A wave:
• is a periodic disturbance
• transmits energy through a material
• no permanent deformation
!
Seismic waves:
• transmit elastic strain energy
(stretching, tearing, bending, distortion across
some surface…)
T = period (s)
à time for one
complete cycle
(oscillation)
f = frequency (s-1, Hz)
à number of cycles
per second (=1/T)
Angular frequency:
ω = 2πf (rad s-1)
View 1 View 2
20 m
20m
In seismic exploration,
we determine how
seismic waves have
travelled from the
seismic source to the
detector.
à changes in velocity,
propagation direction, • wavefront = locus of points with
and wave amplitude the same phase (expands
indicate changes in spherically)
subsurface geology. • ray = vector showing direction of
travel of one point (perpendicular to
wavefront)
Huygens principle:
Fermat’s Principle:
• rays propagate along the Constant
path which yields the velocity
smallest travel time
(principle of least time)
Hitchhike on a highway during a summer day
(http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~braile/edumod/waves/WaveDemo.htm;
see also Fig 2.7 in textbook)
S-waves – shear waves (transverse, secondary)
• particle motion is perpendicular to the direction of propagation
• two polarizations: SH-waves and SV-waves
• velocity (VS) is less than VP
(http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~braile/edumod/waves/WaveDemo.htm;
see also Fig 2.8 in textbook)
Surface waves: travel along interfaces, such as the ground
Rayleigh waves (“ground roll”)
• coupling between P and S waves at an interface
• elliptical retrograde particle motion in vertical plane
• amplitude decreases exponentially
• velocity (VR) is lower than VS
(http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~braile/edumod/waves/WaveDemo.htm;
see also Fig 2.10a in textbook)
Rayleigh waves are dispersive (VR depends on frequency)
à lower frequency Rayleigh waves have a higher velocity because they
extend to greater depths
.
Love waves
• generated when a near-surface layer has a lower VS than underlying layer
• trapped shear waves with velocity intermediate between VS of two layers
• horizontal particle motion perpendicular to direction of travel
• dispersive
(http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~braile/edumod/waves/WaveDemo.htm;
see also Fig 2.10b in textbook)
Seismic velocities of rocks
• seismic source releases energy as a wave
• as it passes through a material, it exerts stress
• causes small deformation (strain)
• strain is elastic – not permanent
!
Stress = force per unit area (pressure) – N/m2 or Pa
Strain = fractional change in shape – dimensionless
!
Hooke’s Law: strain is proportional to the stress that
produced it (linear elasticity)
For a spring: F = k Δx
where k is the spring constant (material property)
à k governs how much stress is needed to
produce a given strain
For seismic waves: stress-strain relationship given by the elastic parameters
(moduli) of the rocks – measure of strength/rigidity of the rocks
4
ψ=K+ µ
3
1
1 & 4 # 2
&ψ# 2 $K+ µ!
VP = $$ !! =$ 3 !
%ρ" $ ρ !
$ !
% "
S-wave:
F
1
&µ# 2
VS = $$ !!
%ρ"
P-waves 1
S-waves
1
" 4 % 2
$K + µ' "µ % 2
VP = $ 3 ' VS = $ '
$ ρ ' #ρ&
# &
! VP & 2(1 − σ )# 2
=$
! VS % (1 − 2σ )!"
• in consolidated crustal rocks, σ ~0.25 à VP/VS ~1.7
• Poisson’s ratio is strongly affected by the presence of fluids,
possibly age.
Global Observations
(Sherriff and
Geldart, 1995)
Effect of porosity on velocity
• the overall rock properties are the average of the matrix (m) and pore
fluid (f) properties, weighted by Φ
• EXAMPLE: for density: ρ = ρf Φ + (1- Φ) ρm
!
• for velocity: weight by the amount of time that seismic wave spends in the
rock matrix and pore fluid (v = d/t à t = d/v)
time-average 1 Φ (1 − Φ )
= +
equation: VP Vf Vm
)26
Effect of depth on seismic velocity
• seismic velocities generally increase with
depth:
• increased compaction – reduces pore
space
• elastic moduli increase with pressure
(http://gsc.nrcan.gc.ca/gashydrates/
westvanisland/index_e.php)
time-average 1 Φ (1 − Φ )
equation:
= +
VP Vf Vm
Example questions
2. Gas-filled sandstone:
Sandstone matrix 4300 m/s
Gas pore fluid 300 m/s
If the overall VP is 2200 m/s, what is the porosity?
time-average 1 Φ (1 − Φ )
= +
equation: VP Vf Vm
Factors that affect seismic wave amplitude
Seismic exploration:
slow
€ intercept slope
t
€
Star Track
!
The Q
)37
The Earth is more
attenuating than the
Moon.
!
Problem: where are
P, S, Surf. waves?
)38
(Kearey et al., 2002)
• seismic sources release energy
over a wide range of frequencies
• as wave travels, the high frequency
components will be more strongly
attenuated
• over time, wave is dominated by
low frequency (long wavelength)
components à seismic wave will
become smoother and more spread
out over time
(similar to thunder)