Analog Integrated Circuits LAB Manual

DEPARTMENT OF ECE SATHYABAMA UNIVERSITY
STUDY OF OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER IC 741

AIM:
To Study about the Operational Amplifier IC 741.
INTRODUCTION: Linear Integrated circuits being used in number of electronics applications such as in
fields like audio and radio communication, medical electronics, Instrumentation control etc..One of the good
examples for Linear Integrated circuits is Operation Amplifier. An operational amplifier (or Op-Amp in short) is
directly coupled high gain amplifier consisting of one or more differential amplifier that can amplify signals from
DC to 1 MHz. A typical Op-Amp is a DC amplifier with a very high voltage gain, very high input impedance and
zero output impedance. It is the basic circuit is used in wide range of electronics system. The operational amplifier
can be used to amplify ac as well as dc input signals and was mainly used to perform mathematical operations
such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Hence it is known as operational amplifier or computing
amplifier. An Op-Amp can be configured in either the inverting or in the non-inverting mode. An ideal Operational
Amplifier is basically a three-terminal device which consists of two high impedance inputs, one called
the Inverting Input, marked with a negative sign, ("-") and the other one called the Non-inverting Input, marked
with a positive plus sign ("+").The third terminal represents the op-amps output port which can both sink and
source either a voltage or a current
OPERATION AMPLIFIER SYMBOL
The symbol for an Operational Amplifier along with its terminal is shown in figure. The Op-Amp is indicated
basically by a triangle with points in the direction of the signal flow.
INTERNAL BLOCK DIAGRAM
The first stage of an Op-Amp is almost a differential amplifier and the last stage is usually a class B push pull emitter
follower.
Input Stage:
The input stage is a dual input and balanced output diff amp. Thus stage provides most of the voltage gain of the amp
and also establishes the input resistance of the Op-Amp.
1
The input stage should have the following characteristics:
 High i/p resistance
 Low i/p bias ct
 Small i/p offset vol.
 Small i/p offset ct.
 High CMRR
 High open-loop voltage .gain
Intermediate Stage:
In most of the amp.an intermediate stage is provided which increases the overall gain of the Op-amp. The DC level
at the output of the intermediate stage is well above the ground potential. This requires a level translator as the succeeding
stage in order to bring the d.c level back to the ground potential.
Level Shifter Stage:

The level shifter stage is used to shift the dc level at the output of intermediate stage downward to zero volts with
respect to ground.
Output Stage:
The last stage is a complementary symmetry push amplifier. The output stage should have the following desirable
properties:
 Large o/p vol. swing capability
 Large o/p ct. swing capability
 Low o/p resistance Short – Circuit protection
An emitter follower at output stage provides a low resistance and class B and AB can provides large output power.
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER( IC-741) PIN DIAGRAM
Pin-Diagram of IC-741 is a 8-pin IC. The pin diagram is shown in Fig. Every IC should be supplied with
positive and negative dc voltages of +12 and –12 volts respectively. So t he op-amp works on dual power supply
with the same magnitude.+12V should be supplied to pin-7 and –12V to pin-4. Pin-2 is the inverting input pin
and Pin-3 is the non inverting input . Output can be measured at the t pin-6. Pins 1 and 5 are used for output
offset voltage compensation. These two pins are not required for normal application . To check the Op-Amp.IC
apply Sine wave (1V,1KHz) at pinno.2, +12V should be supplied to pin-7 and –12V to pin-4. If IC is good the
out put (pin no.6) be a square wave with peaks at +ve Vsat and –ve Vsat, otherwise the IC to be changed.
IC-741 pin details
Equivalent Circuit for Ideal Operational Amplifiers
2
The circuit below shows an equivalent circuit of op-Amp. Here the AVid is an equivalent. Thevenin voltage source
and R0 are the equivalent of Thevenin equivalent resistance looking back into the output terminal of an op-amp.
The equivalent circuit is useful in analyzing the basic operating principles of op-amp. The output voltage is given by
V 0 = A vid = A (V 1 – V 2)
Where
A = large signal voltage gain
Vid = Difference input voltage
V1 = Voltage at the non inverting i/p terminal
V2 = Voltage at the inverting terminal
The equation shows the output voltage V0 is directly proportional to the algebraic difference between the input
voltages. For this reason the polarity of the output voltage depends on the polarity of the difference in input voltage.
Op-Amp Idealized Characteristics
3
Sl.No Parameter Idealized characteristic

Infinite - The main function of an operational amplifier is to amplify
the input signal and the more open loop gain it has the better. Open-
loop gain is the gain of the op-amp without positive or negative
1 Open Loop Gain, (Avo)
feedback and for an ideal amplifier the gain will be infinite but typical
real values range from about 20,000 to 200,000.
Infinite - Input impedance is the ratio of input voltage to input current

and is assumed to be infinite to prevent any current flowing from the
2 Input impedance, (Zin) source supply into the amplifiers input circuitry (Iin =0). Real op-amps
have input leakage currents from a few pico-amps to a few milli-amps.
Zero - The output impedance of the ideal operational amplifier is

assumed to be zero acting as a perfect internal voltage source with no
internal resistance so that it can supply as much current as necessary
3 Output impedance, (Zout) to the load. This internal resistance is effectively in series with the
load thereby reducing the output voltage available to the load. Real
op-amps have output-impedance in the 100-20Ω range.
Infinite - An ideal operational amplifier has an infinite frequency

response and can amplify any frequency signal from DC to the
highest AC frequencies so it is therefore assumed to have an infinite
4 Bandwidth, (BW) bandwidth. With real op-amps, the bandwidth is limited by the Gain-
Bandwidth product (GB), which is equal to the frequency where the
amplifiers gain becomes unity.
Zero - The amplifiers output will be zero when the voltage difference
between the inverting and the non-inverting inputs is zero, the same
5 Offset Voltage, (Vio) or when both inputs are grounded. Real op-amps have some amount
of output offset voltage.
CHARACTERISTICS OF OP-AMP.
4
Characteristics Symbol Unit
Input Offset Voltage VIO 2.0 mV
Input Offset Current IIO 100 nA
Input Bias Current IIB 500 nA
Input Resistance ri 2 Meg
Output Resistance ro 75 Ohms
Open Loop Gain Aol 106 dB
Gain Bandwidth fT 4 MHz
Slew Rate SR 0.5 V/us
5
IC IDENTIFICATION:
There are several types of Op-Amp s produced in the form of integrated circuit (IC) by different manufactures. These
Op-Amps are identified using seven character identification code(ID). The code has three parts namely prefix,
designator , and suffix. This code is shown in bellow
Prefix Designator Suffix
MC 741 C N
Manufacturer Prefixes
Prefix Manufacturer
AD Analog Devices
CA RCA
LM National Semiconductor
MC Motorola
NE / SE Signetics
OP Precision Monolithics
RC / RM Ratheon
SG Silicon General
TI Texas Instruments
UA Fairchild
Suffix codes
Code Pakage type

D Plastic Dual-in-line (DIP)
J Ceramic DIP
N,P Plastic DIP with longer lead
Temperature code
Code Temp. range (°C)
C 0 to 70 Commercial
I -25 to 85 Industrial
M -55 to 125 Military
6
Operational Amplifiers Summary
The following is a summary of the Operational Amplifiers and their configurations.
 The Operational Amplifier, or Op-amp as it is most commonly called, is an ideal amplifier with infinite
Gain and Bandwidth when used in the Open-loop mode with typical d.c. gains of 100,000, or 100dB.
 The basic Op-amp construction is of a 3-terminal device, 2-inputs and 1-output.
 An Operational Amplifier operates from either a dual positive (+V) and an corresponding negative (-V)
supply, or they can operate from a single DC supply voltage.
 The two main laws associated with the operational amplifier are that it has an infinite input impedance,
(Z∞) resulting in "No current flowing into either of its two inputs" and zero input offset voltage "V1 = V2".
 An operational amplifier also has zero output impedance, (Z = 0).
 Op-amps sense the difference between the voltage signals applied to their two input terminals and then
multiply it by some pre-determined Gain, (A).
 This Gain, (A) is often referred to as the amplifiers "Open-loop Gain".
 Op-amps can be connected into two basic configurations, Inverting and Non-inverting.
The Two Basic Operational Amplifier Circuits

The Open-loop gain called the Gain Bandwidth Product, or (GBP) can be very high and is a measure of how
good an amplifier is.
 Very high GBP makes an operational amplifier circuit unstable as a micro volt input signal causes the
output voltage to swing into saturation.
 By the use of a suitable feedback resistor, (Rf) the overall gain of the amplifier can be accurately
controlled.
 For negative feedback, were the fed-back voltage is in "anti-phase" to the input the overall gain of the
amplifier is reduced.
 For positive feedback, were the fed-back voltage is in "Phase" with the input the overall gain of the
amplifier is increased.
7
 By connecting the output directly back to the negative input terminal, 100% feedback is achieved
resulting in a Voltage Follower (buffer) circuit with a constant gain of 1 (Unity).
 Changing the fixed feedback resistor (Rf) for a Potentiometer, the circuit will have Adjustable Gain.
 The Differential Amplifier produces an output that is proportional to the difference between the 2
input voltages
RESULT: Thus the working and characteristics of Operational Amplifier is studied.
8
Expt. No: 1
Date: CHARACTERISTICS OF OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
AIM:
To Measure the Input bias current, Input offset current, Input offset voltage and Slew rate of IC 741 Op-Amp.
APPARATUS REQUIRED –
Sl.No. Description Range / Number/ Value Qty
1 Integrated Regulated Power Supply (ICPS) ±15 V 1
2 Audio Oscillator (A / O) 1-100 KHz 1
3 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) 20 / 40MHz, Dual Trace 1
4 Operational Amplifier (OP-AMP) IC 741 1
5 DC Volt Meter (0-30) V 1
6 Digital Multi Meter 1
7 Resistor 100Ω,1MΩ10kΩ Each One
8 Capacitor 0.01µF 1
9 Bread board & Connecting wires
THEORY:
Input OFFSET Voltage : Ideal operational amplifiers have zero output voltage when the both inputs are same.
However, real operational amplifiers do not meet this ideal goal. A small DC voltage must be applied to the input in
order to drive the DC output voltage to zero. This small differential input voltage is called the Input OFFSET Voltage.
Input Bias Current: The DC current flowing into the input terminals of an ideal operational amplifier is zero. But in
practice, the input current is not exactly zero there are always two input bias currents, IB+ and IB- . Input bias current
IB is defined as the average of two input bias current I B1 and IB2 i.e. I B = (I B1 + I B2 ) / 2 . Where I B1 is the DC bias
current flowing into the non inverting input and I B2 is the DC bias current flowing in to the inverting input
Input OFFSET Current: The mismatch or difference between the input bias currents flowing through the inputs of an
operational amplifier. Input offset current Ii0 is defined as the algebraic difference between two input bias currents I B1
and I B2 . I i0 = |I B1 – I B2|.
Slew rate: The maximum rate at which the Op-Amp is able to change to a different voltage is called the ``Slew rate''
because it's the rate at which the amplifier can slew to a different value. It's usually expressed in V/ - the bigger the
number, the faster the Op-Amp. For example, µA 741 Op-Amp has a slew rate of 0.5V/µs. This means that the output
from µA 741 Op-Amp can change by 0.5Vevery micro second.
Note: When a signal at a given frequency is applied to the Op-Amp, the maximum permissible output voltage is
determined by the slew rate. And if we try to develop the output voltage higher than the maximum permissible value,
the signal waveform will be distorted.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
PROCEDURE:
1. To measure the Input Bias Current I B :
Connecting the circuit in inverting mode as shown in figure measure the output voltage Vo then find I B1 using the
formulas I B2 = Vo/Rf.
Connect the circuit in non inverting mode as shown in figure. Measure the output voltage Vo then find I B2 using
the formulas I B1 = Vo/Rf then find IB using the formula
I B = (I B1 + I B2 ) / 2
2. To measure the Input OFFSET Current I io :
From the calculated values of IB1 and IB2 the input offset current can be calculated using the formula
I io = |I B1 - I B2 |
3. To measure the OFFSET Voltage V io :
Connect the circuit as shown in figure. Measure the D.C. output voltage at pin 6. The gain is given by Rf/R1 thus
for the given circuit it is 1000. Hence the input offset voltage is found using V io = Vout /1000
4. To measure Slew rate SR:
Connect the circuit as shown in figure. Use the CRO to find the output of the Op-Amp at pin 6. Set the audio
oscillator to 10khz, adjust the signal level to over drive the Op-Amp, then adjust CRO timings the desired waveform.
Trace the waveform on a graph sheet. Now measure the voltage change of waveform, then the slew rate is found by
using the formula.
SLEW RATE = 2пfV (V/ s) Where, ‘f’ is frequency and ‘V’ is amplitude of the signal.
OBSERVATIONS
Sl.No. Description Theoritical Practical
Input Offset Voltage
1
2 Input Bias Current
3 Input Offset Current
Sl.N Description Input Signal Input Wave Output Wave

o Amplitude Time Amplitude Time
Slew rate Square Wave

1
RESULT:
The characteristics of the Op-Amp IC 741 were determined.

Input offset voltage =
Input bias current =
Input offset current =
Slew rate =
Expt. No: 2
Date: APPLICATION OF OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
AIM: To design and construct an Inverting, Non-Inverting, and Adder circuits using 741 IC (Op-Amp)
and obtain their output.
5 DC Volt Meter (0-30) V 1
6 Digital Multi Meter 1
7 Regulated Power Supply (Dual RPS) (0-30) V 1
Resistor 1kΩ 2
8
10kΩ 1
THEORY:
An operational amplifier is a direct coupled high gain amplifier consisting of one or more differential amplifiers and
usually followed by a level translator and an output stage which is usually a push-pull or push-pull complementary
symmetry pair. An op- amp can be used to amplify ac as well as dc input signals and was originally designed for
computing such mathematical functions as addition, subtraction, multiplication and integration. An Op-Amp can be
configured in either the inverting or in the non-inverting mode.
Inverting Amplifier:
As the name suggests the output of such amplifier is inverted as compared to the input signal. Such circuit is called
Inverting Amplifier The inverted output signal means having a phase shift of 180’ as compared to the input signal. From the
circuit Vo / Vin is ref. to as closed loop gain of the inverting op-amp. It is a ‘-‘ ve quantity because the closed – loOp-Amp reverses
the sign of the i/p signal. Further it depends only on the ratio Rf / Ri and the closed loop gain stability is determined by the ratio.
This circuit is also is called as sign “changer” with unity gain. If the ratio of Vo/Vin is K which is other than one the circuit is called
“scale changer”.
Non – Inverting Amplifier:
If the signal is applied to the non-inverting input terminal, the circuit amplifier without inverting the input signal.
Such circuit is called Non – Inverting Amplifier . It is noted that it is also a ‘-‘ve feed –back system as o/p is being feed
back to the inverting i/p terminal. The gain can be adjusted to unity or more, by proper selection of resistors R1 and Rf.
Compared to the inverting amp, the i/p Resistance of the non-inverting amplifer is extremely large as the op-amp
draws negligible current from the signal source.
Summing Amplifier
The Summing Amplifier is a very flexible circuit based upon the standard Inverting Operational Amplifier
configuration that can be used for combining multiple inputs. We saw previously in the inverting amplifier that the
inverting amplifier has a single input voltage, (Vin) applied to the inverting input terminal. If we add more input resistors
to the input, each equal in value to the original input resistor,
DESIGN
Inverting amplifier:
A = -Rf/R1
Take A = 1
Rf = R1
Choose Rf = 10kΩ, R1=10kΩ
Non inverting amplifier:
A = 1+ Rf/R1
Take A = 2
Rf = R1 Choose Rf = 10kΩ, R1=10kΩ
Adder:
1. Inverting Adder:
Vo= -(Rf/R1)V1-(Rf/R2)V2-(Rf/R3)V3
Take A = 1
Rf = R1
2. Non-Inverting Adder:
Vo= (1+ Rf/R1)V1 +(1+ Rf/R2)V2+(1+ Rf/R3)V3
Take A = 2
Rf = R1
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
PROCEDURE:
Inverting and Non-inverting amplifier:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. Apply the input voltage using AFO or RPS.
3. The output is noted and plot the graph.
4. Then calculate the gain value.
Adder:
2. Apply the input voltage V1, and V2 using RPS, the output is noted.
3. This is repeated for different values of V1, V2.
4. The results are tabulated.
TABULATION:
Input Output
Sl.No. Amplitud Time Amplitude Time
Description
e
1 Inverting Amplifier
2 Non Inverting Amplifier
Theoretica Pracyical
V1 V2 l Voltage
Voltage
3 Summer 1 1 -2
1 2 -3
2 2 -4
RESULT:
Thus the Inverting, Non-Inverting, Adder and Comparator circuits are designed and constructed
using Op-Amp and their outputs are obtained.
Expt. No: 3
Date INTEGRATOR AND DIFFERENTIATOR
AIM:
To construct and test the Integrator and Differentiator circuits using 741 IC (Op-Amp) and obtain their
output.
5 Resistor 1kΩ,10kΩ Each One
THEORY
One of the simplest of the op-amp ckts that contain capacitor is the differentiating amplifier, or differentiator. As the
name suggests, the circuit performs the mathematical operation of differentiation, that is the o/p waveform is the
derivative of i/p waveform.
The current ic through the capacitor is

Ic = C1 dvi
dt
The current if through the feedback resistor is V o / Rf and thereis no current into the op-amp. The output voltage is
Vo = - Rf C1 . dvi
dt
Thus the output voltage V o is a constant (-Rf C1) times the derivative of the i/p voltage V i and the circuit is a
differentiator. The minus sign indicates a 180° phase shift of the o/p waveform V o with respect to the i/p signal.
The magnitude of gain A of the differentiator as
|A| = w Rf C1
At high frequency, a differentiator may become unstable and break into oscillation. The disadvantages of diff is the
input impedance decreases with increase in frequency thereby making the circuit sensitive to high frequency noise.
Integrator:
If we interchange the resistor and capacitor of the differentiator, we havecircuit, is an Integrator. The nodal equation at node N
is
dVo = 1 Vi
dt R1Cf
Integrating both sides, we get
t t
∫ dVo = -1 ∫ Vi dt
o o
R1Cf
Thus the output is -1/RfC1 times the integral of i/p and RfC1 is the time constant of the integrator.
A simple low pass RC ckt can also work as an integrator when the time constant is very large. This requires very large values
of R and C. The components R and C Cannot be made infinitely large because of practical limitations. Because of Miller’s
theorem the capacitance becomes Cf (1-Av) which results perfect integration.
DESIGN:
Integrator:
Vo= -(1/R1*Cf) *∫Vin dt
Differentiator:
Vo= -R1Cf * dv/dt
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
PROCEDURE:
Integrator:
2. Apply the square or sine input signal at high frequency using AFO.
3. Note the corresponding output waveforms and plot the graph.
Differentiator:
2. Apply the square or sine input signal at low frequency using AFO.
3. Note the corresponding output waveforms and plot the graph.
OBSERVATIONS
SL.NO DESCRIPTION INPUT SIGNAL INPUT WAVE OUTPUT WAVE

. Amplitude Time Amplitude Time
Square wave
Integrator
1 Sine wave
Square wave
Differentiator
2
Sine wave
RESULT:
Thus the Integrator and Differentiator circuits are constructed and tested. The wave forms are drawn
Expt. No: 4
Date RC PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR & WIEN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR USING OP-AMP
741
AIM:
To Design and construct Wien Bridge Oscillator & RC Phase Shift Oscillator Circuit using IC 741 and observe its
output waveforms
4 Resistor As per Design 5
THEORY:
RC Phase Shift Oscillator: A phase shift oscillator is a simple sine wave electronic oscillator. It contains an inverting
amplifier, and a feedback filter, which 'shifts' the phase by 180 degrees at the oscillation frequency. The filter must be
designed so that at frequencies above and below the oscillation frequency, either more or less than 180 degrees shifts the
signal. This results in constructive superposition for signals at the oscillation frequencies, and destructive superposition for
all other frequencies. The mathematics for calculating the oscillation frequency and oscillation criteria for this circuit are
surprisingly complex, due to each R-C stage loading the previous ones. The calculations are greatly simplified by setting all
the resistors (except the negative feedback resistor) and all the capacitors to
Wien Bridge Oscillator: A Wien bridge oscillator is a type of electronic oscillator that generates sine waves without
having any input source. It can output a large range of frequencies. The bridge comprises four resistors and two
capacitors. The circuit is based on a network originally developed by Max Wien in 1891.In Wien bridge oscillator, wien
bridge circuit is connected between the amplifier input terminals and output terminals. The bridge has a series RC network
in one arm and parallel network in the adjoining arm. In the remaining 2 arms of the bridge resistors R1and Rf are
connected. To maintain oscillations total phase shift around the circuit must be zero and loop gain unity. First condition
occurs only when the bridge is balanced. Assuming that the resistors and capacitors are equal in value, the resonant
frequency of balanced bridge is given by / the frequency of oscillation is given by:
DESIGN CALCULATION:
RC Phase Oscillator Wien Bridge Oscillator
Given Frequency F = 1 KHz Given Frequency F = 1 KHz
Let C = 0.1F and Let C = 0.1F and

R = 1 / [2 X π X (0.1 X 10-6 ) X√6 X 1000 ] R = 1 / [2 X π X (0.1 X 10 -6 ) X 1000 ]
R= R=
R1 = 10R and R1 = 10R and
Rf = 29R1 or greater. Rf = 29R1 or greater
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
MODEL GRAPH:
PROCEDURE:
1. Construct the circuit as per Circuit diagram shown in figure.

2. Switch On the Equipments and observe the Output waveform on CRO.
3. Note the readings and verify its frequency with theoretical frequency.
4. Draw the waveform on Graph Sheet.
TABULATION:
S.No. Description Formula Theoretical Practical Frequency

Frequency
1 RC Phase Shift Oscillator
1 KHz
2 Wien Bridge Oscillator

1 KHz
RESULT:
The RC Phase Shift Oscillator was constructed and the output waveform was studied.
Expt. No: 5
Date ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR AND MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR USING IC
741
AIM:
To design a circuit to generate a Square Waveform of desired frequency using IC 741 in Astable Multivibrator mode.
and rectangular waveform generator using IC 741 in Monostable Multivibrator mode.
4 Resistor As per Design 5
THEORY:
Astable Multivibrator : Square wave outputs are generated when the Op-Amp is forced to operated in the saturated
region i.e. the output of the Op-Amp is forced to swing between positive saturation +V sat and negative saturation – V sat
resulting in a square wave output. This square wave generator is called a free running or Astable Multivibrator.The output
of the Op-Amp in this circuit will be in the +ve and –ve saturation depending on whether the differential voltage V id is +ve
or –ve respectively.
In this circuit the Op-Amp runs from one quasi stable state to another on its own the output is a square wave whose
frequency is determined by the RC combination. A fraction β = R2/(R1 +R2) of the output is feedback to the + input
terminal. Thus the reference voltage Vref is βVo and may take values as +β Vsat or –β Vsat the output is also feedback to
the input terminal after integrating by means of low pass RC combination. Whenever input at the –ve terminal just exceeds
V ref, switching takes place resulting in a square wave output.
Feedback rate β = R2 / (R1 + R2)
Total time period T = 2RfC 1n (1+β) / (1-β)
Monostable Multivibrator : Monostable Multivibrator has one stable and the other is quasi stable state. The circuit is
useful for generating single output pulse of adjustable time duration in response to a triggering signal. The width of the
output pulse depends only on external components connected to the Op-Amp. A diode DI clamps the capacitor voltage to
0.7V when the output is at +Vsat. Let us assume that the circuit is in the stable state and Vo is at +Vsat. Now D1 conducts
and Vc gets clmped to 0.7V the voltage at the +input terminal is +βVsat. N ow if a –ve trigger and magnitude V1 is applied
to the +ve terminal the effective signal at this terminal is <0.7 the output of Op-Amp will switch form +Vsat to –Vsat. D1 will
now get reverse biased and C charges to –Vsat through R now voltage at inout terminal is –βVsat when Vc becomes
slightly more –ve hence +βVsat output of Op-Amp switches back to +Vsat
Pulse width T = 0.69rc if R1 = R2
DESIGN & CALCULATIONS
Astable Multivibrator Monostable Multivibrator

Let R1=R2=1K then, During the quasi-stable state, the capacitor voltage is given as
 = R2 / (R1+R2) Vc = – V OUT + (V OUT + V D)e-t/τ
= 1K / (1K+1K) At instant t = T, Vc = – β VOUT
 = 0.5 So - β V OUT =- V OUT + (V OUT + V D) e-T/τ or
Given, Frequency say 1KHz then T = 1ms. T = RfC loge (1 + VD/VOUT)/ 1- β
Let C = 0.1F. Usually VD << VOUT and if R2 = R3
so that if β = R3/(R2+R3) = ½ then,
T = 2RC ln[(1+) / (1-)] T = RfC loge 2 = 0.693 Rf C
1ms = 2*R*0.1* ln[(1+0.5) / (1-0.5)]
R = 4.7 KΩ
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
PROCEDURE:

2. Switch ON the RPS and CRO.
3. Observe the Square Waveform at output pin of the IC in Astable Multivibrator mode and
rectangular waveform generator at output pin of the IC in Monostable Multivibrator mode and Ramp waveform
across the capacitor.
4. Verify the observed frequency with our calculated frequency
5. Note the readings and draw the waveforms in Graph Sheet.
TABULATION:
Sl.No. Description R in ohms C in µF Theoretical Practical

Frequency (H Z) Frequency
1 Astable
2 Monostable
RESULT:
Thus the Square Wave Generator using IC 741 is constructed and waveform is traced.
Expt. No: 6
Date PRECISION RECTIFIER
AIM:
To study the Half Wave and Full Wave Rectifier and to obtain the required graph.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
5 Resistor 10kΩ 5
6 Diode 1N 4007 2
THEORY: An inverting Op-Amp can be converted into a half wave rectifier by adding two diodes. When Vi is positive,
diode D1 conducts causing Vo to go to positive by one diode drop. Hence diode D2 is reverse biased. The output voltage
Vo is zero because for all practical purposes no current flows through D1 for –ve input, D2 conducts and D1 is OFF. The –
ve input Vi forces the Op-Amp output Vo –ve and causes D2 to conduct. The circuit then acts like inverter for Rf = R1 and
the output Vo becomes positive. The Op-Amp in the circuit must be high Op-Amp since it alternates between open loop
and closed loop operations. The principal limitation of this circuit is the slew rate of the Op-Amp. As the input passes
through zero the Op-Amp output Vo must change from 0.6 to -0.6v or vice versa as quickly as possible in order to switch
over the conduction from one diode to another
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
MODEL GRAPH
MODEL
GRAPH
FULL
WAVE
PRECISION RECTIFIER
PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram
2. A sinusoidal signal from audio oscillator is applied to the
inverting terminal of op-*amp
3. The rectified output is then obtained on the CRO.
TABULATION:
Input Output
Description
e
1 Half Wave
2 Full Wave
RESULT:
The Half Wave and Full Wave Precision rectifier is constructed and output is obtained.
Expt. No: 7
Date SCHMITT TRIGGER AND COMPARATOR
AIM:
To study the Schmitt Trigger and Comparator circuit using Op-Amp 741.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
2 Regulated Power Supply (ICPS) (0-30) V 1
Resistor 220Ω , 1 KΩ Each two

6
2.2 KΩ ,10KΩ Each one
THEORY:
Schmitt Trigger is an inverting comparator with positive feedback. It has two threshold voltages namely upper
threshold and lower threshold voltage. These threshold voltages are obtained by using voltage divider R1-R2. R1 is a
variable reference threshold voltage that depends on the value and polarity of the output voltage V0. When V0 = +sat the
voltage across R1 is called upper threshold voltage. The input voltage Vin must be slightly more +ve than Vut in order to
cause the output V0 to switch from +Vsat to –Vsat using the voltage divider rule.
Vut = R1*Vsat / (R1 +R2)

V1t = R1*-Vsat / (R1+R2)
On the other hand V0 = -Vsat, the voltage across R1 is referred to as lower threshold voltage V1t. Vin must be
slightly more negative in order to cause V0 to switch from Vsat to +Vsat.
An analog Comparator has two inputs, (one is usually constant reference voltage Vr, and the other is the time
varying input). The ideal comparator has an output which is constant with V0 = V(O) if Vi<Vr and it has different constant
value Vo = V(I) if Vi>Vr.Thus the input is compared with the reference and the output is digitized into one of the two states
0&1. In other words, comparator behaves as one bit ADC.
TABULATION:
Input Output
Description
e
1 Schmitt trigger
2 Comparator
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
PROCEDURE:
2. Input is given to the terminals.
3. The supply voltage is switched on and the output is recorded through the CRO. The theoretical UTP and LTP
values are found and practical values are verified.
RESULT:
Thus the Schmitt Trigger and Comparator circuit was verified and the graph was drawn.
Expt. No: 8
Date PLL AS FREQUENCY MULTIPLIER
AIM:
To construct the circuit of PLL as frequency multiplier using IC 567.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
3 Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) IC 567 1
4 Resistor 330Ω , 2.2 KΩ , Each one 2

10KΩ
6 Decade Conductance Box (DCB) 1

THEORY:
Here the frequency divider is inserted between the VCO and the phase comparator. Since the output of driver is lock
to the input frequency fin, the VCO is actually running at a multiple of the input frequency. The desired amount of
multiplication can be obtained by selecting a proper divide by N network. For example to obtain the output frequency
f out = 5 fin a divide by 5 network is needed. A small capacitor typically 1000pf is connected between pins 7&8 to
eliminate possible oscillations
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
MODEL GRAPH
PROCEDURE:
2. Supply is given and the input is given through audio oscillator. Multiplied output frequency is measured
TABULATION:
Capacitor(uF) Theoretical time Practical time period

period(ms)
T1 (ms) T2 (ms)
RESULT:
Thus the circuit diagram for frequency multiplier was connected and the output was verified.
Expt. No: 9
Date SECOND ORDER ACTIVE LOW PASS AND HIGH PASS FILTERS
AIM: To construct and study the frequency response of Second Order Low Pass Filter and High Pass Filter.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
5 Resistor 1 KΩ , 5.6 KΩ , 10KΩ Each one 2

1.5 KΩ
THEORY:
An improved filter response can be obtained by a second order active filter. A second order filter consists of two RC
pairs and has a roll-off rate of -40 db/decade. A general second order filter (Sallen-key filter) is shown. The results derived
here can be used for analyzing low pass and high pass filters. LOW PASS FILTER:Low pass filter which passes signals
below the cut off frequency. At low frequency both capacitors are opened and circuit becomes voltage follower. Second
order responses 3 db down at cut off frequency.HIGH PASS FILTER:High pass filter is a filter which passes signals
above the cut off frequency. At low frequency capacitors are opened and voltage gain is zero. At high frequencies
capacitors appears shorted and the circuit becomes voltage follower. Second order responses 3 db down at cut off
frequency.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
PROCEDURE:
2. Design values are set as per the design
3. Voltages are noted for different frequencies
4. Gain is calculated with Gain = 20 log V0/Vin
5. Graph is drawn between frequency and Gain.
TABULATION:
LOWPASS FILTER HIGHPASS FILTER
SI.No. Frequency Output Gain = SI.No. Frequency Output Gain =
in Hz voltage 20log V0/Vin in Hz voltage 20log V0/Vin
1 100 Hz 1 500 Hz
2 200 Hz 2 600 Hz
3 300 Hz 3 700 Hz
4 400 Hz 4 800 Hz
5 500 Hz 5 900 Hz
6 600 Hz 6 1 KHz
7 700 Hz 7 2 KHz
8 800 Hz 8 3 KHz
9 900 Hz 9 4 KHz
10 1 KHz 10 5 KHz
11 2 KHz 11 6 KHz
12 3 KHz 12 7 KHz
13 4 KHz 13 8 KHz
14 5 KHz 14 9 KHz
15 6 KHz 15 10 KHz
16 7 KHz 16 20 KHz
17 8 KHz 17 30 KHz
18 9 KHz 18 40 KHz
19 10 KHz 19 50 KHz
RESULT: The frequency response of Second order Low Pass Filter and High Pass Filter was studied and the
graph is plotted.
Expt. No: 10
Date SECOND ORDER ACTIVE BAND PASS FILTERS
AIM:
To construct and study the frequency response of Second Order active Band Pass Filter.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
5 Resistor 1 KΩ , 5.6 KΩ , 10KΩ Each one 2

1.5 KΩ
THEORY:
An improved filter response can be obtained by using a Second order Active Filter. A second order filter consists of
two RC pairs and has a roll-off rate of -40 dB/decade. A general second order filter (Sallen Kay filter) is used to analyze
different LP, HP, BP and BSF. Band pass filter is a combination of High pass and Low pass filter. A Band pass filter is
basically a frequency selector. It allows one particular band of frequencies to pass. Its pass band between two cut off
frequencies fH and fL. The pass band which is between fH and fL is called Bandwidth of the filter denoted as BW.
Bandwidth = fH - fL
DESIGN
Given: fH = 400Hz = 1/ (2RC)

Let C = 0.1 F, R =
Similarly, for LPF
fL = 2KHz = 1/ (2RC)
Let C = 0.1 F, R =
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
PROCEDURE:
2. Select the Sine waveform in Function Generator and set fixed amplitude and fixed frequency say 1V (p-p) and 1
KHz respectively.
3.Observe the output waveform for different frequency ranges (start from 100 Hz to beyond some value of cut of
frequency, observe the output signal which pass beyond the higher cut of frequency and it attenuates from lower
cut of frequency)
4. Note the readings observed on CRO and find its gain for different frequency ranges.
5. Draw the graph for its Gain in dB Vs. Frequency and find its Cut off frequency
TABULATION:
SI.No. Frequency Output Gain =
in Hz voltage 20log V0/Vin
1 50 Hz
2 60 Hz
3 70 Hz
4 80 Hz
5 90 Hz
6 100 Hz
7 200 Hz
8 300 Hz
9 400 Hz
10 500 Hz
11 600 Hz
12 700 Hz
13 800 Hz
14 900 Hz
15 1 KHz
16 2 KHz
17 3 KHz
18 4 KHz
19 5 KHz
20 6 KHz
21 7 KHz
22 8 KHz
23 9 KHz
24 10 KHz
25 20 KHz
RESULT: The frequency response of Second order Band Pass Filter and was studied and the
graph is plotted
Expt. No: 11
Date MULTIVIBRATOR USING IC 555
AIM: To design and construct the Astable and Monostable Multivibrator using 555 timer.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
3 Timer IC IC 555 1
4 Resistor 470Ω , 6.8 KΩ , Each one 2

10KΩ
5 Capacitor 470pF, 1Nf, 0.1µF Each one
6 Diode 1N 4007 2
THEORY:
The 555 timer is a highly stable device for generating accurate time delay or oscillations. It is a 8 pin IC that
can be connected to external components for astable and monostable operations.
Initially when the output is high C starts charging towards Vcc through R a and Rb. As soon as the voltage
across the capacitor equals 2/3 Vcc, Comparator 1 triggers FF and the output switches low. Now C starts
discharging through Rb and transistor Q1. When Vc = 1/3 Vcc comparator 2 triggers FF and output goes high.
Then the cycle repeats.
The time during which the capacitor charges from 1/3 Vcc to 2/3Vcc is equal to the time, the output is high and
is given by Tc = 0.69 (R a + R b)C
Discharging time Td = 0.69R b C
Total time period of the output waveform
T = Tc + Td = 0.69 (R a + R b)C.
The 555 IC Timer: The 8-pin 555 timer IC is used in many projects, a popular version is the NE555. Most
circuits will just specify '555 timer IC' and the NE555 is suitable for these. The 555 output (pin 3) can sink and
source up to 200mA.
To check the 555 IC timer the following procedure has to be followed. Apply 5V DC
to pin no.8 and ground connection to pin no.1. Now the voltage at pin no. 5 will be 2/3 Vcc
(3.3V) hence the Timer IC is in good condition otherwise the IC to be changed.
DESIGN:
Astable multivibrator: Monostable Multivibrator:
For 50% duty cycle:
Tc= 0.69(Ra+Rb)*C Tp = 1.1 RC
Td= 0.69Rb* C For Tp = 0.1ms
T = Tc+Td Choose C= 0.01μF
T = 0.69(Ra+2Rb)*C
f = 1/T = 1.45/(Ra+2Rb)*C To Find R
% Duty cycle D = Td/T*100 R =Tp/1.1C=10KΩ
D = Ra/(Ra+2Rb)*C
Let Tc = Td = 0.05 msec
Choose C = 10nf
0.05*10-3 = 0.69(Ra+Rb)*10n
Therefore Ra+Rb = 7.215k
Choose Ra=470Ω , then Rb=6.8kΩ
PROCEDURE:
Astable multivibrator:
2. The output waveforms are viewed through CRO.
3. The voltage across the capacitor and that at the output terminal is measured
and the waveforms are drawn.
Monostable multivibrator:
2. A low frequency trigger pulse is applied.
3. The output waveforms are viewed through CRO.
4. The voltage across the capacitor and that at the output terminal is measured
and the waveforms are drawn.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR: MODEL GRAPH .
TABULATION:
Sl.No. Description R in ohms C in µF Theoretical Practical

Frequency (H Z) Frequency
1 Astable
2 Monostable
RESULT: Thus the Astable and Monostable multivibrator using 555 timer are designed and the waveforms
are drawn.
Expt. No: 12
Date INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER
AIM: To design and construct Instrumentation Amplifier Circuit using Op-amp IC.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
3 Resistor 10KΩ 7
4 Voltmeter (0-50) V 1
THEORY:
An instrumentation amplifier is a type of differential amplifier that has been specifically designed to have
characteristics suitable for use in measurement and test equipment. These characteristics include very low
DC offset, low drift, low noise, very high open-loop gain, very high common-mode rejection ratio, and very
high input impedances. They are used where great accuracy and stability of the circuit both short- and long-
term are required. The most commonly used instrumentation amplifier circuit is shown in the figure. The
gain of the circuit is
The ideal common-mode gain of an instrumentation amplifier is zero. In the circuit shown, common-mode
gain is caused by mismatches in the values of the equally numbered resistors and by the non-zero
common mode gains of the two input op-amps. Obtaining very closely matched resistors is a significant
difficulty in fabricating these circuits, as is optimizing the common mode performance of the input op-amps.
DESIGN
Let R1= R2 = R3 = R gain = 10 K then
Vout = (1+2) (V2-V1) Vout = 3 (V2-V1)
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
TABULATION:
INPUTS OUTPUT
SL.NO.
V1 (V) V2 (V) Theoretically (V) Practically (V)
1 1 2 3
2 2 4 6
3 1 5 12
PROCEDURE:
2. Switch ON IC Power Supplies and apply the Input Voltages at Non-inverting input terminals.
3. Observe the Output Voltage using Digital Multimeter for different input voltages.
4. Note the readings and verify its values with theoretical calculation.
RESULT:
Thus the Instrumentation Amplifier using IC 741 are designed and verified it’s output.
FAQ
1. What is an operational amplifier?
An operational amplifier (or Op-Amp in short) is directly coupled high gain amplifier consisting of one or
more differential amplifier that can amplify signals from dc to 1 MHz. A typical Op-Amp is a DC amplifier with
a very high voltage gain, very high input impedance and zero output impedance. It is the basic circuit is used
in wide range of electronics system. The operational amplifier can be used to amplify ac as well as dc input
signals and was mainly used to perform mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication
and division. Hence it is known as operational amplifier or computing amplifier. An Op-Amp can be configured
in either the inverting or in the non-inverting mode.
2. Draw the Internal block diagram of Op-Amp.
V2 _
Difference Difference Buffer and Output
Level
V1 + Amplifier Amplifier Translator Driver
Vo
An operation amplifier is a direct coupled high gain amplifier consisting of one or more differential
amplifier, followed by a level translator and an output stage.
3. What you mean by balanced and unbalanced output?
The differential amplifier uses two transistors in CE configuration. If the output is taken across the
two collectors, it is called balanced output or double ended output. If the output is taken across one of the
collectors with respect to ground it is called unbalanced output or single ended output
4. What is loading effect? How can you reduce it?
In an amplifier only a particular percentage of output voltage (V 0) will be available to the load as
load voltage (VL). This is because of the drop across the output resistance (R 0) of the amplifier. Such an
effect is called loading effect. To reduce the loading effect the out put resistance (R 0) must be as low as
possible. So we can get load voltage almost same as output voltage.
5. What is active load? Where it is used and why?
The requirement to increase the gain is same that the collector resistance (R C) should not disturb
d.c conditions while it must provide large resistance for a.c purposes. The current mirror which has very low
d.c resistance (dV/dI) and higher a.c resistance (dv/di) can be used as a collector load instead of R C. Such
a load is called as active load.
6. What are the two “golden rules: of Op-Amp analysis?
Current Rule: The current at both of the Op-Amp inputs is zero. I + = I - = 0 that is inputs draw no current.
Voltage Rule: The output attempts to do whatever is necessary to make the voltage difference between the
inputs zero. The Op-Amp attempts to make the voltages at the two inputs equal. V + = V -
7. What is an ideal Op-Amp?
An Op-Amp is said to be ideal, if it has the following characteristics
Open loop voltage gain, AOL = ∞
Input resistance, RI = ∞
Output impedance, R0 = ∞
Band width, B.W = ∞
Zero offset, V0 = 0, where V1=V2=0
8. List the characteristics of an ideal Op-Amp.

Characteristics Symbol Unit
Input Offset Voltage VIO 2.0 mV
Input Offset Current IIO 100 nA
Input Bias Current IIB 500 nA
Input Resistance ri 2 Meg
Output Resistance ro 75 Ohms
Open Loop Gain Aol 106 dB
Gain Bandwidth fT 4 MHz
Slew Rate SR 0.5 V/us
9. List the Op-Amp Parameters
1. Gain 2.Input resistance
3. Output resistance 4.Common-mode Rejection Ratio (CMMR)
5. Slew rate 6.Bandwith
7. Input Offset Voltage 8.Input Bias Current
9. Input Offset Current.
10. Mention some of the linear applications of Op – Amps.
Adder, subtractor, voltage –to- current converter, current –to- voltage converters, instrumentation amplifier,
analog computation, power amplifier, etc are some of the linear Op-Amp circuits.
11. Mention some of the non – linear applications of Op-Amps.
Rectifier, peak detector, clipper, clamper, sample and hold circuit, log amplifier, anti –Log amplifier,
multiplier are some of the non – linear Op-Amp circuits.
12. What are the areas of application of non-linear op- amp circuits?
1. Industrial instrumentation
2. Communication
3. Signal processing
13. List the Op-Amp other applications
Audio and Video frequency pre-amplifiers and buffers Voltage Comparators
Differential Amplifiers Differentiators and Integrators
Filters Precision Rectifiers
Precision Peak Detectors Voltage and Current Regulators
Analog Calculators Analog-To-Digital Converters
Digital-To-Analog Converter Voltage Clamps
Oscillators and Waveform Generators
14. List out the non-ideal d.c characteristics of an Op-Amp?
The d.c characteristics of an Op-Amp are
 Input bias current
 Input off set current
 Input offset voltage
 Thermal drift
15. What is the virtual ground in an Op-Amp?
The open loop gain of an ideal operational amplifier has very high, so the potential difference between its
inputs tend to zero .That is, voltage at the inverting terminal=voltage at the non inverting terminal. The non-
inverting (+) input of the operational amplifier is grounded, but the inverting (-) input is not actually ground,
will assume to be grounded. This is virtual ground in Op-Amp.
16. Define input offset voltage

Ideal operational amplifiers have zero output voltage when the both inputs are same. However, real
operational amplifiers do not meet this ideal goal. A small DC voltage must be applied to the input in order
to drive the DC output voltage to zero. This small differential input voltage is called the input offset
voltage.
17. Define input bias current
The DC current flowing into the input terminals of an ideal operational amplifier is zero. But in
practice, the input current is not exactly zero there are always two input bias currents, IB+ and IB- . Input
bias current IB is defined as the average of two input bias current I B1 and IB2 i.e. IB = (IB1 + IB2) / 2 Where
IB1 is the d.c bias current flowing into the non inverting input and I B2 is the d.c bias current flowing in to the
inverting input
18. Define input offset current
The mismatch or difference between the input bias currents flowing through the inputs of an
operational amplifier. Input offset current I i0 is defined as the algebraic difference between two input bias
currents IB1 and IB2 . Ii0 = |IB1 – IB2|.
19. What is thermal drift?
In an Op-Amp the bias current, offset current and off set voltage changes with change in
temperature. Offset current drift is measured in nA/ 0C and offset voltage drift is measured in mV/ 0C. These
indicate the change in offset current or voltage for each degree Celsius change in temperature. Forced air
cooling may be used to stabilize the ambient temperature
Input offset voltage drift = ΔVos/ΔT
Input offset current drift = ΔIos/ΔT
20. Define supply current? What is the input voltage range of an op-amp?
Supply current (IS) is the current drawn by the op-amp from the power supply. It is 2.8mA for 741C
Input voltage range is the common mode voltage that can be applied to both input terminals with out
affecting the performance of the op-amp. For 741C, the range of input common mode voltage is
21. Why do we use R comp resistor?

In a bipolar Op-Amp circuit, even when the input is zero, the output will not be zero. This is due to
effect of input bias current. This effect can be compensated by using compensation resistor R comp, where
Rcomp = (Ri.Rf )/ Ri+Rf
Where, Ri – input resistance
Rf – feedback resistance
22. What is a compensating network? . When are the internally compensating systems used?
The networks formed by components such as resistors and capacitors for modifying the rate of
change of gain and the phase shift is called as compensating network
In applications where the op-0amp is required to amplify relatively slow changing signals and does not
require good high frequency response, internally compensating systems are used.
23. How is the effect of offset current minimized?
The effect of offset current can be minimized by using a small feedback resistor. But to obtain high
input impedance, Ri must be large with large Ri, Rf should also be kept large to obtain reasonable gain.
Taking all these points to consideration, T- feedback network is used.
24. Define slew rate
Slew rate: The maximum rate at which the Op-Amp is able to change to a different voltage is called
the ``slew rate'' because it's the rate at which the amplifier can slew to a different value. It's usually
expressed in V/ - the bigger the number, the faster the Op-Amp. For example, µA 741 Op-Amp has a
slew rate of 0.5V/µs. This means that the output from µA 741 Op-Amp can change by 0.5Vevery micro
second.
Note: When a signal at a given frequency is applied to the Op-Amp, the maximum permissible output
voltage is determined by the slew rate. And if we try to develop the output voltage higher than the maximum
permissible value, the signal waveform will be distorted.
.25.. What causes slew rate? Why is IC741 op-amp not used for high frequency applications?
The rate at which internal or external capacitance of Op-amp changes causes slew rate. Also slew
rate is caused by current limiting and saturation of internal stages of op-amp where a high frequency, large
– amplitude signal is applied. Op-amp IC741 has very low slew rate (0.5V/μS) and therefore can not be
used for high frequency applications
26. Define Common-mode Rejection Ratio (CMMR)
The output voltage of an Op-Amp is proportional to the difference between the voltage applied to
the inverting terminal and non-inverting terminal. Ideally when the two voltages are equal, the output
voltage should be zero. A signal applied to both the input terminals is called common-mode signal. The
ability of an Op-Amp to suppress common-mode signal is expressed in terms of its Common-mode
Rejection Ratio (CMMR). Mathematically, the Common-mode Rejection Ratio is given by the relation
Differential voltage gain Adm
CMMR = --------------------------------------------- = ------------
Common mode voltage gain Acm
Where Adm = Differential voltage gain and Acm = Common mode voltage gain
27. Define Power Supply Rejection Ratio (PSRR or SVRR or PSS)
The power supply rejection (PSRR) is defined as the ratio of change in input offset voltage due to
change in supply voltage constant. It is also called as power supply sensitivity (PSS) or supply voltage
rejection ratio (PSRR)
PSRR = ΔVios / ΔVcc, VEE is constant It is expressed in mV/V or μV/V. Typical value is 30μV/V
28. What is the advantage of closed loop circuit over open loop circuit in Op-Amp?
Open loop gain refers to the amplifier gain when there is no feedback in the amplifier circuit. Op-
Amps circuits with no feedback tend to be rather unpredictable with varying gain values depending on a
number of external factors (for example temperature), and thus are very seldom used in practical circuits.
Closed loop gain refers to the amplifier gain where there is feedback in the circuit, whether it is
inverting or non-inverting feedback. The objective of providing feedback is to stabilize the performance of
the amplifier circuit so that it is practically useful when designing an electronic system.
29. List out the different types of Op-Amp?

 Bipolar Op-Amp
 FET Op-Amp
 MOSFET Op-Amp
 Bi FET Op-Amp
 BiMOS Op-Amp
30. What are the special features of CMOS Op-Amp?
The special features of CMOS Op-Amp are
 High input resistance(1012Ω)
 Low input current(~1pA)
 High slew rate(~10V/μS)
31. What is the need for an instrumentation amplifier?
In a number of industrial and consumer applications, the measurement of physical quantities is usually
done with the help of transducers. The output of transducer has to be amplified So that it can drive the
indicator or display system. This function is performed by an instrumentation amplifier.
32. List the features of instrumentation amplifier.
1. High gain accuracy 2.High CMRR
3. Low output impedance 4.Low dc offset
5. High gain stability with low temperature co-efficient
33. What are the applications of V-I converter?
1. Low voltage dc and ac voltmeter
2. L E D
3. Zener diode tester
34. What do you mean by a precision diode?
The major limitation of ordinary diode is that it cannot rectify voltages below the cut – in voltage of the
diode. A circuit designed by placing a diode in the feedback loop of an op – amp is called the precision
diode and it is capable of rectifying input signals of the order of millivolt.
35. Write down the applications of precision diode.
1. Half - wave rectifier 2.Full - Wave rectifier
3. Peak - value detector 4.Clipper 5.Clamper
36. List the applications of Log amplifiers.
1. Analog computation may require functions such as lnx, log x, sin hx etc. These functions can be
performed by log amplifiers.
2. Log amplifier can perform direct dB display on digital voltmeter and spectrum analyzer
3. Log amplifier can be used to compress the dynamic range of a signal
37. What are the limitations of the basic differentiator circuit?
1. At high frequency, a differentiator may become unstable and break into oscillations
2. The input impedance decreases with increase in frequency, thereby making the circuit sensitive
to high frequency noise.
38. Write down the condition for good differentiation.
For good differentiation, the time period of the input signal must be greater than or equal to R f CfT > R f Cf
Where, R f is the feedback resistance
C f is the input capacitance
39. What is a comparator?
A comparator is a circuit which compares a signal voltage applied at one input of an Op-Amp with a known
reference voltage at the other input. It is an open loop op - amp with output + Vsat .
40. What is a filter?
A filter is a device that passes electric signals at certain frequencies or frequency ranges while preventing
the passage of others
41. Butterworth Low-Pass Filters
The Butterworth low-pass filter provides maximum pass band flatness. Therefore, a Butterworth low-pass is
often used as anti-aliasing filter in data converter applications where precise signal levels are required
across the entire pass band.
42. What is the application of low pass RC filter?
Electronic low-pass filters are used to drive subwoofers and other types of loudspeakers, to block high
pitches that they can't efficiently broadcast. Radio transmitters use low-pass filters to
lock harmonic emissions which might cause interference with other communications. The tone knob found
on many electric guitars is a low-pass filter used to reduce the amount of treble in the sound.
An integrator is another example of a single time constant low-pass filter. Telephone lines fitted with DSL
splitters use low-pass and high-pass filters to separate DSL and POTS signals sharing the same pair of
wires.
43. What is active filter?
Active filters are circuits that use an operational amplifier (Op-Amp) as the active device in combination
with some resistors and capacitors to provide an LRC-like filter performance at low frequencies. The most
common active filter applications: low-pass, high-pass, band-pass, band-rejection, and all-pass filters.
44. What are the main advantages of active filters over passive filters:
Inductors can be avoided. Passive filters without inductors cannot obtain a high Q (low damping), but
with them are often large and expensive (at low frequencies), may have significant internal resistance, and
may pick up surrounding electromagnetic signals.
The shape of the response, the Q (Quality factor), and the tuned frequency can often be set easily by
varying resistors, in some filters one parameter can be adjusted without affecting the others. Variable
inductances for low frequency filters are not practical.
The amplifier powering the filter can be used to buffer the filter from the electronic components it
drives or is fed from, variations in which could otherwise significantly affect the shape of the frequency
response.
45. Define Schmitt trigger
A discrete or integrated circuit whose output has two stable states, i.e. two sustainable values of
output voltage, to which it is driven by the movement of its input voltage past two well-defined trigger
values. A rise in input voltage above one trigger level causes the output to switch to one state. A fall in input
voltage below the other trigger level causes the output to switch to the other state. The difference between
the positive and negative thresholds is known as the circuit’s hysteresis. For the output to change, the input
must exceed the hysteresis and be of the appropriate polarity. Schmitt trigger circuits are frequently used to
clean up signals from switches and digital transducers
46. What is the different between Schmitt trigger and Multivabrator?
Schmitt trigger has an input and an output; the output is a squared-up version of the input. As long as
the input is constant, the output of the Schmitt trigger is also constant. A multivibrator typically has no inputs
(other than power), only an output: an oscillating signal. As long as it gets power, the output keeps
oscillating hi-lo-hi-lo. A few multivibrators are built out of a Schmitt trigger and a few other components.
It's not possible to build a Schmitt trigger out of a multivibrator.
47. Define PLL

A phase-locked loop or phase lock loop (PLL) is a control system that tries to generate
an output signal whose phase is related to the phase of the input "reference" signal. It is
an circuit consisting of a variable frequency oscillator and a phase detector.
48. Explain the block diagram of PLL.
A phase-locked loop (PLL) is a closed-loop frequency-control system based on the phase difference
between the input clock signal and the feedback clock signal of a controlled oscillator. Figure 1 shows a
simplified block diagram of the major components in a PLL. The main blocks of the PLL are the phase
frequency detector (PFD), charge pump, loop filter, voltage controlled oscillator (VCO), and counters, such
as a feedback counter (M), a pre-scale counter (N), and post-scale counters(C).
49. What are the applications of PLL:

 Demodulation of both FM and AM signals
 Recovery of small signals that otherwise would be lost in noise (lock-in amplifier)
 Recovery of clock timing information from a data stream such as from a disk drive
 Clock multipliers in microprocessors that allow internal processor elements to run faster than
external connections, while maintaining precise timing relationships
 DTMF decoders, modems, and other tone decoders, for remote control and telecommunications
50. Limitations of real Op-Amps
Real Op-Amps differ from the ideal model in various respects.
 DC imperfections
 Real operational amplifiers suffer from several non-ideal effects:
 Finite gain Open is infinite in the ideal op - amplifier but finite in real op - amplifiers.
 Finite input impedances .Non-zero output impedance
 Finite bandwidth
 Limited output current The output current must be finite.
 Limited dissipated power

Analog Integrated Circuits LAB Manual

Diunggah oleh

Informasi Dokumen

Hak Cipta

Format Tersedia

Bagikan dokumen Ini

Bagikan atau Tanam Dokumen

Opsi Berbagi

Apakah menurut Anda dokumen ini bermanfaat?

Apakah konten ini tidak pantas?

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

Analog Integrated Circuits LAB Manual

Diunggah oleh

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

DEPARTMENT OF ECE SATHYABAMA UNIVERSITY

STUDY OF OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER IC 741

OPERATION AMPLIFIER SYMBOL

INTERNAL BLOCK DIAGRAM

Level Shifter Stage:

IC-741 pin details

Equivalent Circuit for Ideal Operational Amplifiers

Op-Amp Idealized Characteristics

Sl.No Parameter Idealized characteristic

Infinite - Input impedance is the ratio of input voltage to input current

Zero - The output impedance of the ideal operational amplifier is

Infinite - An ideal operational amplifier has an infinite frequency

Prefix Designator Suffix

Code Pakage type

Operational Amplifiers Summary

The following is a summary of the Operational Amplifiers and their configurations.

The Two Basic Operational Amplifier Circuits

Sl.No. Description Range / Number/ Value Qty

1 Integrated Regulated Power Supply (ICPS) ±15 V 1

2 Audio Oscillator (A / O) 1-100 KHz 1

3 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) 20 / 40MHz, Dual Trace 1

4 Operational Amplifier (OP-AMP) IC 741 1

5 DC Volt Meter (0-30) V 1

6 Digital Multi Meter 1

7 Resistor 100Ω,1MΩ10kΩ Each One

9 Bread board & Connecting wires

3 Input Offset Current

Sl.N Description Input Signal Input Wave Output Wave

Slew rate Square Wave

The characteristics of the Op-Amp IC 741 were determined.

Sl.No. Description Range / Number/ Value Qty

1 Integrated Regulated Power Supply (ICPS) ±15 V 1

2 Audio Oscillator (A / O) 1-100 KHz 1

3 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) 20 / 40MHz, Dual Trace 1

4 Operational Amplifier (OP-AMP) IC 741 1

5 DC Volt Meter (0-30) V 1

6 Digital Multi Meter 1

7 Regulated Power Supply (Dual RPS) (0-30) V 1

2 Non Inverting Amplifier

Sl.No. Description Range / Number/ Value Qty

1 Integrated Regulated Power Supply (ICPS) ±15 V 1

2 Audio Oscillator (A / O) 1-100 KHz 1

3 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) 20 / 40MHz, Dual Trace 1

4 Operational Amplifier (OP-AMP) IC 741 1

5 Resistor 1kΩ,10kΩ Each One

7 Bread board & Connecting wires

The current ic through the capacitor is

SL.NO DESCRIPTION INPUT SIGNAL INPUT WAVE OUTPUT WAVE

Sl.No. Description Range / Number/ Value Qty

1 Integrated Regulated Power Supply (ICPS) ±15 V 1

2 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) 20 / 40MHz, Dual Trace 1

3 Operational Amplifier (OP-AMP) IC 741 1

4 Resistor As per Design 5

6 Bread board & Connecting wires

Given Frequency F = 1 KHz Given Frequency F = 1 KHz

Let C = 0.1F and Let C = 0.1F and

R1 = 10R and R1 = 10R and

Rf = 29R1 or greater. Rf = 29R1 or greater

1. Construct the circuit as per Circuit diagram shown in figure.

S.No. Description Formula Theoretical Practical Frequency

2 Wien Bridge Oscillator

Sl.No. Description Range / Number/ Value Qty

1 Integrated Regulated Power Supply (ICPS) ±15 V 1

2 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) 20 / 40MHz, Dual Trace 1