Folding
• When plates collide, compressional force puts the rock layers under pressure
• Eventually, they bend and fold
• Found in sedimentary rock which are softer and more flexible
• Have the ability to deform under pressure
• Forms upfold (anticline) and downfold (syncline)
Faulting
• When plates move, part of the crust may be under compressional or tensional
force
• Causes the crust to fracture
• Type of rock is a key factor
• Common in igneous and metamorphic rocks which are more brittle
• These rocks tend to fracture and break under pressure
• Faulting stores up stress and then releases it
• May result in earthquakes
• A fault is a fracture in the Earth’s crust
• Shape of faults
• A-shape
• Tensional force results in block mountains
• Compressional force results in rift valleys
• V-shape
• Tensional force results in rift valley
• Compressional force results in block mountains
• Block mountain is a raised block of land that has been uplifted or left standing
after the surroundings sink
• Block mountain has steep sides and a flat top
• Erosion and weathering may result in rounded hills
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Lionel Lim
• Distribution of uplifted block mountains can be found along fault lines caused
by either compression or tension
• Rift valley occurs when the central block of land between two parallel faults
sink
• Rising convection currents that pull the two plates apart produces volcanoes
in the rift valley
Vulcanicity
• Upward movement of magma to the Earth’s surface forms volcanoes
• Volcanoes are usually found along plate boundaries
• A volcano is built up by the emission of lava and ashes from a vent in the
Earth’s crust
• Three main types according to their frequency of eruption, types of lava,
nature of lava flow and the strength of eruption
• Lava flow can be classified according to viscosity
• Refers to the resistance of a substance to flow
• Viscosity determines the type of volcanic eruption that would occur
• In turn affects the shape and type of volcano
• Viscosity of lava is dependent on silica content and temperature
• High silica content, higher viscosity
• Lower temperature, higher viscosity
• Two types of lava, basic and acidic
• Basic lava is less viscous, spreads easily over an area, generates less
powerful explosions as the gases trapped within the lava are readily released
• Creates volcanoes with gentler slopes
• Acidic lava is more viscous, produces greater explosions as the gases trapped
within the lava are not readily released
• Contributes to the formation of taller and steeper volcanoes
Type of volcano Frequency of eruption
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Lionel Lim
Type of volcano Frequency of eruption
Acid lava dome Dome-shaped with Viscous acidic lava When lava solidifies
steep convex slopes flows from a central and blocks the vent,
vent pressure builds up
Cools and solidifies inside the volcano
quickly A massive and
Lava may even cool violent explosion
and solidify as it may occur
flows up the vent Entire top of volcano
may be blown off
Usefulness of volcanoes
• Areas around volcanoes are dangerous but still densely populated
• Shortage of flat, suitable land for settlement forces people to settle in
volcanic regions
• In some places, volcanoes have not erupted in a long time, people see no
threat
• Benefits of living in areas around volcanoes
• Fertile volcanic soil for agriculture
• Valuable minerals and precious stones can be found in volcanic rocks
• Interesting volcanic landforms can lead to the development of tourism
industry which can provide a source of revenue
• Geothermal energy is a source of clean energy for generating electricity
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Lionel Lim
Cause of earthquakes
• Earthquakes are sudden vibrations of the Earth’s crust
• Vibrations in the form of seismic waves occur when tectonic energy that has
built up by plate movements is released rapidly
• Violent earthquakes tend to occur along transform plate boundaries
• At plate boundaries, crust experiences stress and the rocks are forced to
bend
• Energy builds up
• When the rocks are unable to hold the stress, they snap and break
• The stored energy is released suddenly in seismic waves which cause the
plates to vibrate, creating an earthquake
Effect of earthquakes
• Earthquakes are natural hazards that bring serious damaging effects to both
physical and human environments
• Vibrations can cause the collapse of buildings and bridges and the rupturing
of gas and water pipes
• Can indirectly bring about fires, floods, power failures, water shortages and
the spread of epidemics due to poor sanitation
• Most damaging effects of an earthquake is the occurrence of tsunamis
• Huge, towering wavers caused by the vibration of the seafloor
• Different from tidal waves which are the result of gravitational pull
• Tsunamis are caused by the movement of the seafloor due to causes like
earthquakes
• Extent of damage by earthquakes depend on several factors
• Population density of affected area
• Level of preparedness of affected area
• Distance from epicentre
• Type of rock or soil foundation of affected area
• Despite danger, earthquake zones have an appeal for many people
• Large financial and commercial centers are in earthquake zones
• Offer great economic opportunities that attract many people
• These areas have suitable relief and mild climates which are additional
positive factors
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Lionel Lim
• Transamerica Pyramid Building was specially designed according to these
standards and left people unharmed and the building undamaged after an
earthquake in 1989
• Use of technology to predict and monitor tectonic activities
• Technology can be used to carry out more accurate predictions
• Estimation of earthquake probabilities are done through a number of ways
• Use of historic evidence to determine the likelihood of earthquakes
reoccurring in a specific area
• Measure the rate stress builds up in the crust and calculate the time
required for the stress to cause an earthquake
• Increase number of seismic instruments to record the Earth’s movements
in a region helps in monitoring the frequency of the Earth’s vibrations and
the detection of the development of a tsunami
• Accurate predictions and monitoring can give people ample time to be
evacuated
• Early warnings of earthquakes
• Occur suddenly and violent, it is important to have efficient warning
systems in place
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Lionel Lim