1.0. Manufacture and Mechanical Properties of Wielded Joints
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Gas welding process
1.3 MIG welding process
1.4 Brazing process
1.5 Welding experiment
1.6 Tensile test
1.7 Discussion of Results
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Casting
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Sand Casting
2.3 Case Study of Sand Casting
2.4 Die-Casting
2.5 Case study of Gravity
2.6 Gravity die-casting experiment
2.8 Definition of Die-Casting process
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2.9 Lost-Wax Casting

2.10 Case study of Lost-Wax Casting
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 Hot Rolling Process
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Hot Rolling Experiment
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 Soft Soldering
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Comparisim between Soldering, Welding, Brazing and Use of Adhesive
4.3 Soldering Experiment
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 Impact Testing Measurement

5.1 Introduction
5.2 Impact Test Experiment
REFERENCES
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LIST OF FIGURES
Fig 1.0 Student performing MIG welding
Fig 2.0 A Laboratory Technician showing a student how to weld using Gas welding
process
Fig 3.0 Double V-type joint
Fig 4.0 MIG welding machine
Fig 5.0 Schematic showing steps of Sand Casting process
Fig 6.0 The Casting furnace
Fig 7.0 A student placing aluminium into the hot furnace
Fig 8.0 A student covering the furnace with lid
Fig 9.0 A student holding the mould with a tong and G-clamp
Fig 10 Pouring of molten aluminium into mould
Fig 11 Die-casting machine
Fig 12 Diagram of the die-casting process
Fig 13 Fused Depositional Modelling Pump Body Pattern
Fig 14 Shelling tree being dipped into ceramics slurry
Fig 15 Parts on a Casting tree after shelling process
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Fig 16 A student placing the brass in the furnace
Fig 17 Rolling machine
Fig 18 Sawing a part of the brass
Fig 19 A Student polishing the specimen
Fig 20 A Student checking the hardness of the specimen using Vickers hardness
machine
Fig 21 Vickers hardness machine
Fig 22 an Automatic Mounting Press Machine
Fig 23 Original Specimen piece
Fig 24 Hot rolling (Specimen A)
Fig 25 Water-cooled (Specimen B)
Fig 26 Air-cooled (Specimen C)
Fig 27 A rolling schematic
Fig 28 Soldering techniques
Fig 29 & Fig 30 Heating of a Base metal and measuring diameter of solder
Fig 31 Soldering samples
Fig 32 Impact testing machine
Fig 33 Carbon steel sample
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Fig 34 A student immersing a specimen (i.e. mild steel) in liquid steel
Fig 35 0.1% Fractured carbon steel (air)
Fig 38 0.1% Fractured carbon steel (hot water)
Fig 41 0.1% Fractured carbon steel (liquid nitrogen)
Fig 44 0.1% Fractured carbon steel (dry ice)
Fig 47 A graph showing temperature against energy to fracture for each of the
carbon specimens
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Tensile stress test results for MIG welding, Brazing and Gas welding
Table 2 Hot rolling hardness test
Table 3 Area of spread after soldering test (in metres squared)
Table 4 Wetting angles for soldering test (in degrees)
Table 5 Energy values from the impact testing experiment (in newton per metre
squared)
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ABSTRACT
This work laid emphasis on the experiments taken and results achieved in the
manufacturing processes such as Welding technology and mechanical properties of
joints, casting processes, hot rolling processes, Soldering and Impact testing
measurement which was all done at the Teesside University Materials and
Manufacturing Laboratory.
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CHAPTER ONE
1.0 MANUFACTURE AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WIELDED

JOINTS
1.1 Introduction
The aim and objective of this experiment is to manufacture three tensile test pieces of
steel metal and examine the mechanical properties using tensile strength test. Welding is
the complete joining of two steel metals through melting, filler metal and re-
solidification of base metals.it is the process for joining two metals by fusion with or
without pressure application and filler metal use. The fusion can take place by means of
heat due to combustion of acetylene and oxygen, electric or by chemical reaction.
Weldability is the ability of a metal to weld with other similar or dissimilar metals
which depends on the metallurgical changes that occur during welding, there are
different kinds of weld but for the experiment, we use electric arc welding, gas welding
and brazing (Rajender, 2006)
1.2 GAS WELDING PROCESS
Gas welding is the fusion process that joins metal pieces; using combustion heat of
oxygen and acetylene mixture which the intense heat produces melts and fuses together
the edges of the metal pieces to be welded with filler metal addition. Oxy-Acetylene
welding which was used during the experiment is a mixture of acetylene and oxygen in
the right proportions in the welding torch and ignited; the flame reaches a temperature
of about 3300 degrees Celsius and can melt most metals. A welding rod is use to add
molten metal to build up the seam for greater strength.
1.3 MIG WELDING PROCESS
MIG Welding process is one which an electric arc that exist between two electrodes is
use to weld metals which filler metal to form the actual joint supplied from a separate
rod. This type of welding process consists of electrodes which the filler material used in
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the welding process that are either consumable or non-consumable, arc shields which
are fluxes made of argon and helium which prevents oxidation at the weld surface,
provide a good ambient for welding, stabilize the arc and to cut down splattering during
welding process and power source which can be either Alternating Current or Direct
Current provides heat needed to weld. The features of the MIG welding process is a
small electrode wire which is fed into an arc from a coil which produces welds over
joints, it is carried out on a DC electrode which is the welding wire (positive polarity)
which is used with gas shield core wires.
1.4 BRAZING PROCESS
Brazing is the process of joining two pieces of metal whereby a non-ferrous alloy is
introduced at the point where the metals are joined. The melting point of filler metal is >
420 degrees Celsius which is lower than the temperature value of the parent metal. The
filler metal is shared between surfaces by capillary action. The copper and silver base
alloys are commonly used as filler in brazing, borax is a suitable flux used. There are
different types of brazing methods based on the size, shape of the components to be
joined and the production rate such as; Torch brazing, Furnace brazing, Induction
brazing, Dip brazing, Salt Bath brazing and Resistance brazing. In brazing, it gives a
stronger joint than soldering, clean jointing, any metal can be brazed and less distortion,
brazing can be used for assembly of pipe fittings, heat exchangers and repair of castings
(Rao, 2009).
1.5 WELDING EXPERIMENT
Eighteen pieces of steel (i.e. mild steel) were provided to be welded into nine pieces by
single joint formation using three different welding methods. The first group were
jointed using the MIG welding process, the second group metal pieces was joined by
gas welding and the third group metal pieces was joined by brazing welding, the
average force fracture reading is gotten from the first, second and third force fracture
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readings. After the welding process, the metals were subjected to tensile stress test to
show the bond strength created.
Fig.1 Student performing MIG welding.
The table below also shows the results for the stress tests performed on the three metals
Table 1: Tensile stress test results for MIG Welding, Brazing and Gas Welding
Welding Type First fracture Second fracture Third fracture Average
force(N) force(N) force(N) fracture
force(N)
MIG-welded 15.18 28.00 30.55 24.58
metal piece
Brazed-welded 20.15 23.31 12.50 18.65
metal piece
Gas-welded 7.8 16.02 17.02 13.61
piece
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1.6 TENSILE TEST
The tensile test is used for measuring the stiffness, strength and ductility of a metal
piece. The testing machine subjects the test-piece to axial elongation and the resultant
load on the metal piece is calculated. Also, it involves a metal pieces of known cross
sectional area being gripped in the jaws of the machine which subjects it to tensile force
which is increased in increments so for each force increment, the gauge length on the
metal-piece increases in measured. This process continues until the metal-piece
fractures (Higgins, 2006). The tensile strength is the ratio of the maximum force to the
nominal area, the tensile strength of the electric-welded metal piece is; T.S=24.58N/6m2
= 4.09N/m2 for brazed-welded metal piece is; T.S=18.65N/6m2=3.103N/m2 and Gas-
welded piece is T.S=13.61N/6m2=2.268N/m2. The yield strength is the ratio of yield
load to the nominal area but the yield strength of the metal is 250 MPa which means we
are looking for yield load.therefore, Yield load= yield strength * nominal area which is
250*6=1500N.
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Fig 2. A laboratory technician showing a student how to weld using Gas welding
process
1.7 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
The result of the three welding processes which the MIG welded metal was the
strongest of the three as it needed a higher force to fracture the metal in comparisim to
the other two metals, which is followed by the brazed metal and then the gas welded
metal. The fracture faces of the metals are ductile fracture that indicates that there was a
significant yielding before the fracture happens. The application of these welding
process in my own area of study which is Environmental Technology is the biomass and
sewage plants are made of metal and these metal parts are welded in construction for
these plants which are use to recycle waste water and refuse cleaned from the
environment. Also, the weld is a Double V-type.
Fig 3 Double V-type joint (G4v11)
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Fig 4 MIG welding machine (AnI11)
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CHAPTER TWO
2.0 CASTING
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Fabrication refers to building metals structures by cutting, bending an assembling.

(encyclopedia, 2011)Metal casting process starts by creation of a mould which is a
reverse shape of the part of the material that undergoes casting. The mould is created
from a refractory material such as sand, the metal is heated in a furnace or oven until it
melts and the metal in its molten state is poured into a mould cavity. The molten metal
in liquid state takes the shape of the cavity, which is the shape of the refractory material.
It is then cooled until it solidifies. Finally, the metal which is solidified is removed from
the mould. The reason for casting process is that it can produce complex geometric parts
with internal cavities and hollow sections; it can be used to make small few hundred
grains to very large size parts like thousand of kilograms, it is economical with very
little wastage: the extra metal in each casting is re-melted and re-used and cast metal is
isotropic- that is it has the same physical/mechanical properties along any direction. The
aim of the experiment is to cast a aluminium specimen using gravity die-casting
process. Examples of casting processes are door handles, locks, pumps, wheels of cars
etc.
2.2 SAND CASTING
Sand casting is one of the most versatile casting methods which gets its name because
of the mould is a mixture of sand and clay which is supporting when it is formed into a
shape, this casting can be used for big, medium or even little castings ranging from
simple shapes to highly complex shapes and it is use with metals with a medium to high
boiling point range. Sand casting makes use of either natural or synthetic sand which is
the refractory material called silica, sand grains must be microscopic so that it can be
packed densely; Consequently, the sand grains should be large to allow passage of gases
formed during the molten metal pouring process to escape through the porespaces.
Larger sized moulds use a mixture of sand, clay and water. Sand can be re-used, and
excess metal poured is cut-off and re-used. The limitations of sand casting are poor
finishing and wide tolerance. A typical sand mould consists of the following parts:
1. The mould is made of two parts, the top half is called the cope and the bottom
part is called the drag.
2. The liquid flows into the gap between the two parts, called the mould cavity.
The geometry of the cavity is created by the use of a wooden shape, called the
pattern. The shape of the pattern is similar to the shape of the part we need to
make.
3. A funnel shaped cavity, the top of the funnel is the pouring cup; the pipe shaped
neck of the funnel is the sprue-the liquid metal is poured into the pouring cup,
and flows down the sprue.
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4. The runners are horizontal hollow channel that connects the bottom of the sprue
to the mould cavity. The region where any runner joins with the cavity is known
as the gate.
5. Some extra cavities are made connecting to the surface of the mould, excess
molten metal poured into the mould flows into these openings, called risers.
They act as reservoirs; as the metal solidifies inside the cavity, it shrinks, and the
extra metal from the risers flow back down to avoid holes in the cast part.
6. Vents are narrow holes connecting the cavity openings to the atmosphere to
allow gases and air in the cavity to escape.
7. Cores are inserts which interior surfaces are generated by, they are made by
baking sand with some binder so that they can retain their shape when handled.
The mould is assembled by placing the core into the cavity of the drag and then
place the cope on top and locking the mould. After the casting is done, the sand
is shaken off, and the core is pulled away and usually broken off.
According to Timings (1998), the mould has a cavity which is the shape of the finished
product which the molten metal is poured into which the moulding is determined by the
sand rammed around a wooden pattern. The wooden pattern is the same shape as the
casting but larger to allow for volume shrinkage of the molten metal as it cools and
becomes hard. After the sand ramming, opening of the mould so that the pattern can be
removed from the cavity and reassembled for pouring, when in small amounts are need
the moulds are hand-made and when in large amounts, moulds are made with a semi or
fully automated process
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Fig 5. Schematic showing steps of the sand casting process (technology, 2011)
2.3 CASE STUDY OF SAND CASTING
Melron Corporation manufactures window and door hardware, including handles,

hinges and pulls. In its pilot run, Melron used an FDM matchplate made in ABS, to
create 96 sand casting moulds. Satisfied with the results, the pilot run was halted.
Consequently, Melron Corporation believes that, conservatively, this matchplate could
produce 5,000 sand casting moulds. The matchplate is measured 660*445 mm was
completed in one week. Previously, this matchplate would have been machined in
aluminium by a subcontractor and would have taken six to seven weeks. Melron also
determined that it saved 500 dollars on the cost of the matchplate. With the easy and
automated operation of FDM, this solution for pattern making offers the Melron the
opportunity to gain control over the entire process by bringing matchplate production
in-house. Speed and flexibility are critical to any manufacturers, but for Melron, fast,
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flexible and cost effective solutions are imperative. Due to offshore competition, the
company is realigning its business focus. Instead of making stock items with long
product lifecycles, it is turning its attention to hardware for the residential and
restoration markets. The FDM solution enables Melron to rapidly and affordably deliver
small lot production of custom made hardware. Beyond mould making, Melron also
envisions FDM as a sales tool and manufacturing aid. When submitting a bid a custom
project, the company plans to include electroplated FDM prototypes to demonstrate its
concept to the prospective buyer. Melron also plans to incorporate FDM fixtures in its
machining operations. Production castings would be clamped into an FDM fixture for
finish machining. In sand casting, there are two components to the tool. The cope is the
top side of the tool, Depending on the type of metal that is poured; it may incorporate
the sprue, gates, vents, risers and filters. The drag is the bottom part of the tool. Like the
cope, its design is dependent on the cast metal. Usually, the drag incorporates the
runners, gates and wells. When undercuts are present, or if the cast part has hollow
areas, loose cores, which are also made of sand, are inserted into the cope and drag. The
process begins with the design of the cast part and the metal delivery pathways in the
mould. This data is then used to construct a pattern that forms the cope and drag. The
pattern is mounted in a four-sided box called a flask. Sand is then poured into the flask,
and it is packed tightly against the pattern. Binders, which are either clay or chemical
agent, hold compacted sand together. Molten metal is poured into the mould through the
sprue. It flows through the runners and gates into the part cavity. The metal also fills the
riser, which acts as a reservoir that continues to feed the part cavity as the metal cools
and shrinks. The metal is then allowed to cool and solidify, and the sand is broken away
from the parts. Although relatively simple in concept, sand casting require a great deal
of experience, The challenge is to design a tool that provides suitable pathways for
sufficient, non-turbulent flow of metal into part cavity and has proper venting for
release of any gases. Failure to do so will yield a casting with voids and imperfections.
Using FDM for pattern creation, sand casters have an efficient and effective way of
prototyping the tool design when perfected, proceeding directly to production casting.
The following process describes the steps required for sand casting with green sand that
is packed in a hunter automatic moulding machine. This machine uses matchplate
patterns. However, these steps can be used for dry sand application that use loose cores
or cope and drag patterns. It is also adaptable to manual sand packing processes. As the
guide detail, there is no need to change any element of the sand casting process when
using FDM patterns. Pattern design tool making and metal casting are all done as they
would be with any other pattern (Systems, 2009)
2.4 DIE-CASTING
Die-Casting is the process whereby a permanent metal mould is used and the charge of
molten metal is either allowed to run under the influence of gravity which is called
gravity die-casting. For the experiment at the Teesside University Manufacturing
Process Laboratory, we used gravity die-casting process. In gravity die-casting which is
also known as ‘permanent-mould casting’, the die is of metal and may be a multi-part
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design if the complex nature of the casting demands it. Metal cores of complex shapes
must be split in order to allow removal from the finished castings; otherwise sand cores
may have to be used. The cavity of die is filled under the influence of gravity, and the
charge may be poured by hand or it may be fed in automatically in modern high-speed
plant but for the experiment, it was poured by hand. Typical applications of gravity die-
casting are for the production of cylinder heads, pistons, gear and die blanks and
pressure die-casting to engine and pump parts, domestic appliances and toy parts. The
limitations of die-casting is that the dies are costly, small parts and for non-ferrous
metals.
2.5 CASE STUDY OF GRAVITY DIE-CASTING
Jinlogic’s expertise in supplying die casting is second to none as our knowledge of

Chinese too-making and equipment. Die casting is the process of forcing liquid metal
under pressure into cavities also known as dies. The die casting method is especially
suited for applications where a large volume of small to medium sized parts is needed
with good detail, a fine surface quality and dimensional consistency. The mould is
sprayed with lubricant and closed. The lubricant has two purposes. Firstly to help
control the temperature of the die and secondly, to assist in the removal of the casting
from the mould, molten metal is then shot into die under high pressure. Once the die is
filled, the pressure is maintained until the casting has cooled and hardened, The die is
then opened and the shot (shots are different from castings because there can be
multiple cavities in a die, yield multiple castings per shot) is removed and excess
material which includes the gates, runners, sprues and flash must be separated from the
castings (Enterprise, 2010)
2.6 GRAVITY DIE-CASTING EXPERIMENT
The gravity die-casting experiment was done by first spraying the mould with release
agent and placing in it in a drying oven set at 150 degrees for 20 minutes. However,
sufficient aluminium is melted to fill the mould; the mould is then to be clamped
together using a small G-clamp, then the mould assembly is held using a pair of tongs,
the melter and gas supply are turned on, then the lid and any slaggy material from the
melt top and then pour the molten metal. The molten metal is then poured smoothly and
given an allowing period for solidification, the casting is removed from mould and
place on the work table.
Pressure die-casting can be employed in a number of different types of machines but the
one which is most widely used is the cold-chamber machine which a charge of molten
metal is forced into the die by means of a plunger which as soon as the casting is solid,
the pattern moving is retracted and, as it comes against a fixed block, the ejector pins
are activated so that the casting is pushed out of the mould (Timings, 2000).
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High pressure die-casting machines and their dies shows a huge capital investment and it
should be apparent that the process is only economic where large batches of components
are involved which the minimum economic batch size varies between about 5000
components for simple parts to about 20000 components for complex parts, in order to
ensure that the die costs and the cost of setting the more complex dies in the machine are
recovered (Timings, 2000).
Fig 6. The Casting Furnace
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Fig 7. A student placing aluminium into the hot furnace
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Fig 8. A student covering the furnace with lid.
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Fig 9. A student holding the mould with tong and G-clamp.
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Fig 10. Pouring of molten aluminium into mould.
The casted metal is the final piece of metal been casted. The casted metal is rough and it
is gun-like in shape due to the shape of the mould, it is removed from the mould and
placed on the work table place. The casted metal of the gravity die-casting is
metallurgically superior due into uniform internal structure, grains finer and rapid cool
rates. Gravity die-casting is mainly for aluminium alloys as used in the experiment.
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Fig 11. Die-casting machine
2.8 DEFINITIONS OF DIE-CASTING PROCESS
Cover die – The stationary half of a die-casting die, which forms the exterior or
appearance surface of the casting.
Die cavity – The impression in die into which pattern material is forced.
Ladle – Metal receptacle frequently lined with refractories used for transporting and
pouring molten metal.
Gate – The passage connecting a runner or overflow with a die cavity.
Gate runner – The runner in a die-casting die that is directly adjacent to the gate. The
runner feeds the injected metal to the gate.
Platen – Portion of a casting machine against which die sections are fastened, or of trim
presses against which trim dies are fastened.
Plunger – Ram or piston that forces molten metal into a die.
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Parting line – The joint between the cover and ejector portions of the die or mould.
Also, the mark left on the casting at this die joint.
Parting line, stepped – A condition on a die-casting where the parting line changes
abruptly from one level to another.
Sleeve - The molten metal chamber of a cold-chamber die-casting machine. This is a

hardened steel tube through which the shot plunger moves to inject the molten metal
into the die.
Ejector pins – A pin actuated to force the casting out of the die cavity and off the cores.
Ejector plate – Plate to which the ejector pins are attached and which actuates them
Fig 12. Diagram of The die-casting process
2.9 LOST-WAX CASTING
Lost-wax casting is the most ancient casting process. It is known that prehistoric man
had learned to fashioned image from wax and then clay around it. Mould is then fired to
be hardened. This process was invented in the 1500s by Benvenuto Cellini, who used it
to create art works in silver and gold, he kept the process a secret but later discovered
again in the end part of the 1800s and it was known as “cire perdue”, process since the
wax pattern which is expandable is required for the creation and production of mould, a
permanent mould must be first produced to create a wax pattern. The master mould
could be manufactured by casting a low melting-point alloy round a master pattern
(Higgins, 2006). Step to lost-wax casting are; 1. A mould is made of the sculpted
original type 2. A wax replication of the original type is created using mould. 3. The
wax replication is ceramic shell-coated in an investment process. 4. Wax replication is
melted out of the ceramic shell. 5. Molten bronze is poured into the ceramic shell till it
fills the cavity. 6. The ceramic is chipped away leaving a bronze replication of the
sculpted original type. 7. The bronze sculpture is coloured by the patina process (Jeff
Chose). Application of lost-wax casting is that it is used to produce complex shapes
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which are difficult to obtain by other casting processes. Limitations of lost-wax casting
process are it is very costly and the size of the components is limited to 2 kg
2.10 CASE STUDY OF LOST-WAX CASTING
Fortus 3D production systems is a company that is involved in lost wax casting which is
widely used for producing ferrous and non-ferrous metal parts. Lost wax casting
produces net shape parts with an excellent surface finish and dimensional accurateness.
This process of manufacturing is ideal for applications of very low production
quantities. About 200 or more alloys are available with lost wax casting which ranges
from ferrous to non-ferrous, the only process that is similar with the breadth of materials
is machining, but cannot create the complex geometries that investment casting can
deliver. The advantage of fused deposition modelling is that it removes the need for
tooling. With fused deposition modelling, the tooling cost is removed and lead time for
a cast part is slashed to just 10 days, this yield to low savings for a typical project,
which makes lost-wax casting viable for prototype quantities. Also, the fused deposition
modelling helps a soluble support technology which allows interior passages to be
created and patterns are produced without adding draft angles to the Computer-Aided
Design data. The lost-wax casting process start with a pattern which is an injection
moulded in foundry wax, but is replaced by ABS patterns made on a Fortus system.
Vents and gates are attached to the pattern which is attached to the sprue, after all the
patterns are mounted to sprue forming a casting tree. At that point, the casting tree is
ready for shelling. The casting tree is dipped repeatedly in ceramic slurry to create a
hard shell that is called the lost-wax. The patterns are melted out, which is called
“burnout” of the lost-wax, leaving a cavity in the shape of the part to be cast. A metal
alloy is melted, often in an induction furnace and poured into preheated lost-wax. After
it is cooled, the shell is broken away, the metal parts are cut from the casting tree and
gates and vents are grounded off.
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Fig 13. Fused depositional modelling pump body pattern
Fig 14.Shelling tree being dipped into ceramic slurry.
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Fig 15. Parts on a casting tree after shelling process.
With the fused depositional modelling pattern, lost-wax casting is practical for a
prototype and volume low in production application. Prototype castings of alloys are
ready for testing, evaluation and use in a less period of time. Creation of lost-wax
casting patterns out of Fortus ABS materials saves time and money on a volume low
production as well as lost-wax cast prototypes. Fused depositional modelling
technology eliminates the costly and time-consuming tool in lost wax casting process
(Incorporated, 2010)
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CHAPTER THREE
3.0 HOT ROLLING PROCESS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Rolling is a very important process since all metals are first prepared by rolling before
subsequent shaping operation processes. Rolling may be done with metal in the hot or
cold condition. When metal is made, it is first cast into large blocks of convenient
shapes known as ingots. An ingot is about 2m long, tapering slightly along its length,
and may be square, rectangular or octagonal cross-section. After stripping from the
mould, the hot ingot is passed between two heavy rolls so that its cross-section is
reduced, while at the same time length is increased. The rolls are reversible so as to
allow the ingot to traverse backwards and forward through the rolls, the roll opening
being slightly decreased between each pass. This initial rolling process reduces ingot
into what is known as a bloom, which is later cut to conventional lengths for further
rolling. The term bloom is used to describe semi-finished hot rolled metal that has an
approximate square section of 150 mm or more. Blooms are then re-rolled into billets
and then bars. A billet refers to semi-finished hot rolled metal having an approximate
square section varying between 30mm and 150 mm square. A bar, on the other hand
refers to a finished rolled section and whose length is considerably longer than its width.
Billets may be rolled into bars of square, round, rectangular or hexagonal section, or
alternatively of special section, e.g. angle, channel or ‘I’ section. Where the products of
the rolling process are to be in the form of plate sheet and strip the blooms are rolled
into slab, which are rectangular in section, thereby being better form for re-rolling into
flatter shapes. Rolling is carried out in the same fashion as for bars except that parallel
rolls are used. Where large quantities of sheet and strip material are required, several
parts of rolls are used. In this way, the material is continually passed from one set of
rolls to another, so that the material gets progressively thinner until the required
thickness is achieved. Steel products produced by hot rolling are always characterised
by a reddish blue (oxide) mill scale on the surface of the metal (Harris, 1979).The aim
and objective of the experiment is to hot roll beta brass, describe its microstructures and
measure its hardness using Vicker’s hardness scale
Hot rolling encourages a big saving in energy and time for production which results in
the formation of a uniformly fine grain in recrystallized material, replacing the coarse
grain structure and the product made is tougher, stronger and more ductile than the
original material. Factors affecting hot rolling are the amount of heat applied on the
material, the number of times the material is rolled, and number of seams in each rolling
bar the material used for the process. Application for hot rolling is use in making plate,
sheet, strip and shaped sections such as rolled-steel joists. Forging is for the production
of relatively simple shapes but with mechanical properties superior to those of castings.
Extrusion used for the making of many solids and hollow sections in materials (Higgins,
2006).
32
Also when using a rolling machine, the wear resistance of the roll for hot rolling is
significantly improved, the friction coefficient of the roll is improved and the good
resistant to rolling incident will affect the malleability and acoustic properties of brass.
3.2 HOT ROLLING EXPERIMENT
For the hot rolling experiment, a length of beta brass which is 57 % Cu brass that is
suitable for hot rolling, a piece of the beta brass is put in a furnace at a temperature of
about 850 degree Celsius for the first 30 minutes, after which it was brought out of the
furnace and rolled with the rolling machine to reduce the diameter. It is then returned
back to the furnace and it is removed out of the furnace after about 5 minutes for
another roll under a different size. This process was repeated done severally until a thin
strip compared to the original metal was rolled which was cut into 3 parts specimen A,
B and C. Specimen A was left alone, specimen B was returned to the furnace for 15
minutes, rolled and quenched in cold water and specimen C was cold rolled, returned
back to the furnace for 10 minutes after it was left to air cool. Specimen A, B and C
were cut and mounted in Bakelite, polished on polishing machines and tested for
hardness. The pictures below show the rolling process experiment.
33
Fig 16. A student placing the brass in the furnace
34
Fig 17 Rolling machine
35
Fig 18 Sawing a part of the brass
36
Fig 19. A student polishing the specimen
37
Fig 20 A student checking the hardness of the specimen using Vickers hardness
machine
38
Fig 21 Vickers hardness machine.
39
Fig 22 an automatic mounting press machine
The results obtained from the hot rolling experiments are displayed on the table below:
Table 2 Hot rolling hardness test

Specimen Hardness value
Original brass 152
Specimen A 135
Specimen B 117
Specimen C 124

The results obtained from the hardness test and microstructure of metal specimens
shows a variety of hardness on the processes which each metal have been through.
Specimen B had the best hardness value of 117 which is due to process it has been
through, continuous heating treatment processes have deformed the structures but the
process of rolling and quenching in cold water provided the metal a fast compacting and
hardening effect that made it very hard within a short period of time unlike the
specimen C that was left too cool after furnace treatment. The air cooling process on the
specimen C allowed for the adjustment of metal crystals but because of it been rolled so
many times, it still retains its hardness. The difference between specimen A and
Original brass is the action of heating and rolling on the brass that makes it harder and
ductile which is displayed in the re-alignment of lattice structure compared to the
original beta-brass piece (Higgins 2006).
40
Fig 23 Original specimen piece
41
Fig 24 Hot rolling (Specimen A)
Fig 25 Water-cooled (Specimen B)
42
Fig 26 Air-cooled (Specimen C)
Fig 27 A rolling schematic (Wikipedia, 2011)
43
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 SOFT SOLDERING
4.1 INTRODUCTION
According to (Timings, 1998), Soft soldering is a low temperature thermal joining

system in which the parent metal is not welded. This is essential that each of the joint
surfaces is tinned by a film of solder which are made to melt with tin-containing alloy
as solder filler filling the space between joint surfaces. Soft solders are basically tin-lead
alloys, some solders are for special applications which have additional alloying
elements. For a soldering to be ‘wet’ and successful, the jointed faces must be clean and
protected from the action of atmospheric oxygen so that oxide film will not occur.
Before making a joint, the soldering iron has to be heated up and tinned. The hot copper
bit is filed, flux is applied to prevent the oxide file reforming, and the cleaned bit is
loaded with solder. The metal joined is fluxed and tinned, the tinned surface are brought
into contact and held in place with the metal itself is raised to the soldering temperature
by the soldering iron. If the parent metal is not at the melting temperature of the solder,
a joint will not be created. They are different types of soldering techniques and their
applications: Wave soldering is a system of soldering for printed circuit boards and
resistors which is done by the passing of such board through a wave of solder which is
molten. This type of soldering is used in the manufacturing of electronics; Reflow
soldering is twin to the wave type in application process and also use in the electronic
manufacturing industry but has a different type of soldering technique and the hand
soldering is the one use in soldering iron and lean using tin alloy as fillers with a flux
that helps in oxidation process prevention for the solder and filler material. Problems of
soldering are; solder will not flow due to surface of metal not clean, solder “balls up” if
there is not enough solder and solder is heated too much, the solder runs away from the
joint due to not enough flux, pits in the solder seam due to solder joint has received too
much heat, solder joint have gaps if solder is not clean and solder flows unevenly due to
dirtiness of metal. A dry joint occurs when a soldered joint is badly done in which the
solder’s failure to wet the material when a soldered joint is badly done in which the
solder’s failure to wet the material.
4.2 COMPARISM BETWEEN SOLDERING, WELDING, BRAZING AND USE

OF ADHESIVE
Soldering and brazing are the ways which metals unite with a third joining metal
introduced into the joint in a liquid state and allowed to solidify. These joining
processes have a wide commercial use in uniting small electric parts (B.H. Amstead,
44
1987). It can be also being the gluing of metals which a metal is inserted between parts
to be joined (Higgins, 2006). Welding is when the surfaces of the parts are being joined
together by fusing; it is the metal joining process in which coalescence is obtained by
heat and pressure. Adhesive bonding is the replacing other joining operations because
the operation is economical, no machining operations, no change in material properties
and dissimilar materials can be joined. Materials used in adhesive bonding are: 1.
Epoxies 2. Anaerobics 3. Acrylic 4. Cyanoacrylates 5. Urethanes
Advantages of welding are: 1. Application to a very wide range of materials 2.

Versatility 3. Lends itself to the production of consistently high quality welds with
minimum operator skills. Disadvantages of welding are: 1. Reduction of depositional
rate. 2. Flat or horizontal position welding only 3. Incorrect selection of consumables
and parameters may lead to lower weld toughness.
Advantages of soldering are: 1. it requires temperature around 400 degree Fahrenheit 2.

It does not warp 3. The solder conducts electricity 4. Multiple connections with a single
operation 5. It is easy to learn. Disadvantages of soldering are: 1. It is difficult to
disconnect 2. It burns insulation 3. It causes damage to adjacent components 4. It
requires power 5. Difficult to repair. Advantages of brazing are: 1. It’s easy to learn 2.
Joining of dissimilar metals 3. Bond line is very neat in appearance 4. Strong joint
strength. Disadvantages of brazing are: 1. Long term effects of dissimilar metals in
constant contact may need to be examined 2. A bad brazed joint can have a very low
strength 3. The metal used to bond the two parts may be or may not be different in
colour but may or may not be an issue. Advantages of adhesives are: 1. It provides a
large stress-bearing area 2. It provides excellent fatigue strength 3. It provides smooth
contours. 4. It provides attractive strength-to-weight ratio 5. It is less expensive and
faster than mechanical fastening. Disadvantages of adhesives are: 1. Jigs and fixtures
may be needed 2. Pressure and heat may be required 3. The rigid control process is
usually necessary 4. The process requires special training 5. The surface must be
carefully cleaned well.
4.3 SOLDERING EXPERIMENT

The experiment was to observe the behaviourial pattern of Tin-Lead Alloy solder and
Propriety Multicore solder on different surfaces of metals. Four metals provided in two
plates each which are Copper, Steel, Brass and Aluminium were provided and each of
the metal plate surface were cleaned with emery paper to extradite dirt found on them.
The plates were covered with thin film of flux. Eight metal plates each of 60% Tin-Lead
Alloy weighing between 0.22-0.28g and the Propriety Multicore solder was cut out and
melting process were observed in 60 seconds after the melting started by placing each
of the alloys on each metal plate. The tables are shown below:
STEEL BRASS COPPER ALUMINIUM

PM 88 150 40 0 FLUX
TLA 113 615 120 0
PM 70 60 96 0 NON-
FLUX
45
TLA 78.5 50 24 0
Table 3. Area of spread after soldering test (in metres squared)
STEEL BRASS COPPER ALUMINIUM

PM 2 0 1 0 FLUX
TLA 4 1 1 0
PM 1 5 3 0 NON-
FLUX
TLA 10 6 2 0
Table 4. Wetting angles for soldering test (in degrees)

The soldering result from the experiment depicts that the propriety multicore solder had
a better melting characteristics when compared to 60 percent Tin-Lead Alloy. Checking
the results based on the surface of metals depicts that: 1. Aluminium does not give a
surface for soldering at all, both for non-fluxed and fluxed surfaces as the PM and TLA
both ball-rolled and didn’t solder with aluminium. This is due to the heating of
aluminium surface which creates oxides so quick that it makes it difficult for the solders
to form a bond on the aluminium surface. 2. On the non-fluxed surface of brass, the PM
solder is melted to a better degree than its TLA. On the flux surface, PM and TLA
solders melts at a better degree with spread areas of 615 metres squared and 150 metres
squared respectively. This process depicts that flux was able to cut down the surface
oxide formation which leads to a better spread and bonding with brass. The non-flux
copper surface has the same process with brass, but the fluxed copper surface depicts a
smaller wetting angle and a bigger spread when compared to brass. Steel shows a higher
wetting angle and a lower spread when compared to brass.
46
Fig 28 Soldering techniques (Sol11)
47
Fig 29 & 30 Heating of a base metal and measuring diameter of solder
48
Fig 31 Soldering samples
49
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 IMPACT TESTING MEASUREMENT
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Impact test measurement is the test used to depict the toughness of a material and its
capacity to resist mechanical shock (Higgins, 2006). According to (Alexander, 1987),
Impact test measurement is been devised in which a notched specimen such as mild
steel is hit by a heavy pendulum in which the energy absorbed is measured from the
height of the follow through of the pendulum. Impact test measurement is used to
determine the tendency of a material such as mild steel to behave in a brittle manner,
this type of test detects the differences between materials which are not observed in a
tension test. The principal measurement from the impact test is the energy absorbed in
fracturing the material, after the test material is broken, the pendulum rebounds to a
height which reduces as the energy is absorbed in fracture increases. The energy is
expressed in joules or Newton per metre squared which is directly from a calibrated dial
on the impact tester. The impact test measures the total energy absorbed in fracturing
the material such as mild steel, the load-line history information of the material
determines the energy required for initialling fracture and for propagating fracture.
Impact test can be used to determine whether or not a specimen experiences a ductile-
to-brittle transition as the temperature is decreased. At high temperatures, the impact
energy is large since the fracture is ductile and at low temperature, the impact energy
comes down as the fracture becomes more brittle. This transition is observed from the
fracture surfaces which appear dull or fibrous for ductile fracture and granular but shiny
for brittle fracture, with the ductile-brittle transition features of both will exist. When a
material such as mild steel experience ductile-brittle transition, the transitional
temperature which it’s occurring can be affected by strain rate, shape, size and the
relative dimension of the specimen, experience ductile-brittle transition, the transitional
temperature which its occurring can be affected by strain rate, shape, size and the
relative dimension of the specimen. The temperatures of all polymers are similar to
water but are however more complex which at high temperatures, they decompose
which is considers as its “boiling points” and Polymers are very viscoelastic when on
melting point. This depends on the polydispersity of the polymer; this experiment is to
investigate the ductile-brittle transition in carbon mild steel.
50
Fig 32 Impact testing machine
The yield strength of metals can also be used in making designed parts that can endure
static and cyclic load. For the cyclic load, the fatigue strength is very much useful. An
endurance test is achieved by loading the part and subjecting it to regular stress. The
Rockwell hardness tester is the most flexible hardness testing machine because its
hardness can be attained when measured on materials from films to carbon steel, the
first step in obtaining a reading is to force the penetrator and material into contact with
the specimen with a predetermined initial applied load then an increased force is applied
to the penetrator and the hardness reading is attained by noting the difference in
penetration caused by the final load which is compared to the initial load (Ostwald P,
1997). The Rockwell hardness test is very useful and good which is provided a number
of precautions are observed which are listed: 1. Clean and well seated indenter and
anvil. 2. Clean, dry and a smooth surface which is necessary for the Rockwell test. 3.
Flat and perpendicular to the indenter. 4. Spacing between indentations should be five
times the diameter of the indenter 5. The tests on the surface of cylindrical surfaces will
give readings of low value which the error will depend on the curvature, load, indenter
and hardness of the material.
51
Fig 33 Carbon steel samples
5.2 IMPACT TESTING EXPERIMENT
For the impact testing experiment, we were provided with notched specimens of 0.1, 0.4
and 0.8 % Carbon steels which each of the specimen are soaked for 2 minutes in liquid
nitrogen, at a temperature of less than 196 degree celsius, acetone with solid
carbondioxide at -78 degree celsius and water at 100 degree celsius. The specimens are
re-soaked to make sure that the temperatures are attained again for 20 seconds which is
transferred speedily to the impact testing machine to run the test. The fractured halves
are retained for observation
Results obtained from the impact testing experiment shows the energy measured at air
temperature of 22.5 degrees celsius was highest for the 0.1% carbon steel, followed by
0.4% carbon steel and lowest for 0.8% carbon steel, the fractured surface looks light-
blue in colour and its surface looks rough with the aid of the USB microscope. For
energy measured when specimen is soaked in hot water at 100 degrees celsius was
highest for the 0.1%carbon steel with a rough fracture and it is dark-blue, followed by
0.4% carbon steel which appears light-blue with a slight rough fracture and lowest for
the 0.8% carbon steel with dark-blue patches on the rough fractured surface. However,
for energy measured when specimen is soaked or immersed in liquid nitrogen at < 196
degrees celsius was highest for the 0.4%carbon steel with a smooth fracture and light-
52
blue in appearance, then followed by 0.8%carbon steel with also a smooth-like fracture
and 0.1%carbon steel is the lowest with a rough fractured surface. For the specimens
immersed in dry ice (i.e. acetone with solid carbondioxide), 0.1% carbon steel had the
highest energy record which is dark-blue in colour and a rough fracture, followed by
0.4% carbon steel and the lowest energy record is 0.8% carbon steel which is light-blue
in colour with the aid of a USB microscope.
Fig 34 A student immersing specimen (i.e. mild steel) in liquid nitrogen
0.1% C 0.4% C 0.8% C

AIR 17 12 7.5
HOT WATER 15 11.4 5.8
LIQUID 2 3.2 2.5
NITROGEN
DRY ICE 16 6.2 4
Table 5 Energy values from the impact testing experiment (in Newton per metres
squared).
53
Fig 35 0.1% fractured carbon steel (air).
54
Fig 38 0.1% fractured carbon steel (hot water).
55
Fig 41 0.1% fractured carbon steel (liquid nitrogen).
Fig 42 0.4% fractured carbon steel (liquid nitrogen)
Fig 43 0.8% fractured carbon steel (liquid nitrogen)
56
Fig 44 0.1% fractured carbon steel (dry ice).
57
18
16
14
12
10 0.1%C
0.4%C
8
0.8%C
6
0
-196 -78 22.5 100
Fig 47 A graph showing temperature against energy to fracture for each of the carbon
steel specimens
REFERENCES
Alexander, J.M, Brewer, R.C, Rowe, G.W. (1987) Manufacturing Technology. 2nd.
West Sussex : Ellis Horwood Limited, 1987. pp. p7 -8. Vol. 1. ISBN.
An Introduction to MIG welding. Weldability. [Online] [Cited: 01 April 2011.]

www.migtigarc.co.uk/intro_MIG_welding.pdf.
B.H. Amstead, P.F. Ostwald, M.L. Begeman. (1987) Manufacturing Processes. 8th.
United State of America : John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 1987. pp. p156-157. ISBN.
Encyclopedia, Wikipedia. (2011) Fabrication (metal). Wikipedia. [Online] 23 February

2011. [Cited: 14 March 2011.] en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabrication_(metal).
Enterprise, Jinlogic. (2010) Die-casting process. Jinlogic. [Online] 2010. [Cited: 13

March 2011.] www.jinlogic.com/die_casting_Process.php.
G4vees2. weld procedures. [Online] [Cited: 02 April 2011.] www.weldprocedures.
Harris, P J. (1979) Manufacturing Technology 2. Manufacturing Technology 2.

London : Butterworth&Co.Ltd, 1979, 4, pp. p36-37.
Higgins, R.A. (2006) Materials For Engineers and Technicians. 4th. United Kingdom :
Newness-Elsevier, 2006. p. p36. ISBN.
Incorporated, Fortus 3D Production Systems Stratasys. (2010) Investment Casting.

Fortus. [Online] 2010. [Cited: 15 March 2011.]
www.fortus.com/..../Application_Guides_(AII)/AG-Investmentcasting-0109.pdf.
58
Jeff Chose, Michael Edge, Jerry jiritano and Ron young. Maiden Foundry. San Jose
State university:Davidson College of Engineering. [Online] [Cited: 08 March 2011.]
www.engr.sjsu.edu/..../images/lecture_powerpoints/Lostwaxcastingprocess.pdf.
Ostwald P, F Munoz J. (1997) Manufacturing Processes and Systems. Ninth Edition.

United State of America : John Wiley & Son, Inc., 1997. p. p27. ISBN.
Rajender, Singh. (2006) Introduction to Basic Manufacturing Process and Workshop

Technology. s.l. : New Age International, 2006. ISBN.
Rao, K Varaprasad. (2009) Manufacturing Science And Technology:Manfacturing

Process and Machine Tool. s.l. : New Age International, 2009. ISBN.
Soldering techniques. Electronix express, curricular linux environment at RICE and

Harmony central forum. [Online] [Cited: 01 04 2011.] www.elexp.com,
www.clear.rice.edu and acapella.harmony-central.com.
Systems, Fortus 3D Production. (2009) Sand Blasting. Fortus. [Online] 01 2009.

[Cited: 08 03 2011.] www.fortus.com/.../Downloads/Application_Guide_(AII)/AG-
SandCasting_0109.pdf.
Technology, Hong Kong University of science and. (2011) Lectures 2. Basic of metal
casting. Hong Kong University of science and technology. [Online] 2011. [Cited: 08 03
2011.] www.ielm.ust.hk/dfaculty/ajaycourses/ieem215/lec2_casting.pdf.
Timings, R.L Wilkinson, S.P. (2000) Manufacturing Technology. 2nd. Essex : Pearson
Education Limited, 2000. p. p39. ISBN.
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Longman Limited, 1998. pp. p237-241. Vol. 1. ISBN.
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20 March 2011.] en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolling_(metalworking).
59

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Manufacturing Process Technology Assignment 01 K0155118 2011

SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

MANUFACTURING PROCESS TECHNOLOGY

Victor Obinnaya Chikezie Nwosu

MSc Environmental Technology

Supervisor: Professor Farhad Nabhani

18th April 2011

2.9 Lost-Wax Casting

5.0 Impact Testing Measurement

Fig 1.0 Student performing MIG welding

Fig 3.0 Double V-type joint

Fig 4.0 MIG welding machine

Fig 5.0 Schematic showing steps of Sand Casting process

Fig 6.0 The Casting furnace

Fig 7.0 A student placing aluminium into the hot furnace

Fig 8.0 A student covering the furnace with lid

Fig 10 Pouring of molten aluminium into mould

Fig 11 Die-casting machine

Fig 12 Diagram of the die-casting process

Fig 13 Fused Depositional Modelling Pump Body Pattern

Fig 14 Shelling tree being dipped into ceramics slurry

Fig 15 Parts on a Casting tree after shelling process

Fig 16 A student placing the brass in the furnace

Fig 17 Rolling machine

Fig 18 Sawing a part of the brass

Fig 19 A Student polishing the specimen

Fig 22 an Automatic Mounting Press Machine

Fig 23 Original Specimen piece

Fig 24 Hot rolling (Specimen A)

Fig 25 Water-cooled (Specimen B)

Fig 26 Air-cooled (Specimen C)

Fig 27 A rolling schematic

Fig 28 Soldering techniques

Fig 31 Soldering samples

Fig 32 Impact testing machine

Fig 33 Carbon steel sample

Fig 34 A student immersing a specimen (i.e. mild steel) in liquid steel

Fig 35 0.1% Fractured carbon steel (air)

Fig 36 0.4% Fractured carbon steel (air)

Fig 37 0.8% Fractured carbon steel (air)

Fig 38 0.1% Fractured carbon steel (hot water)

Fig 39 0.4% Fractured carbon steel (hot water)

Fig 40 0.8% Fractured carbon steel (hot water)

Fig 41 0.1% Fractured carbon steel (liquid nitrogen)

Fig 42 0.4% Fractured carbon steel (liquid nitrogen)

Fig 43 0.8% Fractured carbon steel (liquid nitrogen)

Fig 44 0.1% Fractured carbon steel (dry ice)

Fig 45 0.4% Fractured carbon steel (dry ice)

Fig 46 0.8% Fractured carbon steel (dry ice)

Table 2 Hot rolling hardness test

Table 3 Area of spread after soldering test (in metres squared)

Table 4 Wetting angles for soldering test (in degrees)

1.0 MANUFACTURE AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WIELDED

1.2 GAS WELDING PROCESS

1.3 MIG WELDING PROCESS

1.4 BRAZING PROCESS

1.5 WELDING EXPERIMENT

Fig.1 Student performing MIG welding.

1.6 TENSILE TEST

1.7 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

Fig 3 Double V-type joint (G4v11)

Fig 4 MIG welding machine (AnI11)

Fabrication refers to building metals structures by cutting, bending an assembling.

2.2 SAND CASTING