What Is Phosphorylation?

Before defining phosphorylation, let's briefly discuss metabolism, which is the sum of all the biochemical processes occurring
within a living system.
The metabolic process breaks down organic matter to release energy, which is then used to build up cellular components. The
biomolecules that facilitate this work of building, balancing, and breaking down things are proteins - the workhorses of the cell.
A number of modifications made to proteins serve to either activate, deactivate, or direct the function of that protein. These are
known as post-translational modifications (PTMs), the most common of which is phosphorylation.

Phosphorylation is the process through which a phosphate group is transferred from one molecule to a protein,
usually within a biological system.
A protein being phosphorylated is like drinking a Red Bull before a workout - it prepares a molecule for some specialized task.

Phosphorylation: A biochemical process that involves the addition of phosphate to an organic compound.
Examples include the addition of phosphate to glucose to produce glucose monophosphate and the addition of phosphate to
adenosine diphosphate (ADP) to form adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
Phosphorylation is carried out through the action of enzymes known as phosphotransferases or kinases.

Kinase

- any of various enzymes which catalyze the transfer of a phosphate group from a donor molecule, such as ADP or ATP, to an
acceptor molecule; such transfer also often involve the transfer of useful chemical energy with which the cell can do work.

-Enzymes that facilitate phosphate group transfer to substrate

-enzyme can catalyze the transfer of phosphate groups from high-energy, phosphate-donating molecules to particular substrates.
This process is identified as phosphorylation when the substrate gains a phosphate group and the high-energy molecule of ATP
donates a phosphate group. In this phosphorylation process, kinases play a significant role, and it is a part of the larger family of
phosphotransferases. Thus, kinases are very important in cell metabolism, protein regulation, cellular transport, and numerous
cellular pathways.

Types of Phosphorylation
There are many types of phosphorylation:

 Some involve the transfer of phosphate to protein.

 Others consist of the production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by phosphorylation of adenosine diphosphate (ADP).
 A third phosphorylation type helps to maintain the balance of blood sugar within the body and promote metabolic
processes. While there are many more types, we will cover these three in further detail.

Substrate-Level Phosphorylation
Substrate-level phosphorylation includes the transfer of inorganic phosphate via a donor molecule called guanosine
triphosphate (GTP) to ADP in order to form ATP. In this reaction, an enzyme known as succinyl coenzyme A synthetase
facilitates the production of ATP from succinyl coenzyme A, inorganic phosphate, and ADP.

1. The first step is the displacement of coenzyme A by inorganic phosphate to form succinyl phosphate.
2. The phosphate is then removed, forming succinate and GTP.
3. In the final step, the phosphate is transferred to ADP to produce the high-energy ATP.

Only 2 molecules of ATP are formed from each molecule of glucose in substrate-level phosphorylation.
Is a metabolic reaction that results in the formation of ATP or GTP by the direct transfer of a phosphoryl (PO3) group to ADP or
GDP from another phosphorylated compound.
When does substrate level phosphorylation occur?
-When the phosphate groups are transferred from donor molecules.
Oxidative Phosphorylation
In contrast to this process, oxidative phosphorylation produces about 34 ATP.

Oxidative phosphorylation uses the downward flow of electrons to pump hydrogen ions uphill.

The energy from the flow of this hydrogen ions back downhill is used to stick a phosphate group onto a molecule of ADP,
forming ATP. ATP can then prime other molecules within the cell to do work by giving its phosphates away. This process like
substrate-level phosphorylation, occurs within a mitochondrion.

Overview:

Oxidative Phosphorylation (OP) is an ATP producing part of cellular respiration. "Oxidative" means that OP is an aerobic process,
meaning it only occurs in the presence of oxygen (O2).

Purpose:
Oxidative phosphorylation uses the proton gradient established by the electron transport chain in mitochondria to power the
synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) from adenoside diphosphate (ADP) and phosphate (Pi). OP produces much more ATP
than glycolysis - about 28 molecules. This ATP can then be hydrolized by water to release free energy. OP is the main form of ATP
production in aerobically respiring organisms.

Where it Takes Place:

Oxidative phosphorylation takes place in the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells, specifically in the inner membrane, matrix, and
intermembrane space. In prokaryotic cells, it occurs in the cytosol.

Steps:
Oxidative Phosphorylation is essentially an extension of the electron transport chain (ETC) of the mitochondria, occurring in a
new protein complex, complex V. If you would like to review the electron transport chain before continuing this article, click the
link above.

A quick review of the ETC: This is the "oxidation" part of oxidative phosphorylation. It involves the passage of electrons through
four different protein complexes within the inner mitochondrial membrane, which simultaneously pumps protons into the
intermembrane space between the inner and outer membranes. This creates a proton gradient, which is then used to power ATP
synthesis. Now, on to the good stuff.

Chemiosmosis: The actual synthesis of ATP using the proton gradient constitutes the "Phosphorylation" aspect of oxidative
phosphorylation. Due to the ETC, a high concentration of protons are outside the inner membrane, producing a positive charge,
and a high concentration of electrons are inside the inner membrane, producing a negative charge. This creates a large difference
in electrical charges, which is called a proton-motive force. This force just means that the protons on the outside are attracted to
the electrons on the inside, so much so that they want to diffuse (move) through the inner membrane. The motive force pumps
protons back into the mitochondrial matrix through the fifth complex in the inner membrane, known as ATP synthase.

Hint: Before continuing, it's important to understand the difference between exergonic reactions and endergonic reactions.
Exergonic chemical reactions occur on their own, without the need of free energy within the cell, and usually release free energy.
Endergonic chemical reactions, however, will not occur without the addition of some form of free energy that pushes the
reaction along.

The synthesis of ATP from ADP and a phosphate is endergonic, meaning ATP will not be synthesized without energy powering the
reaction - kind of like how electronics won't turn on unless you plug them in. This is where ATP synthase comes in. As protons
flow through the inner membrane, ATP synthase couples the energy released from the proton-motive force with the reaction
between ADP and phosphate, pushing the two compounds together to create ATP. This reaction also creates a molecule of water,
but ATP is the real payout.

Oxidative Phosphorylation Steps:

Other Definition of OP:

The phosphorylation of adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by the complex of oxidation
reduction reactions localized in the electron transport chain and ATP synthetase enzymes of the inner cristae membranes of the
mitochondria which use the energy derived from the oxidation of nutrients such as glucose or fatty acids and delivered to the
system by electron transport molecules such as FAD and NAD.

Where does oxidative pho. Occur? Where does the energy from making ATP come from?
-On the inner membranes of the mitochondria - Oxidation-reduction reactions

When does oxidative pho. occur? Where is ATP generated from oxidation-reduction reactions
-In aerobic respiration released?
-In the transfer of electron along a chain of electron carrier
molecules
Other info of two:

Two methods of ATP Synthesis

Substrate level phosphorylation

-direct ATP formation through phosphate transfer from substrate to ADP
-Occurs in glycolysis and Kreb cycle
Oxidative Phosphorylation
-indirect ATP formation through redox reactions involving oxygen as a final electron acceptor
-driven by the electron transport chain

The key difference between substrate level phosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation is that in substrate level
phosphorylation, a phosphate group from a phosphorylated compound is directly transferred to ADP or GDP to form ATP or
GTP without involving another molecules while in oxidative phosphorylation, nutrients or chemicals provide the energy to
transfer a phosphate group to ADP and produce high energy ATP with the help of electron or H+ transport system.

Photophosphorylation
In the process of photosynthesis, the phosphorylation of ADP to form ATP using the energy of sunlight is
called photophosphorylation. Only two sources of energy are available to living organisms: sunlight and
reduction-oxidation (redox) reactions.

Photophosphorylation is the light dependent process by which a proton gradient generates ATP from ADP and Pi.

ADP + Pi →ATP synthase→ ATP

The process of generating a proton gradient resembles that of the electron transport chain of respiration.

Photophosphorylation may be cyclic or noncyclic:

In cyclic photophosphorylation, excited electrons resulting from the absorption of light in Photosystem I are
received by the primary electron acceptor and then transferred to the cytb6-f complex, which acts as an electron
transport chain. The electrons are returned back to the reaction center of Photosystem I. The excited electrons of
cyclic photophosphorylation generate the proton gradient that the ATPase employs to synthesize ATP. No reduction
of NADP+ occurs in cyclic photophosphorylation.

In noncyclic photophosphorylation, ATP is generated by the protons gradient created across the thylakoid
membranes during the Z-scheme (diagram). The Cytochrome b6-f complex acts as an electron transfer chain. As the
electrons release energy during a series of redox reactions, protons are pumped into the thylakoid space.
This proton gradient is used for chemiosmotic generation of ATP. The excited electrons are passed on to
Photosystem II, where an extra photon of light is harnessed for the reduction of NADP+.
Photophosphorylation refers to the use of light energy from photosynthesis to ultimately provide the energy to
convert ADP to ATP, thus replenishing the universal energy currency in living things.
In the simplest systems in prokaryotes, photosynthesis is used for the production of energy, and not for the
building of any biological molecules. In these systems there is a process called cyclic photophosphorylation
which just accomplishes the ADP to ATP process for immediate energy for these cells.
Photophosphorylation in ordinary plants is a much more ambitious undertaking. In the process called noncyclic
photophosphorylation, a plant must accomplish the splitting of water, the conversion of ADP to ATP, and the
provision of the reduce coenzyme NADPH to power the synthesis of energy storage molecules.

Other Info:

Where does photophosphorylation occur?

-In the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts

When does photophosphorylation occur?

-In the light dependant of photosynthesis

In photophosphorylation where does energy for making ATP

come from?
-Light

In photophosphorylation where is ATP released?

-In the transfer of electrons along a chain of electron carrier
molecules