CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY:

Thermal conductivity (often denoted k, λ, or κ) is the property of a material

to conduct heat. It is evaluated primarily in terms of the Fourier's Law for heat
conduction.

Heat transfer occurs at a lower rate in materials of low thermal conductivity

than in materials of high thermal conductivity. Correspondingly, materials of high
thermal conductivity are widely used in heat sink applications and materials of low
thermal conductivity are used as thermal insulation. The thermal conductivity of a
material may depend on temperature. The reciprocal of thermal conductivity is
called thermal resistivity. Thermal Conductivity - k - is the quantity of heat
transmitted due to an unit temperature gradient, in unit time under steady
conditions in a direction normal to a surface of the unit area. Thermal Conductivity
- k - is used in the Fourier's equation.

Definition

The reciprocal of thermal conductivity is thermal resistivity, usually expressed

in kelvin-meters per watt (K⋅m⋅W−1). For a given thickness of a material, that
particular construction's thermal resistance and the reciprocal property, thermal
conductance, can be calculated. Unfortunately, there are differing definitions for
these terms. Thermal conductivity, k, often depends on temperature. Therefore, the
definitions listed below make sense when the thermal conductivity is temperature
independe

1
1.1.1 Conductance

For general scientific use, thermal conductance is the quantity of heat that
passes in unit time through a plate of particular area and thickness when its
opposite faces differ in temperature by one kelvin. For a plate of thermal
conductivity k, area A and thickness L, the conductance calculated is kA/L,
measured in W⋅K−1 (equivalent to: W/°C). ASTM C168-15, however, defines
thermal conductance as "time rate of steady state heat flow through a unit area of a
material or construction induced by a unit temperature difference between the body
surfaces" and defines the units as W/(m2⋅K) (Btu/(h⋅ft2⋅°F)) The thermal
conductance of that particular construction is the inverse of the thermal resistance.
Thermal conductivity and conductance are analogous to electrical conductivity
(A⋅m−1⋅V−1). There is also a measure known as heat transfer coefficient: the
quantity of heat that passes in unit time through a unit area of a plate of particular
thickness when its opposite faces differ in temperature by one kelvin. The
reciprocal is thermal insulance. Thermal conductance = kA/L, measured in
W⋅K−1 or in ASTM C16W/(m2⋅K

1.2 Thermal conductivity measurement

There are a number of possible ways to measure thermal conductivity, each

of them suitable for a limited range of materials, depending on the thermal
properties and the medium temperature. Two classes of methods exist to measure
the thermal conductivity of a sample: steady-state and non-steady-state (or
transient) methods.

2
1.2.1 Steady-state methods

In general, steady-state techniques perform a measurement when the

temperature of the material measured does not change with time. This makes
the signal analysis straightforward (steady state implies constant signals). The
disadvantage is that a well-engineered experimental setup is usually needed.
In geology and geophysics, the most common method for consolidated rock
samples is the divided bar. There are various modifications to these devices
depending on the temperatures and pressures needed as well as sample sizes.
A sample of unknown conductivity is placed between two samples of known
conductivity (usually brass plates). The setup is usually vertical with the hot
brass plate at the top, the sample in between then the cold brass plate at the
bottom. Heat is supplied at the top and made to move downwards to stop any
convection within the sample. Measurements are taken after the sample has
reached to the steady state (with zero heat gradient or constant heat over
entire sample), this usually takes about 30 minutes and over.

Other steady-state methods

For good conductors of heat, Searle's bar method can be used. For poor
conductors of heat, Lees' disc method can be used.

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1.3 Transient methods

The transient techniques perform a measurement during the process of

heating up. The advantage is that measurements can be made relatively
quickly. Transient methods are usually carried out by needle probes. Non-
steady-state methods to measure the thermal conductivity do not require the
signal to obtain a constant value. Instead, the signal is studied as a function of
time. The advantage of these methods is that they can in general be performed
more quickly, since there is no need to wait for a steady-state situation. The
disadvantage is that the mathematical analysis of the data is in general more
difficult.

1.3.1 Transient plane source method

FIG 1.1 TPS sensor, model Hot Disk

Transient Plane Source Method, utilizing a plane sensor and a special

mathematical model describing the heat conductivity, combined with electronics,
enables the method to be used to measure Thermal Transport Properties. It covers a

4
thermal conductivity range of at least 0.01-500 W/m/K (in accordance with ISO
22007-2) and can be used for measuring various kinds of materials, such as solids,
liquid, paste and thin films etc. In 2008 it was approved as an ISO-standard for
measuring thermal transport properties of polymers (November 2008). This TPS
standard also covers the use of this method to test both isotropic and anisotropic
materials.

The Transient Plane Source technique typically employs two samples

halves, in-between which the sensor is sandwiched. Normally the samples should
be homogeneous, but extended use of transient plane source testing of
heterogeneous material is possible, with proper selection of sensor size to
maximize sample penetration. This method can also be used in a single-sided
configuration, with the introduction of a known insulation material used as sensor
support.

The flat sensor consists of a continuous double spiral of electrically

conducting nickel (Ni) metal, etched out of a thin foil. The nickel spiral is situated
between two layers of thin polyimide film Kapton. The thin Kapton films provides
electrical insulation and mechanical stability to the sensor. The sensor is placed
between two halves of the sample to be measured. During the measurement a
constant electrical effect passes through the conducting spiral, increasing the
sensor temperature. The heat generated dissipates into the sample on both sides of
the sensor, at a rate depending on the thermal transport properties of the material.
By recording temperature vs. time response in the sensor, the thermal conductivity,
thermal diffusivity and specific heat capacity of the material can be calculated. For
highly conducting materials, very large samples are needed (some litres of
volume).

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1.3.2 Modified transient plane source (MTPS) method

FIG 1.2 Modified Transient Plane Source Sensor

A variation of the above method is the Modified Transient Plane Source

Method (MTPS) developed by Dr. Nancy Mathis. The device uses a one-sided,
interfacial, heat reflectance sensor that applies a momentary, constant heat source
to the sample. The difference between this method and traditional transient plane
source technique described above is that the heating element is supported on a
backing, which provides mechanical support, electrical insulation and thermal
insulation. This modification provides a one-sided interfacial measurement in
offering maximum flexibility in testing liquids, powders, pastes and solids.

6
1.3.3 Transient line source method

FIG 1.3 Series of needle probes used for transient line source measurements.

The physical model behind this method is the infinite line source with constant
power per unit length. The temperature profile at a distance at time is as follows

T (t,r) = Q / 4k * Ei * (r^2/4at)

where

Q is the power per unit length, in [W·m−1]

k is the thermal conductivity of the sample, in [W·m−1·K−1]

Ei is the exponential integral, a transcendent mathematical function

r is the radial distance to the line source

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 a is the thermal diffusivity, in [m2·s−1]

t is the amount of time that has passed since heating has started.

1.3.4 Modified transient line source method

A variation on the Transient Line Source method is used for measuring the
thermal conductivity of a large mass of the earth for Geothermal Heat
Pump (GHP/GSHP) system design. This is generally called Ground Thermal
Response Testing (TRT) by the GHP industry. Understanding the ground
conductivity and thermal capacity is essential to proper GHP design, and using
TRT to measure these properties was first presented in 1983 (Mogensen). The now
commonly used procedure, introduced by Eklöf and Gehlin in 1996 and now
approved by ASHRAE involves inserting a pipe loop deep into the ground (in a
well bore, filling the anulus of the bore with a grout substance of known thermal
properties, heating the fluid in the pipe loop, and measuring the temperature drop
in the loop from the inlet and return pipes in the bore. The ground thermal
conductivity is estimated using the line source approximation method—plotting a
straight line on the log of the thermal response measured. A very stable thermal
source and pumping circuit are required for this procedure.

More advanced Ground TRT methods are currently under development. The DOE
is now validating a new Advanced Thermal Conductivity test said to require half
the time as the existing approach, while also eliminating the requirement for a
stable thermal source. This new technique is based on multi-dimensional model-
based TRT data analysis.

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1.4 Laser flash method

The laser flash method is used to measure thermal diffusivity of a thin disc
in the thickness direction. This method is based upon the measurement of the
temperature rise at the rear face of the thin-disc specimen produced by a short
energy pulse on the front face. With a reference sample specific heat can be
achieved and with known density the thermal conductivity results as follows

k(t) = a(T). cp(T). ρ(T)

where

k is the thermal conductivity of the sample, in [W·m−1·K−1]

a is the thermal diffusivity of the sample, in [m2 ·s−1]

cp is the specific heat capacity of the sample, in [J·kg−1·K−1]

ρ is the density of the sample, in [kg·m−3]

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1.5 TECHNIQUES USED
1.5.1 GUARDED HOT PLATE

FIG 1.4 GUARDED HOT PLATE a) Two specimen. b) Single specimen

1.5.2 PIPE METHOD

FIG 1.5 Pipe method set up.

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1.5.3 DIRECT HEATING METHOD

FIG 1.6 Direct heating method setup

1.5.4 3-OMEGA METHOD

FIG 1.7 3-Omega method setup

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1.6 EMBEDDED SYSTEM

FIG 1.8 Embedded circuit

An embedded system is a computer system with a dedicated function with

in a larger mechanical, electrical system, often with real-time
computing constraints. It is embedded as part of a complete device often including
hardware and mechanical parts. Embedded systems control many devices in
common use today. Ninety-eight percent of all microprocessors are manufactured
as components of embedded systems.

Examples of properties of typical embedded computers when compared with

general-purpose counterparts are low power consumption, small size, rugged
operating ranges, and low per-unit cost. This comes at the price of limited
processing resources, which make them significantly more difficult to program and
to interact with. However, by building intelligence mechanisms on top of the
hardware, taking advantage of possible existing sensors and the existence of a
network of embedded units, one can both optimally manage available resources at
the unit and network levels as well as provide augmented functions, well beyond
those available. For example, intelligent techniques can be designed to manage
power consumption of embedded systems.

Modern embedded systems are often based on microcontrollers (i.e. CPU's

with integrated memory or peripheral interfaces), but ordinary microprocessors
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(using external chips for memory and peripheral interface circuits) are also
common, especially in more-complex systems. In either case, the processor(s) used
may be types ranging from general purpose to those specialized in certain class of
computations, or even custom designed for the application at hand. A common
standard class of dedicated processors is the digital signal processor (DSP).

Since the embedded system is dedicated to specific tasks, design engineers

can optimize it to reduce the size and cost of the product and increase the reliability
and performance. Some embedded systems are mass-produced, benefiting
from economies of scale.

Embedded systems range from portable devices such as digital

watches and MP3 players, to large stationary installations like traffic lights, factory
controllers, and largely complex systems like hybrid vehicles, MRI, and avionics.
Complexity varies from low, with a single microcontroller chip, to very high with
multiple units, peripherals and networks mounted inside a large chassis or
enclosure.

1.6.1 APPLICATIONS

Embedded systems are commonly found in consumer, cooking, industrial,

automotive, medical, commercial fields. Telecommunications systems employ
numerous embedded systems from telephone switches for the network to cell
phones at the end user. Computer networking uses dedicated routers and network
bridges to route data. Consumer electronics include MP3 players, mobile phones,
video games, digital cameras, GPS receivers and printers. Household appliances,
such as microwave ovens, washing machines and dishwashers, include embedded
systems to provide flexibility, efficiency and features. Advanced HVAC systems

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use networked thermostats to more accurately and efficiently control temperature
that can change by time of day and season. Home automation uses wired- and
wireless-networking that can be used to control lights, climate, security,
audio/visual, surveillance, etc., all of which use embedded devices for sensing and
controlling. Transportation systems from flight to automobiles increasingly use
embedded systems. New airplanes contain advanced avionics such as inertial
guidance systems and GPS receivers that also have considerable safety
requirements. Various electric motors — brushless DC motors, induction
motors and DC motors — use electric/electronic motor
controllers. Automobiles, electric vehicles, and hybrid vehicles increasingly use
embedded systems to maximize efficiency and reduce pollution. Other automotive
safety systems include anti-lock braking system (ABS), Electronic Stability
Control (ESC/ESP), traction control (TCS) and automatic four-wheel drive.
Medical equipment uses embedded systems for vital signs monitoring, electronic
stethoscopes for amplifying sounds, and various medical
imaging (PET, SPECT, CT, and MRI) for non-invasive internal inspections.
Embedded systems within medical equipment are often powered by industrial
computers.

1.6.2 CHARACTERISTICS

Embedded systems are designed to do some specific task, rather than be a

general-purpose computer for multiple tasks. Some also have real-
time performance constraints that must be met, for reasons such as safety and
usability; others may have low or no performance requirements, allowing the
system hardware to be simplified to reduce costs. Embedded systems are not
always standalone devices. Many embedded systems consist of small parts within a

14
larger device that serves a more general purpose. For example, the Gibson Robot
Guitar features an embedded system for tuning the strings, but the overall purpose
of the Robot Guitar is, of course, to play music. Similarly, an embedded system in
an automobile provides a specific function as a subsystem of the car itself. The
program instructions written for embedded systems are referred to as firmware,
and are stored in read-only memory or flash memory chips. They run with limited
computer hardware resources: little memory, small or non-existent keyboard or
screen.

1.6.3 USER INTERFACE

Embedded system text user interface using MicroVGA Embedded systems

range from no user interface at all, in systems dedicated only to one task, to
complex graphical user interfaces that resemble modern computer desktop
operating systems. Simple embedded devices use buttons, LEDs, graphic or
character LCDs(HD44780 LCD for example) with a simple menu system.

More sophisticated devices that use a graphical screen with touch sensing or
screen-edge buttons provide flexibility while minimizing space used: the meaning
of the buttons can change with the screen, and selection involves the natural
behavior of pointing at what is desired. Handheld systems often have a screen with
a "joystick button" for a pointing device.

Some systems provide user interface remotely with the help of a serial
(e.g. RS-232, USB, I²C, etc.) or network (e.g. Ethernet) connection. This approach
gives several advantages: extends the capabilities of embedded system, avoids the
cost of a display, simplifies BSP and allows one to build a rich user interface on
the PC. A good example of this is the combination of an embedded web
server running on an embedded device (such as an IP camera) or a network router.
15
The user interface is displayed in a web browser on a PC connected to the device,
therefore needing no software to be installed.

1.6.4 Processors in embedded systems

Embedded processors can be broken into two broad categories. Ordinary

microprocessors (μP) use separate integrated circuits for memory and peripherals.
Microcontrollers (μC) have on-chip peripherals, thus reducing power consumption,
size and cost. In contrast to the personal computer market, many different
basic CPU architectures are used since software is custom-developed for an
application and is not a commodity product installed by the end user. Both Von
Neumann as well as various degrees of Harvard architectures are used. RISC as
well as non-RISC processors are found. Word lengths vary from 4-bit to 64-bits
and beyond, although the most typical remain 8/16-bit. Most architectures come in
a large number of different variants and shapes, many of which are also
manufactured by several different companies.

Numerous microcontrollers have been developed for embedded systems use.

General-purpose microprocessors are also used in embedded systems, but
generally, require more support circuitry than microcontrollers.

1.7 VISUAL BASIC

Visual Basic, third-generation event-driven programming
language and integrated development environment (IDE) from Microsoft for
its Component Object Model (COM) programming model first released in 1991
and declared legacy during 2008. Microsoft intended Visual Basic to be relatively
easy to learn and use. Visual Basic was derived from BASIC, a user-friendly

16
programming language designed for beginners, and it enables the rapid application
development (RAD) of graphical user interface (GUI) applications, access
to databases using Data Access Objects, Remote Data Objects, or ActiveX Data
Objects, and creation of ActiveX controls and objects.

A programmer can create an application using the components provided by

the Visual Basic program itself. Over time the community of programmers
developed third-party components. Programs written in Visual Basic can also use
the Windows API, which requires external function declarations.

The final release was version 6 in 1998 (now known simply as Visual
Basic). On April 8, 2008, Microsoft stopped supporting Visual Basic 6.0 IDE. The
Microsoft Visual Basic team still maintains compatibility for Visual Basic 6.0
applications on Windows Vista, Windows Server 2008 including R2, Windows
7, Windows 8, Windows 8.1, Windows Server 2012 and Windows 10 through its
"It Just Works" program. In 2014, some software developers still preferred Visual
Basic 6.0 over its successor, Visual Basic .NET. In 2014 some developers lobbied
for a new version of Visual Basic 6.0. In 2016, Visual Basic 6.0 won the technical
impact award at The 19th Annual D.I.C.E. Awards. A dialect of Visual
Basic, Visual Basic for Applications (VBA), is used as a macro or scripting
language within several Microsoft applications, including Microsoft Office.

1.7.1 CHARACTERISTICS of VB

Visual Basic builds upon the characteristics of BASIC.

 There are no line numbers as in earlier BASIC, code is grouped into

subroutines or methods

17
 Code Statements have no terminating character other than a line ending
(carriage return/line feed). Versions since at least VB 3.0 allowed that
statements can be implicitly multi-line with concatenation of strings or
explicitly using the underscore character (_) at the end of lines.
 Code comments are done with a single apostrophe (') character. ' This is a
comment
 Looping statement blocks begin and end with keywords: Do...Loop,
While...End While, For...Next .
 Multiple variable assignment is not possible. A = B = C does not imply that
the values of A, B and C are equal. The Boolean result of "Is B = C?" is stored
in A. The result stored in A would therefore be either false or true.
 Boolean constant True has numeric value −1. This is because the Boolean
data type is stored as a two's complement signed integer. In this construct −1
evaluates to all-1s in binary (the Boolean value True ), and 0 as all-0s (the

Boolean value False ). This is apparent when performing a

(bitwise) Not operation on the two's complement value 0, which returns the

two's complement value −1, in other words True = Not False . This inherent
functionality becomes especially useful when performing logical operations on
the individual bits of an integer such as And , Or , Xor and Not . This

definition of True is also consistent with BASIC since the early 1970s
Microsoft BASIC implementation and is also related to the characteristics of
CPU instructions at the time.
 Logical and bitwise operators are unified. This is unlike some C-derived
languages (such as Perl), which have separate logical and bitwise operators.
This again is a traditional feature of BASIC.

18
 Variable array base. Arrays are declared by specifying the upper and lower
bounds in a way similar to Pascal and Fortran. It is also possible to use the
Option Base statement to set the default lower bound. Use of the Option Base
statement can lead to confusion when reading Visual Basic code and is best
avoided by always explicitly specifying the lower bound of the array. This
lower bound is not limited to 0 or 1, because it can also be set by declaration. In
this way, both the lower and upper bounds are programmable. In more
subscript-limited languages, the lower bound of the array is not variable. This
uncommon trait does exist in Visual Basic .NET but not in VBScript.
OPTION BASE was introduced by ANSI, with the standard for ANSI
Minimal BASIC in the late 1970s.

 Relatively strong integration with the Windows operating system and

the Component Object Model. The native types for strings and arrays are the
dedicated COM types, BSTR and SAFEARRAY.
 Banker's rounding as the default behavior when converting real numbers to
integers with the Round function ? Round(2.5, 0) gives 2, ? Round(3.5,

0) gives 4.

 Integers are automatically promoted to reals in expressions that involve the

normal division operator ( / ) so that division of one integer by another
produces the intuitively correct result.

1.7.2 WHY VISUAL BASIC

 Programming for the Windows User Interface is extremely complicated

 Other graphical user interface (GUI) are no better.
 Visual Basic provides a convenient method for building user interfaces.

19
  VB can interface with code written in C language for efficiency

1.7.3 WHAT VB IS NOT

 VB is not a powerful programming language that enables you to anything

you want.
 VB is not much elegant or fast.
 VB is not a replacement for C language.
 It is not similar to other kinds of programming language.

1.7.4 WHEN YOU PROGRAM IN VB

 Drawing pictures of own interface.

 Drawing buttons, text boxes, and other user interface items.
 Adding title snippets of code to handle the interaction.
 Adding initialization code usually as the last step.
 To code more complex functions (But many do not).

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 CHAPTER 2

LITRATURE SURVEY

2.1 ) TEMPERATURE INFLUENCE ON THE EFFECTIVE THERMAL

CONDUCTIVITY OF METALS MEASURED IN STAGNANT AIR.

V. SKIBINA, R. WULF, U. GROSS.

Institute of Thermal Engineering, TU Bergakademie, Freiberg, Gustav-
Zeuner- StraBe ,
Freiberg, Germany

To summarize, hollow sphere structures and the open cell structures were
investigated with two instrument based on the TPS and PT techniques at
temperatures up to 250°C and 800°C, respectively. Results from both methods
show good agreement. The keff increases with increasing temperature and
decreasing porosity for all investigated materials. Up to 250°C, there is no pore
diameter influence on the keff. At temperatures up to 250°C, the cellular metals
with large pore diameters show high keff due to the substantial radiation effect.
Furthermore, it is important to know the radiation properties of cellular metals for
analysis and modeling in the high temperature range. This will be subject for
further investigations.

INFERENCE

 The effect of the thermal conductivity depends upon the temperature,

porosity, surface area, density and diameter of the material.
 Due to low density and low porosity the thermal conductivity of the
material increases.
21
  Porosity places an important role in the solid base material ie. The
porosity places an important role in the influence of thermal
conductivity.

Source:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275536201_Temperature_Influence_on_the
_Effective_Thermal_Conductivity_of_Cellular_Metals_Measured_in_Stagnant_Air

2.2 ) ANALYTICAL DESIGN OF EFFECTIVE THERMAL

CONDUCTIVITY FOR PRISMATIC METALS.

Wenbin Wang , Xiaohu Yang, Bin Han , Qiancheng Zhang , Xiangfei

Wang and Tian Jian Lu

School of Mechanical Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an ,

China
A comparative optimal design of fluid-saturated prismatic cellular metal
honeycombs (PCMHs) having different cell shapes is presented for thermal
management applications. Based on the periodic topology of each PCMH, a unit
cell (UC) for thermal transport analysis was selected to calculate its effective
thermal conductivity. Without introducing any empirical coefficient, we modified
and extended the analytical model of parallel–series thermal–electric network to a
wider porosity range (0.7∼0.98) by considering the effects of two-dimensional
local heat conduction in solid ligaments inside each UC. Good agreement was
achieved between analytical predictions and numerical simulations based on the
method of finite volume. The concept of ligament heat conduction efficiency

22
(LTCE) was proposed to physically explain the mechanisms underlying the effects
of ligament configuration on effective thermal conductivity (ETC).Based upon the
proposed theory, a construct strategy was developed for designing the ETC by
altering the equivalent interaction angle with the direction of heat flow: relatively
small average interaction angle for thermal conduction and relatively large one for
thermal insulation.

INFERENCE

 Based on the arrangement of the unit cell the thermal transport analysis were
selected to conduct the effective thermal conductivity.

 For effective thermal conductivity the lattice points of the material places an
important role.

 The heat conduction is very good when there is a good metallic bonds.

 The thermal conductivity is also depends upon on area of which the heat is
flowing the heat conduction will be more if it is in the core part of the
material

SOURCE
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/291523603_Analytical_design_of_effective_thermal_c
onductivity_for_fluid-saturated_prismatic_cellular_metal_honeycombs

23
2.3) REVIEW OF METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES WITH HIGH
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY FOR THERMAL MANAGEMENT
APPLICATIONS

XUAN-HUI QU, LIN ZHANG, MAO WU, SHU-BIN REN.

State Key Laboratory for Advanced Metals and Materials, Beijing Key
Laboratory for Powder Metallurgy and Particulate Materials, University of
Science and Technology Beijing, China.

Metal matrix composites with high thermal conductivity and tailorable

coefficient of thermal expansion are found widespread applications in electronic
package and thermal management. The latest advances in manufacturing process,
thermal properties and brazing technology of SiC/metal, carbon/metal and
diamond/metal composites were presented. Key factors controlling the thermo-
physical properties were discussed in detail. The problems involved in the
fabrication and the brazing of these composites were elucidated and the main focus
was put on the discussion of the methods to overcome these difficulties. This
review shows that the combination of pressureless infiltration and powder injection
molding offers the benefits to produce near-net shape composites. Improving
wettability and optimizing interfacial structure are prerequisites for successful
fabrication and further enhancement of thermal properties.

INFERENCE

 Metal matrix composites are the one which has the high amount of thermal
conductivity and flexibility to adjust the coefficient of thermal expansion.

 Al, Cu were used as the metal matrix due to high thermal conductivity where
SiC , diamond, carbon were used as reinforcements.
24
  Of the above all things based on the specific thermal conductivity Al based
metal were more desirable and light weighted.

 Sic/Al have greater thermal conductivity and its composite is not very
attractive to machinability.

SOURCE:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257442330_Review_of_metal_matrix_composites_with_hig
h_thermal_conductivity_for_thermal_management_applications

25
 CHAPTER 3

OBJECTIVES

 To design and fabricate thermal conductivity analyzing kit of lower cost and
better efficiency.

 To make a Non- Destructive type of TC analyser .

 To effectively use embedded system in calculating thermal conductivity of

sample materials.

 To provide instant results, at a faster rate.

 To provide results in analytical, numerical, graphical modules.

 To provide easily understandable results.

 To find thermal conductivity of number of sample materials simultaneously.

 To compare the obtained datas (thermal conductivity) of various sample

materials.

 To design and fabricate a simple and compact thermal conductivity

analyzing kit.

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 CHAPTER 4

METHODOLOGY

4.1 FLOW CHART

VARIOUS SAMPLES FOR ANALYSIS

SAMPLE PLACEMENT PROCESS

THERMOCOUPLE

SIGNAL CONDITIONING

EMBEDDED SYSTEM

MICROPROCESSOR

LAPTOP

27
4.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM

28
4.3 MACHINING PROCESSES

4.3.1 DRILLING

Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut a hole of

circular cross-section in solid materials. The drill bit is usually a rotary cutting tool,
often multi-point. The bit is pressed against the work-piece and rotated at rates
from hundreds to thousands of revolutions per minute. This forces the cutting edge
against the work-piece, cutting off chips (swarf) from the hole as it is drilled.

In rock drilling, the hole is usually not made through a circular cutting motion,
though the bit is usually rotated. Instead, the hole is usually made by hammering a
drill bit into the hole with quickly repeated short movements. The hammering
action can be performed from outside the hole (top-hammer drill) or within the
hole (down-the-hole drill, DTH). Drills used for horizontal drilling are
called drifter drills.

In rare cases, specially-shaped bits are used to cut holes of non-circular cross-
section; a square cross-section is possible

4.3.2 SOLDERING

Soldering is a process in which two or more metal items are joined together
by melting and then flowing a filler metal into the joint—the filler metal having a
relatively low melting point. Soldering is used to form a permanent connection
between electronic components.The metal to be soldered is heated with a soldering
iron and then solder is melted into the connection. Only the solder melts, not the
parts that are being soldered. Solder is a metallic "glue" that holds the parts
together and forms a connection that allows electrical current to flow. You can use

29
a solderless breadboard to make test circuits, but if you want your circuit to last for
more than a few days, you will want to solder the components together.

4.3.3 WIRING

Wiring (a process of connecting various accessories for distribution of electrical

energy from supplier’s meter board to home appliances such as lamps, fans and
other domestic appliances is known as Electrical Wiring) can be done using two
methods which are
 Joint box system or Tee system
 Loop – in system

Joint Box or Tee or Jointing System

In this method of wiring, connections to appliances are made through joints.
These joints are made in joint boxes by means of suitable connectors or joints
cutouts. This method of wiring doesn’t consume too much cables size.
You might think because this method of wiring doesn’t require too much cable it is
therefore cheaper. It is of course but the money you saved from buying cables will
be used in buying joint boxes, thus equation is balanced. This method is suitable
for temporary installations and it is cheap.

Loop-in or Looping System

This method of wiring is universally used in wiring. Lamps and other
appliances are connected in parallel so that each of the appliances can be controlled
individually. When a connection is required at a light or switch, the feed conductor
is looped in by bringing it directly to the terminal and then carrying it forward
again to the next point to be fed.

30
4.4 BASIC WORKING PRINCIPLE

The materials for which the thermal conductivities are to be measured and
analysed are machined to the required dimensions to be fixed in the analyser box
setup. Separate cavities are made on the top of the samples to fix the thermocouple
through which the temperature and thermal conductivity are measured. These
thermocouples are connected to the thermisters which are temperature sensors
which are then connected to the PIC microcontroller where the signals from the
thermocouple are received. The microcontroller is given power supply of 230 volts
AC current which is then converted into DC current to power the microcontroller
by the help of transformer and the rectifier diodes. The filtering units and signal
conditioners are used to reduce the noise and alter the signals to required
frequency.
From this microcontroller the signals are sent to the embedded system
where the conversion of analog to digital and digital to serial signals are performed
using the components of the embedded system. The converted serial signals can be
transmitted to the display devices through RS232 converter and RS232 cable
which is connected from the embedded system to the personal computer or laptop.
The Visual Basic software installed in the laptop or PC is used to display the
thermal conductivity values of different sample materials through both analog and
graphical representation methods where the thermal conductivities of samples are
measured simultaneously and the analysed datas are compared through the graph at
various temperatures to analyse the thermal conductivity property of samples at
different temperatures. Thus the thermal conductivities of different materials are
analysed and compared through our project.

31
4.5 COMPONENTS

The main experimenting hardwares or components involved in this project are as

follows

 THERMOCOUPLE

 SIGNAL CONDITIONERS

 EMBEDDED CIRCUITS

 PIC MICROCONTROLLER

 RS 232 CONVERTER

 TRANSFORMER

 POWER SUPPLY

 HEATER

 ANALYSER BOX SETUP

 SAMPLE MATERIALS

32
4.5.1 THERMOCOUPLE

PRINCIPLE:

The joining of two dissimilar metals and are kept at two different temperatures an
e.m.f. is generated. A thermocouple produces a temperature dependent voltage as
a result of thermoelectric effect and this voltage can be used to measured the
temperature.
Two strips of dissimilar metals joined to form junction called thermocouple.
If the junction is heated and a milli-voltmeter is connected across the free ends
away from the junction, there will be found a voltage present. This voltage is
caused by the different work -function of the metals forming the junction and is
dependent upon both the temperature and the types of metals used.

Since the voltage across the thermocouple junction is proportional to

temperature we may use it in thermometry. The voltage is not, however, not linear
function of temperature, and that tends to limit the application somewhat. It is
important to know over what range the thermocouples linear so that error will not
be excessive.

Certain standard metals and pairs have been adopted for thermocouple
construction.

These are :

1. Chrome – Alumel
2. Iron - Constantan
3. Copper _ Constantan
4. Platinum – Platinum-Rhodium

33
 5. There are other combinations, but the ones listed are the most widely used.
These metals are all alloys, that is mixture of metals. The manufacture of
these alloys is carefully controlled so that a specific EMF will be developed
for each temperature.
The desirable properties for thermocouple materials are that the metals be
relatively inexpensive and developed substantial EMF for small temperature
changes. In addition, the alloys should be stable over long periods of time,
resistant to chemical attack and easily manufactured to specifications. No
thermocouple materials are perfect or even particularly good on all requirements.
In general, the ones mentioned are adequate in the practical plant situation.

ADDITIONAL PROPERTIES

In addition to the property of developing a voltage, each thermocouple pair

has a definite polarity, that is, the electrons will flow in a direction that depends on
the materials used. The polarities of the thermocouple materials previously listed
are;

1. Chromel Alumel

2. Iron Constantan

3. Copper Constantan

4. Platinum Platinum-Rhodium

It is extremely important that polarity be observed when making

connections. There is only one method of determining polarity and that is by
knowing which wire is which the wires can be identified by testing them with a

34
permanent magnet. Alumel is slightly magnetic, iron is strongly magnetic,
constantan not at all. Copper can be identified by its color.

4.5.2 TYPES OF THERMOCOUPLE

Type K Thermocouple (Nickel-Chromium / Nickel-Alumel): The type K is the

most common type of thermocouple. It’s inexpensive, accurate, reliable, and has a
wide temperature range.

Temperature Range:

 Thermocouple grade wire, –454 to 2,300F (–270 to 1260C)

 Extension wire, 32 to 392F (0 to 200C)

Accuracy (whichever is greater):

 Standard: +/- 2.2C or +/- .75%

 Special Limits of Error: +/- 1.1C or 0.4%

Type J Thermocouple (Iron/Constantan): The type J is also very common. It has

a smaller temperature range and a shorter lifespan at higher temperatures than the
Type K. It is equivalent to the Type K in terms of expense and reliability.

Temperature Range:
 Thermocouple grade wire, -346 to 1,400F (-210 to 760C)
 Extension wire, 32 to 392F (0 to 200C)

Accuracy (whichever is greater):

 Standard: +/- 2.2C or +/- .75%
 Special Limits of Error: +/- 1.1C or 0.4%
35
Type T Thermocouple (Copper/Constantan): The Type T is a very stable
thermocouple and is often used in extremely low temperature applications such as
cryogenics or ultra low freezers.

Temperature Range:
 Thermocouple grade wire, -454 to 700F (-270 to 370C)
 Extension wire, 32 to 392F (0 to 200C)

Accuracy (whichever is greater):

 Standard: +/- 1.0C or +/- .75%

 Special Limits of Error: +/- 0.5C or 0.4%

Type E Thermocouple (Nickel-Chromium/Constantan): The Type E has a

stronger signal & higher accuracy than the Type K or Type J at moderate
temperature ranges of 1,000F and lower. See temperature chart (linked) for details.

Temperature Range:
 Thermocouple grade wire, -454 to 1600F (-270 to 870C)
 Extension wire, 32 to 392F (0 to 200C)

Accuracy (whichever is greater):

 Standard: +/- 1.7C or +/- 0.5%

 Special Limits of Error: +/- 1.0C or 0.4%

Type N Thermocouple (Nicrosil / Nisil): The Type N shares the same accuracy
and temperature limits as the Type K. The type N is slightly more expensive.

36
Temperature Range:

 Thermocouple grade wire, -454 to 2300F (-270 to 392C)

 Extension wire, 32 to 392F (0 to 200C)

Accuracy (whichever is greater):

 Standard: +/- 2.2C or +/- .75%

 Special Limits of Error: +/- 1.1C or 0.4%

NOBLE METAL THERMOCOUPLES (Type S,R, & B):

Noble Metal Thermocouples are selected for their ability to withstand extremely
high temperatures while maintaining their accuracy and lifespan. They are
considerably more expensive than Base Metal Thermocouples.

Type S Thermocouple (Platinum Rhodium - 10% / Platinum): The Type S is

used in very high temperature applications. It is commonly found in the BioTech
and Pharmaceutical industries. It is sometimes used in lower temperature
applications because of its high accuracy and stability.

Temperature Range:

 Thermocouple grade wire, -58 to 2700F (-50 to 1480C)

 Extension wire, 32 to 392F (0 to 200C)

37
Accuracy (whichever is greater):

 Standard: +/- 1.5C or +/- .25%

 Special Limits of Error: +/- 0.6C or 0.1%

Type R Thermocouple (Platinum Rhodium -13% / Platinum): The Type R is

used in very high temperature applications. It has a higher percentage of Rhodium
than the Type S, which makes it more expensive. The Type R is very similar to the
Type S in terms of performance. It is sometimes used in lower temperature
applications because of its high accuracy and stability.

Temperature Range:

 Thermocouple grade wire, -58 to 2700F (-50 to 1480C)

 Extension wire, 32 to 392F (0 to 200C)

Accuracy (whichever is greater):

 Standard: +/- 1.5C or +/- .25%

 Special Limits of Error: +/- 0.6C or 0.1%

Type B Thermocouple (Platinum Rhodium – 30% / Platinum Rhodium –

6%): The Type B thermocouple is used in extremely high temperature
applications. It has the highest temperature limit of all of the thermocouples listed
above. It maintains a high level of accuracy and stability at very high temperatures.

Temperature Range:
 Thermocouple grade wire, 32 to 3100F (0 to 1700C)
38
 Extension wire, 32 to 212F (0 to 100C)

Accuracy (whichever is greater):

 Standard: +/- 0.5%

 Special Limits of Error: +/- 0.25%

4.5.3 SIGNAL CONDITIONER

FIG 4.1 Signal conditioner

Signal conditioners are essential to improve field received signals. Signal

conditioner job starts from simple amplification to protection. For our circuit input
will be 0v to 1000mv and must be amplified to 5volts.when we do amplification
we would like to follow below mentioned objectives.

39
Objectives of signal conditioner:

1. It must consume very low current from the source.

2. It should have greater isolation between input and out put.

3. Provision to adjust zero value (minimum operating point).

4. Provision to operate span (maximum operating point).

5. Removing the unwanted frequencies during amplification and

from the power source.

6. Creating offset and null adjustments which may occur during

amplification. Offset and null is the one which is available in all

OPAMPS.

7. To provide good enough current to the subsequent devices with

protection.

8. Signal conditioner must protect the subsequent devices from

hazardous high voltage signals.

CIRCUIT EXPLAINATION:

The voltage of 0v to 1000mv is fed to the PR2 potentiometer. Whose value

is 20k.PR2 has a series resistor of 200k (R2) and has again resistor of 1000k (R5)
which gives approximately five times amplification. PR2 can be considered as a
span adjustment potentiometer.R3, R4, PR1 forms a potential divider network.R3
is connected to the positive (+ve) voltage in series with 56k resistor. Similarly R4

40
is connected to negative voltage through 56k.Both R3,R4 joins opposite ends of
PR1 and centre pin of PR1(slider) is connected to the OPAMP input through 1000k
resistor(R14).

By using the above circuit we can set zero value irrespective of offset. PR1 will
be treated as zero adjustment. Resistor R6, R7 is to compensate offset and null.R15
is connected to the inverting input to remove ground noises. Capacitor C1 acts as
integrative filter to remove high frequency noises because of amplification.C2 is a
low pass filter, -ve pin is connected to output of OPAMP because IC1 is a
inverting amplifier whose output will be

-ve.R8 and R12 are fixed 10k resistors. Where R8 is the input resistor for inverting
and R12 is feed back resistor. When input resistors and feed back resistors are of
same value then gain will be unity. So the output of IC2 at pin no.6 will be 5v in
case of 100% smoke.

R10 and R11 are offset and null resistors. R9 is similar purpose of R15.C3 is a
integrative filter and C4 is low pass filter.R13 is to prevent overloading of signal
conditioner. The resistor used is 1k.Beyond 5mA is not allowed to consume from
signal conditioner.D5 is a zener diode whose breakdown voltage is 5v.

If in case of any mal functions at the smoke chamber or from power supply and
from signal conditioner may create a output voltage equal to supply voltage of
signal conditioner(12v).If 12v goes to PIC which may get failed because it needs
zero to 5v.So this zener diode will do all functions and assure all 5v to PIC.

41
4.5.4 EMBEDDED CIRCUITS

FIG 4.2 Embedded circuit

4.5.5 POWER SUPPLY UNIT:

As we all know any invention of latest technology cannot be activated

without the source of power. So it this fast moving world we deliberately need a
proper power source which will be apt for a particular requirement. All the
electronic components starting from diode to Intel IC’s only work with a DC
supply ranging from -+5v to -+12v. We are utilizing for the same, the cheapest
and commonly available energy source of 230v-50Hz and stepping down,
rectifying, filtering and regulating the voltage. This will be dealt briefly in the
forth-coming section

42
4.5.6 STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER:

When AC is applied to the primary winding of the power transformer it can

either be stepped down or up depending on the value of DC needed. In our circuit
the transformer of 230v/15-0-15v is used to perform the step down operation where
a 230V AC appears as 15V AC across the secondary winding. One alteration of
input causes the top of the transformer to be positive and the bottom negative. The
next alteration will temporarily cause the reverse. Apart from stepping down AC
voltages, it gives isolation between the power source and power supply circuitries

4.5.7 RECTIFIER UNIT:

In the power supply unit, rectification is normally achieved using a solid-

state diode. Diode has the property that will let the electron flow easily in one
direction at proper biasing condition. As AC is applied to the diode, electrons only
flow when the anode and cathode is negative. Reversing the polarity of voltage
will not permit electron flow.
A commonly used circuit for supplying large amounts of DC power is the
bridge rectifier. A bridge rectifier of four diodes (4*IN4007) is used to achieve full
wave rectification. Two diodes will conduct during the negative cycle and the other
two will conduct during the positive half cycle. The DC voltage appearing across
the output terminals of the bridge rectifier will be somewhat less than 90% of the
applied rms value. Normally one alteration of the input voltage will reverse the
polarities. Opposite ends of the transformer will therefore always be 180 deg out of
phase with each other.= 2*50 Hz. The output obtained is not a pure DC and
therefore filtration has to be done For a positive cycle, two diodes are connected to
the positive voltage at the top winding and only one diode conducts. At the same
43
time one of the other two diodes conducts for the negative voltage that is applied
from the bottom winding due to the forward bias for that diode. In this circuit due
to positive half cycleD1 & D2 will conduct to give 10.8v pulsating DC. The DC
output has a ripple frequency of 100Hz. Since each altercation produces a resulting
output pulse, frequency

4.5.8 FILTERING UNIT:

Filter circuits which are usually capacitors acting as a surge arrester always
follow the rectifier unit. This capacitor is also called as a decoupling capacitor or a
bypassing capacitor, is used not only to ‘short’ the ripple with frequency of 120Hz
to ground but also to leave the frequency of the DC to appear at the output. A load
resistor R1 is connected so that a reference to the ground is maintained. C1R1 is
for bypassing ripples. C2R2 is used as a low pass filter, i.e. it passes only low
frequency signals and bypasses high frequency signals. The load resistor should be
1% to 2.5% of the load

1000μf/25v: for the reduction of ripples from the pulsating.

10μf/25v: for maintaining the stability of the voltage at the load side.
0.1μf: for bypassing the high frequency disturbances

4.5.9 VOLTAGE REGULATORS:

The voltage regulators play an important role in any power supply unit. The
primary purpose of a regulator is to aid the rectifier and filter circuit in providing a
constant DC voltage to the device. Power supplies without regulators have an
inherent problem of changing DC voltage values due to variations in the load or
44
due to fluctuations in the AC liner voltage. With a regulator connected to the DC
output, the voltage can be maintained within a close tolerant region of the desired
output. IC7805 is used in this project for providing +5V DC supply.

4.5.10 SPECIFICATIONS:

Resistors R1 and R2 maintain line load regulation.

At the secondary side of the transformer,

Applied voltage = 15v

Conducting drop across the diodes = 2*0.6= 1.2v.

45
Without capacitor:

Vavg = (15-1.2) v = 13.8c pulsating DC

Frequency = 100Hz

With capacitor:

V=Vavg *1.414(form factor) = 19.51v.

Frequency = 0Hz

With 7805 voltage regulator:

V0= +5v

4.5.11 PIC CIRCUIT EXPLANATION

From the circuit it can be seen that the reference analog supply after being
regulated by the 9v regulator enters the zener diode through the resistance R4
where it is again regulated to 5v since the zener diode used here has a cut off of 5v
R6 is a potential divider used for setting the dynamic response range of the
reference supply. This means that the reference 5v can be used as it is or it can be
made into a fraction of the 5v for example 1v so that readings in this range can be
read with more precision. This is because the ADC has 10-bit resolution, which
can be totally used for representing the 1v rather than 5v.

The pins 2-5, 7-10, 35 and 36 are used as the 10 channels of the ADC. To
these pins the analog inputs to be processed by the ADC are given. Y1 is the
crystal oscillator used. It is of 10 MHz and gives a baud rate of 9600 bits/s. The

46
capacitors C2 and C3 are used as decoupling capacitors to remove the high
frequency noise signals.

The capacitor C1 is in the off condition when power is switched off. When the
power is switched on or reset then this capacitor gets charged through the resistor
R2 and then through R1 this appears at the MCLR pin of the PIC. This is the
memory clear pin and thus the memory is cleared and is ready for use as soon as
power is switched on. S1 is the synchronous switch, which is also used for the
same operation and for PC and PIC synchronous operation.

4.5.12 PIC MICROCONTROLLER

Peripheral Interface Controller (PIC) is enhanced version of microcontrollers.

It is embedded controller. PIC microcontroller contains several families as follows

1. Low End Family:

It has 33 instructions. For example, PIC 12XXX

2. Mid Range Family:

It has 35 instructions. For example, PIC 16XXX

3. High End Family:

It has 77 instructions. For example, PIC 17XXX and PIC 18XXX.

Architecture:

Two types of Architecture are followed.

I). Van-Neuman Architecture:

II). Haward Architecture

Microcontrollers have built-in peripherals, they are:

47
 1. Memory
a. Program Memory (Eg. PROM, Flash memory)
b. Data Memory (Eg. RAM, EEROM)
2. I/O Ports
3. ADC
4. Timers
5. USART
6. Interrupt Controllers
7. PWM / Capture

4.5.13 RS232 CONVERTER

48
 Analog Power Digital Power
Supply Supply

External C
Crystal
Oscillator USART pu

PIC16F877A
Logic I/O
Synchronous
Connector
Switch

8 channel
Analog Ref
Analog Input
Voltage 5V

FIG 4.3 RS 232 Converter

RS-232, Recommended Standard 232 is a standard introduced in

1960 for serial communication transmission of data. It formally defines the signals
connecting between a DTE (data terminal equipment) such as a computer terminal,
and a DCE (data circuit-terminating equipment or data communication
equipment), such as a modem. The RS-232 standard had been commonly used
in computer serial ports. The standard defines the electrical characteristics and
timing of signals, the meaning of signals, and the physical size and pinout of
connectors

49
4.5.14 PERSONEL COMPUTER

In personal computer, data transfer takes place serially. RS-232standard is

used for serial communication .PIC Micro controller is linked to PC through the
RS-232 port. The PC displays the menu for selecting the calibrating equipment
and all the calibration results graphically and in tabular form. The user can access
the calibration data to get calibration reports, comparison graphs etc at any time
using the menu offered in the PC.

The most common communication interface for short distance is RS-232.

RS-232 defines a serial communication for one device to one computer
communication port, with speeds up to 19,200 baud. Typically 7 or 8 bit (on/off)
signal is transmitted to represent a character or digit. The 9-pin connector is used.

4.5.15 SAMPLE MATERIALS

The sample materials for which the thermal conductivity analysis has to be
performed are machined to fit the analyser box setup. Any material can used to
conduct the analysis. In this project the sample materials are bolt of different
materials like brass, aluminium, stainless steel and the core metal mild steel itself.

Drilling operation is carried on the top of the head of the bolts to provide a
cavity to fix the thermocouple. Any type of solid material can be used to analyse
the thermal conductivity property. The sample materials used in our project are

 Brass

 Aluminium

 Stainless steel

50
  Mild steel

4.5.16 HEATER

An electric heater is an electrical device that converts electric current to

heat. The heating element inside every electric heater is an electrical resistor, and
works on the principle of Joule heating an electric current passing through a
resistor will convert that electrical energy into heat energy. Most modern electric
heating devices use nichrome wire as the active element; the heating element,
depicted on the right, uses nichrome wire supported by ceramic insulators.

Alternatively, a heat pump uses an electric motor to drive a refrigeration cycle, that
draws heat energy from a source such as the ground or outside air and directs that
heat into the space to be warmed. Some systems can be reversed so that the interior
space is cooled and the warm air is discharged outside or into the ground.

51
52
 The pin detail is given below.

CONTAINER:

53
 Fig 2.2container front view fig 2.2 container side view

BUBBLER :

Fig 2.3 bubbler

TUBES:

54
 Fig 2.4 tubes

ELECTRODES :

Fig 2.5 electrodes before assembly

Fig 2.6 electrodes after assembly

ASSEMBLED SETUP IN CONTAINER :

55
 Fig 2.7assembled setup in container

INJECTION SETUP:

fig 2.8 after injection setup

CHAPTER 6

56
 FUTURE SCOPE

Our future idea is to implement this on c.i engines and also to generate power
using this and make use of the hydrogen from this to generate power and use this
onelectrcbikes

57
 CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION

The HHO gas is successfully combined with the fuel in the gasoline engine which
results in the increase in the performance of the vehicle and the emission is
reduced. Eventhough when the HHO gas is alone used as a fuel it produces less
performace when compared to the blends of HHO gas with the fuel.

58
REFERENCES

1. R.B.Durairaj, J.Shanker, Dr.M.Sivasankar, HHO gas with Bio-Diesel as a

Dual Fuel with Air Preheating Technology, 2012
2. B.RajendraPrasath, E. Leelakrishnan, H.Suriyan, E.GuruPrakash,
K.OmurMustaq Ahmed, Hydrogen Operated Internal Combustion Engines-
A New Generation Fuel, April-2012
3. Dr.D.R.Prajapati, Gurpreet Singh Sudan, Study of Brake Thermal
Efficiencies of Blend Fuels Using CVCRM Engine Test Rig, December-
2012
4. V.Balaji Raman, X. Alexander, Emission and Performance Test on Petrol
Engine Using Fuel Modification, June-2013
5. G.Ajay Kumar, G.VenkateswaraRao, Performance Characteristics of Oxy
Hydrogen Gas on Two Stroke Petrol Engine, Dec 2013
6. Aaditya, Abhishek, Ajay, Deepak, Vipin, Hydrogen Powered Petrol Engine,
May-2015
7. Mohamed M.EL-Kassaby, YehiaA.Eldrainy, Mohamed E.Khidr, Kareem
I.Khidr, Effect of hydroxyl (HHO) gas addition on gasoline engine
performance and emissions, Nov 2015
8. T.Balasubramani, S.Jeyapaul, K.Karthick, M.Karthick, G.Manikandan, Fuel
Efficiency Improvement in a Petrol Engine By Using Water Injection,
March-2016
9. Rasik S. Kuware, Ajay V. Kolhe, Effect of Hydroxy (HHO) Gas Addition
on Performance and Exhaust Emissions in Spark Ignition (SI) Engine, Oct-
2016

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60