An Introduction to Vector Analysis

MBTHUBN'S MONOGRAPHS
ON PHYSICAL SUBIBCTS

General Editors:
B. 1. WORSNOP, B.Sc., Ph.D.
G. K. T. CONN, M.A., Ph.D.
An Introduction to
Vector Analysis
For Physicists and Engineers
B. HAGUE
D.SC•• PH.D., F.C.G.!.
Prolessor 01 Eleetrical Engineering
at the UnJuersity 01 Glasgow 1946-1960

RBVISED BY

D. MARTIN
M.A.• B.SC., PH.D.
Senior Leeturer in Mathematics
at the University 01 Gwgow

METHUEN & CO. LTD.

and SCIENCE PAPERBACKS
 First published 1939
6th edition published 1970 by
Methuen & Co Ltd
11 New Fetter Lane, London E.C.4
Hardback SBN 416 15700 9

First published as a Science Paperback 1970

Reprinted 1973
Paperback SBN 412207303

Copyright both editions 1970 Mrs S.T. Mackay

Haverhill, Suffolk
This book is available both as a hardbound and as a paperback
edition. The paperback edition is sold subject to the condition
that it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold,
hired-out, or otherwise circulated without the publisher's prior
consent in any form ofbinding or cover other than that in
which it is published and without a similar condition being
imposed on the subsequent purchaser.

ISBN-13: 978-0-412-20730-3 e-ISBN-13: 978-94-009-5841-8

DOI: 10.1 007/978-94-009-5841-8
Contents
page
PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION vü
PREFACE ix

DEFINITIONS. ADDITION OF VECTORS

1. ScaIar and Veetor Quantities. 2. Graphical Repre-
sentation of Veetors. 3. Addition and Subtraction of
Veetors. 4. Components of a Veetor. 5. Geometrical
Applications. 6. Scalar and Veetor Fields. Miscellaneous
Exercises I.

2 PRODUCTS OF VECTORS IS
1. General. 2. The Scalar Product. 3. The Veetor Product.
4. Veetor Area. 5. Application to Veetor Products. 6.
Products of Three Veetors. 7. Line and Surface Integra}s
as Scalar Products. Miscellaneous Exercises II.

3 THE DIFFERENTIA TION OF VECTORS 36

1. Scalar Differentiation. 2. Differentiation of Sums and
Products. 3. Partial Differentiation. MisceUaneous
Exercises III.

4 THE OPERA TOR V AND ITS USES 41

1. The Operator V. 2. The Gradient of a Scalar Field.
3. The Divergence of a Veetor Field. 4. The Operator
div grad. 5. The Operator Va with Veetor Operand.
6. The Curl of a Veetor Field. 7. Simple Examples of the
Curl of a Veetor Field. 8. Divergence of a Veetor
Product. 9. Divergence and Curl of SA. 10. The
vi CONTENTS

Operator eurl grad. 11. The Operator grad div. 12. The
Operator div eurl. 13. The Operator eurl eurl. 14. The
Vector Field grad (klr). 15. Vector Operators in Terms
of Polar Co-ordinates. Miscellaneous Exercises IV.

S INTEGRAL THEOREMS 70
1. The Divergence Theorem of Gauss. 2. Gauss's
Theorem and the Inverse Square Law. 3. Green's
Theorem. 4. Stokes's Theorem. 5. Alternative Defini-
tions of Divergence and Curl. 6. Oassification of Vector
Fields. Miscellaneous Exercises V.

6 THE SCALAR POTENTIAL FIELD 91

1. General Properties. 2. The Inverse Square Law.
Point Sources. 3. Volume Distributions. 4. Multi-valued
Potentials.

7 THE VECTOR POTENTIAL FIELD 101

1. The Magnetic Field of a Steady Current. 2. The
Vector PotentiaI. 3. Linear Currents. 4. Simple Examples
of Vector Potential.

8 THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD 110

EQUATIONS OF MAXWELL
1. General. 2. Maxwell's Equations. 3. Energy Considera-
tions. Miscellaneous Exercises vm.

ANSWERS TO EXERCISES 116

BIBLIOGRAPHY 117

INDEX 119
Preface to the Revised Edition

The principal changes that I have made in preparing this revised

edition of the book are the following.
(i) Carefuily selected worked and unworked examples have been
added to six of the chapters. These examples have been taken from
class and degree examination papers set in this University and I am
grateful to the University Court for permission to use them.
(ii) Some additional matter on the geometrieaI application of
veetors has been incorporated in Chapter 1.
(iii) Chapters 4 and 5 have been combined into one chapter, some
material has been rearranged and some further material added.
(iv) The chapter on int~gral theorems, now Chapter 5, has been
expanded to include an altemative proof of Gauss's theorem, a
treatmeot of Green's theorem and a more extended discussioo of the
classification of vector fields.
(v) The only major change made in what are now Chapters 6 and
7 is the deletioo of the discussion of the DOW obsolete pot funetioo.
(vi) A small part of Chapter 8 on Maxwell's equations has been
rewritten to give a fuller account of the use of scalar and veetor
potentials in eleetromagnetic theory, and the units emploYed have
been changed to the m.k.s. system.
(vü) The final chapter of the originaI book, which dealt very
brietly with tensors, has been omitted. A more detailed aecount
would now be required and in any case excellent introductory
treatments can be found in the books by Temple and by Lichnero-
wicz published in this series.
In revising a book written by someone else, it is difficult to know
to what extent to make changes. In this case, there are some matters
which I should have treated in a different way had I been writing a
hook on vectors myself, but, since I felt it right to try to preserve
the distinctive character of the originai editioo, I refrained from
vill VEeToR ANALYSIS

making the relevant alterations. Professor Hague adopted an

essentially physical standpoint throughout and this was one of the
virtues of the book.
Finally, I should like to say that it is a pleasure to have had the
opportunity of revising a hook by one whom I knew so weil and for
whom I always had such high regard; Bernard Hague was greatly
admired in this University not only as an excellent scientist but also
as a perfect gentIeman in the correct sense of that much abused
word.

University of Glasgow, D. MARTIN

Glasgow, W.2.
Preface

Veetor Analysis is the natural means of expression for the three-

dimensional problems of physics and engineering, because its
coneiseness and freedom from mathematical detail enable the
relationships between the various physical quantities to be kept
clearly in view. Sinee the pioneer work of Gibbs and of Heaviside
an increasing number of text-books and scientific papers on physical
and teehnical subjeets have made use of veetor methods, until it has
now become almost essential for any advanced worker in these
scienees to have some knowledge of veetor analysis. Much good
work can be done with the aid of a very few elementary principles.
It is the objeet of this monograph to give an introduction to these
principles and to explain them from a physical standpoint, so that
they may be easily available to the busy physicist or engineer
approaching the subjeet for the first time. Such workers are usually
so much occupied by their major task as to lack the time necessary
to enable them to seek out such principles as they need to use from
the more comprehensive treatises which aim at mathematical
completeness. The monograph is not, therefore, intended for the
reader with purely mathematical interests, whose more rigorous and
systematic requirements are fully satisfied elsewhere.
For these reasons the outlook adopted is almost entirely physical;
geometrical matters and questions of an exclusively mathematical
interest are limited to essentials. Formal proofs of invarianee and
conditions of continuity in veetor processes are replaced by an
appea) to physical intuition. Purely analytical topics of an advanced
kind, such as Green's theorem, are justifiably omitted from such an
introductory treatment as this monograph aims to present. The
reader who later wishes to amend his knowledge in these and other
respeets will find ample material in the standard books listed in the
Bibliography.
x VECTOR ANALYSIS

The reader's attention is drawn in particular to two features. First,

the use of trimetric projection by Gough's method (Engineering,
Vol. 143, p. 458, 1937) for eertain of the three-dimensional diagrams,
a purpose for which this method is admirably suited. Second, the
inclusion of a chapter giving a brief sketch of the elementary
properties of tensors and dyadics in their relation to veetors. This is
a subject which usually puzzles and often repels physics and engin-
eering students because of the abstract mathematical way in which
it is generally brought to their notiee.
The monograph is based on a course of leetures given a few years
ago to post-graduate electrica1 engineering students in the Polytech-
nic Institute of Brooklyn, New York. I am particularly grateful to
my coIIeague Dr A. J. Small for his valued assistance in reading the
manuscript and proofs, and for numerous suggestions.
GLASGOW D.HAGUE
June 1938
1: Definitions. Addition of Vectors

1. SCaIar and Vector Quantities. The quantities of elementary

physics are divided into two main classes, each with characteristic
properties and an appropriate algebra.
Sealar quantities have magnitude onlyand do not involve direction.
Typical scalar quantities are mass, volume, density, temperature,
electric potential, charge, etc. The complete specification of a scalar
quantity requires (i) a unit of the same kind and (ii) a number stating
how many times the unit is contained in the quantity. For example,
to express the mass of a given body we require to know whether the
unit is the pound, the ton, the gramme, etc., and also how many of
the chosen units represent the given mass. scalar quantities are
manipulated by applying the rules of ordinary algebra; for this
reason the algebra of ordinary positive and negative numbers is
often ca1led sea/ar a/gebra and the numbers themselves sealars.
Veetor quantities have magnitude and direction. Familiar examples
are displacement, foree, velocity, acceleration, eleetric foree,
magnetic induetion, etc. A veetor quantity requires for its specifica-
tion (i) a unit of the same kind, disregarding direction, (ii) a number
giving the magnitude of the quantity in terms of this unit and (iii) a
statement of direction. For example, the velocity of a moving body
is specified by stating (i) that the unit is miles per hour, kilometres
per second, etc., (ii) how many of the chosen units express the
magnitude of the velocity and (iii) the sense in which the velocity is
direeted, e.g. due north. The combination of conditions (ii) and (iii)
constitutes 'the geometricaI concept of a directed magnitude or
veetor, quite independently of the kind of veetor quantity specified
by the unit. The direetional element will prevent the manipulation
of veetors by the ordinary algebra applying to scalars; it is essential,
therefore, to devise a veetor algebra by means of which veetors may
be handled in a way consistent with the physicaI problems in which
2 VECTOR ANALYSIS

they occur. The laws of veetor algebra differ in several important

respeets from those of scalar algebra, as will be seen later.
Veetor quantities, though the simplest, are not the only non-sealar
quantities found in physics and engineering. In the theorY of inhomo-
geneous strain, the theorY of relativity and in the general theorY of
electromagnetic machinerr, to mention only a few examples, more complex
non-sealars, namely, tensors, appear.
Sealars are manipulated by the elementary operations of addition,
subtraction, multiplieation and division. All these operations are
performed by means of certain laws, whieh will now be stated for
addition and multiplieation; they are readily extended to the other
operations and the reader will find formal proofs in any good text-
book ofalgebra:
(i) The assoeiative laws ean be written as
a + (b + e) = (a + b) + e,
and a x (b x e) = (a x b) x e;
i.e. the result of adding a to the sum of b and e is the same as adding
the sum of a and b to e, with a similar statement for products. Either
sum may be written as a + b + e and either product as abc.
(ii) The eommutative laws which state that additions and multiplica-
tions can be made in any order, i.e.
a+b=b+a,
and axb=bxa.
(iii) The distributive laws, stating that in compound expressions
involving multiplieation and addition the result is equivalent to the
sum of individual products taken term by term, as in the mies
a x (b + e) =a x b +a x e,
and (a + b) x e =a x e + b x e.
Finally, a fourth law, fundamental in the logieal discussion of
inverse operations, is that ifax b = 0, then either a = 0 or b = O.
While these scalar operations and their laws are familiar to all as
the working processes of arithmetic and algebra, so familiar indeed
as to be (wrongly) regarded as self-evident, it is quite essential to
state them in this formal way since they characterize scalar algebra.
DEFINITIONS. ADDITION OF VEeTORS 3
The essential feature of the algebra of veetors is that the commuta-
tive and assoeiative laws of multiplleation do not hold and it does not
follow that either factor in a zero product is zero. The physical
meaning of these differences between sealar and veetor algebra will
be explained Iater.
2. Grapbieal Representation of Veetors. Since a veetor is the result
of abstracting magnitude and direetion from a veetor quantity,
independently of the nature of the quantity concemed, we may
represent the veetor graphically by a line OA pointing in the direction
-+-
from 0 to A, as in fig. 1; we denote the vector by OA. The magni.
tude of the veetor is given, to a convenient scale, by the length of

FIgure 1 Definition of equal veetors

the line; the direction in space is indieated by an arrow-head marked

on the line. In the algebra of such vectors it is the custom to dis-
tinguish them by the use of a distinctive symboI. Thus, the vector
-+-
OA is denoted by an upper or lower case CIarendon Ietter such as
V or v and its magnitude by the corresponding italic letter or by
-+-
lOA I, IV I or Ivi. We regard a vector as being defined by a magnitude
and a direction onlyand therefore we regard all veetors of the same
magnitude and direction as being equivalent. Thus in fig. 1 the
veetors V, Vt, Vs, Va are equivalent and we write
V = Vt = Vs = Va.
4 VECTOR ANALYSIS

Reversing the arrow-head changes the sign of a veetor, such as V, in

fig. 1; then
V4= -V
indicates equality of size and opposition of direetion.
This definition restrlets the meaning of a vector to the representation of
size and direction only. Consequently, a vector cannot represent eompletely
any vector quantity the effeet of which is changed by simple displacement;
many quantities are of this kind, most notably force. It is clearly insumeient
to specify a force by its magnitude and direction alone, i.e. by its vector.1f
the force aets on a rigid body the line of action must also be stated, since a
change in the line of action alters the torque acting on the body. In the case
of a deformable body the point of action of a force must be specified. These
examples are given as a warning to the reader not to be tempted to attrlbute
to a vector any properties, other than those of size and direction, which
properly belong to the quantity that the veetor is representing to scale
merely in these particulars. In other words, vector analysis must a!ways be
used with an eye upon the physical conditions of the problem to which it is
applied.
A veetor of unit magnitude is called a unit veetor and the veetor of
zero lengili (and indeterminate direction) is called the null veetor; the
null veetor is denoted by O.
If k is a scalar and V a veetor, we define the veetor kV to be the
veetor with magnitude IkllVI and with the same or opposite
direction to V according as k > 0 or k < O. If v is the unit veetor in
the direction of V, then
V= Vv. (1.1)
Distinetion is often made, particularly in more advanced work,
between two essentially diff'erent elasses of quantities represented by
veetors. The first class includes quantities such as force, displacement
and velocity, in which the veetor is drawn in the direction of the
quantity concemed; mere linear action in a particular direction is
involved and the veetor is called a polar veetor. The second class
includes quantities such as angular velocity, angular acceleration, in
which rotary action of some kind takes place about an axis. Here the
vector is drawn parallel to the axis about which the quantity acts; the
lengili of the veetor gives the magnitude of the quantity. The diree-
tion of the veetor is conventionally fixed by the role of the right-
handed screw, i.e. when sighting along the direction shown by the
DEFINITIONS. ADDITION OF VEeTORS 5
arrow-head, rotation is taken as clockwise. Such veetors are named
axial vectors. The distinction is a physical one, there being little
difference in the mathematieal treatrnent of the two classes of
quantities.
3. Adclition and Subtraction of Vectors. Consider two veetors A
and D, shown in fig. 2(a), representing for example two successive
,..
I "

""
I "

8 -1 I
A
I
, "
""

'S J
A
,r---->-- - I

I
8 -:f
I - 8 1? v
r - 8
I
I
l _
____~ __ _
A
(0) ( b)

Figure 2 (a) Veetor addition. (b) Veetor subtraction

displacements of a point. Their joint effeet, sum or resultant is

obtained by setting off the veetor B at the end of A and drawing the
veetor V joining the initial point of A to the end point of B. The same
result is obtained by starting with B and attaching A to it in a sirnilar
way, as shown by the dotted lines. Then
V=A+D=B+~ U~
the + sign being understood to mean addition in this geometrieal
sense. Thus the sum of two veetors is the diagonal of the paralleIa-
gram of which the veetors are co-terminous sides; addition is thus
commutative, Le. the sum is independent of which veetor is taken
first. The definition of subtraction of one veetor from another
immediately follows; the veetor B to be subtracted is reversed and
the rule for addition applied, as illustrated by fig. 2(b), in which
V = A + (- B) = A - D.
The reader must not suppose that al/ quantities that may be repre-
sented by a direeted line are necessarily veetor quantities; the crucial
test is whether they folIow the parallelogram law of addition or not.
6 VECTOR ANALYSIS

For example, a finite rotation of a rigid bodyabout an axis can be

represented by a line, of a length proportionaI to the angle of rota-
tion, drawn in the direetion of the axis. A second finite rotation about
another axis inclined to the first may be similarly represented. But
their resultant ef!eet cannot be fouod by compouoding the two finite
rotations by the law of veetor addition as the reader mayeasily
verify in a simple case such as the motion of a ball on a plane; indeed,
the final position of the body depends on the order in which the
rotations are carried out. Finite rotations are not, therefore, capable
of represeotation by veetors; infinitesimal rotations, angular
velocities and accelerations are, on the other hand, veetor quantities
(see p. 52).
With more than two veetors, such as A, B, C in fig. 3, the sum is
obtained by laying of! the veetors successively end to end; then the

Figure 3 Associative law of vector addition

sum is the closing side V of the polygon of which the other sides are
A, B and C. But it is geometrically obvious that we could start by
adding any pair of vectors by the parallelogram rule, and to their
resultant add the third veetor. Hence
V = (A + B) + C = A + (B + C) = (A + C) + B (1.3)
and may be written as A + B + C; addition of veetors is, therefore,
associative. The vectors are not necessarily all in the same plane; this
is more clearly shown by fig. 5.
4. Components of a Veetor. By reversing the process of addition it
is clear that any veetor V ean be deeomposed into the sum of n
DEFINITJONS. ADDITJON OF VECTORS 7
veetors, of whiehn - 1 are arbitrary and the last one eloses the
polygon. In general the veetors are not co-planar and the polygon is
not a plane figure.
The most useful instanee is the deeomposition of a veetor into
component veetors along the three orthogonal axes of cartesian

z
-- ----; ~

V, /' I
., I
I
I

V,
·~~~I~~ ., ~
" ~---+Y
I .,
_v"

x
(0)

x
(b)

Ffpre 4 Cartesian components of a vcctor

eo-ordinates. Fig. 4(a) shows the usual right-handed system, in

whieh the relative positive directions along the axes are ehosen sueh
that if 0' X is turned toward 0' Y about O'Z through the smaller
angle, a right-handed serew would advanee along the positive
2
8 VEeToa ANALYSIS
direction of O'Z; similar relations hold for the axes 0' Y and 0' X,
X, Yand Z being in cyclic order. Let the oljgin 0' be one extremity
of a veetor V; draw a reetangular parallelepiped with the three
edges which meet at 0' lying along the axes and such that V is the
diagonai from 0'. If Vs , VII, V. are the veetor intercepts along the
axes of X, Yand Z respectively, then
V .. Vs + VII + V.. (1.4)
Now let i, J, k denote veetors of unit magnitude along the axes of
X, Y and Z respectively; these unit veetors along the axes are
frequently used in later work. Then ü Vs , VII, V. are defined by
Vs = Vsi, VII = VIIJ and V. = V,k,
we have that
V = Vsi + VIIi + V,k. (1.5)
Vs , VII, V. are known as the eomponents of V in the directions of
I, J, k, respectively.
In discussing the properties of a veetor fteld we are concemed
with the magnitude and direetion of a veetor defined at every point
in a region of space. In reetangular co-ordinates with origin 0 let
a point in space, such as 0' in fig. 4(b), be speeified by the veetor
r=xi+y)+zk.
r is known as the position veetor of 0' with respeet to o. Since
parallei veetors are equivalent, equation l.S is stiU the relation
between the components of a veetor and the veetor itself. Note,
however, that as we are dealing with a veetor field, V is a function of
positian; that is, V ~d its components Vs , VII, V. are functions of
the variables x, y, z speeifying the position of 0' relative to O.
Veetors are physically independent of any system of co-ordinates
by means of which they may be expressed. Co-ordinate axes are
unneeessary, therefore, in veetor analysis. Since a veetor has three
components, any veetor equation is equivalent to three equations
relating their components. This conciseness is one of the great
advantages of veetor methods in three-dimensional problems and it
enables the physical Dature of any problem to bc kept clearly in view.
The resolutian into cartesian components is often useful in the praof
of theorems used in veetor analysis; in the words of Heaviside,
DEFINITIONS. ADDITION OF VEeToas 9
•When in doubt and difficulty, fly to i, J, k', adviee we shaIl frequentIy
follow.
As a simple example let us consider the sum V of the veetors A, B,
C. In terms of their components,
A = Azi + AvJ + A,k, B = B%i + BvJ + B,J!,
C = CJ + Cvl + Ctk.

x
y

Ffgure 5 Cartesian components of vector sum

The components along the X axis add directly; likewise those

along the Yand Z axes. Then, as shown in fig. S,
V = Vxi + Vllj + Vzk =A +B + C
= (A x + B% + C%)i + (Av + BII + Cv)j + (AI; + BI; + ez)k
(1.6)
and V% = A% + B% + ex, Vv = Av + BII + ell'
Vz = Az + Bz + ee.
Renee, the component of the resultant in the direetion of any one of
the axes is the sum of the individual components in that direetion.
5. Geometrical Applleations. We now estliblish the veetor form of
the seetion formula of three-dimensional co-ordinate geometry.
Let three collinear points A, B, P have position veetors a, b, p
respectively and let APjPB = Ajp.. Then weshow that
'\b+ p.a
p = ,\ + p. • (Fig. 6)
10 VEeTOa. ANALYSIS
-+ -to- -+00-+
Since AP = P - a, PB =b - p, and AP = (>'/p.)PB, we have that
p.(p - a) = >'(b - p),
i.e. p = >.b+p.a
>. + p.
.
An immediate coroUary of this result is that the midpoint of the
join of two points with position vectors a and b has position vector
!(a + b).

r - - - - r - - - 7P

o
Figure 6
Example 1.1. The vertices A,B, C of a triangle have position
veetors a, b, e respectively. Show that the centroid G of the triangle
has position vector !(a + b + e).
The midpoint M of BC has position vector!(b + e) and so the
point G, which divides AM in the ratio 2: 1 has position vector
!{2.!(b +'e) + I.a}, i.e. !(a + b + e).
Example 1.2. Prove that the .1ines joining the midpoints of the
opposite (i.e. non-intersecting) edges of a tetrahedron are concurrent
and bisect each other.
DEfINITIONS. ADDITION OF VECTORS 11
Let the vertiees A, B, C, D of the tetrahedron have position
veetors a, b, e, d respeetively. Then, if P, Q, R, S, T, Vare the
midpoints of AB, AC, AD, BC, CD, DB respectively, the position
veetors of R, S are t(a + d), t(b + e), respectively, and the midpoint
of RS has position veetor -Ha + b + e + d). By symmetry, this
point is also the midpoint of PT and the midpoint of Q V, and the
required result foIlows (Fig. 7).
We now show that the equation of a straight line can be written
in veetor form.

o
Figure 8

Let the point A have position veetor a with respeet to some origin
o and eonsider the straight line through A in the direetion of the
veetor u. Then r, the position veetor of any point P on the line, is
given by
->- ->-
r = OA + AP = a + AU, (Fig.8)
where Ais a real number whose value depends on the position of P
on the line. As Aranges from - oo to + oo, P traverses the entire line.
The line is therefore speeified by the equation
r =a + AU.
If U happens to be a unit veetor, then Ais the measure of AP.
In the same way we can easily write down the equation of the
12 VEeToa ANALYSIS

plane passing through the point A with position veetor a and con·
taining the veetors a and Y. Thus, if P is any point in the p1ane,
-+
AP = Aa + p.Y, where A, p. are real numbers, and the position
vector r of P is given by
-+
r=a+AP
te. r = a + Aa + p.Y. (Fig.9)
This is the equation of the plane in vector form and each point
of the plane is specified by a unique pair of values l, p..

F'lpre9

Example 1.3. Show that the equation of the plane through the
non-collinear points A, B, e with position veetors a, b, e respectively,
may be written in the form r = (1 - II - t)a + ab + te, where II, t
are real parameters.
e

A
Flprel0
DEFINITIONS. ADDITION OF VECTORS 13
-+ -+ -+
H P is any point in the plane. thcn AP = sAB + IAC and the
position vector r of P is given by

r = a + s(b - a) + I(e - a)
i.e. r = (1 - s - l)a + ab + le,
which is the desired result (Fig. 10).
6. SCaJar and Vector Fields. A physica1 quantity can bc expressed
as a function of the position of a point in a region of space; such a
function is Caned a poinl-funelion and the region in which it specifies
the physica1 quantity is known as a /ield. Fields are of two main
kinds. scalar and veetor, according to the nature of the quantity
concemed.
A typica1 sealar /ield, such as the distribution of temperature,
density, electric potential or of any other non-directed quantity, is
represeoted by a scalar function giving the value of the quantity at
each point. Such a function is usuaUy cantinuous. The field can bc
mapped graphically by a series of surfaees - such as isothermal,
equi-density or equipotential surfaees - upon each of which the
scalar has a definite constant value. Such surfaees, called level
surfaees, are conveniently chosen so that in passing from one to the
next a constant arbitrary ditTerenee is made between the values
which characterize them. It is evident that the level surfaees must lie
one within the other and cannot cut; for if two such surfaees could
interseet, the scalar values corresponding to both must hold along
their common line, which is contrary to our definition. Scalar
point-functions are single-valued at every point.
A typical veetor /ield, such as the distribution of velocity in a fluid
or of electric or magnetic field strength, is represented at every point
by a veetor function. At any given point the function is specified by
a veetor of definite magnitude and direction, both of which usua1ly
change continuously from point to point throughout the field region.
Starting at any arbitrary plaee, proceed an infinitesimal distanee in
the direction of the vector at that place, arriving at a closely-
neighbouring point. Proceeding thenee in a similar way, we trace out
a curve the tangent to which at any point gives the direction of the
vector thereat; such a curveis called a /ine of /low or /lux fine. To
14 VECTOR ANALYSIS

represent the magnitude of the veetor at any point on a ftux line

draw a very small surface perpendicuIar thereto and choose a
number of points per unit area upon this surfaee numerica11y equal
to the magnitude of the veetor. Through each of these points ftux
lines can bc drawn. The field is then mapped out by ftux lines. Their
direction is that of the veetor; their density, represeoted by the
number of them crossing per unit area perpendicular to their direc-
tion, is a measure of the magnitude of the veetor. It is clear that lines
of ftow cannot intersect, since this would involve indefinite direction
of the veetor at the point where they cut; veetor point-functions
are also single valued at every point.
The physica1 properties of scalar and veetor fields will bc con-
sidered in greater detail in Chapters 6 and 7.

Miscellaneous Exercises I
1.1. Prove that, for any two veetors u and v,
(i) lu + vi Et /ul + Ivi,
(ii) lu - vi ~ lul - lvii·
1.2. Prove that the veetors a + b + 2e, 2a - b + e, - 3a - 3e,
where a, b, e are arbitrary veetors, are coplanar.
1.3. Prove that the midpoints of the sides of a quadrilateral
(skew or pIane) are the vertices of a paralleIogram.
1.4. The vertices of a tetrahedron have position veetors a, b, e, d.
Show that the lines joining the vertices to the centroids of the oppo-
site faces are concurrent at the point with position veetor
t(a + b + e + d). (This point is the cenlroid of the tetrahedron.)
1.5. Find the veetor equation of the line joining the points whose
position veetors are i - 2j + k and 3k - 2).
Find where this line cuts the pIane through the origin and the
points whose position veetors are 4) and 2i + k.
1.6. Find the equation of the plane containing the two paralleI
Iines
r = a + ab. r = a' + Ib.
1.7. Verify that the six planes, each passing through one edge of a
tetrahedron and bisecting the opposite edge, meet in the centroid of
the tetrahedron.
2: Products of Vectors

1. General. The ordinary idea of a product in scalar algebra, the

mere multiplication of scalars, cannot apply to veetors because of
their direetional properties; nor is it possible to deeide by deductive
reasoning what form the product of two veetors should take. Since
veetors have their origin in physical probiems, definitions for the
products of veetors must be devised that will be consistent with the
way in which such products occur in applications to physical science.
As a simple example consider veetors which represent a force F and
a linear displacement d, their magnitudes being F and d, respeetively,
and the angle between their direetions being 8. Products of these two
quantities occur in two ways. First, the work done by the force is
Fd cos 8, a scalar quantity, known as the sealar produet of F and d.
The couple exerted by the force has a magnitude Fd sin 8 and acts
about an axis perpendicular to the plane containing F and d. It is
shown by a veetor, called the veetor produet of F and d, drawn along
the axis of the couple in a conventional sense to be defined later.
We are led, therefore, to define two sorts of products, namely, the
scalar product and the veetor product.
2. The SCaIar Product. The sealar produet of two veetors A and B
is defined as the product of the magnitudes of the veetors and
the cosine of the angle 8 between their direetions; since

Compon,n' of
It 0101lQ 8

It
Companenlof
8 010n9 It

Figure 11 Scalar product of two veetors

16 VEeToa ANALYSIS
eos (360 0 - 8) = cos 8, it is immaterial whieh of the two possible
angles we take. As shown by fig. Il, this is the same as the product of
the magnitude of one veetor with the component of the other in the
direction of the first. The scalar product will be denoted by inter-
posing a dot between the veetors; and, since the operation of scalar
multiplleation is commutative by definition,
A.B = B.A = ABcos 8. (2.1)
The scalar product of two veetors vanishes when either is null or
when the veetors are at right angles. This is the first particular in
which the laws of veetor algebra differ from those of sealar algebra.
When two veetors A, B are perpendicular,
A.B = 0, (2.2)
and when they are parallel,
A.B = AB. (2.3)
If B = A, the scalar product of a veetor with itse1f, ca1led its square,
is given by
A.A = A2 = AS; (2.4)
hence the magnitude of a veetor is the positive square root of its
square.
For the unit veetors i, J, k, which are mutually perpendicular, we
have
i.j = j.k = k.i 0, = (2.5)
and i2 = j2 = k S = 1. (2.6)
Now consider the scalar product of a veetor A with the sum of two
others, B and e, illustrated in fig. 12(0); the three veetors are not
necessarily in the same plane. Since the component of B + e on A
is equal to the sum of the components of B and e along A, i.e.
OC = OB + BC, we have
A.(B + C) = A(OC) = A(OB + BC) = A.B + A.C. (2.7)
Hence the scalar product is distributive for addition, as is geometri-
ealIy obvious. By an extension of this process it is easy to show that
(A + B + ... ). (N + P ...)
= A.N + A.P + ... + B.N + B.P· .. + ... (2.8)
PRODUCTS OF VECTORS 17

o~------~------~~
CA

(0)

( b)

Figure 11 (a) Distributive law for scalar products. (b) Veetor equation of
a plane

A particular case is of geometrica1 interest. In fig. 12(b) let p be the

veetor perpendicular from 0 upon a plane which passes through the
extremity of a given veetor e. If r is the radius veetor from 0 to any
other point in the plane, then it is obvious that the components of e
and r upon p must be equal and that
p.r = p.e or p.(r - e) = 0;
this is the equation of a plane perpendicular to p through the end of
e. From 2.2, (r - e) must lie in the plane normal to p, as is obvious.
Referring again to fig. 2(a), the sealar product enables the usual
formula for the resuitant of two veetors A, B to be readily found.
Their sum is
v = A + B.
Take the square of both sides; then from 2.1, 2.4 and 2.8,
V.V = V2 = (A + B).(A + B) = A.A + 2A.B + B.B,
or v2 = A2 + 2ABcos e + B2.
18 VEeTOR ANALYSIS

The reetangular components of a veetor are found at once by

taking its sealar product with the unit veetors, as is evident from
fig. 4; then
V.i = Vx , V.j = VII and V.k = Vz• (2.9)
The sealar product assumes an important form in reetangular
co-ordinates. Writing from 1.5,
A = Axi + Allj + Azk and B = Bxi + Bllj + Bzk
and using 2.5, 2.6 and 2.8 we have
A.B = (Axi + Aili + Azk).(Bxi + Bllj + Bzk)
= AxBx + AIIBy + AzBz. (2.10)
That is, the scalar product of two veetors is the sum of the products
of their respeetive components along the co-ordinate axes. If, for
example, A is a force and B is a displacement, the total work done is
equal to the sum of the works done by the components of force and
the corresponding components of displacement, as is physically
obvious.
3. The Vector Product. The veetor product of two non-zero veetors
A and B in that order is defined as the veetor ABlsin 810, where 8 is
an angle between A and B and 0 is that unit normal to the plane
determined by A and B which is directed so that A, B, 0 form a
right-handed system, i.e. the rotation needed to move A to the
position of B and the positive direetion of 0 are related in the same

At S

81A - - A18

Figure 13 Vector product of two veetors

PRODUCTS OF VECTORS 19
way as the rotation and translation of a right-handed screw. It
follows from the definition that a change in the order of the factors
in a veetor produet reverses the sign of the produet. Henee the
operation of veetor multiplleation is not commutative and the order
of the terms must be strietly maintained, a further differenee between
veetor and scalar algebras. Veetor multiplleation is denoted by a
cross between the factors; thus
A x B = - B x A = ABlsin 81n. (2.11)
An alteroative notation for A x B is A A B. The veetor produet
vanishes not only when either factor is zero but also when the
component veetors are parallei or antiparalleI. When two veetors
are parallel,
AxB=O, (2.12)
and when they are perpendicular,
AxB=ABn, (2.13)
in which case the two veetors and their produet are mutually at
right angles. For the unit veetors, i, j, k, we have
i x I = j x j = k x k = 0, (2.14)
and
i x j = -j x i = k, j x k = -k x j = i, k x i = -i x k = j.
(2.15)
The striet cycllc order in these important results should be observed.
4. Vedor Area. The magnitude of a veetor product is AB Isin 81,
i.e. the area of the parallelogeam with sides of lengths A and B and
included angle 8. 8inee the shapeof the figure is not specified by the
definition of the produet, llIlY. plane area of amount ABlsin 81 with
its positive unit normal n can be taken to represent a veetor produet.
By an extension of this idea wc are led to the notion of veetor area.
A plane area, such as S in fig. 14(a), can be regarded as possessing
both magnitude and direction. Its magnitude is the amount of the
area and its direction is that of the normal to its plane. The sign to
be attributed to a veetor area is defined with referenee Ao the order
in which it is traced out, the positive direction of the veetor area
being along the unit normal n, the directions of tracing and of D
being related by the right-hand screw rule. Then S = SO is the
20 VEeToR ANALYSIS

definition of a vector area S. Vector areas can be resolved or added

justiike other vector quantities.
In fig. 14(b) a tetrahedron is shown with vectors Sl, S2, Ss, S4
drawn to represent the vector areas of its four triangular faces, the
outward normal being regarded as positive. Resolve these areas upon
any plane. Then on this arbitrarily chosen plane some projections

5". 0

"

(oI

F'JgUre 14 (a) Vector area. (b) Vector area of a elosed surfaee

are positive and others negative, the sum of them all being zero.
Hence the total veetor area of a tetrahedron is zero. This result
follows at once from physical considerations, if the tetrahedron is
supposed to be drawn within a ftuid which is in equilibrium under
hydrostatic pressure. Bach face experiences a force normal to its
plane and proportional to its area. Since the ftuid within the solid
figure is in equilibrium with that outside it, the resultailt of the forces
on its faces is zero; hence also is the sum ofthe veetor areas, since the
pressure is the same on all faces. This hydrostatic demonstration also
applies to any form of solid figure and thus generalizes the theorem.
Geometrically, any polyhedral figure may be divided up into tetra-
hedra; every surface introduced into the interior of the polyhedron
appears twice, once with a positive and once with a negative normal.
Hence for any polyhedral surface the total veetor area is zero. By
making the faces vanishingly small and indefinitely increasing their
number we approach a elosed curved surface over which
PRODUCTS OF VECToas 21
5. Applicadon to Vector Products. Consider now the veetor product
of a veetor A with the sum of two others, B and e. In fig: 15 draw a
triangular prism with its pjU'allel edges in the direction of A and its
end faces as triangles with sides B, e and B + e. The veetor areas
of the triangular end faces are tB x e and te x B, which cancel;
the remaining vector areas are B x A, e x A and A x (B + C) in
the sense of the outward normaIs, their sum being zero. Thus
A x (B + C) +B x A+e x A= 0 (2.16)
i.e. A x (B + C) = -B x A- e x A =A x B +A x e.

aiA
FIpre 15 Distributive law for veetor products

Hence veetor multiplication is distributive, but the order of the

factors must be strictly observed. By repeating the process it is easy
to show that
(A + B + ... ) x (N + P ... ) =
A x N + A x p ... + B x N + B x P + ... + ... (2.17)
for any number of veetors.
These rules enabIe the veetor product of two veetors to bc
expressed in reetangular componeots. In the notation of 1.5 and
22 VECTOR ANALYSIS

using 2.16, 2.14, 2.15 we have

A xB = (A.,i + Aili + Aak) x (B.,i + Blli + Bak)
= (AIIBe - AeBlI) i + (AaB., - A.,B.) i + (A.,BII - AIIB.,) k.
(2.18)
This result is more easily remembered by writing it in the form of a
determinant; thus,
k
A x B = A., All A.. (2.18 bis)
B., B II B.
6. Products of Three Vecton. The veetor product of two veetors
B and C, being a veetor, can give both a scalar and a veetor product
with a third vector A. There are, therefore, two triple products,
namely A. (B x C) and A x (B x C), and these occur frequently in
physical applications.
The seafar tripfe produet has a simple interpretation illustrated by
fig. 16. (B x C) is a veetor normal to the plane of B and C, with a
magnitude equal to the area of the shaded parallelogram. The scalar
e.e

Plone 01 e and e
Figare 16 The scalar triple product

product of A with (B x C) is the product of this area and the

component of A along (B xC); i.e. A. (B x C) is the volume of the
parallelepiped which ha!! A. B. e for iu edJJe!l. Any face of this
solid can be taken as the base; hence three equivalent expressions
for the volume are
A.(B x C) = B.(C x A) = C.(A x B), (2.19)
PRODUCTS OF VECTORS 23
cyclic order of the factors being maintained to retain the volume with
positive sign.· Since the order of the factors in a scalar product is
immaterial, the volume is also given by
(A x B).C = (B x C).A = (C x A).B, (2.19)
so that the dot and cross may be interehanged at will. Three veetors,
therefore, have six identical scalar triple products which may be
written concisely as
i j k A", All A.
[A, B, C] = (A",i + AIIJ x A.k). B", By B. B", BII B.
C", C y C. C", CII C.
(2.19 bis)
When three veetors lie in a plane, the volume of the parallelepiped is
zero, and conversely; hence a necessary and sufficient condition for
three veetors to be co-planar is that their sealar triple product
vanishes.
y

x
z

Figure 17 The veetor triple product

• Scalar quantities of this kind, in which the sign depends on the proper
cyc\ic arrangement of the component vector factors, are called pseudo-
sealars to distinguish them from true scalars, which do not change sign
when the referenee axes are changed from a right-handed to a left-handed
system.
3
24 ViCTOR ANALYSIS

The veetor triple produet A x (B x C) can aISO be illustrated

geometrically, as in fig. 17. The veetor (B x C) is oorma! to the p1ane
cootaioiog B and C. Likewise, the veetor A x (B x C) is norma!
to the plane containing A and (B x C) and therefore lles in the same
plane as B and C. Take the X axis alang B, the Yaxis at right angles
thereto in the plane ofB and C, and the Z axis alang (B x C). Theo
in terms of their cartesian components the three veetors are,
A = AJ + A"j + Azk, B = BJ and C = CJ + C"j,
since for this choice ofaxes B" = B. = C. = O. Expanding the
veetor product (B x C) we have
(B x C) = B~C"k;
and also that
A x (B x C) = A"B~C"i - A~~C"j.
But from 2.10
A.C = A.,G., + A"G" and A.B = A.,B."
so that
A x (B x C) = A"G"B - A~.,C"j
= (A"C" + A~C~) B - A.,C.,BJ - A~.,C"j
= (A~C~ + A"C,,) B - A~~CJ + C,,»,
or, A x (B x C) = (A.C)B - (A.B)C. (2.20)
Bach term of the produet involves the external factor Aina scalar
produet, first with the extreme and then with the middle factor, and
the triple product is' a veetor lying in the plane determined by B and
C. Hence a veetor triple product is entirely differeot if the order of
the factors be interehanged and it is easy to see that
Ax(BxC)+Bx~x~+Cx~xm=~
Produets of mare than three veetors do not often occur in physica1
applleations and when encountered they are easily reduced by use
of the precediog theorems.
The formula for the veetor triple product enables us to show that
any veetor d can be expressed as a linear combinatioo of any three
non-planar vectors a. b, c. We evaluate the product (a x b) x (c x d)
io two differeot ways as follows.
(a x b) x (e x d) = [(a x b).d] e - [(a x b).c]d
= la. b, d] e - la, b, e] d.
PRODUCTS OF VECTORS 2S
Also
(a X b) X (e X d) = -(e X d) X (a x b)
=- [(e x d).b] a + [(e x d).a] b
=- [e, d, b] a + [e, d, a] b.
By these we now have that
d = [e, d, b] a - [e, d, a] b + ra, b, d] e
ra, b, e] ,
the denominator being non-zero since a, b, e are non-planar. Hence
d = [b, e, d] a + [e, a, d] b + ra, b, d] e.
ra, b, e]
7. LiBe and Surface IntegraJs as scalar Products. In fig. 18, let e be
any eurve drawn in a veetor field and ds an element of are along it

Ffgure 18 Tangentialline integrai of a vector

at any point P. Let V denote the veetor at P in a direction making an

angle 8 with that of the length element. Then
V.ds = Veos 8ds
and, if V varies in magnitude and direetion from point to point along
the eurve, the integraI

foV.dS= tveos8ds (2.21)

is defined as the line inlegral of V along the eurve C.

If points on the eurve are specified by a parameter I, the end points
being given by I = 10. I = It. then the are Iength s measured from
26 VEeTOR ANALYSIS

the point I = 10 and the angle 9 are funetions of I and so

r V.ds = i''. V(/) eos {9(t)} ~t dt.
Jc
Such integrals are of very frequent occurrence. For example, if V is a
force and ds an element of the path of a partiele along a curve, the
line integraI denotes the work done in displacing the partiele along
the curve. Again, if V is the eleetric field strength, i.e. the force on
unit charge in an eleetric field, then the line integraI expresses the
potential difference between the ends of the curve. Further, ir V is
the velocity at any point in a fluid and the integraI be taken round a
elosed curve, the integraI is called the circulalion of the fluid. In an
eleetromagnetic field the line integraI of the eleetric force round a
elosed path is the eleetromotive force in the path; in a purely eleetro-
static field the e.mJ. is zero.
Consider now any element of area dS upon a surface drawn in a
veetor field, and let V be the veetor at the centre of the element.
Draw the positive· normal n of unit length on the element and let 9
be the angle between n and V, as in fig. 19. Then the component of

,,"
",,"
<"
Outword "u. ~

Figure 19 Normal surfaee integrai of a veetor

• If the surfaee is elosed, n is drawn outward from the enelosed volume.
If the surfaee is unclosed, then n is drawn always on the same side of the
surfaee, the normal on the opposite side being regarded as being in the
negative direction.
PRODUCTS OF VECTORS 27
V perpendicular to dS is V . n = Veos 8 and by definition the ftux of
V through the element is V . n dS. The integraI of this taken over the
surface. Le.
JJ V.ndS or JJ Veos 8dS. (2.22)
s s
is called the surface integral of V over the surface or the total ftux
through the surface.
The physical meaning of such surface integrals is very clear.
Suppose V to denote the velocity of a moving ftuid in which a fixed
surface S is drawn. At any point V . n dS denotes the volume of ftuid
passing normaIly through the surface element dS in unit time. and
this component alone must be considered since the tangential
component of V neeessarily contributes nothing to the ftow through
the surface element. If the ftow through an element is in the sense of
the positive or outward normal it is counted as positive; if in the
opposite sense. as on the element dSl. it is negative. The integraI of
these normal contributions expresses the aggregate ftow of ftuid
through the whole surface in unit time. If the surface is elosed.
positive total ftux diverges from the endosed volume while negative
ftux converges up on it. Should the amount of flux entering by some
elements be balaneed by that leaving by other elements in such a way
that the total ftux is zero. then either there are no sourees or sinks of
ftuid within the endosed volume or the sum of their strengths is zero.
Similar ideas apply to other ftuxes. e.g. of electric or magnetic
induction. of heat, etc.
We now work out a few miscelIaneous examples on veetor algebra
and its applications.
~ _ _ _ _...".,H

O """'-----~

Figure 20
28 VICTOR. ANALYSIS

Eumple 2.1. A paraUelepiped has adjacent edges OA, OB, OC,

-+ -+ -+
where OA, OB, OC are the unit vectors u, v, w respectively, and
LAOB = 60°, LBOC = 90°, LAOC =;. H and K are the
vertiees opposite 0 and C respectively, D is the midpoint of AK and
M is the midpoint of OD. If MH is perpendicular to MA, find the
value of eos ; (Fig. 20).
We have that
-+ -+ -+ -+ -+
OD = OA + AD = OA + iOB
= u + iv,
-+ -+
OM= iOD = iu + 1v,
-+ -+ -+ -+
OH = OA + OB + OC = u + v + w.
-+ -+ -+
Hence MH = OH - OM = iu + tv + w,
-+ -+ -+
and MA = OA - OM = u - (iu + 1v) = iu - iv.
Also U.v = i, V.w = 0, U.w = eos;.
Now MH is perpendicular to MA, so
-+ -+
o = MH.MA = (iu + tv + w).(iu - iv)
= iull + iu.v + lu.w -la-vll - i v.w
= la- + i eos ;,
and eos; = -to
Example 2.2. A tetrahedron has two pairs of opposite edges
mutually perpendicular. Prove that (i) the remaining opposite edges
are mutually perpendicular, (ü) each altitude of the tetrahedron
meets the opposite face in the orthocentre of that face (Fig. 21).
Let the vertiees of the tetrahedron bc A, B, C, D and have position
e,
veetors a, b, d, respectively, relative to some origin O. Let AB bc
perpendicular to CD, and BC bc perpendicular to AD. Then, since
-+ -+ -+ -+
AB = b - a, CD = d - e, BC = e - b, AD =d - a, we have
that
(b - a).(d - e) = 0, (1)
(e - b).(d - a) = O. (2)
PRODUCTS OF VECTORS 29
A

e
FIgUre 21

Adding these equations, wc find that

or,
(e - a).d - b.(e - a) =
(e - a).(d - b) = 0,
°
and so AC is perpendieular to BD, (i).
To establish (ii), let H be the orthocentre of triangle BCD and
have position vector h. Then, since BH is perpendicular to CD,
(h - b).(d - e) =0
and so, by (1),
(h - a).(d - e) = O.
Hence, AH is perpendieular to CD and, similarly, to BC. Since AH
is perpendieular to two lines in plane BCD, it is normal to that plane.
Eumple 2.3. If w = au + (3v + y(u x v), where u and v are unit
veetors inelined to each other at angle t1T, prove that
Iwl 2 = a 2 + a{3 + (32 + ir 2•
By 2.1
Iwl s = w.w = alul + fJ*v. +"s(u X V)3 + 2a{3u.v
+ 2yau.(u x v) + 2{3yv.(u x v).
Now u3 = v2 = 1, u. v = eos t1T = t, Iu X vl 2 = sin 2 t1T = i and
u. (u x v) = v. (u x v) = 0, since u x v is perpendieular to u and
to v, so we find that
Iwls = al! + ap + pa + irll•
30 VEeToa ANALYSIS

Example 2.4. If i, j, k are mutuaIly perpendicular unit veetors and

u is an arbitrary veetor, prove that
(i. uHi x u) + (j. u) (j x u) + (k. u) (k x u) = O.
Since an arbitrary veetor can be expressed as a linear combination
of i, j, k we may write
u=ai+bj+ek,
where a, b, e are numberso Then
I.u = a, i x u = ai x i + bi x j + ei x k
= -cj + bk
and (i. uHi x u) = - eaj + ahk.
Similarly, (j.u) (j x u) = -ahk + bei,
(k.u) (k x u) = -bei + eaj
and the required result follows immediately.
Example 2.5. Show that
(a - b) x (a + b) = 2(a x b),
(i) algebraically, (ii) geometrically.
(i) By the distributive laws, we have that
~-~x~+~=~x~+~x~-~x~-~x~
and so
~-~x~+~=O+~x~+~x~-O
= 2(a x b).
-+ -+
(ii) In the figure shown, Iet AB = a, AD = b and Iet ABCD be a
-+
paraIIelogram, whose diagonals meet at E. Then a - b = DB,
-+
a + b = AC and
-+ -+
(a - b) x (a + b) = 4 EB x EC.
Hence I(a - b) x (a + b)1 = 8 area of t:,.EBC
= 2areaABCD
= 21a x bl,
i.e. (a - b) x (a + b) = 2(a x b) in magnitude. But the veetors
-+ -+ -il- -+
have the same direction, since EB x EC and AB x AD are both
PRODUCTS OF VECTORS 31
e

A
Figure 22

directed along the same normal to the parallelogram ABCD. Hence

(a - b) x (a + b) = 2(a x b).
Example 2.6. Show that p.(q x r) = (p x q).r and deduce that
(a x b).(c x d) = (a.c) (b.d) - (a.d) (b.c).
We have that
p.(q x r) = lp, q, r) = [r, p, q) = r.(p x q)
= (p x q).r,
and hence that
(a x b).(c x d) = [(a x b) x c).d
= -[e x (a x b)).d
= -[(c.b)a - (c.a)b).d,
i.e. (a x b).(c x d) = (a.c) (b.d) - (a.d) (b.c).
Example 2.7. Prove that the lines
r = 4i - 2j + 3k + t(2i - 3j + 6k),
r= -6i+j+3k+u(-4i+3k)
interseet, and find the point of intersection roo
We need to show that there exists a pair of numbers t, u such that
4i - 2j + 3k + t(2i - 3j + 6k) = - 6i + j + 3k + u( - 4i + 3k),
i.e. such that 4 + 2t = - 6 - 4u, - 2 - 3t = 1, 3 + 6t = 3 + 3u,
or t + 2u = - 5, t = -1, 2t = u.
32 VEeToa ANALYSIS
These equations are satisfied by I = -I, u = - 2 and so the lines
intersect at the point fO, where
fo = 41 - 2j + 3k - (21 - 3j + 6k),
i.e. fo=2i+j-3k.

Miscellaneous Exercises II
2.1. A parallelepiped has adjacent edges OP, OQ and OR of
lengths I, 3 and 2 units respectively; OP is perpendicular to OQ and
the angles POR and QOR have cosines t and i respectively. Pind the
lengths of the diagonais through 0 and R, and the cosine of the
acute angle between them.
2.2. Three vectors a, b, c are non-zero. If
axb=c and bxc ... a,
show that a, b, c are mutually perpendicular, that two of them are
equal in magnitude and that the third is a unit vector.
Deduce necessary and sufficient conditions under which
axb=c, bxc=a, cxa=b.
2.3. Show that the sum of the four veetors of magnitudes equal to
the areas of the faces of a tetrahedron and directed outwards and
perpendicular to the faces, is zero.
2.4. If a, b, c are vectors such that
bxc=cxa=axb,
prove that
ax~+b+~=bx~+b+~=cx~+b+~=a
Deduce that if, further, a, b, e are non-zero vectors and not all
parallel, then
a+b+c=O.
2.S. The veetors u, v, w are unit vectors such that v and w both
make an angle 8 with u. Prove that the VectOf a = v - w is perpen-
dicular to the veetor u and to the vector b = - u + v + w. IT b is
perpendicular to u, show that 8 = 60°.
If, further, ahas length I, find the angle between v and wand obtain
the volume of the cuboid whose sides are U, a, b.
2.6. a and b are nOD-parallel unit veetors, and c = a + v'3 b,
PRODUCTS OF VECTORS 33
d = a - V3 b. If the angle 8 between a and b is the same as that
between e and d, show that 8 = cos-1 (-1/v3).
2.7. Show that, if a ana b are any non-parallel veetors and if
a = lal, b = Ibl, then the veetor
e=ab+ba
bisects the angle between a and b.
If i, j, k are mutually orthogonal unit veetors, find a veetor
bisecting the angle between the veetors 2i + j - k, i - j + 2k.
Find also a unit veetor perpendicular to the plane containing these
two veetors.
2.8. Find the area of the parallelogram the diagonats of which are
the veetors
3i + j - 2k and i - 3j + 4k,
i, j, k being the usual mutually perpendicular unit veetors.
2.9. Find a veetor r for which
(r x a) + r = b,
where a, b are given veetors.
2.10. If a veetor x satisfies the equations
x x e = b x e and x.a = 0
and if a and e are not mutually perpendicular, show that
x= b- (a.b)
a.e
e.
2.11. If the veetors a, b, e, U, v and w are such that U = a x b,
v = a x e, w = b + e, show that
(i) U.W + v.w = 0;
(ii) w x U + W x v = w2a - (w.a)w;
(iii) U x v = ra, b, el a.
2.12. The veetors u, v, w are non-zero. Show, by taking the veetor
product of each side with u, or otherwise, that the general solution
of the equation
UXy=uxw

in v is v = AU + w, where Ais a sealar. Deduce that the only solution

of the simultaneous equations in v,
U x y"= U x w, U.V = U.W
is v = w.
34 VEeTOR ANALYSIS

2.13. If A, B, e, D are any four veetors, prove that

~xmx~x~=~~~e-~~qn

Deduee that, if
A' B x e B' e x A and e' A x B
= [A, B, e]' = [A, B, e] = [A,B, q'
then (i) [A, B, q [A', B', e'] = 1,
.. B' X e' e' x A'
and (11) A = [A', B', eT B = [A', B', e'] and
A' x B'
e = [A', B', eT
2.14. In the tetrahedron OABC, the sides OA, aB, ac are equal.
By considering
-4- --+ --+ --+
(OA x OB).(OA x OC),
show that
eos a = eos b eos e + sin b sin e eos A,
where a, b, e are the angles BOC, COA, AOB, respectively, and A is
the angle between the planes AOB, AOC.
2.15. Show that if u is a given non-zero veetor, then a veetor v
satisfies the eondition
u = v x (u x v)
if and only if v is a unit veetor perpendieular to u.
If a variable point in three-dimensional space has position veetor r
and if a and b are fixed veetors with b non-zero, show that the equa-
tion
b = (r - a) x {b x (r - a)}
represents a circle C of radius 1 with a as the position veetor of its
eentre. Find, in a form similar to the above, the veetor equation of
the eircle of radius R whieh lies in the same plane as C and is
eoncentrie with C.
2.16. Prove that the plane through the point with position veetor
p and with normal in the direetion of the veetor n has equation
(r - p).n = O.
PRODUCTS OF VECTORS 35
A, B, C are the points with position veetors a, b, e respectiveIy.
The pIane a contains the line OA and is perpendicular to the pIane
OBC, where 0 is the origin. Similarly, the plane {J contains OB and
is perpendicular to the plane OCA, and the pIane 'Y contains OC and
is perpendicular to the plane OAB. Show that the pIanes a, {J, 'Y
intersect in a line.
2.17. The veetors i, j, k are non-planar. Find the veetor equa-
tion of the line joining the points A and B with positian vectors
i - 2j + k and i - j + 3k, respectiveIy, and show that the point P
with position veetor i - Sj - Sk lies on AB. Find also the vector
equation of the plane which passes through AB and the point C with
position veetor k.
2.18. Prove that the points with position veetors - 2i + 2j,
- i + j + 2k and i - j + 6k lie in a straight line and find the
equation of the line. If this line interseets the line
r = (s + 1) i + (1 - 3s) j + (e + 3s) k,
where s is a parameter and e is a constant, prove that e = S.
3: The Oifferentiation of Vectors

1. SC:aIar DUJerentiation. Suppose that V is a veetor function of a

scalar variable t; then when t changes from t to t + at, V becomes
V + aV. Theratioav/at is the averagerateofchangeof V with t, and
as at becomes vanishingly small the ratio may possess a limiting value
dV/dt which is the rate of increase of V, i.e.
dV = lim av.
dt 6HO at
This limit, when it exists, is called the derivative of V with respeet to
the scalar variable t. As V varies, its extremity moves over a curve
and the derivative is a veetor in the direction of the tangent to this
curve at each point. Second, third and higher derivatives are obtained
by similar arguments, by analogy with ordinary scalar ealeulus.
When V is expressed in terms of the orthogonal unit vectors i, j, k,
V = Vsf + VuJ + V.k;

Ffaure 13 Scalar dift'erentiation of a vector

THE DIFFERENTIATlON OF VEeToas 37
V~, V", V. are now funetions of I. Since i, J, k are constant veetors, it
foUows that
(3.1)

and similarly for higher decivatives.

A most important physieal instanee is when V is a veetor of
displaeement and t is time; the extremity of V lies on the path of a
moving body. The derivative dV/dt is the velocity along the path at
any instant, and dav/dt S is the eorresponding acceleration.
2. Ditl'erentiation of Sums and Products. Jf V is the sum of two
veetors A and B, both of whieh are funetions of t, then a ehange
from I to t + 81 makes
V + 8V = (A + 8A) + (B + 8B),
so that 8V = 8A + 8B.
Dividing by 8t and proceeding to the limit we obtain
dV d dA dB
dt = di(A + B) = dt + dt' (3.2)

so that the operation of differentiation is distcibutive, as in ordinary

ealeulus.
For the scalar produet A.B the increment in t gives
(A + 8A).(B.+ 8B) = A.B + 8A.B + A.BB + BA.8B,
when the scalar produet is expanded by 2.8. Subtracting A.B,
dividing by 81 and proceeding to the limit, we find that
d dA dB
dt (A.B) = dt· B + A. dt' (3.3)
If B = A we have the useful form for the self produet,
d d d dA ~
dr (A.A) = dr (AB) = iii (AB) = 2A. dl = 2A dt' (3.3a)

For the particular case AB = AB = constant, dA/dt is zero and 3.3a leads
to A. (dA/dt) = O. Hence dA/dt is perpendicular to A. If a point moves on
the surfaee of a sphere its velocity is always normal to the radius veetor, as
is physically obvious.
For the veetor produet A x B, expansion by 2.17 gives
(A + BA) x (B + 8B) = A x B + 8A x B + A x aB + aA x 8B,
38 VECTOR ANALYSIS

and leads to the relation

d dA dB
- (A x B)
~
= -~ x B + A x -~' (3.4)

in which the order of the faetors must be strictly maintained.

Denoting d/dt by p the reader can easily verify that for triple
products
p[A.(B x C)] = pA.(B x C) + A.(pB x C) + A.(B x pC),
and
p[A x (B x C)]
= pA x (B x C) +A x (pB x C) +A x (B x pC).
In general, differentiation in veetor analysis is seen to follow the
same rules as in ordinary differential ealculus, except in so far as
vector algebra differs from scalar algebra.
3. partial Difl'erentiatiOll. The simple properties of difl'erentiation
as applied to veetors in §§ 1 and 2 can be extended to partial deriva-
tives when a veetor is a function of more than one independent scalar
variable. The most useful case is that of a veetor V which is a function
of the cartesian co-ordinates x, y, z of a point in space, i.e. of a vector
field. If y and z remain constant while x increases, the partial
derivative oV/ox denotes the rate of increase of V with respeet to x.
Likewise changing y and z alone we obtain the partial derivatives
õV/oy and õV/oz, denoting the rates ofincrease with respeet to y and
z, respeetively. Ifnow x, y and z change simultaneously by increments
dx, dy, dz, the complete difl'erential of V, which is a first approxima-
tion to the change in V, will be
ÕV ÕV ÕV
dV = -dx
ox + -dy
oy + -dz
oz' (3.5)

and is of frequent occurrence in physieal applications of veetor

analysis. If r = xi + yj + zk is the radius vector from the origin,
then its differential is
dr = dxi + dyj + dzk.
3.5 may be symbolieally written as

dV = [~4 + ~dY + ~dZ] V.

THE DIFFERENTIATION OF VEeTORS 39
If we now define the operator V by

V =. 0.0
) - + J-
0
ox oy + k-,
oz
it is easy to verify that the sealar produet of V, regarded formallyas a
veetor, with dr gives the operator in square braekets. Thus,
dV = (V.dr)V. (3.5 bis)

The operator V is of immense importanee in physical applications

of veetor analysis, wherein it appears in association with both scalar
and veetor operands. These uses will be fully explained in Chapter 4.

Miscellaneous Exercises III

3.1. The veetors u and vare funetions of I. Show that
d 2v d 2u d (dv dU)
u x dl 2 +Vx dl 2 = Ji \ U x dl + V x dl .
3.2. Ifr = i eos I eosh I + j sin I sinh t, where i and j are eonstant
orthogonal veetors, prove that
(i) Irl = 21rl,
(ii) r is orthogonal to r.
3.3. If r = i eos 21 + j sin 21 + k sin t, where i, j, k are mutually
orthogonal unit veetors, show that
r.r + Sr.r + 4r.r = O.
3.4. The vector r depends on the time I and satisfies the equation
'f' = O. Show that the veetors r, f, r are eo-planar if r = 0 when
t = 0 and are parallei if, in addition, f = 0 when t = O.
3.5. Find the derivative with respect to t of [r, t, rl.
3.6. If u is a funetion of the parameter t and if u and ü are unit
veetors, show that
u x (ü x ü) = -u.
3.7. u and vare funetions of t and
du dv
dt = ca) x u, dt = ca) x v,
4
40 VEeToa ANALYSIS

where w is a given veetor. Show that

;, (il x v) =w x (u x v).

3.8. u is a function of the time t and u x Il = O. Show that u has

a fixed direction.
4: The Operator V and Its Uses
1. The Operator V. The differential operator V was introduced by
Sir William Rowan Hamilton and developed by P. G. Tait; it is of
central impo.rtanee in many three-dimensional physical problen,s.
The symbol V was originally named 'nabla' after a harp-like ancient
Assyrian musical instrument of similar shape; it is now usual to
adopt the term 'del' introduced by J.Willard Gibbs. In cartesian
notation a a a
del = V = I ax + J ay + k az' (4.1)
and may be applied as an operator either to a scalar or to a veetor
function of space. Again, treating the differentiators in V as scalars,
we may formally regard V as a vector which can have either a scalar
or a veetor product with other veetors. In vector analysis there are
three fundamental operations with V which are of physical interest.
If S is a scalar function and V a vector function of position, these
operations are (i) VS, where Vacts as an operator; (ii) V. V, and
(iü) V x V, where V is treated formally as a veetor.
2. The gradient of a sealar Ffeld. on p. 13 it was stated that certain
physical quantities, such as temperature or electric potential or any
such non-direc~ quantity, can be represented from point to point
in space by a scalar point-function S of the co-ordinates. The entire
scalar fieId can be mapped out by level surfaees upon each of which
the scalar function S has a constant value. Consider two such
surfaees very close together and examine them in the neighbourhood
of a given point A on the surface characterized by the constant
value S of the scalar function; the second surface is specified. by a
constant value S + dS. If r is the position vector of the point A, any
point such as B in the second surface is given by r + dr. The least
distanee between the surfaees will be A e, in the direetion of the unit
normal vector D at A and oflength dn (Fig. 24).
42 VEeToa ANALYSIS

Unit
normal
n

Figure 24 Oraclient of a scalar point function

If dr be the length of AB, the rate of increase at A of S in the

direction of AB witl be oS/or. This rate of increase is greatest in the
direction of the unit normal n, i.e. along AC, when it has the value
aS/on. Note that
as as
-=-oos8
or on '
where 8 is the angle between AB and AC.
Hence, if n is the unit vector normal to the level surface at any
point in a scalar field, the vector n aS/an specifies the greatest rate
of increase of S at the point in magnitude and direction. This veetor
is called the grat!ienl of S at the point and is written
as
gradS = onno (4.2)

Thus, the gradient of a SCaIar field is a veetor field, the veetor at any
point having magnitude equal to the most rapid rate of increase of
S at the point, and being in the direction of this fastest rate of
increase, i.e. perpendicular to the level sudaee at the point.
THE OPERATOR 'il AND ITS USES 43
A simple physical example will fix the reader's ideas. Suppose S
is the potential in an eleetric field due to static charges. Then the
eleetric force at any point is in the direction of the greatest rate of
decrease of potential, i.e. normal to the equipotential surfaees. and
has a magnitude equal to that rate of decrease. That is, the electric
foree is - grad S.
It is clear from the way that the gradient has been introdueed that
it is a veetor field independent of any particular system of co-ordinate
axes. Consider now the veetor
'ilS - aS i aS • aS k
- ax + ay 1 + az '
where i, j, k have their usual meanings. We wish to show that this
veetor is the gradient as just defined. To do this, take the sealar
product on both sides of equation 4.2 with an element of radius
veetor dr. Then
as as as
(grad S).dr = an D.dr = an dr eos 8 = an dn = dS,
sinee as/an is the normal rate of change of S. Now in reetangolar
co-ordinates,
as as as
dS = -dx
ax
+ -dy
ay
+ -dz
az
and henee
as as as
(grad S).dr = ax dx + ay dy + az dz

= ( Õs •
ax I +
as • as
ay 1 + õz
k) •(dxi + d·Y1 + dzk)
= ('ilS).dr;
sinee dr is arbitrary
"S as . as • as k
grad S = v =-1+-1+- , (4.3)
õx ay az
and so the operations grad and 'il applied to a sealar point-function
are identical. AIso sinee the gradient of a scalar field is independent
of the nature of co-ordinates, so also is the operator 'il; it is a mere
convenienee, therefore, to express it in terms of x, y and z. We may
regard 'il as a direetional differentiator which, when applied to a sealar
44 VEeTOll ANALYSIS

function of space, gives the greatest rate of chaoge of the function in

magnitude and direction at every point, i.e. derives from a scalar field
its vector field of gradient.
We have here an important case in which a veetor field is derived
from a scalar field by the process of finding the gradient of the tatter.
It does not necessarily follow conversely that all vector fields can be
expressed as the gradient of a scalar function. Let Vs be a vector
which is derived from a scalar S through the relationship
Va = gradS = VS.
In fig. 25 draw any path, such as that marked path I, between two
points A and B in the vector field and let Vs make an angle 8 with

o
Ftgure 25 Une integrals in a Iamellar field

the element ds ot the path; then the product of the length of the
element and the component of Vs in its direction is, from p. 25,
Vscos 8ds = Va.ds.
The path is traced out by the extremity of aradius vector r from the
origin; thends is equivalent to dr and we may write, from p. 43,
Va.ds = (VS).dr == (grad S).dr = dS.
THE OPERA TOR V AND ITS USU 4S
Hence the line integrai of Vs from A to B is

f Vs.ds
.AB.AB
= f (grad S).dr = f
.AB
dS = SB - SA, (4.4)

where SA and SiJ are the values of the scalar at the extremities of the
path. Since only the end values are concemed, the line integrai hill! a
value independent of the path followed.
Now take a elosed path, eonsisting of path 1 from A to B followed
by path 2 from B to A. From 4.4, since the limits of integration are
reversed for ·the second path, the value of the line integral along it is
SA - SB; hence round a elosed path

f(grad S).ds = O. (4.5)

Thus, when a veetor field can be expressed as the gradient of a

scalar field, the line integral of the veetor taken between two points
is independent of the path followed and is equal to the difference
between the values of the scalar at its ends; further, the line integrai
round any elosed path in sueh a veetor field is zero.
A veetor field Vs derived from a scalar S by the relation Vs = grad S
is sometimes called a sealar potential field, S being the potential of
Vs. Since spaee is divided up into layers or laminae by the level or
equipotential surfaees of the function S, Vs is also calIed a lamellar
veetor field. Again, since the essential property of such a veetor is that
its line integrai round any dosed path is zero, the veetor field is
sometimes calIed a non-eurl field, a term which will be explained in
§6. A simple example is the eleetrostatic field of charged conductors,
which can be specified by a system of equipotential surfaees. The
veetor field of electric force is derived from the scalar potential as
its negative gradient, i.e. the eleetric force is in the direetion of the
greatest rate of fall of potential and has a magnitude equal to that
rate. The line integraI of the eleetric force between two points is the
potential difference between them and is independent of the path
taken; it represents the work done in moving a unit positive charge
of electricity from one point to the other. Round a closed path the
work done is zero, expressed by tJle statement that the electromotive
force vanishes round any closed path in a static electric field. The
reader will be able to construct other physical examples of larnellar
46 VECTOR ANALYSIS

vector fields, e.g. the flow of heat with temperature isothermals and
gravitational attraction with level surfaces.
3. The Divergence of a Vector Field. In fig. 26 let V be the veetor
at the centre of an infinitesimal element of volume with sides dx, dy

Vt + .!.. elV, dz
2 ell

I el v,
V, - 2" äi dy

I~
v,+! el, dy

I av,
Vz -zazdl
Figure 26 Divergence of a veetor point function

and dz parallei to the axes of x, y and z. The veetor V has components

Vx , Vy and Vz in the direetions of these axes. To fix his ideas the
reader may think of V as a veetor giving the velocity of a moving
fluid in magnitude and direetion.
Consider the two faces of the volume element, each with area
dy dz perpendicular to the axis of X. On the left-hand face the value
of the x-component of the vector at the middle of the face is
loVx
Vx + 2 ox dx,

and may be taken as the value all over the face when this becomes
very small. Similarly, on the right-hand face the x-component is

Vx - zax
loV
dx .
x

We now define the flux through any face as the scalar product of the
vector area of the face and the veetor V; i.e. as the product of the
area of the face and the normal component of the veetor upon it
(see p. 27). The flux is positive when the component of V and the
outward-drawn normal on the face of the element are in the same
THE OPERATOR V AND ITS USES 47
sense. Then the excess of ftux leaving the element over that entering
it in the X direction is

( + 12.
Vz
OVz)
dx dx dydz -
(12"'h
Vz -
OVz)
dx dydz oVz
= "'h dxdy dz.

In the hydromeehanieal ease this represents the net volume of ftuid

passing per second in the X direction. By similar reasoning we have
the contributions

oV" dx dy dz and oVz dx d dz

oy . OZ lY,
and so the total net ftux diverging from or leaving the element is

( OVz
ox
oV"
+ oy + oz
OVz) dx d d
lY z.

The amount of ftux per unit volume is defined as the divergence of the
veetor V and is written
· V oVz oV" oVz
dIV =-+-+-.
ox oy oz
(4.6)

The divergenee is by its definition a sealar.

If the divergenee exists at a point in a ftuid, whether liquid or gas,
and is positive, it expresses the rate at whieh ftuid is ftowing away
from the point per unit volume thereat. Henee, either the ftuid is
expanding and its density at the point is falling with time, or the
point, is a source at whieh ftuid is entering the field. When the
divergenee is negative it gives the rate at whieh ftuid is ftowing
toward the point per unit volume. In this case either the ftuid is
eontraeting and its density rising at the point, or the point is a
negative souree, a sink, at whieh ftuid is leaving the field. Sinee most
praetica1liquids are almost ineompressible, the existenee of diver-
genee in them indieates the presenee of avolume distribution of
sourees or sinks rather than ehanges of density. Similarly, in the ease
of an eleetric field, positive divergenee means that there is positive
eleetricity at the point.
When the divergence is zero everywhere, the ftux entering any
element of spaee is exaetly balaneed by that leaving it and we may
write
divV = O. (4.7)
48 VEeToa ANALYSIS

In a ftuid this means that there can be no sources or sinks in the field,
nor can its density be changing, i.e. the ftuid is ineompressible. H the
ftuxes entering and leaving an element are equal, none can have been
generated within it; the Iines offtow of the veetor V must either form
elosed curves (ef the magnetie field of a current), or terminate upon
bounding surfaees (ef the electrie field in a eondenser), or extend to
infinity. A veetor whieh satisfies this condition is said to be $Olenoidal
(from a Greek word meaning a tube).
Consider now the SCaIar produet of the operator V and the veetor
V. Expressed in cartesian eo-ordinates,

V.V = (i :x + j ~ + k tz) .(vzi + VI/j + V.k)

aVa:
=-+-+-
oVI/ av,
ox oy oz'
that is, V.V = divV. (4.8)

4. 1be Operator div grad. In 4.2 and 4.3 it has been shown that if
S is a scalar function of position in space, then grad S = VS is a
veetor function having the magnitude and direction of the greatest
rate of increase of S; its ftux Iines eut normally throngb the level
surfaees of S. Since grad S is a veetor it can have a divergence.
Indeed,
div grad S = !.
ox
(aS)
ox
+ ~ (aS) + .!. (a~
oy oy oz ai)
02S 02S oas
= ox2 + oy2 + OZ2; (4.9)
the operator
02 02 02
div grad = ox2 + oy2 + oza = va,
is known as Laplace's operator or the LapIacian. Examples of its use
will be found in later ehllPters.
5. 1be Operator va with Vecror Operand. A veetor point-function
V may be expressed in terms of its rectangular eomponents Va:, VI/,
V.. in the usual way. Since Va:, VI/ and Va are each SCaIar functions
THE OPERA TOR V AND ITS USES 49
of position (x, y, z), the operator VI applles to them all..Then, if
V = Ysl + VI/j + Vzk,
VIV = VIVsi + VIIVI/) + VIVzk, (4.10)
which is a result of great importanee in eleetromagnetic theory and
hydromechanics.
6. The Curl of a Vector Field. It has been shown on p. 4S that when
a veetor field is the gradient of a scalar field, the line integral of the
vector taken round any closed path is zero; this result is true no
matter what size or shape the path may have. A vector field satisfying
this condition is known as a !amellar field, and is of a special, though
very important, class. Many veetor fields occur in physica1 problems,
however, which cannot be expressed as the gradient of a scalar point
function; it is to an important property of these more general fields
that we now give attention.
V,= V,k

(0) (b)

Figure 27 Curl of a vector point function

Consider a very small region of such a veetor field, severalUnes of

f1.ow in which are shown by fig. 27(a); the portion is chosen small
enough for the Unes to be regarded as nearly straight and parallel.
Into this field put a small plane area, shown for convenienee as a
rectangle. When the area is perpendicular to the field, as in position 1,
so VECTOR ANALYSIS

none of the field is dil'PCted along any part of the bounding edge of
the area; the line integral round it is zero. In position 2, with the area
parallei to the field, since the value of the veetor along the upper edge
is assumed to be different from that along the lower edge, the line
integral round the boundary has a non-zero value. Similar arguments
apply to intermediate positions; the value of the line integrai
depends, therefore, upon the direction of the normal to the area
relative to the field, i.e. upon the orientation of the given small veetor
area at the region considered.
In general, if we put a small area of any shape at any point in a
veetor field and compute the line integrai of the veetor V around its
bounding edge there will be an orientation of the area for which the
line integral is greatest. The value of this maximum line integrai
divided by the area is called the eurl of the veetor field at the point
and is given the veetorial sense of the positive normal drawn on the
small exploring area when in the position giving this greatest integraI.
When the area is in a general position the line integral gives the
component of the curl along the normal to the area. The term rot is
sometimes used in place of curl, since the curl is associated in hydro-
meehanics with the rotation or spin of a ftuid. Physical examples
illustrating the meaning of the curl of a veetor field will be given
later; the meaning depends very much upon the nature of the
problem.
To calculate the curl in terms of its cartesian components, we take
three infinitesimal rectangular areas intersecting mutually at right
angles at a point where the veetor field V has components Vz, VII, Vz,
as in fig. 27(b). If the positive normals to the areas are taken along
the positive directions of the X, Y and Z axes, the circular arrows
indicate the positive senses in which their boundaries must be
traversed to accord with the right-hand screw rule for veetor areas.
As an example, we consider the area ahed in fig. 27(b) with sides
dx, dy, its normal being along the axis of Z. Since the reetangle is
very small, the value of the component of V at the middle of any
side may reasonably be taken as the average value along that side;
the arrows show the directions in which the components act. Since
Vz, V", Vz are funetions of the co-ordinates (x, y, z) of the middle
of the rectangle, the average values along the four sides ah, be, de, ad,
THE OPERA TOR V AND ITS USES 51
respectively, are
1 oVII
VII +i ax- dx ,

The line integral around the contour abcd is, therefore,

[( V" 1 oV" dx)

+ 'ia; - ( V" - iax-dx
1 oV" )] dy

x x
+ ay ay
[( Vx - "21 oV dy ) - ( Vx + "21 oV dy )] dx,
that is, _ OVx) dx dy.
( OV"
ox oy
Since the area of the element is dx dy, the bracketed terms give
the Z-component of the curl of the vector field. Thus, we may write

eurlz V = (O~ _ O~x) k.

By following a precisely similar method with the two remaining
rectangles we find the other components of curl V to be

curlll V = ( -OVX - -OVz) J• and curlx V = (OVz

-oy - -OV II) •
I.
OZ ox OZ
Thus,
curI V -_ (OVz
- - OV
-II ) 1+
• (OVx
- - OVo).
- J+ (OV
-Y- OVx)
- k
oy oz OZ ox ox oy
(4.11)
i j k
or, curl V = o!ox o!oy O!OZ. (4.11 bis)
Vx V" Vz
Now take the vector product V x V of the operator V and the
vector V, using rectangular co-ordinates. Using 2.18, we have

Vx V = (i :x + j ~ + k ~) x (V:ei + V,,) + Vzk)

= (OVz _ OVII ) i + (OV:e _ OVz) j + (OV" _ OV:e) k;

oy OZ OZOX OX oy
that is, V x V = curl V. (4.12)
52 VICTOR ANALYSIS

7. Simple Examples of the carl of a Vector Field. The meaning of

the operator eurl may now be illustrated by a few simple examples.
First, consider a rigid body which is rotating with angular velocity
w about an axis OA, 0 being a fixed point in the body. Then any
point P, fig. 28, moves in a eircular path about OA with a tangential
A

v. \
Translatlonal
Vlloclty

Ffgure 28 Curl and angular velocity

lineae velocity wr sin 9, where r is the distanee from 0 to P and 9 is

the angle from OA to OP. In veetor notation the angular velocity is
a vector W drawn along the axis in a sense related to the rotation by
the right-hand screw rule and of length w. If the position veetor of
P is r, then the tangential velocity at P is W x r, has magnitude
wr sin 9 and is perpendieular to the plane containing w and r.· If in
• To verify that it is correct to regard angular velocity as a veetor, it is
necessary to show that two such velocities are compounded by the paral-
lelogram law. Let Wl be the angular velocity about an axis through 0
and along which the unit veetor is nl; then the tangential velocity of the
point P with position veetor r is Wl x r or Wlnl X r. Now let Ws be the
angular velocity about a second axis through 0 specified by the unit veetor
D2; then P has tangential velocity due to this rotation · of WI x r, i.e.
wIDI x r. Since linear velocities are compounded veetorially, the tota!
linear velocity of P is
(WIDl X r) + (wIDa X r),
i.e. (wlnl + CIItDI)
x r, i.e. (Wl + WI) x r.
If the resultant angular velooity of P is w, then the linear velocity of P
isw x randw = Wl + WI.
THE OPERATOR V AND ITS USES 53
addition the whole body is moving with a linear velocity vo in any
direction, the total velocity at P is
V = Vo + (w x r),
and eurl V = V x V = V x vo + V x (w x r).
Now since vo is eonstant for all points in the bodyand is thus
independent of x, y, z, V x Vo is zero. The angular velocity w is the
same for all points and can be written as
w = wxi + Wyj + wzk,
where Wx, Wy, Wz are constants. Writing
r=xi+yj+zk,
and using 2.18, we have that
w x r = (WyZ - wzy) i + (wzx - wxz) j + (wxy - Wyx) k.

Again, using 2.18 with 4.1 and remembering that sinee Wx, Wy, Wz
are not funetions x, y, z their derivatives are zero, we ean easily
verify that
v x (w x r) = 2wxi + 2wyj + 2wzk = 2w.
Finally, therefore,
eurl V = 2w
and w = teurl V. (4.13)
Hence when a rigid body is in motion the eurl of its velocity at any
point gives twice its angular velocity in magnitude and direction (see
also p. 50).
Now examine the motion of a fluid and eonsider what may happen
to an infinitesimal element within it. The element ean have three
kinds of motion simultaneously. (i) It may be moving with a linear
velocity of translation as a whole. (ii) If the fluid is deformable it
may ehange its shape. (iii) It may be in rotation. At any instant the
little element may be regarded as a rigid body; the eurl of the veloeity
of the fluid at the point where the element is situated gives twice its
angular velocity. The nature of the rotational motion will be made
elearer by fig. 29(a), whieh shows two positions of a small portion of
the fluid in movement about an axis at o. It is dear that the portion
54 VECTOR ANALYSIS

has rotated; and if every elementary portion of the volume imme-

diately round 0 has rotated by the same amount, curl V would give
twice the angular velocity ofrotation about O. By contrast, fig. 29(b)
shows a small portion offluid which, in its motion about 0, does not
rotate; hence the eur! V = 0 and angular velocity is zero.

(al Ib)

Figure 29 (a) RotationaI and (b) irrotationaI motion

If a motion is such that the velocity has non-zero curl, the ultimate
particles of the bodyare in rotation with an instantaneous angular
velocity. The motion is described as rotationa!. If, on the other hand,
the particles do not rotate, the curl is null and the motion is irrota-
tional.
Another example of an entirely different kind is provided by the
magnetic field of a conductor carrying a steady current. At any point
in the field put a very small plane area and turn it into such a position
that the line integraI of the magnetic force taken round its boundary
is the greatest possible; this value expressed per unit area is the
vector curl H, i.e. the magneto-motive force per unit area at the
point. If the point is within the material of the conductor at a place
where the vector of current density is j, then this will be the total
current passing normally per unit area through the elementary path
when the line integraI round it is greatest. In m.k.s. units, curI H
= j, so that the curl of the magnetic force at any point is the
current density thereat and has the same direction. For a point in the
field external to the conductor there is no current density and curl
H= O.
8. Divergence of a Vector Product. In certain physical probIems, e.g.
in calculating the flux of e~ergy in an electromagnetic field, it is
THE OP ERA TOR V AND ITS US ES ss
required to find the veetor produet of two veetors and then to work
out the divergence of the result. We thus seek to find div (A x B).
Using 2.18, we write
V = A x B = (A"Bz - AzB,,) i + (AzBiZ - AzBz) j
+ (AzB" - A"BiZ) k
= ViZi + V"J + Vzk.
Now applying 4.6, we find that

. V
dIV .õViZ õV" õVz
= - +õy- +OZ
õx -

= BiZ (OAz _ OA,,) + B" (OAiZ _ OA,)

oy OZ ÕZ OX

+ B. (OA" _ OAiZ) _ AiZ (aB, _ (JB,,)

õx oy ay az
_ A" (OBiZ _ (JB,) _ A, (ÕB" _ aBiZ).
õz ox ax ay

Using 2.10 and 4.11 we now obtain

div (A x B) = B.eurl A - A.eurl B. (4.14)

9. Divergenc:e and Curl of SA. In later work we require the diver-

gence and eurl of a veetor field whieh is itself the product of a scalar
field S and a veetor field A at every point. The components of the
product are SAiZ, SA" and SA,.
Using 4.6 to find the divergence, we have that

div SA = ~ (SAiZ) + ~ (SA,,) + ~ (SA,)

= S ( -OAiZ aA" OA,) (OS O~

aS + A,-
ax + -oy + -oz + AiZ -ax + A,,-
õy OZ

= SdivA + (AiZi + A"J + Azk).(~!i + ~~J + ~~k),

s
56 VICTOR ANALYSIS

or, from 4.3,

divSA = SdivA + A.gradS. (4.15)

By 4.11 bis the eurI can be written as

i j k
curI SA = %x %y %z,
SA z SAy SA,
the x-component being

!... (SA,) -
oy
~ (SA y) = S (OA, _ OAy) + (Az oS _ Ay o~.
OZ oy oz oy ozJ
= S(curI Ah + [(grad S) X· A]z.
Hence curI SA = S curI A + (grad S) x A

= S eurI A - A x grad S. (4.16)

10. The Operator eur) grad. Since grad S is a 'veetor, it is possible

to calculate its eurI and thus interpret the,operator eurI grad applied
to a scalar point-function. Now by 4.11 bis and above, since the
components of the veetor for which the eurI is to be found are
oS/ox, oS/oy and oS/oz,
i j k
eurI grad S =Vx (VS) = %x %y %z = O.
oS/ox oS/oy oS/oz (4.17)

This resuit follows at once from physical considerations. on p. 45

it was shown that V8 = grad S is a Iamellar veetor, of which S is
the scalar potentiaI. The characteristic feature of a lamellar field is
that the line integrai of V8 round any elosed path is zero. Since the
curI of a veetor field is a particular closed-path line integrai, eurl
V8 = eurI grad S is necessarily zero. A typical non-curI field of this
cIass is the electric force due to static electric charges. The converse
of this result that eurI grad S = 0 will be considered in Chapter 5.
11. The Operator grad div. If V is a veetor field, div V is a scalar
field, which, therefore, has a gradient. This new veetor may be written
THB OPBRATOR V AND ITS USBS 57
as
. V
grad div = V(V. v) = (.1OX
0- + J• -0 + k-
O)(OV%
- + -oV" + -oOZV,)
oy OZ ox oy

= (oa v %+ 02V" + oa V, ) i
ox2 OX oy OX OZ
02 V% 02V" 02V, )
+ ( OX oy + oya + oy OZ j

02V% 02V" 02 Vz)

+ ( OX OZ + oy OZ + OZ2 k, (4.18)

in cartesians. For example, ifV is a ftuid velocity, div V gives the rate
at which the density at a point is changing per second; grad div V
gives the magnitude and direction in space of the greatest rate of
space inerease of the density. In an eleetric field, V is the eleetric
force, div V the density of space charge and grad div V the greatest
rate of increase of charge at any point.
12. The Operator div eurl. If V is any veetor field, curl V is also a
veetor field of which we may calculate the divergence and the eurl.
Dea1ing with the first of these and using 4.6 and 4.11, we have that
divcurl V = V.(V x v)
= !... (OVt: _ OV,,) + ~ (OV% _ OVz)
OX oy OZ oy OZ OX

+ .!. (OV" _ OV%) = O. (4.19)

OZ OX oy

Hence since it has null divergence the eurl of any veetor field is a
solenoidal field, i.e. one in which the lines of ftow form closed curves.
The converse result is also true, namely, that if a veetor field u is
such that div u = 0, then there exists a veetor v such that u = curl v.

I:
Indeed, such a veetor v is given by

-v == r x lu(.\r) d'A,

where r is the position veetor of a typica1 point and ~ is a scalar.

58 VEeToa ANALYSIS

Rernernbering that by u(.\r) we mean the veetor with components

say, we have that
ul(Ax, Ay, k), u2(Ax, Ay, k), ua(Ax, Ay, k),

( - eur] v), = z fo1A o~ {Ul(.\r)} dA - Io1Aua(.\r) dA

- xf A:x {us(.\r)} dA - f Aus(.\r) dA

- y Io A~ {ua(.\r)} dA + z
1
I: ~ A {ua(.\r)} dA.

But div u = 0 so, denoting ua(Ax, Ay, k) by Ua for brevity, we find

that
(-curl v), = - f {x ~~ +
A Y ~~ + z o;;} dA - 2 f Aua dA

= _ f\aduadA _ 2 f1AuadA
Jo dA Jo
= _(A2ua)Ol = -ua(x, y, z).

Hence (eur] v). = ua(x, y, z)

and in the same way
(eurI v)z = Ul(X, y, z), (eur] v)" = ua,(x, y, z) i.e. u = eurI v.
The vector v is not a unique solution of the equation u = eurl v; the
gradient of any scalar may be added to v. It has been assumed, of
eourse, that r x u(.\r) #= 0 and that the integraI exists.
Altemative]y, given that div u = 0, we ean find a veetor v, such
that u = eurl v, as follows. The solution, however, involves a co-
ordinate system and laeks the intrinsie eharaeter of the solution just
given. We have that
av, av"
uz=--- (1)
ay oz'
õv. av,
u" = oz - ax' (2)

av" oVz
u,=--- (3)
ax ay'
THE OPERA TOR V AND ITS US ES 59
and, if we let Vz = f(x}, where f(x} is an arbitrary function of x, find

f
from (2) and (3) that
VII = u, dx + g(y, z},

f
v. = - UII dx + h(y, z},
where g(y, z) and h(y, z) are arbitrary functions of y and z. (1) then

J
shows that
Uz = _JOUII dx + oh _ ou, dx _ og
oy oy oz OZ
or, since div u = 0,
og _ oh =0
OZ oy .
Hence, the equation div u = 0 is satisfied by u = curl v, where
Vz = f(x),
VII = Ju, dx + g(y, z),
v, = - IUII dx + h(y, z),
where f(x) is an arbitrary function of x and g(y, z), h(y, z) are any
functions of y, z for which
og _ oh =0
OZ oy •
13. The Operator eur. eur•• The y and z components of curl V are

( OVz _ OV,) j and (OVII _ OVz) k;

OZ OX OX oy
and hence by 4.11 the x component of curl curl V is

curlz curl V = [ oy
II OVz)
"]x - ay
0 (OV - 0 (OVz
OZ Tz - ax
OV,)] i.

Expanding the factors, adding and subtracting 02Vz/oX 2 we find that

Vz
[02ox2 02VII 02 V,]. [Oll Oll 02 ] •
curl z curl V = + OX oy + OX oz I - ox2 + oy2 + Oz2 Vzl,
60 VECTOR ANALYSIS

whieh from 4.18 and 4.1 0 may be identified as the x component of

grad div V - V2V. Permuting i, j, k; x, y, z; and Vz, VII, Vz in eyelie
order we obtain eurlll eurl V and eurlz eurl V and have that
eurl eurl V = V x (\7 x v) = grad div V - V2V. (4.20)
14. The Vector Field grad (klr). One of the most important
lamellar fields is the one whieh has scalar potential S = klr, k being
a number and r the length of the radius veetor r = xi + yj + zk
from the origin to any point P in the field. The level surfaces are
eoncentrie spheres with centre at the origin; the potential increases
toward infinity as the origin is approaehed. From 4.3
grad S = grad (klr) = V(klr)

oy + k!.)
= k (i!..
oX + j!.. oz (x + y2 + Z2)-1/2.
2

= -k(xi + yj + zk)/(x 2 + y2 + Z2)3/ 2,

i.e. grad(k/r) = -kr/r3 = -krl/r2 , (4.21)
where rt = r/r is unit vector in the direction of r. As shown by the
minus sign the gradient is directed radially inwards, as drawn in
fig. 30; the lines of flow of the veetor field grad (k/r) are thus radial
lines eutting the spherieallevel surfaees orthogonally and eonverging
upon the origin. The reader can easily verify by direet partial
differentiation of k/r that, ir r 'f:. 0,
V2(klr) = div grad (klr) = 0, (4.22)
i.e. the potential satisfies Laplaee's equation.
Spherlcal l.v.1
lur/ac.

Figure 30 The point source

THE OPERATOR V AND ITS US ES 61
Henee when the scalar potential is klr, its gradient is - krllra. This
is the farniIiar case of the unit point souree or sink common in many
branches of theoretieal physics. A potential of this leind is known as a
Newtonian potential, sinee it is that of a point unit gravitating mass
at the origin; the gradient gives the attractive force per unit mass
placed at P, this foree varying with the inverse square of the distanee.
Many· other phenomena also follow a similar law. A negative
electric charge at the origin attracts a positive charge at P; if both
are ofunit magnitude, Coulomb's law shows (4.21) to be true. Again,
in hydromechanics the velocity of the ftuid towards a point
sink - where ftuid is abstracted from the field - varies inversely as
the square of the distanee and satisfies the same equation.
Following the convention of p. 14, if a single ftux line per unit
area of the level surfaee is drawn perpendicular thereto to represent
unit value of the gradient at unit distanee," it follows that the total
ftux of grad (klr) is -41Tk, since the unit sphere has surfaee area 41T
and the ftux is inward. The subject will be further discussed in
Chapter 6.
15. Vector Operators in Terms of Polar Co-ordinates. The most
important operators of vector analysis have been expressed in the
text in terms of components referred to rectangular cartesian
co-ordinates. Thus,
as. as. as
gradS = VS = ox. + ay) + ozk; (4.3)

oV:r: + -
av" OV~
divV= V.V=-
ox ay+ -oz'' (4.6,4.8)

curIV=VxV= (- OVZOV,,) . (OV:r:- OVz)

ay- -OZ. + - OZ
-
ox J
+ (i)V1I _ OV:r:) k; (4.ll,4.12)
OX ay
aas aas aas
div grad S = VIS = oxz + oyll + ozz' (4.9)

S is a scalar and V a vector point function. These usually sumee, but

in some problems it is more convenient to use"some other system of
62 VECTOR ANALYSIS

co-ordinates specially adapted to the matter in hand; two of these

will now be examined.
When there is symmetry about an axis, such as OZ, the cylindrical
polar co-ordinates shown in fig. 31 are appropriate. The position of a
point P is specified by the polar co-ordinates r, 8 and the axial
distanee z, these being related to the cartesian co-ordinates by
x = r eos 8, y = r sin 8 and z == z.
It is possible to transform from one system to the other by purely
mathematieal means, but it is more convincing to work out the
operators afresh for the element of volume dr, r d8, dz shown to a
larger seale in the lower part of the diagram, (r, 8, z) being the
co-ordinates of its mid-point. As an example, if V, be the radial
eomponent of a veetor V at P the flux through the element in the r
direction is

( V, + 2.1 Tr
õV, dr) (r + t dr) d8dz

- ( V, - -1 -õV, dr ) (r - t dr) d8 dz
2 õr '
which to the third order of small quantities is
õV,
Tr r d8 dr dz + Vr d8 dr dz.

Sinee the volume of the element is r d8 dr dz, the radial component

of div V is
õVr Vr 1Õ
Tr + r = ~or(rVr).
The other components are found by a similar proeess. Likewise, by
the method of pp. 49-51 the components of curI V can be calculated;
this is left to the reader as an exercise. Let a, b, k be unit veetors at
P, a being in the positive direetion of r, b in the sense of the positive
tangent to the eirele of radius r at P (i.e. along the are r dO) and k
along OZ. Then, a, b, k form an orthogonal right-handed system; a
and b, though of unit magnitude, are functions of the position of P.
Then, if V" VII, Vz are components of the veetor point function V
THE OPERATOR V AND ITS USES 63

x
z
d1 Volume .Iement
rd8~
_ .(
I \
I ' dr
/" ~
I"
/ " ~~
'// /'
/"

FIgUre 31 Cylindrical polar co-ordinates

in the a, b, and k directions respectively, it is easy to show that

'iJS 1 'iJS 'iJS
grad S = VS = 'iJr a + -;. 'iJ8 b + 'iJz k;
. 1 'iJ 1 'iJV 'iJV.
dlvV = V.V = --(rV,)
r 'iJr
+ -r -'iJ8e +-;
'iJz

1 'iJV.
curlV=V'xV= ( - - -'iJVe)
- a+ ('iJV,
- - 'iJV.)
- b
r 'iJ8 'iJz 'iJz 'iJr

+! (!.. (rVe) - av,)

r 'iJr 08
k;

1 'iJ 2S
• _
dlV grad S - V S -
2 _
r1 Fr'iJ ('iJ~
r or) + j:2 082 +
'iJ2S
OZ2'

When there is symmetry about a point, as in many geometrical

and dynamical probIems, the spherical polar co-ordinates shown in
fig. 32 are useful. The position of P is given by the radius r, the angle
64 VEeTOR ANALYSIS

z x

'd8~
/Ohxne eliment
, ~

r ,In 8d~ ~,
/' \
dr .......... :'

Figure 32 Spherical palar co-ordinates

of eo-Iatitude 8 between DZ and r, and the angle of longitude .p

between the ZD X plane and that whieh eontains DZ and r. Then
x = r sm: 8 eos.p, y = r sin 8 sin.p and z = r eos 8.
Taking (r, 8,.p) as the co-ordinates of the centre of the volume
element dr, r d8, r sin 8 d.p, we let a, b, e be a right-handed ortho-
gonal system of unit veetors at P in the positive directions of these
increments; note that a, b, e are funetions of the position of P. If
Vr, V8 , V~ are eomponents of a veetor point function Vinthese
directions, it is easy to prove using the volume element considered,
THE OPERATOR V AND ITS USES 65
that
as I as 1 as
gradS = VS = ara + r o8 b + rsin 8 oq, C;
. 1 0 1 0 .
dlV V = V. V = '2 ~ (r 2 Vr) + - .-8 "8 (VO sm 8)
r JJr rsm JJ
1 o~
+---_.
rsin 8 oq, ,

curl V = V x V = -.1- [0 . 8) - -aVo]

- (~ sm a
rsm 8 08 oq,
+-1r [ -.----(rV~
1 oV.
sm 8 oq,
0
or
] b

+ 1-r [0
-or (rVo) - -OVr]
08' c·

.
dlV grad S = V2S = T21 Fr0 (2 OS) 1 0 (. 8 o~
r or + r2 sin 8 08 sm 08J

1 o2S
+ r 2 sin2 8 -.-.
Oq,2
We now work out some examples to illustrate the manipulation of
the operators that have been defined in the above paragraphs. Here,
as throughout the book, we assume that the veetor fields concemed
are continuously differentiable to. the order required in the particular
context; for instanee, we always assume that the commutative
property of higher partial derivatives hoIds.
Example 4.1. If q, and !/I are scalar fields, show that
div (q, grad!/l) = q,V2!/1 + (grad q,).(grad !/I).
By 4.15,
div (q, grad!/l) = q, div (grad!/l) + (grad !/I).(grad q,)
= q,V2!/1 + (grad q,).(grad!/l)
as required.
There is much to be said, of course, for working out an example
such as this from first principles and without relying on a formula
66 VECTOR ANALYSIS

such as 4.15. Thus,

div(~grad~) = :x (~:~) + ~ (~:~) + ~ (~~~)

= ~ (o2~ + 02~ + OS~) + o~ o~ + o~ o~ + o~ o~
or oyl OZ2 OX OX oy oy OZ OZ
= ~V2~ + (grad ~).(grad ~).
Example 4.2. If ~ is a scalar field and u a veetor field, show that
div (~eurl u) = (eurl u).(grad ~).
The resuit is an immediate consequence of 4.15 and the fact that
div eurI u = O. Alternatively, we may proceed as follows.

div (~curI u) = ~ {~ (~;z - o;:)} + two similar terms

= o,p (OUI: _ Ou,,) + .p (asut: _ asu" )

ox oy OZ OX oy ox OZ
+ similar terms.
It is clear that, when x, y, z are permuted cyclically to give the
terms that have not been written out, the coefficient of .p is zero and
that div (,p curl u) = (grad ,p).(eurl u).
Example 4.3. Prove that
div{u x (v x w)} = (u.w) divv-(u.v) divw
+v.grad(u.w) - w.grad(u.v).
Since
u x (v x w) = (u.w) v - (u.v)w,
we have by 4.15 that
div {u x (v x w)} = (u. w) div v + v .grad (u. w)
- (u. v) div w - w.grad (u. v),
which is the required resuit.
Example 4.4. If a is a constant veetor and r is the position veetor
of a typical field point, prove that
(i) grad (a.r) = a,
(ü) eurl (ra) = r-I(r x al,
(üi) div (a x grad rl) = O.
rHS OPSRA TOR V AND ITS USS S 67
(i) Let r = (X, y, Z), a = (01,02, aa), then
grad (a.r) = grad (OlX + oay + oaz)
= (01, oz, os) = a.
(ii) eurI (ra) = eurl (r01, r02, ros)
= ( os
or
oy -
or or or
Oz Oz' 01 OZ - oa ox' Os ox - 01 oy
or ar)
and, since the relation xI! + yl! + z2 = rl! gives
orxoryorz
OX oy = r'
äi = r' = ,..
we have that
eurl (ra) = (as! - a2 =,r z
01 - -
x
Os -, Oll -
x - 01 -
y)
r r r r r

= -1r (r x al.
(iii) By 4.14
div(a x gradr-1) = gradr-1 .eurla - a.curlgradr-1
=0- a.O = O.
Example 4.5. If the veetor fields E(x, y, z, t) and H(x, y, z, t)

=,
satisfy the equations
divE = 0, divH = 0, curlE = - 0::, eurlH =
show that both E and H satisfy the veetor differential equation
Vau = aSu/otI.
Since OH
eurl eurl E = - eurl-
at
=-
o
-(curlH)
at '
we have by 4.20 that
grad div E _ VlIE = _ a2E
a'·
Le. Vlm allE
-..:, = atS'
Similarly.
68 VECTOR ANALYSIS

Miscellaneous Exercises IV
4.1. If q, and rP are scalar fields, prove that
curl (q, grad rP) = grad q, x grad rP.
4.2. Show that, if r is the position veetor of a point, n is a constant
andf(r) an arbitrary differentiable function of r, then
(i) div (r"r) = (n + 3) r",
(ii) curl {f(r) r} = o.
4.3. If v = (xyz)m (x", y", ZIl), show that curl v = 0 if and only
ifeitherm=Oorn= -1.
4.4. If a is a constant veetor and r is the position veetor of a point,
prove that
(i) div (a x r) = 0,
(ii) curl (a x r) = 2a,
(iii) curl (r2a) = 2(r x al,
(iv) curl {r x (r x al} = 3(a x rl,
(v) div {r x (r x al} = 2a.r,
(vi) curl (grad r- 1 x a) = grad (a.grad r- 1).
4.5. If v is a veetor field and r is the position veetor of a point,
show that
(i) (v. V) r = v,
(ii) (v. V) v = t Vv 2 - V X (V x v),
(iii) (v.V)(v x r) = -r x (v.V)v.
4.6. If q, = (a.r)", where a is a constant veetor, r is the position
veetor of a point and n is a constant, show that V2,p = 0 if and only
ifn=Oor1.
Evaluate V4,p, i.e. V2(V2,p), and show that ,p is a solution of the
biharmonic equation V4q, = 0 if and only if n has one of the values
0, 1, 2, 3.
4.7. Prove that
V(u.v) = (v.V)u + (u.V)v + v x (V x u) + u x (V x v),
and rewrite the relation in terms of the operators curl and grad.
4.8. Prove that
curl(u x v) = udivv - ~divu + (v.grad)u - (u.grad)v,
and rewrite the relation in terms of the operator V.
THE OPERA TOR V AND ITS USES 69
4.9. The veetor fields u and v satisfy the equations
eurl u = cv, eurl v = CU, (1)
where e is a nOD-zero constant. Show that div u = div v = 0 and
that u and v satisfy the equation VIlV + cllV =0.
IfX is any veetor for whieh VIlX + cllX = Vrf" where rf, is a scalar
field, verify that the veetors u = e eurl X and v = eurl eud X satisfy
the equations (1).
4.10. Show that the equations

eeudM = ia::, divM = 0,

where t denotcs time, e is a DOD-zerO constant and iil = -1, are
satisfied by the veetor M given by

M = ~ eud (~) + eud eurl S,

where S is any veetor functioD of POSitiOD and time for whieh
V2S = 1. allS
ell ata'
5: Integral Theorems

1. The Divergence 'I'heorem of Gauss. Consider a closed surface S

drawo in a vector field V; the ftux through an element of veetor area
dS = ndS, n being the unit outward drawo normal, is
V.dS = V.ndS,
as explained on p. 27. The surface integral of such elements will give
the total normal ftux through the surface in the form given by 2.22,

s
II
V.dS ==
s
II
V.ndS.

An elementary volume dV within the surface S is shown in fig. 33; a

small cube, with edges parallei to the co-ordinate axes, has been
taken for convenience. The size of the element is much exaggerated,

~ -------
~VC :
_
_" 1'_.
-r-- __ .
)( I I Y
a ~~ P~ :.L-. __
y
CIOMd surlae.
S

Ffaure 33 Gauss's theorem

merely for ease in drawing the diagram. The total ftux diverging from
this volume is div V dV, V heing the vector at the centre of the
element, and this ftux has been computed on p. 47 by calculating the
surface integraI of the normal components of V through the surfaees
bounding the volume. For 1he face abcd the positive direction of the
INTEORAL THEOREMS 71
y-component of V and the outward-drawn normal are in the same
sense and the ftux is positive. A eontiguous cube, shown dotted, has
the same component of V acting through the eommon face - since
V and its components are assumed to be continuous, as also are the
derivatives of these quantities - but its outward normal, shown
dotted, is in the opposite sense and the ftux is negative. The surface
ftuxes through the common face cancel. This argument can be applied
to further elements placed end to end parallel to the Y axis until an
element is reaehed which has one face in the surface S, shown
shaded; this'alone makes a contribution to the normal ftux through
S. Applying the same treatment to the surfaees of all elements of
volume throughout the space enclosed by S, we arrive at a total ftux
dS.
ff V. But at the same time we have integrated div V through-
s
dV
out the enelosed volume and this also measures the total ftux.
Equating them, we have that

IIV.dS= ffv.DdS= IIIdiVVdV= IIIv.VdV, (5.1)

s s v v
which is Gauss' s divergence theorem.

Although this deduction of the theorem is not a rigorous mathematieal

proof - a more rigorous proof will be given below - it is based on self-
evident physieal facts. Consider, for example, a closed surfaee drawn
within a fluid which is moving at a given point with velocity V. The total
amount of fluid passing per second through the surfaee can be found in two
equivalent ways. Firstly, by ealculating V . dS, i.e. the product of an element
of surfaee and the component of velocity perpendicular to it, for every
element of the surfaee and adding all the contributions. Secondly, by
investigating the divergence of a volume element, i.e. the excess of sources
of fiuid over the sinks contained in it per unit volume, and integrating
div V dV through the enclosed volume. The two results are physieally
equivalent, since the excess of fiuid leaving the surfaee over that entering
it must be due to the net amount of lluid injected into the portion of the
field within S by the aggregate of sourees and sm.

An alternative proof of the theorem, more satisfying mathemati-

cally than the one just given, is as follows. We prove first of all that, Ü
P, Q, R are continuous funetions of x, y, z with continuous first
order partial derivatives defined throughout a elosed region V of
6
72 VECTOR ANALYSIS

space and on its boundary S, then

J[J (~~ + ~; + ~:) dV = 1J (IP + mQ + nR) dS,

where I, m, n are the direction cosines of the unit outward-drawn
normaI n to S.
We assume to begin with, as in the more physica1Iy intuitive
discussion given above, that any line paralleI to any co-ordinate axis
meets S in at most two points. S can thus be divided into an upper
and a Iower portion as shown in fig. 34, these portions being defined
respectively by z = IMx, y) and z = 'Mx, y).
z
z· tjttU:,Y)
~Z.tjtl(%,y)
I I

Figure 34

~dSZ
I I

r
,'~_:
-, dS1
, I
, n ,
I '
l::::'?--dS,
Figure 35

Then
JJJ~: dx dy dz =
V
JJ
s.
[R{x,y, 'Mx, y)} - R{x, y,lMx, y)}]dS•.

where S. is the projection of S on the XY-pIane. Now

dS. = n dS2 = - n dSl, where dS2, dSl are respectively the
elements of area in the upper and lower portions of S whose projec-
tion on the XY-plane is the element dS. of S.; it is clear from fig. 35
that n is positive at points of dS2 and negative at points of dSl.
INTEGRAL THEOREMS 73

III~~ dxdydz = II nRdS

Hence
v s
and by similar considerations

Iff:dxdydz = IIIPdS,
v s

III:Q dxdydz =
v y
frVmQdS.
By addition we now have that

IiI (~: + :~ + ~~) dV = tI (IP + mQ + nR) dS,

as required.
If P(x, y, z), Q(x, y, z), R(x, y, z) are the components Vz , VII' V~,
respectively, of a vector field V then, since the components of n are
I, m, n, the result becomes

III dh'V dV = lj V.ndS

and is Gauss's theorem in the form obtained earlier.

The restriction made that any line paraIlel to a co-ordinate axis
meets S in at most two points is easily removed. We need only
divide V into sub-regions for which the restriction holds (see fig. 36)
and add the results. The surface integrals over adjacent faces of the
sub-regions cancel since the outward drawn normals to the faces
are in opposite directions.

Figure 36
74 VEeToa ANALYSIS

Furthermore, it is important to note that Gauss's theorem is valid

for a region V with hollows in it or, more precisely, a region V
bounded by several elosed surfaees, as in fig. 37. To see this, we

Figure37

introduce a surfaee passing through the hollows in Vand then apply

the theorem to eaeh of the sub-regions (devoid of hollows) whieh
resuIt.
2. Gauss's Theorem and the loverse square Law. In fig. 38(0) let
dS bc an elementary portion of a surfaee, n bcing unit positive
normal to it. From a point 0 draw a conieal peneil meeting the
boundary of dS and let rl bc unit vector in the direction of the radius
vector r = rn from 0 to the element. Draw spheres of radü r and
unity. If dw is the area eut by the cone from the surfaee of the sphere
ofunit radius, dw/1 2 = dS cos 8/r 2, where 8 is theangle from r to n;
dw is calIed the solid angle subtended by dS at O. The solid angle is
positive when the angle 8 is ~te and negative when it is obtuse.
The total solid angle subtended by a spherieal surfaee is 4'11'.
Fig. 38(b) shows a elosed non-spherieal surfaee. When 0 is inside
the surfaee, an element at 1, 2 or 3 contributes a positive solid angle.
A cone joining 0 to elements 4, 5 and 6 shows that these subtend
equal solid angles at 0, but while the contributions of 4 and 6 are
positive that of 5 is negative. In general, therefore, any small cone
from 0 cuu the surface an odd number of times, equivalent to a
single contribution of dw. Hence the entire surfaee S subtends at 0
a total solid angle of 4'11'. When the vertex of the eone is at 0' outside
the surfaee, the surfaee is cut an even number of times with alter-
nately negative and positive equal eontributions, as shown at 7~ 8, 9,
10. Hence the surfaee S subtends a solid angle of zero at an cxtemal
INTEGRAL THEOREMS 7S
point. These two faets are a purely geometrie eonsequence of the
definitian of solid angle.
eonsider DOW the Newtonian patential field of a point unit mass
or other similar physieal entity placed either at 0 or at 0 '. Its

(0)

(b)

Figure 38 Gauss's theorem and the inverse square law

76 VECTOR AN AL YSIS

potential is 11r, and so by 4.21

V = grad (l/r) = -rl/r 2
and V.dS = -(rl/r 2 ).ndS =- eos edSlr 2 = -dw,
rl and n being unit veetors with an angle ebetween them. Then

II V.dS = - II dw. (5.2)

s
Henee the integraI of the veetor grad (l/r) over a closed surfaee, e.g.
the total flux of foree from a point unit mass, is - 417 when the mass
is inside the surfaee and zero when outside it. The minus sign means
that the flux is inward. In both cases the flux is independent of the
position of the mass, which may be anywhere inside or outside the
surfaee.
3. Green's Theorem. Ir t/> and !/J are scalar fields, then by 4.15
div (t/> grad!/J) = t/> div (grad rp) + grad t/>.grad!/J,
i.e. div (t/> grad!/J) = t/>V 2!/J + grad t/>.grad!/J.
We now integrate throughout a region V bounded by the closed
surfaee S and using Gauss's theorem obtain

II t/> grad !/J. n dS = I IIt/> V2!/J dV + III grad q,. grad !/J dV,
s v v
n being the unit outward-drawn normal to the surfaee. Writing
q, grad !/J.n as t/>(o!/J/on), we have that

IJ q, ~~ dS = JII q,V2!/J dV + III grad q,.grad!/J dV, (5.3)

s v v
whenee

5.3 and 5.4 are formsof Green's theorem. Having used Gauss's
theorem, we require that q,. !/J and their partial derivatives of the first
and second order be continuous functions of x, y, Z.
INTEGRAL THEOREMS 77
If we take 1/1 = q, in 5.3, we obtain the important result that
II q, ~~dS = III{q,v q, + (grad q,)2} dV,
2 (5.5)
s y
and, if we replace 1/1 by a constant in 5.4, we find that

III
y
VSq,dV= II~~dS.
s
(5.6)

Green's theorem is extremely useful for the study of harmonie

functions. A function u(x, y, z) is said to be harmonic in a region if,
at each point of the region, u and its partial derivatives of the first
and second orders are eontinuous and VSU = O. We can show that a
funetion, whieh is harmonic throughout a given elosed region, is
uniquely determined by its vaIues on the boundary of the region.
Thus, if q, and 1/1 are harmonic in Vand t/> = 1/1 on S, then 5.5 applied
to the funetion t/> - 1/1, whieh is harmonie in V and zero on S, yields

III{grad(t/> -1/I)}2dV= O.
y

Henee grad (t/> - .p) is zero in V, i.e. t/> - .p has a constant value
throughout V. But t/> - 1/1 = 0 on S, so 1/1 = t/> in V.
The problem of finding a function whieh is harmonic throughout
a given region and assumes prescribed values on the boundary of
the region is called the Dirichlet problem. If a solution exists then,
by the eonsiderations just given, it is unique.
Similarly, we ean show that two functions, which are harmonie
throughout a region V and have the same normal derivative on the
surfaee S bounding V, can differ by only a eonstant.
Thus, if X is the difference of the two functions, then X is harmonie
throughout Vand ox/on = 0 on S. If we now put X for t/> in 5.5 we
have that
III (gra x)2dV II :~ dS
d = X =0
v s
and hence that grad X = 0 at each point of V. X has therefore· a
eonstant vaIue throughout V.
The problem of finding a funetion, which is harmonie throughout
a given region and whose normal derivative on the boundary of the
78 VECTOR ANALYSIS

region takes prescribed values, is called the Neumann problem.

Again, the solution, if it exists is unique.
Finally, we apply Green's theorem to derive an expression for the
value of a harmonic function q, at a point P within a region V in
terms of the values of the function and of its normal derivative on the
surface S bounding V.

Figure 39

Let :E be a sphere of radius p with centre at P and lying entirely in

V, and denote the region bounded by S and :E by V'. Then, Green's
theorem applies to V' and 5.4 with .p = l/r, where r is the distance
from P to a variable point, yields

Since V2(1/r) = 0 and at a point on :E, %n = - %r, we have that

lj{q, :n (~) - ~ ~~} dS + !I{~ + ~ ~~} dS = - IjI ~ V2q,dV.

Now, let p -+ 0 so that V' -+ Vand.:E shrinks to zero. Then, the
second integraI on the left-hand side becomes

lim {q,(~) + ! (oq,) }47Tp 2,

p-+O, Q-o-P P P or r-P

i.e. 47Tcfo(P), and we find that

47Tcfo(P) =- IiI~ V2q, dV -lj {q, :n 0) - ~ ~~} dS. (5.7)

INTEGRAL THEOREMS 79
If <f> is hannonic throughout V, then 5.7 becomes

41T<f>(P) =~ lj (n - ~ ~~}
{<f> :n dS (5.8)

and the value of <f> at a point of V is expressed in terms of <f> and

a<f>/an on the boundary of V.
In these considerations <f> must be sufficiently smooth for Green's
theorem to be applied, Le. its first and second partial derivatives
must be continuous; this condition is satisfied when <f> is harmonic.
4. Stokes's Tbeorem. In a vector field V let S be an unclosed surface
or cap having as its boundary the closed curve e, and let S be
divided by a system of intersecting curves into elements
IlS.(i = 1, ... , n), so small that they may be regarded as plane, with
boundaries ei. Let Pi be a point in IlSi and let an orientation be
assigned to ei in such a way that common parts of ei and ei are
traversed in opposite directions and anY edge of ei which is part of e
is traversed in the same direction as C. Let ni be the unit normal at
Pi drawn in the direction along which a right-handed corkscrew,
rotating in the direction in which ei is traversed, would progress.

e
Figure 40

Then, by the considerations on p. 50,

ni.eurl V(Pi) = ~~ [Il~i fo, V.dsJ.

i.e. ni.curl V(Pi) IlSi = r V.ds + Ei IlSi
Jo,
(i = 1, ... , n),
80 VECTOR ANALYSIS

where 8, -+ 0 as llS, -+ O. Henee, we have that

i~ln,.eurl V(P,) llS, =i~lfc, V.ds + i~l 8, llS,.
Now I~ 8, llS, I .; ;
1=1
8(n) S,

where 8(n) = max (81, ... , 8n) and tends to zero when n -+ oo in such
a way that each llS, -+ O. Henee, proceeding to the Iimit and remem-
bering that line integrals along common edges of the llS, caneel, we
have that
fc
V.ds = lj
n.eurl V dS. (5.9)

This resuit, that the line integrai of the tangeniial component of a

veetor along a curve is equal to the surface integral of the normal
component of the curl of the veetor taken over any surfaee bounded
by the curve, is known as Stokes's theorem.· A more rigorous proof
of the theorem can be found in the larger textbooks; for its validity,
the components of the veetor field V and their first order partial
derivatives must be continuous functions of the co-ordinates x, y, z.
Green's theorem for the plane is a special case ofStokes's theorem.
Thus, if S is a region of the XY-plane, bounded bya curve e, and V
has rectangular components (P, Q, 0), where P, Q, op/ox, ap/oy,
oQlox, oQloy are continuous functions of x, y, then Stokes's
theorem reduees to

fc (P dx + Q dy) = ij (~; - ~:) dx dy. (5.10)

e is traversed in such a direction that an observer moving along e

would have the region S on his left.
5. AItemative Definitions of Divergence and Curl. In Equation 5.1
confine the volume integrai to the space within the element aV and
the surfaee integrai to its bounding surfaee. Then

JJ V .dS = div V av.

The divergenee at a point is the value of this surfaee integrai per unit
• The theorem is actually due to Kelvin.
INTEGRAL THEOREMS 81
volume as the element is made vanishingly small, i.e.

divV = ,,~~ [I/V JJ V.dSJ. (5.11)

Similarly, let us consider a very small plane area 8S at a given

point and turn the area until the line integrai of V round its boundary
has its largest value. Then (p. 50)

,( V.ds = leurl VI8S

1max
and
IcurI VI = }~ [8~ f l
maxV.ds (5.12)

The direction of eurI V is that of the positive normal to 8S, Le. the
direction of the normal which is related to the sense of description of
the boundary by the right-handed corkscrew role.
div V and curI V may be defined by the formulae just given and
vector caleuIus developed therefrom rather than from 4.6 and 4.11.
These definitions have the advantage of being intrinsic, i.e. free of
any referenee to a particular co-ordinate system.
6. CJassification of Vettor Fields. We have already proved on p. 58
that, if a vector field u is such that div u = 0, then there exists a
vector field v such that u = eurl v. Before proceeding to diseuss the
case when curl u = 0, we must explain what is meant by a simply
eonnected region. A region of spaee is said to be simply connected if
every elosed curve in the region can be eontraeted to a point without
passing out of the region. A region whieh is not simply eonnected is
said to be multiply connected. Thus, the interior of a sphere is simply
eonnected, while the interior of a torus (anchor-ring) is multiply
eonnected. The distinguishing feature of a simply connected region
which coneems us here is that every simple elosed curve in the region
is the boundary of a surfaee lying entirely within the region.
We now prove that, if a vector field u is sueh that eurI u = 0
throughout a simply connected region, then there exists a scalar
field </J such that u = grad </J.
If r is any simple elosed eurve in the region then, sinee the region
is simply connected, there exists a surfaee S in the region with r as
82 VEeToa ANALYSIS

boundary. Then, by Stokes's theorem

r u.ds = II (eurl u).o dS = 0,

Jr s
and, if ABP and ACP are two curves lying entirely within the region,

I u.ds + r u.ds = 0,

I
ABP JpCA

or
f ABP
u.ds =
ACP
u.ds.

A
Figure 41

The line integraI from A to P is therefore independent of the path

of integration and the symbol

is meaningful.
Now regard Aasa fixed point and P as a variable point in the
field and let

q, = I~u.ds.
Theo, if Q is a point close to P and such that the straight line segment
PQ lies in the region,

= I:
I:
q, + 8q, u.ds,
and
8q, = u.ds,
INTEGRAL THEOREMS 83
where the path of integration may be taken as the line-segment PQ.
Hence
3t/1 = Ua: 3x + UI/ 3y + u. 3z + e,
where the components Ua:, UI/, U. are evaluated at P and e -+ 0 as
Q -+ P and does so faster than 3x, 3y and 3z. Thus
at/l at/l at/l)
(u.. UI/, U.)= ( ax' ay' az '
i.e. u = grad t/I,
and we have found, for a given vector u such that eurl a = 0, a
scalar t/I such that u = grad t/I.
It is useful to elassify vector fields as follows:
(i) eurl u = 0, div a = O. By the first condition the field is
irrotational and from the above eonsiderations, u = grad t/I,
where t/I is a scalar. By the second condition, the field is
solenoidal and 0 = div u = div grad t/I = V2t/1. The scalar ~
therefore satisfies Laplace's equation V2t/1 = O.
Examples of this type of field are the electrie field due to statie
electrie charges and the velocity field in the irrotationaI motion of an
incompressible fluid.
(ii) eurl u = 0, div a if:. O. Again, there exists a scalar t/I such that
u = grad t/I, but in this case VBt/I if:. 0 and , satisfies Poisson's
equation rather than Laplace's equation. Examples of this
type of field are the electrie field generated by the electrons in
a thermionie valve and the gravitational field inside matter.
(iii) eurl u if:. 0, div u = O. The field is rotational and cannot have
a scalar potential. However, since it is solenoidal, there
exists a veetor potential A such that u = eurl A; A is not
uniquely determined and the gradient of an arbitrary scalar
may bc added to it (see p. 58). Examples of this type of field
are the magnetie field inside a conductor carrying a steady
current and the velocity field of an incompressible fluid in
rotational motion.
(iv) eurl u if:. 0, div a if:. O. This is the most general type of ficld
possible and is exemplified by the velocity field of a com-
pressible fluid in rotationaI motion.
84 ViCTOR ANALYSIS

•
~
E
1• ~

1
~

Neither dlvergenee Dlvel'Qenee only

n!lr eurl
(0) (b)

0
eurl only
0 Dlveraenee·
and eurl

(e) (d)
Ffgure 41 Typical eharacteristics of vector fields

Fig. 42 illustrates the eharacteristies of the di/ferent types of veetor

field. If we rcgard the veetors as illustrating the motion of fluid partieles,
fig. 42(a) shows neither divergenee nor eurl. Fig. 42(b) shows divergenee
a1one; fluid is strcaming from the point, at whieh the density is failing;
a1ternatively the point is a source. Fig. 42(c) shows fluid in rotation about
the point; there is curl but no divergenee, and the fluid is incomprcssible.
FinaJly, fig. 42(d) illustrates particles in a comprcssible fluid in rotation;
therc is both eurl and divergenee.
Some vcctor fields of typcs (i), (il) and (lii) will bc considered in the next
two chapters.
Helmholtz has shown that under certain conditions a field of this
type can be represented as the sum of a solenoidal field and an
irrotational field. We assume that the field pervades all space, that u
INTEGRAL THEOREMS 8S
and the first partial derivatives of its components are continuous
functions of position whieh tend to zero at infinity, the components
doing so more rapidly than 1/, and their derivatives more rapidly
than 1/'s.
Let U = Ul + Us, where eurl Ul = 0 and div UII = O. Then
Ul = grad~, where ~ is a scalar (p. 83), and so
div U = div grad ~,
i.e. V2~ = divu.

We now take the surface S in 5.7 to be a very large sphere with

centre at the origin and find, because of the conditions imposed on U
at infinity, that

the integration being taken throughout the whole of space. Hence

Ul =- 1 grad fIfdivU
471' -,- dV, (5.13)

Sirnilarly, Us = eurl Ua (p. 58), and so

eurlu = curlcurlu3
= grad div ua - VSua.
Sinee ua is deterrnined only to within the gradient of an arbitrary
sealar, we can ehoose Ua so that its divergenee vanishos and obtain
VSua = - eurl u.
5.7 now shows that
Ua = :71' IIIeu~1 U dV,
whenee
U2 1 eurl fIfeurl
= 471' - r-U dV. (5.14)

Thus
U= - 4171' grad III di ; U dV + L
eurl III~1 U dV,

the integrations being throughout the whole of space.

An arbitrary eonstant veetor could have been added to the expres-
sion in 5.13 for Ul, but would need to have been subtracted from the
expression for Us in 5.14, sinee U1 + Us is the given veetor u.
86 VEeTOR ANALYSIS

The solutions given in 5.13 and 5.14 are unique to within an

arbitrary constant. If Ul' and U2' are other solutions, then Ul - Ul'
and Ua - ua' both have zero eud and zero divergence, and we
conelude that Ul - Ul' = k, Ua - U2' = - k, where k is an arbitrary
constant veetor.
Example 5.1. Prove that
F = (Y2 cos X + Z3) i + (2y sin x - 4) j + (3xz 2 + 2) k
defines a conservative field of force, and find the corresponding
scalar potential. Hence, find the work done by the force when a
particle is moved from the point P(O, 1, -1) to the point
Q{t'IT, -1,2).
It is immediately obvious that F = ~ad S, where
S = y2 sin x + Z3X - 4y + 2z.
The work W done in moving a particle from P to Q is given by
W = (Y2 sin x + Z3X - 4y + 2z)~
i.e. W = 1 + 4'IT + 4 + 4 - (- 4 - 2) = 4fT + 15.
Example 5.2. Evaluate

fo{Xdx + ydy + (xz - y)dz},

where e is the eurve given by r = t 2i + 2tj + 4t3k (0 .;;; t '" 1).

A point on the curve is specified by x = t 2, Y = 2t, z = 4t 3
(0 <; t <; 1) and so

fo {x dx + Y dy + (xz - y) dz} = J: {21 3 + 4t + (4t 5 - 21) 12t2} dt

=t + 2 + 6- 6 = !.
Example 5.3. Evaluate

II
s
eurl v.o dS,

where v = - yi + xi + zk and S is the upper half of the sphere

XI + y2 + za = a2,
INTEGRAL THEOREMS 87
By Stokes's theorem

II
s
curlv.ndS = f
0
v.ds,

where e is the circle x 2 + y2 = a2•

Now ds = (- Yla, xla, 0) ds and so

II
s
curl v.n dS = f (- y, x, z).( - Ylo, xla, 0) ds
0

= LadS
= 217a2•
Example 5.4. If u is a veetor field and ." is a scalar field, show that
in the usual notation

!s(U x gradt/».dS = Iv(gradt/>.curIU)dV.

By 4.14 div (u x grad t/» = grad "'.curl u - u.O
= grad 4>. curI u
and the result follows from Gauss's theorem.
Example 5.5. Prove that the value of a harmonic function at a
point is the mean value of the function over any sphere with centre
at the point.
Let 4> be a harmonic function and let S be the sphere with centre at
the point P and of radius r. Then, by 5.8,

41Tt/>{P) = -lj {t/>;' (~) - ~ ~~} dS

=!r fft/>dS + !r ffat/>(Jr dS
2
s s
whence, since the second integrai on the right vanishes by 5.6,

t/>(P) = 4:r 2 II t/> dS

= mean value of t/> on S.
7
88 VEeToa ANALYSIS

Miseellaneous Exereises V
SJ. Evaluate
f dx + dY,
Jo X-Y
where e is the curve formed by the line joining the point ( -1,2) to
the point (0, 3) followed by the line joining the point (0, 3) to the
point (1, 2).
S.2. Show that

IJ (V" x F + "V x F).ndS = fo"F.tds

and that
II (v"
s
x Vr/J).ndS = f. 0
"Vr/J.tds,

where F is a veetor field, " and .Js are scaIar fields and t is the unit
tangent veetor to the eurve e whieh bounds the surfaee S.
S.3. li the veetor field u is normal to the elosed surfaee S at all
points on it, and " is a scaIar field, prove that

IiI (grad ".eurl u) dV = 0,

where V is the region enelosed by S.

S.4. Show that
ffI
~.
V2"dV= II:"s n
dS,

where V is the region bounded by the elosed surfaee S whose unit

outward-drawn normal is n. Hence evaluate

fI a"an
s
dS
'
when '" = X.V2Z 2 and S is the ellipsoid
Xl yl Zl

aa+bl + es =1.
INTEGRAL THEOREMS 89
S.S. Show that, in the usual notation, the volume of V is

}ij (r .n) dS,

where r is the position vector of a point on S.
S.6. Prove that, in the usual notation,

JI(V x eurl u - u x eurlv).ndS

8

=JJJ (u.eurl eurlv - v .eurl eurl u) dJ'.

v
(This result for the veetor fields u, v is analogous to Green's theorem
for the scalar fields 4>, 1/1.)
S.7. If L denotes the operator
02 02 02
-
ox 2+oy2
- -OZ2'
-
and 4> and 1/1 are scalar fields defined througbout the region V whose
boundary is S, prove that

(i) IiI Lt/J :t

dV = lj dS,
(ii) III
v
(4)Lt/J - I/IL4» dV = II (4) :t - :~)
8
1/1 dS,

where N = (nl, n2, - na), (nl, na, na) being the unit outward-drawn
normal to S.
S.8. If v = eurl A and w = t eurl v, prove that

ffJvZdV= JJ(A x v).dS + 2 JJJA.WdV,

V 8 v
where S is the elosed surfaee enelosing the region J'.
S.9. Prove that a function hannonie on a region V cannot have an
absolute maximum or minimum at any interior point of J'.
S.10. The vector fields u and v, u being irrotational, are sueh that
div u = div v througbout a region J' and n. u = n. v at all poiDts
90 VEeTOR ANALYSIS

of the boundary S of V, D being the unit outward-drawn normaI to S.

Prove that

IIIv u dV = III
2

v
D.V dV

and deduce that IIIu dV < IIIv dV.

2 2

v v
5.11. ef> and .p are scalar fields such that the surfaees ef> = constant
and .p = constant are everywhere orthogonal. Prove that, in the
usual notation,

IJI (ef>V .p + .pV2ef» dV = lj (ef> ~~ + .p ~!) dS.

2
6: The Scalar Potential Field

1. General Properties. Let S be a sealar point-function which may

be mapped out in spaee by a series of level surfaces, upon each of
which the soalar has a definite but different constant value. These
surfaees divide up the region of spaee into a series of layers or
laminae. Associated therewith is a veetor field Vs direeted everywhere
normal to the level surfaees, i.e. in the direetion of the greatest rate
of increase of S at any point and having a magnitude equal to that
rate of increase. This is expressed by 4.3, namely,
Vs = gradS = VS.
Fig. 43 illustrates small portions of two neighbouring level surfaees,
characterized by values of'S and S + dS respectively.
Grad S

S+dS~---

s.&----

.Flgure 43 The scalar potential field

We recall that such a veetor field has the essential property that
the value of the line integrai of the tangential component of Vs
along any path joining two points A and B is the same and equal to
92 VEeToll ANALYSIS

I:
the differenee between the vaIues of S at B and A, i.e.

Vs.ds = SB - SA.

Henee round any elosed path the line integrai of Vs is zero; in

particular round a path of infinitesimal size the integrai also vanishes,
i.e. eurl Vs is zero.
Because of the relation between Vs and S, Vs is called a lamellar
or sealar potential veetor /ield, S being its potential. 8inee the eurl is
zero, the field is aIso called a non-eurl or irrotational field.
2. The Inverse square Law. Point Sources.In practiee the greatest
interest is found in lamellar fields based· upon the inverse square
law. Consider a point source of vector Oux, around whieh the level
surfaees are concentrie spheres; the Oux lines are radiaI straight lines
diverging from the source. At unit distanee from the source the
spherica1 surfaee has an area of 471'; if the source is of unit strength
this is indicated by drawing one Oux line per unit of area to represent
the magnitude of the vector field at unit distanee. A total vector Oux
of 471' lines cuts normally through all spherical surfaees and henee
the magnitude of the vector field at any point varies with the inverse
square of the distanee from the souree, sinee the spherical area varies
directly as the square of the distanee. If the strength of the souree is
q, the Oux is 47rq.
In some fields the point is an actual source of material flux, e.g. when
liquid is entering at a point within a fluid; the VectOf is then the outward
radial velocity of the fluid. In most cases, however, the flux is non-material,
e.g. of heat, Of of gravitational of electrie forces. Note that in the case of
gravity the point mass can only attrllct another mass placed in its fieId; the
force is essentially radially inward. But in hydromechanics, heat, eIectricity,
and mapetism both positive and negative sources, the latter caIled sinks,
can exist, making possible both outward and inward fluxes. PIuid Of heat
may either en~er of leave; electrie Of magnetie forces may bc either repul-
sive Of attractive. Masses act in the vectorial sense in the same way as sinks.
It will be eonvenient to fix ideas by examining an actual example,
namely, the field of electrie point charges in vacuo. Two such
charges ofpositive electrieity ql, qs, distanee r apart, have been shown
by Coulomb's experiments to be repelled with a force kqlqs/r· aIong
the line joining them. If unit charge is defined as repeUing a similar
THE SCALAR POTENTIAL FIELD 93

Figure 44 Electric field of point charge

charge 1 cm distant with a force of 1 dyne, we have the ordinary

electrostatic system of units, k = 1 and qlq2/r 2 is the force in dynes
bctween charges ql and qa e.s.u. Let a positive charge q bc put at 0,
fig. 44, then the force per unit positive charge placed at P is caIIed the
electric force or jield strength; its magnitude is q/r 2 and its direction
that of the unit radius vector rl, i.e. ofr. Then
q
E = rärl.
The potential difference bctween two points A and B is defined as the
work done ogainst the forces of the field in moving the unit positive
charge from A to B by any path. Since like charges repel, positive
work must bc done against the field forces to bring the charges
nearer together. The work that would bc done by the field forces
is E.dr; hence the potential difference is, by definition,

_JB E.dr = _q JB r.!..rl.dr = _q JB drr = q [_1OB___OA1_].

A A 2 A 2

Now let A bc at infinity - where E is zero - and make B coincide

94 VECTOR ANALYSIS

with P; then the integral becomes

-iP E.dr = !.r

co
This is the potential at P, namely, the work done on unit positive
charge in bringing it from infinity to the point P by any path. 4.21
shows that
E = !ra rl = -grad r(!).
A simiIar argumeIlt can be applied to other fields. In general, let
F be a ftux veetor at a distance r from a source of strength q; then the
Newtonian potential q, is defined as
q, = qjr; (6.1)
and F = -gradq, = -grad(qjr), (6.2)
of which the three cartesian components are
Fs = - oq" F" = _ oq, and Fz = _ oq,. (6.3)
ox oy oz
The veetor F points in the direction of the greatest rate of decrease of
q,. For example, if q, is temperature it is clear that the ftow of heat
will be in the direction in which the temperature falls most rapidly.
Since potentials are scalar functions of space they are algebraically
additive. Thus, if there are several point sourees ql, qa, . •. at
distanees rl, ra, ... from a point in the field, the potential at the point
is
ql qa ....
q,= [-+-+ ] (6.4)
rl ra
This may be extended stiil further. If the sourees are continuously
distributed with density u per unit area over boundary surfaees the
summation becomes the integral

q, = IIu:S (6.5)

taken over all the surfaees. Each surface element is regarded as a

point source yielding a Newtonian potential.
In 4.22 it has been shown that except at a point occupied by a
THE SCALAR POTENTIAL FIELD 95
souree the field F is solenoidal, Le. div F
and
= 0; thus, div grad "is zero

va" = 0, (6.6)
i.e. Laplaee's equation is satisfied by the potential at all source-free
points in space. A field of this kind is, therefore, known as a Laplacian
field and" is a hannonic function. 6.1, 6.4 and 6.5 may be regarded
as solutions of 6.6 for various physical conditions.
3. Volume Distributions. In many problems the field is due to
volume distributions of sourees, each element of which actsaccord-
ing to the inverse square law. Familiar examples are the electric field
due to a space charge of electrons or of ionized gas molecules, the
attraction of solid bodies, the ftow of intemally generated heat (as in
an electricaIly-heated conductor), etc. Let p be the density of sources
per unit volume within a closed surface S; p is a scalar function of
position. Then if dVis avolume element in fig. 45, p dV is an elemen-
tal souree. Two cases arise and wiII be separately examined.

Figure 45 Potentjal of avolume distribution

Let P be outside the surfaee S, then the total potential at P is

,,= fffP~V, (6.7)

where r is distanee measured from P and the integration is taken over

the volume enclosed by S. Also, sinee p dV is constant for each
96 VECTOR ANALYSIS

differentiating operation,
F = -grad~ and VB~ = 0,
exactly as before. The field extemal to avolume distributioo is
solenoidal, i.e. the patential is Laplacian.
If P is ioside the surfaee S there is a small difficulty, sinee r in the
denominator of the integrand in 6.7 cao oow become zero. Surround
P by a small spherical surface of radius 8; then, taking the volume
integrai through the space confined between S and the sphere, P is
outside this regioo and the integral is finite. Now let the sphere be
made very small; then the integral 6.7 taken throughout it is propor-
tiooal to 8 2 approximately, and varushes as 8 becomes zero. Hence
6.7 expresses also the potential inside the surface if it is regarded as
the limiting value reached when a small sphere round P is reduced
without limit; the field is oot, howevel, Laplacian. In 5.2 it has been
shown that when V = grad (l/r) the total normal 1Iux of V through
a surface eoclosing a source of unit strength is - 411' and is iodepen-
dent of the positioo of the source. aenee wheo F = - grad ~, where
~ is due to sources of total amount q, oo matter how distributed
within the surfaee S, the 1Iux is +411'q. In the present case q is the
volume integraI of the source-density, so that

II D.FdS = 411' III pdV.

Applyiog the divergenee theorem, we have

II D.F dS = IIIdiv F dV = 411' IIIp dV,

so that divF = 411'p = -divgrad~

and V2~ = -411'p, (6.8)

which is Poisson's equation. Henee the field in a regioo where there is
avolume distributioo of sources is oot solenoidal. There is diver-
genee, i.e. total oormal ftux per unit volume, at any point, of an
amount equal to 411' times the density of sourees per unit volume.
It is obvious that the same results will hold for two or more
distributed sources, the integral 6.7 being takeo over all the enclosed
volumes. In the space betweeo thero the field is solenoidal and the
THE SCALAR POTENTlAL FIELD 97
potential Laplaeian; within eaeh volume the field has a poissonian
potential and has non-zero divergence.
4. MuIti-valued Potentials. So far all the funetions with whieh
we have been eoncemed have been single-valued. There are, how-
ever, important cases in electromagnetism and hydromechanics
where the idea of sealar potentialleads to multi-vaIued funetions.
Consider first a simple example. Let
.p = are tan (y/x) = 8 ± k-rr,
where k is any positive integer or zero. Then the ' equi-potentiaI '
surfaees are radial planes 8 = eonstant intersecting along the Z axis,
as shown in fig. 46(a). This intersection violates the eondition of

z y

n n n X
S • J

(b)

Figure 46 Multi-valucd scalar potential

single-vaIuedness mentioned on p. 13; the axis is termed a singuJarity.

Taking the gradient, we have that

grad.p = v.p = (i~

õx
+ j~ + k~) (arctan~)
õy õz x

= - -2-y
-1.+ - -x- ].= -1( -SID
. 8i +eos 8)
j
X +y2 X2 +y2 a

where a2 = xl! + y2, The lines of the vector grad'" are in the
direction of the eounter-clockwise tangent at any point P, perpendi-
cular to the' equipotential' plane through that point. To calculate the
 98 VECTOR ANALYSIS

line integral of grad rl> we need

V.L d
'f'. a = [- Y.
-2--2 1
x
+ x+y JJ [dxi + d']
-2--2' YJ = x dy2 - y 2
dx
x+y x+y '
Consider a eircular path round 0 in the plane of XY; then, sinee
x = a eos 0 and y = a sin 0,
we have that
dx = -asin OdO, dy = aeos OdO and xdy - ydx = a2 dO;
henee
J V,p.da. = J
dO

along any portion of a eireular path. Sinee it is independent of a the

integral applies to any path. * For a c10sed path such as A, dO is f
elearly zero, sinee to traee it out the angle subtended at 0 by the
area is passed over onee positively and onee negatively by the radius
veetor from O. This is true even when A is infinitesimal so that eurl
grad,p is zero, as required by 4.17.
Now trace a semieireular path ab, giving a line integrai of 17.
Likewise, a line integral along the semieirele a'b' gives -17, i.e. the
same magnitude but of opposite sign. But the beginnings and ends
of the two paths are the same; henee the value of the line integrai
depends on whieh path is followed as weil as upon its end points.
Round any closed path Iinked about the axis of Z the line integraI
is ± 217 per tour, the upper sign relating to rotation in the sense from
X to Y. Such a elosed path cannot be redueed to zero without
eutting through the Z axis and cannot satisfy 4.17. The potential at
P, defined as on p. 94, is multi-valued, being increased or diminished
by 217 for every tour made round the axis of Z before arriving at P
from an infinite distanee.
A region of space in whieh these phenomena occur is said to be
•cyelie' about a singularity in the region; in our problem the
singularity is the axis of Z where all the level surfaees intersect. A
• Any path can bc resolved into three components, viz. parallel to DZ,
radially from DZ and around it. The first two can add nothing to the line
integral, since the lines of flow.of grad 4> are circular. At any radius a the
path around the axis is a d8, for a small angular rotation. The magnitude
of grad 4> being l/a, the element of line integrai is d8.
THE SCALAR POTENTIAL FIELD 99
path such as A which can be contracted to a point without enclosing
or cutting through the singular point or points is •reducible'; a path
such as abb'a' is •irreducible' since it cannot be so reduced and can
only be made to fit more and more closely round the singularity. A
cyclic regioD can be made acyclic by inserting impassable barriers to
prevent the drawing of irreducible paths, thereby isolating the
singularity. For example, in fig. 46(a) take the semi-infinite plane of
ZX to the left of the Z axis as a barrier, shown shaded. Then 8
cannot DOW exceed 271' and q, is thereby made single-vaIued and the
conditions of potentiaI theory are satisfied.
The problem just eonsidered is easily seen to represent the magnetie field
of a current 1 electromagnetie units in a thin straight wire extending to
infinity aIong the Z axis if we take
q, = -2Iarctan(y/x).
Then the magnetie force is
H = - grad q, = (21/a)( - sin 8i + eos /Ij)
and the line integral of H round a elosed path encircling the current is
4711, the so-called magnetomotive force. Remove the current, and let the
half-plane of ZX to the right be occupied by a thin, uniformly magnetized
sheet of moment j per unit area with the north-polar surfaee uppermost
(fig. 46(b». Then the magnetie field of the sheet and the current are identieal
in distribution, but that of the sheet is acyelie since no path can pass
through it to eneircle the wire. Its scalar potential is .fo = 2i(71 - /I), /I
being limited between 0 and 271 (p. 108).
The fundamental axiom of potential theory is that the line integraI
of the veetor field is independent of the path traversed between two
points; the theory is not applicable, therefore, without some artificial
aid to problems which do not satisfy this condition. The most
important case is the essenlial/y cyclic magnetic field of an electric
current ftowing in a linear circuit of any shape. Exploring the field, in
the usual way, with a unit magnetic pole which is moved about from
point to point, will result in changes in the amount of ftux from the
pole which links the circuit, inducing eleetromotive forces therein; if
the current is to remain constant, this will require adjustments to be
made to the voltage of the battery in the circuit. For every complete
tour made by the pole round the current, potential energy ±471';
must be credited to the pole; this energy is, of course, derived from
100 VECTOR ANALYSIS

the battery. Physically, therefore, the scalar potential of the field must
be multi-valued, and its cyclic character has this physieal explana-
tion. To satisfy mathematieal requirements, however, we replace
the field of the current by that of a thin, normally-magnetized sheet
with the circuit as its boundary edge - the equivalent magnetic sheli.
The potential due to the shell is iw, w being the solid angle subtended
by the circuit at any point in the field, and is single-valued as required
by potential theory, p. 13; the field is then acyclic and the problem
has been reduced to one in magnetostatics; see further, p. 105. It is,
however, not in agreement with the essential physieal nature of a
current field and must be regarded as a mere mathematieal con-
venience. Agreement can be secured by treating the field of a linear
current as a degenerate case of the veetor potential field of a current-
carrying medium, as on p. 104.
7: The Veetor Potential Field

1. The Magnetle Field of a Steady Current. Vector potential fields

occur most commonly in electromagnetism and in hydromechanics.
It wiIl be convenient to introduce the subject by working out the
properties of the magnetic field of a steady current as apractieal
illustration of the fundamental ideas; the reader will readily adapt
them to any analogous physical problem in which he is interested.
We have seen on p. 99 that the space round a circuit carrying a
current is a cyclic region; the physieal meaning of this is that the
work done on a unit magnetic pole in transporting it once round a
constant current of i electromagnetic units is ± 41Ti ergs. This is the
weIl-known circuital theorem.
Consider now a medium, such as the interlor of a copper con-
ductor, which is carrying a current distributed in any given way.
The current density at any point is e electromagnetic units per
sq cm of a surface perpendicular to the direction of tlow. Draw any
closed curve in the medium and take any open surface having the
curve for its bounding edge. If n dS is an element ofvector area on
the surface, the current through the element is the scalar product
e . n dS, and that through the whole surface is the integraI of this
Op.n IUr/OC' S
n

current lIow

H
elosed curv.
Figure 47 Curl of magnetic field due to electric current
102 VECTOR ANALYSIS

taken over the entire area. Now calculate the line integrai of the
tangential component of the magnetie force H round the elosed
curve, in the sense of a right-hand screw relative to the unit surfaec-
normal n, as in fig. 47; then the eircuital theorem makes

fH.dS = 471' IIe.nds.

Apply Stokes's theorem to the left side, then

II n.eurlHdS = 471' II e.ndS,

and, for this to be true of any surfaee, we must have
eurl H = 471'C. (7.1)
Physically this means that we put a very small plane area at a point
in the medium and turn it about until the line integrai of H round its
boundary is the greatest possible; the amount ofthe integrai per unit
area is the magnitude of eurl H and the positive norma! points in the
direetion of the eurI. But the equation relates this to the current
density e, whieh must, therefore, be passing normally through the
small area when it is in the orientation giving the greatest value to
the line integraI.
It is to be noted that sinee div eurl H is zero, div e is zero also.
Henee currents are solenoidal, i.e. How in elosed paths. Further,
sinee there ean be no such thing as a spaee distribution of free
magnetie poles, div H is zero also; the lines of magnetie foree must,
therefore, form e10sed curves.
1. The Vector Potential. On p. 58 we have seen that when a veetor
has non-zero eurl and zero divergenee it may be represented as the
eurl of another veetor, caIIed the veetor potent;al. The reason for this
name will now be explained. At any point in a eurrent-carrying
medium,
H = curlA, (7.2)
where A is the veetor potential of H. Using (4.20) we have
eurl H = eurl eurl A = grad div A - V2A = 471'C.
We may, without any loss of generality, assume that A, like its
related veetors H and e, is solenoidal; then div A is zero and
(7.3)
THE VECTOR POTENTIAL FIELD 103
which is a veetor form of Poisson's equation relating A and e within
the medium. Also,
VIAs = -4".cs, VIIA., = -4".c., and VIIA, = -4".c,.
H r is the distanee from an element of volume, where the current
density is e, to any point in the medium at which the components of
A are to bc found, analogy with 6.7 and 6.8 gives

As = JJJcs:V, All = JJJC":V and A. = JJJC':V. (7.4)

7.4 shows that the components of vcctor potential are calculated
from the components of e in exactly the same way as the sca.lar
potentiäI ; is found from a sca.lar source distribution of density p.
Henee the name veetor potential.
By exact analogy with the scalar potential field, p. 95, the veetor
potential at a point outside the medium containing e is found by
appropriate evaluation of the integrals in 7.4, but now
eurlH = eurleurlA = - VIIA = 0
at the point. Bach component of A satisfies Laplace's equation. H is
nowa lamcllar vector and can bc expressed as the negative gradient
of a multi-valued scalar potential, 0 say. Henee at points outside a
current-carrying medium the magnetic force is given by
H= -gradO=eurIA.
At the surface of separation which divides the current-carrying
medium from outside space, the two expressioos for A, in the eurl
and non-curl regioos respectively, reduee to equality. Their analytical
forms in the two media are, howevee, quite different.·
3. Linear Currents. In electrical theory there is coosiderable
practical interest in the magnetic field of currents Dowing in
infinitesimally thin conductors forming closed circuits of any con-
figuration. Such circuits are called linear, sinee the current is caused
to Dow along straight or curved lines, and are a close approximation
to practical circuits of thin wire. In hydromechanics, such a linear
• A variety of practical cases WiII bc found in the author's treatise,
Electro1fllll'/l1tic Problema in Electrical Engineering (Oxford University
Press, 1929).
8
104 VICTOR ANALYSIS

curve eonstitutes a vortex filament in an incompressible fluid, the

fluid being in rotation about the line as axis. In both cases the field
is eycIie but non-curl. The eleetromagnetic case is often treated
magnetostatically by the 'magnetie shelI' eonception, but we shall
now see how veetor analysis enables us to express the field in terms
of a veetor potential for a medium free from current everywhere
except in the filament constituting the Iinear eircuit; precisely similar
arguments may be applied to vortex filaments in a fluid or to any
otber linear singularity.
Let i be the current in the eireuit and u its vanishingly small
cross-sectional area. If t is the unit tangent veetor at any point of the
p

Ffgure 48 Ampere's rule for magnetie force of circuit element (Biot-

Savart law)

circuit, we may put e = itl u and dV = u ds, where ds is an element

of length of the circuit as shown in fig. 48; then,
e dV - it ds = ids
and
A=if~s (7.S)

is the veetor potential at a point P wben the integrai is evaluated

round the elosed eircuit. The magnetie force at P is

H f - f~
= eurl A = i eurl ~ i eurl ds =i f eurl ~ ds.
THE VECTOR POTENTIAL FIELD 105
Using 4.16, substitute 11' and t; remembering that the eurI is ealcu-
lated at P and that t is not a function of that point, so that eurI t
thereat is zero, we obtain
eud (tlr) = [grad (l/r)] x t = -(rl x t)lr 2 ,
rl being the unit veetor drawn from the eircuit element towards P.
Hence
= _ i 1: (rl
x t) ds = _ i 1: u sin 8 dS,
H
:r,2 :r,2 (7.6)

where u is a" unit veetor in the sense of the veetor produet of rl and
t, i.e. rl, t and u form a right-handed system. 7.6 is known either as
Ampere's rule or as the Biot and Savart law· and states that the
magnetic force due to an element ds of a elosed eircuit has a magni-
tude i sin 8 dslr 2 and is normal to the pIane containing ds and r; the
direetions of magnetie force, ds and " form a left-handed system,
since H is in the sense of - u.
Since eurl grad (l/r) is zero, the field oflinear currents has no eurl.
As shown on p. 100, sealar potential theory can be applied to the
eyelie non-eurI fieId by repJacing the eurrent by a uniformly-
magnetized shell having the eircuit for its bounding edge. The north
polar faee of the shell is directed toward a point P, as in fig. 49, when

~dP
P

dlXdp
Figure 49 Equivalence of magnetic sheIl and Iinear current
• The general rule is due to Ampere for any shape of circuit. Biot and
Savart's proof applies only to straight conductors.
8·
106 VICTOR ANALYSIS

the eurrent as viewed from Pappears to run eounter-clockwise. If w

is the solid angle subtended by the shelI, i.e. by the circuit, at P, then
the scalar potential is taken as
,p = iw and gives H = - grad,p = - i grad w. (7.7)
We now proceed to show that this agrees with the veetor potential.
Give the point P a small vector displacement dp in a sense to
inerease f, the veetor joining P to an element ds of the circuit; this is
equivalent to fixing P and moving the eircuit bodily in the opposite
sense to the dotted p~sition. The element sweeps out a veetor area
ds x dp, whieh subtends a solid angle fl' .ds x dp/r 2 at P, fl' being
the unit veetor in the sense from P to the element. The integral of
this taken found the whole circuit is the total ehange in solid angle
subtended by the eircuit when it is slightly displaced. Applying the
rules for scalar triple products, we have

fl'
r 2 .(ds x dp) = dp. (r 2f xl 'ds) = PI dp. (r 2f xl 'ds) ,

if PI is the unit veetof along dp. Dividing by dp and integrating round

the eircuit we obtain
dw i fl'
-d = PI.'f' 2" x ds;
rp • r

since P moves away from the eircuit this is the rate of deereose of
solid angle subtended by the eircuit. But grad w is the total rate of
increase of w; hence - PI . grad tu is the eomponent rate of deerease
in anY direction denoted by pI, equivalent to dw/dp above. Also if
fl is the unit veetor drawn towards P from ds, fl' = - fl. Taking
the scalar produet with PI in 7.7 we have
. . dw . ! (fl X t)
H·PI = -IPI.grad w = I dp = -PI.I j -r-s-ds.
For this to be true of any displacement,
H = _; i (fl X t) ds
j r2 '

whieh is 7.6. Hence the sealar magnetie potential defined by 7.7

THE VECTOR POTENTIAL FIELD 107
gives the same magnetic field as the veetor potential of 7.5; we can
write, therefore,
H = curlA = -grad"',
where
A =i f~ and '" = ioo,
proving the equivalence of the current and the shell in the field
produced at any point.
4. Simple Examples of Vector Potentlal. The idea of veetor poten-
tial is more readily grasped by considering simple examples of linear
currents. First take the case of an infinitely long, thin wire carrying
current along the positive direetion of Z as shown in fig. 50(a).

·~:----+-·x
z

(0) (11)

Figure 50 Veetor potential of straight current

The !ines of magnetic force are circles with their centres on the Z
axis, the circles lying in planes parallel to the XY-plane; in other
words, since the wire is infinitely long, the field distribution in the
XY-plane is preeisely similar to that in any other parallei plane.
Since all the elements of current are in the same direction, the veetor
potential at any point P is a veetor parallei to OZ and can be found
by a simple scalar integration. Writing ds = k dz and,2 = z2 + a2 ,
108 VECTOR ANALYSIS

we have by 7.S that

A = ik J OO

-oo
( II
z +a
dz
11)1/11 = ik [are.sinh (z/a)] -oo
oo

= 2ik [are sinh (z/a)]:

= 2ik {IOg [z + V(Z2 + aa)]}; = (C ... - 2iloga)k,

where C.., is an infinitely great constant arising from the infinite

extent of the •ciremt' round whieh the integrai has been !aken.
Sinee we are concemed with derivatives of A, the presenee of this
constant is immaterial; without loss of generality we can take
A = A,k = - 2ik log a = - ik log (XII + yll).
Sinee A3) and All are zero, the components of eurl A are
H3) = oAz/oy = - 2iy/(xll + il) = - (2i/a) sin 8,
H II = - oA,/ox = 2ix/(xll + y2) = (2i/a) eos 8,
Ii, = O. (ef. p. 97).
Surfaees of eonstant vcctor potential are coaxial cylinders. Lines of
vector potential are elosely paeked together near the wire and fall in
densityat greater distanees as shown by fig. 50(b).
The corresponding muItivalued scalar potential is easily found. As in
fig. 46(b) take the right-hand half plane of ZX as the equivalent shell
(p. 99). Draw a sphere of unit radius with centre at P; then the half plane
subtends an area 4w('II' - 8)/2'11' = 2('11' - 8) at the spherieal surfaee. This
is the solid angle subtended by the plane and 7-7 gives tf. = 2;('11' - 8) as on
p. 99. The components of - grad tf., i.e. of H, are identieal with those of
eurl A given above, as the reader shouId verify by using 4.3 and
8 = are tan (y/x).
Another simple case is that of a current in a cirele of wire, as
shown in fig. Sl, the circle lying in the YZ-plane. At any point on the
axis of X the vector potential is zero, the point being equidistant
from all elements of the eircle. For a point off the axis, it is geometri-
cally obvious that the resultant vector potential due to the whole
eirele is a vector parallel to the tangentat the nearest part. Let the
point describe a cirele about the axis, parallel to the current; then by
THE VECTOR POTENTlAL FIELD 109
y

Figure 51 Veetor potential of a eircular eurrent

symmetry this argument applies to any point on this locus. Hence the
lines of veetor potential for a eireular current filament are paralleI
circles with their centres on the common axis. To give an expression
for A and hence for H requires the use of elliptic funetions and is
beyond the scope of our present discussion.
The diagram, fig. 51, represents also in one meridinoal plane the
lines of flow of fluid about a eircular vortex filament; the complete
pieture is obtained by revolving the diagram about 0 X.
8: The Electromagnetic Field Equations of
Maxweil

1. GeneraL One of the most striking examples of the success of

veetor methods is provided by the theory of the electromagnetic
field. Although Maxwell introduced the fundamental veetor ideas
into the theory, he did not make any use of veetor analysis in
manipulating his equations, relying entirely upon the usual lengthy
cartesian methods. It is to Heaviside, Lorentz and many later
workers that we must torn for the exclusive adoption of the concise
veetor equations and their treatment by purely veetorial methods.
our present objeet is to state the necessary equations and to use
them as an exercise in the application of principles established in
earlier chapters. We shall not, therefore, bc concemed with questions
of a purely physica1 nature, for the discussion of which the reader is
referred to any standard texthook on electrodynamics.· One main
assumption will bc made throughout this chapter, namely, that the
medium sustaining the field is homogeneous, Le. composed of one
kind of material in the region considered, and also isotropic, Le.
having identica1 physica1 properties in all directions at every point.
2. Maxwell's Equations. At any instant let j he the current density
and H the magnetic force at any point in the field, both heing
expressed in rationalized m.k.s. units, the system of units which we
shall use throughout this chapter. Then by the method of p. 102 the
circuital or magnetomotive force theorem, 7.1 gives
curlH = j.
In the derivation of this relation, however, a purely conducting
medium was assumed, j heing the actual flow of electric charges per
second normally through unit area. MaxwelI observed, however, that
• See, however, F. W. G. White, Electromognetic Waves (Methuen,
1934), in this series of Monographs.
THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD EQUATIONS OF MAXWELL 111
eleetromagnetie phenomena take place in dieleetrie non-conduetors,
even in vacuous spaee, in whieh eleetrie ftow is impossible. To
account for this he postulated the existence of a veetor D, known as
the electric displacement at any point and having the physical
dimensions of eharge per unit area,. the time rate of ehange of whieh
is called the displacement current density at the point. He regarded
the eleetrie force E, whieh is the force per unit eharge tending to
move electricity at any point, as related to the displaeement D in
mueh the same way as stress is related to strain in an elastie solid.
Thus, if K is the dieleetrie eonstant of the medium,
D = KE. (8.1)
In general a semi-conduetor will exhibit both phenomena, i.e. true
ftow of electrieity, the eonduetion eurrent, together with displace-
ment or, as an engineer would say, eharging eurrent. Thus, we write
the total eurrent density as
. aD
J =J+- (8.2)
at
and the first equation must be amended to read
eurlH = J = j + KE,
the dot notation being used for time differentiation. Maxwell's
assumption that a displacement eurrent gives rise to a magnetie
force in the same way as a conduetion current was a stroke of genius
that led him to the theory of eleetromagnetie waves in space and the
electromagnetie nature of light; his eonelusions were not verified by
experiment unti! many years later. The total current ftows in a
closed eircoit, i.e. it is solenoidal and
divJ = O. (8.3)
Again draw in the field any elosed curve and ealculate the line
integral of the eleetrie force round it. This is the eleetromotive force
round the eurve and by Stokes's theorem can be transformed into
the surfaee integral of eurl Etaken over any open surfaee with the
eurve as its boundary. But by Faraday's law the eleetromotive force
is the rate at whieh the magnetie ftux through the surfaee is deereas-
ingo Let B = I'U be the magnetie induetion or ftux density, I' being
112 VEeTOR ANALYSIS

the permeability, then

fE.ds= ffn.curlEdS= - :'ffn.B dS

and, sinee this must hold for any surfaee bounded by the curve, it
is necessary that
eurlE = -B = -ILH.
Also, the lines of magnetic induction are necessarily solenoidal
and therefore
div B = IL div H = O.
Thus, colleeting these results together, we find that Maxwell's
equations for the eleetromagnetic field are
(8.4)
curlE =
.
-B =
.
-ILH, (8.5)
together with J = j + D, (8.2)
divB = 0, (8.6)
divD = p, (8.7)
p being the eleetric charge density at any point.
For many purposes in theoretieal physics, it is more convenient to
describe the electromagnetic field by the sealar potential <fo and the
veetor potential A rather than by the veetors B and D (or E and 8).
Thus, by 8.6 there exists a veetor A such that B = eurl A; A is, of
course, not uniquely defined by 8.6 and the gradient of an arbitrary
scalar may be added to it. Theo, sinee eurl (E + aA/at) = 0 by 8.5,
there exists a scalar <fo such that E + aA/at = - grad <fo. Henee, we
have the equations
B = curlA, (8.8)
aA
E = -grad"'t' - -
at' (8.9)

which define the field strengths in terms of the scalar and veetor
potentials. 8.7 and 8.4 now become

VI, + div aA = _ pt"

at
THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD EQUATIONS OF MAXWELL 113
and 02A 0
eurl eurI A + KP. ot2 + KP. Fr (grad"') = p.j,

i.e.
0 2'" + ~ at = -pjK
at (diV A + KP. 0"')
(8.l0)

and
02A - grad (diV A + KP. °tr) = - p.j, (8.11)

where 0 2 denotes the operator V2 - KP.(02jot 2 ). Now, if A is ehosen

so that
d·IV A + KP. 0'"
at = 0, (8.l2 )

then 8.10 and 8.11 reduee to

0 2'" = -pjK, (8.l3)
(8.l4)
so that'" and A eaeh satisfy an inhomogeneous wave equation. The
condition 8.l2 is known as the Lorentz eondition. 8.8, 8.9, 8.l2,
8.l3, 8.l4 are equivalent to the original MaxweIl equations 8.4-8.7.
Reverting now to the original equations, we can easily derive a
partial differential equation for E and for H. We note first of all that,
if there is no extemal electromotive foree present, Ohm's law shows
that j = aE, where a is the eonduetivity of the material. Henee by
4.20
grad div H - V2H = eurl eurl H = a eurI E + ~ (eurI E)
K

and by 8.6, 8.5

2_ aH 02H
vH - ap. Tr + KP. ot2' (8.l5)

In the same way, when there are no true eharges present, we find
that
ilE 02E
V2E = ap. at + KP. ot2' (8.l6)

It should be noted that in solving equations 8.15 and 8.16 we must

take solutions whieh together satisfy MaxweIl's equations.
In a non-conducting medium a = 0, sioee there is oo eonduction
curreot, and E and H satisfy the wave equation, i.e. E and H are
114 VECTOR ANALYSIS

transmitted in wave form with velocity 1/";(IC,.,.). For condueting

material, on the other hand, IC = 0, since there is no displacement
current, and E and H satisfy the diffusion equation, weIl known in the
theory of heat.
3. Energy Considemtions. Consider an element of volume dv in
whieh the electrie and magnetie field strengths are E and H respee-
tively. Then the Joule heat generated per second within the element
is
dP=E.jdv
or by 8.4 dP = (E.eurl H - E.D) dv
Then, by 4.14
div (E x H) = H.eurl E - E.eurl H
and so dP = {H.eurIE - div(E x H) - E.D} dv.
Using 8.5, we now have that
dP = -{,.,.H.H + ICE.E + div(E x H)}dv
or, by 3.3a
dP + ~ {~(""H2 + ICE2>} dv = -div(E x H) dv.

By Gauss's theorem we now have that

JJJ [dP + ;, (,.,.~2 + 1C~2) dV] = - JJ n.(E x H) dS, (8.17)

y s

where S is the surface enclosing a region V of the field; this result

is known as Poynting's theorem.
on the left side we have the sum of the Joule heat generated and
the magnetie and electrie energies stored per second in the volume.
on the right is the total inward normal ftux oi ii. ,-eetor
R=ExH
whieh is known as the Poynling veetor. It must represent the rate of
ftow of energy per unit area normal to R. Note that R is normal to
the plane containing E and H and forms a right-handed system with
these veetors.
THB BLBCTllOMAGNBTIC FIBLD BQUATIONS OF MAXWELL 11S
Miscellaneous Exercises VIII
8.1. Establish the equation of continuity of electric charge,
namely,
diVJ• + ap
at = 0.
8.2. Show that, for the case of zero extemal electromotive force,
ap
at = -).p,
where ). = U/K, so that electric charge decays according to a law of
the form p = po e-At.
8.3. If the vector potential A is replaced by A' = A - grad" and
the sealar potential ,p by ,p' = ,p + a,,/at, where " is an arbitrary
scalar, show that the field strengths E and H are unaltered. Show,
also, that, if A and ,p satisfy the Lorentz condition, then so do A' and
,p' provided that DZ" = O.
Answers to Exereises

Miseellaneous Exereises I
1.5. r = (l-'\)i-2j+(l+2'\)k, r = li-2J + ik.
1.6. r = '\(a' - a) + "b.
Miseellaneous Exereises II
2.1. 3v'2, v'10, 1/v'5.
2.2. a, b, e mutually orthogonal and of unit length.
2.5. 60°, v'2.
2.7. 3i + k, (i - Sj - 3k)/v'35.
2.8. 5v'3.
2.9. r = [(a x b) + b + (a.b) a]/(l + a2 ).
2.15. R 2b = (r - a) x {b x (r - al}.
2.17. r = i + (,\ - 2)j + (2.\ + l)k, (r - k).(4i + 2j - k) = O.
Miseellaneous Exereises III
3.5. [r, i, ·r·].
Miseellaneous Exereises V
5.1. -to
5.4. 81rabc(b2 c2 + c2a2 + a2b2)/105.
Bibliography

1. Macbeath, A. M. Elementary Veetor Algebra (Oxford, 1964).

2. Patterson, E. M. Solving Problems in Veetor Algebra (Oliver &
Boyd, 1968).
3. Weatherburn, C. E. Elementary Veetor Analysis (Bell, 1935).
Advanced Veetor Analysis (Bell, 1924).
4. Rutherford, D. E. Veetor Methods (Oliver & Boyd, 1954).
5. Borisenko, A. J. and Tarapov, J. E. Veetor and Tensor Analysis
(Prentice-Hall, 1968).
6. Spivak, M. Caleulus on Manifolds (Benjamin, 1965).

(1) and (2) are concemed with only the algebra of veetors; both
contain applicatioos to geometry and (2) discusses some applieatioos
to meehanies. (3), (4) and (5) deal with both the algebra and ealeulus
of vectors and include applicatioos to mathematical physics. (6) is a
completely different book from any of the others and deals with
certain aspects of veetor ealeulus (Stokes's theorem in partieular) at
the high level of rigour and sophistication of modem pure mathe-
maties.
Index

Addition of veetors, S Distributive law, for sealars, 2

Ampere's rule, lOS for sealar product, 16
Angular velocity, S2 for veetor product, 21
eompounding of, S2 Divergence of eurl, S7
relation to eud, S3 Divergence of gradient, 48
Associative law, for sealars, 2 Divergence of veetor field, 46
for veetor sum, 6 in rectangu!ar co-ordinates, 47
as operation, V. , 48
Gauss's theorem, 70
Biot-Savart law, lOS in cylindrieal co-ordinates, 63
in spherieal co-ordinates, 6S

Circuital theorem, 101 Fields, sealar, 13

Commutative law, for sealars, 2
for scalar product of two veetors, 16
Curl of eurl, S9
Curl of gradient, S6
Curl of vector field, 49
rectangular components, Sl
as operation A x, Sl
examples of, S2
rotation ofrigid body, S2
motion of ftuid, S3
eleetromagnetism, S4
applieation of Stokes's theorem to,
79
in eylindrieal co-ordinates, 63
in spherieal co-ordinates, 6S
Cyelie regions, 98
Cylindrical polar co-ordinates, 62
level surfaees in, 13
veetor,13
lines of ftow in, 13
Finite rotations, 6
Flux, line of, 13
total,27
Gauss's theorem, 70
applied to inverse square law, 74
Gradient of diversence, S6
Gradient of sealar field, 42
as operator V, 43
in reetangular co-ordinates, 43
in eylindrical co-ordinates, 63
in spherical co-ordinates, 6S
Green's theorem, 76

Deeomposition of field into lamellar
and solenoida! components, 84
Del operator, 41
Dilferentiation of vectors, 36
sums and produets, 37
triple products, 38
partial,38
Diriehlet problem, 77
Harmonie function, 77
Helmholtz's theorem, 84
Inverse square law, 61
point sourees, 92
Gauss's theorem, 74
applied to electrie field, 92
Irrotational motion, 54
120
Lamellar veetor, 4S
elosed line integrai of, 4S
Laplace's equation, 83, 9S
Laplace's operator, 48
as div grad, 48
in rectangular eo-ordinates, 48
in eylindrieal co-ordinates, 63
in spherical co-ordinates, 6S
Level surface, 13, 41, 91
Line integrai of veetor, 2S
in lamellar field, 4S
Line of How, 13
Linear eurrents, theory of, 103
equivalent magnetie sheli, lOS
Magnetie fieId, of straight wire, 99
of eurrent-carrying medium, 100
of linear currents, 103
Magnetie sheIl, 100
equivalent to linear current, 107
MaxweU's equations for e.m. field,
112
energy relations, 114
Multi-valued potentials, 97
eyelle and aeyelle regions, 98, 99
Nabla operator, 41
Neumann problem, 78
Newtonian potential, 61
Normal, positive sign of, 26
Operator, dei, 41
grad,42
div,46
eurl,49
div grad, 48
eur! grad, S6
grad div, S6
diveurl, S7
eurl eur!, S9
Partial differentiation of veetors, 38
Plane, vector equation of, 12
Point function, 12
Point souree, 8S, 92
VECTOR ANALYSIS
Poisson's equation, 83
Polar eo-ordinates, 62, 63
Potential, sealar, 45, 112
of point source, 60, 94
Newtonian, 61
in electrie field, 94
of surface distribution, 94
of volume distribution, 95
multi-valued, 97
Potential, vector, 83, 102, 112
Poynting's theorem, 114
Products of three veetors, 22
Products of two vectors, sealar, IS
veetor, 18
Pseudosealars, 23
Rotational motion, 54
Scalar, definition of, I
Sealar potential fields, 13, 45
of point souree, 60, 94
level surfaees in, 91
lamellar nature of, 92
of surface distributions, 94
of volume distributions, 95
multi-valued, 97
Scalar product of two veetors, 15
eommutative proporty of, 16
eondition for zero, 16
self, 16
distributive law, 16
in rectanguiar eo-ordinates, 18
differentiation of, 37
Scalar triple product of vectors, 22
in rectangular co-ordinates, 23
Section formula, 9
Solenoidal veetor, 48, 83
Solid angle, 74
and magnetie sheli, 100
Spherieal polar co-ordinates, 64
Straight line, equation of, 11
Stokes's theorem, 79
Subtraction of veetors, 5
Surface integral of veetor, 27
Triple produet, sealar, 22
veetor, 24
differentiation of, 38
INDEX
Uniqueness theorems, 77, 78
Unit voctors, 4, 16, 19
Veetor area, 19
of elased surfaee, 20
Voctor, definition of, 1
graphical representatian of, 3
SCaIar multiplleation, 4
polar,4
axial, S
Veetor fields, 13
classiflcation of, 81
Voctor potential, 102
calculation of, 103
in lame1lar region, 103
of !inear currents, 103
ohtraisht wire, 107
of circle, 108
121
Voctor product of two veetora, 18
non-commutative property, 19
diatributive law, 21
in rectangular co-ordinates, 22
differentiation of, 36
divergence of, S4
Voctor triple product ofveetors, 24
Veetors, addition and subtraction of.
S
associative .law for sum, 6
components of, 8
sum in rectangular co-ordinales,
6
products of two,
sealar, IS
vector,18
tripIe products, 22
differentiation of, 36