UAEM Language Faculty

English Semantics Justo Mejia Marin Task #3 Summary

In this summery I will talk about 3 main topics. These include:
1. Sense properties and stereotypes,
2. The identity and similarity of sense,
3. Oppositeness and dissimilarity of sense and ambiguity.

Unit 9: Sense properties and stereotypes.

When we try to make sense of a sentences we can define 3 different types of sentences,
An ANALYTIC SENTENCE which is a sentence that is always true. We can state that this sentence is a fact through the
correlation of meaning among the words used. For example: A hamburger is food. We cannot say that this is untrue.
A SYNTHETIC SENTENCE is a sentence that is not necessarily true, it can be false in meaning but it is never an analytic one. It
depends on how the world that we know is like or is perceived. For example, A hamburger is greasy. (not necessarily true) An
imperative sentence or interrogative sentence however can never be analytical or synthetical.
Lastly, we have A CONTRADICTION. This is a sentence that is always false. We can define it as untrue by the contradicting
senses of the words in the sentence. A contradiction is also the opposite of an analytic sentence. We shouldn’t forget though
that when we have a CONTRADICTION when we use the word NOT, inserted or under certain circumstances left out, it turns
into an ANALYTIC sentence. For example: This square has 3 sides. (contradiction) This square does not have 3 sides. (analytic)

When we try to make sense of a predicate we need,

A NECESSARY CONDITION on the sense of the predicate. This is a condition something must meet to make something be
correctly described by the predicate. Example: animal & cat. (a cat cannot be anything else than an animal) So animal is a
necessary condition for cat. A SUFFICIENT SET OF CONDITIONS on the sense of predicate which are a set of conditions that
guarantee, or make sure by themselves, that the predicate correctly describes something. Example: for the word wife, married
with spouse, woman and in a relationship is a SUFFICIENT SET OF CONDITIONS. Finally, A STEREOTYPE is a list of the typical
characteristics of things to which the predicate may be applied. For example, with elephant it could be: a large grey mammal,
thick-skinned, that has a trunk with which it can pick up things.

Unit 10, The identity and similarity of sense.

When talking about the sense relation between predicates we have 2 very important factors, SYNONYMY and HYPONYMY.
SYNONYMY which is the relation between 2 predicates that have the same sense. It is similar in meaning. e.g. conceal and hide.
HYPONYMY is another important part which is a sense relation between predicates or longer phrases in which the meaning of 1
predicate repeats in the meaning of the other. Example: bus and vehicle. When 2 synonyms represent also the synonymy
relationship we talk about a SYMMETRICAL HYPONYMY. e.g. mercury and quicksilver.

When we talk about sense relations between sentences we have 2 main topics, PARAPHRASE and ENTAILMENT. PARAPHRASE
is a sentence that has the same meaning as another. e.g. Any trip to Italy should include a trip to Tuscany is the same as Any trip
to Italy cannot miss a stop in Tuscany. ENTAILMENT is the principle that under some conditions the truth of one statement
ensures the truth of another statement. E.g. The cat ate the mouse ENTAILS that the mouse is dead.

Unit 11: Oppositeness and dissimilarity of sense and ambiguity.

When talking about the oppositeness and dissimilarity of sense we have different kinds of categories. Talking about
ANTONYMY, or in other words contradictory propositions we have BINARY ANTONYMS which are paired predicates in which
each predicate is the positive or negative version of the other. e.g. right-wrong. GRADABLE ANTONYMS where the predicates
are at opposite sides of each other on a scale of values or grades, e.g. fat-slim, CONVERSES which describe a relationship
between 2 things while another predicate describes the same relation but in opposite order. e.g. inside-outside.

When talking about the oppositeness and dissimilarity of ambiguity we should first know that ambiguous sentences or words
have more than 1 meaning or sense. We can divide them under HOMONYMY and POLYSEMY. The first, HOMONYMY are words
that are ambiguous but not related in any way to each other. e.g. the animal bear or bear with the meaning to stand or handle.
The second, POLYSEMY are the same words that have more than 1 meaning that are in one way or another related. E.g. man
from the human species and man of a male person. A sentence that is ambiguous but none of the individual words are
ambiguous we call STRUCTURALLY AMBIGOUS (or GRAMATICALLY AMBIGOUS), whereas when the words on their own are
ambiguous we call it LEXICAL AMBIGUITY. e.g. he reached the bank (lexical) and The man is ready to go. (structurally).

Finally, I also want to mention REFERENTIAL VAGENESS AND AMBIGUITY. Take for instance the sentence ‘She has good legs.`’
This can mean 2 things, she has healthy strong legs, or she has attractive legs. This creates a sense of vagueness to a sentence.
The word good, is REFERENTIALLY VERSATILE.