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Changes in Automobile Control System To

Accommodate EURO 6 Emission Standards

Technical Report · December 2015

DOI: 10.13140/2.1.1090.2401

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 1

-An Internship report on

Changes in Automobile Control System

To Accommodate EURO 6 Emission
Standards

-Yaswanth Dontu

- Disclaimer
None of these experiments were performed at Chrysler Automobiles by
me. These are just my adoptions from few SAE papers and other
references that I mentioned at the end.
 2

Acknowledgements
I express my deep regards and respect to Shri. Chandan Nene, System Responsible
and Shri. Nitin Swamy, Design Responsible, Controls Software Development
Dept., for supporting me to carry out my summer internship in their Division.

I extend my sincere gratitude and thanks to Shri. Rajesh venkatakrishnan, Design

Responsible, Controls Software Development Dept., whose constant support and
sheer motivation helped me to overcome the hurdles throughout the project. I was
fortunate to have him as my mentor and guide during this tenure.

I also thank Shri. Murali Balasubramanian , Systems Responsible and Shri. Albert
Merben , Human Resources Dept. for the immense belief that they placed in me.

I would like to thank Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Madras for their efforts put
towards us.

- D.Yaswanth,

ME11B016,

3rd Year B.Tech,

Mechanical Engg,

IIT Madras.
 3

Contents
Abstract – 7

Introduction - 7

Importance of fuel Quality – 8

Structural properties of standard engine fulfilling the limits Euro5 – 9

Engine fulfilling the requirements of the standard Euro 6 – 10

Selective Catalytic Reduction – 11

Euro 6-1 Regulation – 14

Euro 6-2 Regulation – 14

Overview of onboard SCR dosing system for current regulations – 16

SCR dosing system description - 17

SCR dosing system new requirements for EURO 6 -2 – 19

Ammonia storage solution as an alternative to SCR by liquid adblue - 23

Filling Compatible with New AdBlue®/DEF Refill Interface – 25

SCR control sysyem - 26

Control Methods – 30

DeNOx System with Secondary Injection - 35

Selection of denox system layouts for euro 6 - 36

 4

Lean NOx Traps - 40

New Lean NOx Traps with High Sulfur Resistance - 41

Low Pressure Exhaust Gas Recirculation - 42

Diesel Particulate Filters - 43

Diesel Particulate Filter + Heat Exchanger - 47

Crankcase ventilation system - 51

Next Generation Fuel Injector - 54

Types of Rate Control Strategies for Future Combustion - 54

Next Generation Delphi Heavy Duty Injector Design - 56

Future Injector Concept - DFI 7 - 62

References - 65

Appendix – A
Figures
Standard exhaust gases cleaning module – 1
NOx conversion percentage vs.
Temperature 0c – 2
Durability of vanadia catalyst compared to
a base metal zeolite catalyst - 3
Catalyst A and Catalyst B, as compared to a
vanadia based SCR catalyst with respect to
NO2 sensitivity – 4
EURO 6 evolution of requirements – 5
Current production passenger car SCR system – 6
Top and Bottom Views of ADM – 7
Refill interface compatible to ISO 22241-5 – 8
SCR system setup in the exhaust – 9
Block diagram with signals and time scales- 10
Conversion over temperature – 11
Open Loop Control Structure – 12
Output Feedback Control Structure – 13
An Integrated Control Structure – 14
Concept of an Integrated Emission
Management Strategy – 15
5
After-treatment system for Euro 6: DeNOx
system with secondary injector – 16
LNT layouts for Euro 6 - 17
NOx conversion according to each
injector - 18
19 - Average THC slip according to each
injector
20 - NOx conversion efficiencies of two
DeNOx catalysts according to their inlet
temperatures
21 - THC slips of two DeNOx catalysts
according to their inlet temperatures
22 - NOx adsorber system
23 - Low Pressure EGR
24 - Exhaust gas flow through a wall-
flow filter channel
25 - Fuel-borne catalyst dosing unit
26 - Wall flow particulate filters
27 - Diesel partial-flow filters
28 - Section view of theorized DPFHX
based on shell-and-tube heat exchanger
29 - Detail view of the DPFHX
highlighting stages of the heat transfer
mechanism
30 - Resistor network illustrating the
heat transfer mechanism of a DPFHX
31 - Typical PCV Valve
32 - Trends in Emissions Control,
incorporating Exhaust Gas Recirculation
and Selective Catalytic Reduction
 6

33 - Pulsed Rate Shaping AdBlue Consumption in Euro 6-1 vs.

Euro 6-2 per KM – 5
34 - Example of Rate Shaping at the
Start of Injection AdBlue Tank volume strategies - 6
35 - Construction of the compact
control valve concept
42 - Soot and ISFC benefit of elevated
Total leakage as a function of
injection pressure under high EGR
pressure - 36
conditions on a Single Cylinder Engine
Switching loss as a function of the number of
43 - DFI 5 injector envelope and the new
injections – 37
DFI 7 concept, which fits into the same
pocket
Leakage and temperature results for 6 cylinder
Engine – 38
44 - Progressive controlled rate shaping

8 pilot injections at a range of rail pressure – 39 45 - Simulation of zero separation

multiple injection
Pulsed pilot cylinder pressure optimization – 40

Soot & BSFC benefits from pulsed post

optimization on a Single Cylinder Engine - 41

Appendix – B 7 - AdBlue consumption in EURO 6-1

Tables
Euro 6 Emission Standards - 1
Bharat Stage Emission standards - 2
and 6-2 per life time
8 - Tank size and weight comparison
between liquid AdBlue®/DEF based
SCR and ammonia gas storage based
SCR

Main technical performance levels of 9 - Chemical Reaction Mechanism

current passenger car SCR dosing
10 - System Time Scales
system - 3
11 - Examples of adaptive control
Main technical performance levels of
techniques used in SCR system
current passenger car SCR dosing
system - 4
 7

12 - Characteristics of secondary 13 - Engine test conditions (steady)

injectors

Abstract

Ever growing pollution has made automobile emission standards more and more stringent in the
concern of people’s health. These stringent emissions act as hurdles for automobile manufacturers
to come up with a system that copes with these emission standards. All the available standards are
rendered helpless in the process of meeting these emission standards. So people started looking
into new techniques and control systems to help curb these extra emissions and at the same time
not compromising with the performance of the engine. So they needed control systems, that don’t
necessarily alter engine performance parameters when it works. This paper touches the new
instrumentation needed to meet up the EURO 6 emission standards and their working principles.

Introduction
The European Union (EU) emissions limits for passenger cars and heavy-duty vehicles have
continuously been lowered since 1993 with the Euro 1 to 6 consecutive stages and the Euro I
to Euro VI stages respectively. Not only have HC, CO, NOx and PM limits been dramatically
reduced but also cold starts, particle number and CO2 measurement have been added into
emissions driving cycles. For engines intended for heavy duty vehicles and non-road mobile
machinery (NRMM), transient operation has also been added. Motorcycles and non-road mobile
machinery have lagged behind but their environmental performance keeps improving
nevertheless with Euro 1 to 3 stages for motorcycles and Stages I to IV for NRMM.

EURO 5 being consistently followed already by all the manufacturers, we will look into the systems
that are needed over and above EURO 5 to meet the extra emission cut off in EURO 6.

Here is a table comparing EURO 5 and EURO 6 emission standards (for diesel cars)-

Tier Date CO NOx HC+NOx PM

Sept
Euro 5 0.50 0.180 0.230 0.005
2009

Euro 6 Sept
0.50 0.080 0.170 0.005
(future) 2014
 8

-Table 1. Euro 6 Emission Standards

These emissions are for diesel engines only and they are in gm/KM. There has not been any change
in emissions in gasoline cars from EURO 5 to EURO 6. From the above table, it is evident that there
has been a huge decrease in acceptable NOx and HC levels.
Especially NOx levels needs to be decreased enormously. NOx react with ammonia, moisture, and
other compounds to form small particles. These small particles penetrate deeply into sensitive parts
of the lungs and can cause or worsen respiratory disease, such as emphysema and bronchitis, and
can aggravate existing heart disease, leading to increased hospital admissions and premature
death.

-Table 2. India level emissions standards (gm/KWh)

ESC and ETC are different types of testing cycles to measure emissions

Ozone is formed when NOx and volatile organic compounds react in the presence of heat and
sunlight. Children, the elderly, people with lung diseases such as asthma, and people who work or
exercise outside are at risk for adverse effects from ozone. These include reduction in lung function
and increased respiratory symptoms as well as respiratory-related emergency department visits,
hospital admissions, and possibly premature deaths.
Even in Indian emission standards, NOx, HC and PM have considerably been reduced. So a new
emission control system is inevitable even here.

The importance of fuel quality

Fuel and lubricant quality affects the performance of emissions control systems either by preventing
the use of a technology unless the fuel quality is improved (the improved fuel is “enabling‟ the use
of that technology) or by “enhancing‟ the performance of emissions control systems. In this case
both the existing fleet and new vehicle registrations benefit. The motor industry has published
information on the effects of fuel quality, with recommendations, in the “Worldwide Fuel
Charter‟.
 9

Examples of enabling fuels are unleaded petrol that allows three-way catalysts to be used and ultra-
low sulfur fuels required so that NOx adsorbers can be used and which ease the use of catalyst-
based Diesel Particulate Filters (DPF). Lead has long been recognized as a catalyst poison as well as
having impacts on human health, and is no longer permitted in European fuels. The ban on the sale
of leaded petrol in EU and else-where, provides an example to influence other regions.
Examples of enhancing fuels are the further reductions in the levels of lead, phosphorus and alkali
metals that improve the performance and life of three-way catalysts and the introduction of ultra-
low sulfur gasoline and diesel fuels. Reducing sulfur levels all the way down to near-zero delivers
improved performance of catalysts.

Also, there are concerns over the use of some metallic additives, with suggestions that their use in
gasoline may, under some driving conditions, lead to deposits on exhaust system
components such as the oxygen sensor and catalyst.

Metallic or other ash-forming materials in diesel fuel will also add to the amount of ash captured by
particulate filters and may require the system to be designed so as to allow for the additional ash.
Detergent additives, on the other hand offer positive benefits. Their use helps keep the fuel injection
system and combustion system clean, so helping to prolong optimum operating conditions for the
emissions control technology.

Exhaust emissions from internal combustion engines

Exhaust emissions can be lowered by reducing engine-out emissions through improvements to the
combustion process and fuel management, or by changes to the type of fuel or its composition.
Emissions control systems – auto-catalysts, adsorbers and particulate filters – in combination with
good quality fuel (low sulfur content) and enhanced engine management reduce emissions to very
low levels. As well as their application in new vehicles and machinery, many emissions control
systems can also be applied in retrofit applications to good effect.

Structural properties of standard engine fulfilling the limits Euro5

After looking at Volkswagen’s standard 2.0TDI engine, which fulfills EURO 5 requirements, the
structural properties of a EURO 5 engine can be –

1) Injection process of full dose can be divided into 7 parts and is achieved in 300 degree crank
rotation. Both the number of holes, fuel atomization degree, as well as range of the jet has been
adjusted to the shape of the new combustion chamber. In place of the so far applied chamber of the
type Omega a new chamber of bigger diameter and flat shape has been used, which protects
against formation of areas of rich mixture more liable to formation of particulate matter during
combustion.
 10

2) The new engine has also been equipped with low-temperature system of exhaust gases
recirculation which causes a considerable decrease in emission of nitric oxides. For cooling of
exhaust gases a cooler of the type fluid-exhaust gases of maximal power 8 kW has been applied and
this was achieved due to an additional electric pump of the cooling fluid causing its quicker flow
through the cooler. The compression degree of the value 16.5 has been applied; however it may
cause problems with cold start of engine. With regard to this a starter of bigger power, which
guarantees engine rotational speed of 450 rpm during start phase has been applied. Moreover,
glow plugs of a new type with a metal heating core have been used. The exhaust gases cleaning
system consists of oxidizing catalytic reactor and filter of particulate matter. These elements are
placed together in one case at the outlet collector. Metal cores instead of the commonly applied
ceramic cores have been used in order to get a faster warming up of the reactors active surfaces.

3) The filter core has got the zonal catalytic coating with a platinum and palladium alloy and due
to it, is characterized by high durability and low thermal inertia. In consequence it may work
properly in a short time after cold start of the engine. Regeneration of the filter is realized by itself
by means of proper control of mixture composition in order to obtain a required temperature at
which burn out of particles deposited on catalytic surfaces of the filter takes place.

- Fig 1. Standard exhaust gases cleaning module

Engine fulfilling the requirements of the standard Euro 6

Today, viable emission control technologies exist to reduce diesel exhaust emissions from new
engines and vehicles, as well as in-use engines through the use of retrofit kits. The major
technologies are listed below.
 11

Technologies designed to control particulate matter (PM) include:

• Diesel oxidation catalysts (DOCs)

• Diesel particulate filters (DPFs)

• Closed crankcase ventilation (CCV)

Technologies designed to control oxides of nitrogen (NOx) include:

• Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR)

• Selective catalytic reduction (SCR)

• Lean NOx catalysts (LNCs)

• Lean NOx traps (LNTs)

Euro 6 emission standards mainly touch upon the regulations regarding NOx emissions. Let us have
a look at some of the state of the art NOx control technologies.

Lowering of NOx and particulate emissions without suffering a loss in fuel economy (and the
associated increase in CO2 release) is one of the most important tasks in the development of clean
diesel vehicles. Particulate matter from diesel exhaust has received tremendous attention in recent
years, in part because of the direct visibility from the tailpipe. The emission level is reduced by
engine measures and the implementation of diesel particulate filters (DPF). Similarly, the removal of
NOx is important since a high NOx level has an impact on both the atmosphere (e.g. acid rain and
the formation of other undesired compounds in an urban environment) and a direct toxic effect on
humans during inhalation. This has resulted in legislation pushing towards clean diesel technology
in the USA, Europe and Japan. New targets have been set for lower emission levels in all of these
regions. The industry is now seeking the optimal way of complying with these demands.

There are two main methods for NOx abatement:

Selective Catalytic Reduction and Lean-NOx Trap (LNT) based technology. A tradeoff exists between
these two technologies. The LNT technology has a higher system investment cost and a higher
overall fuel consumption, while SCR systems offer lower system cost and better fuel economy, but
require a reductant to be stored on board the vehicle.

Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR)

SCR has been used to control NOx emissions from stationary sources such as power plants for over
20 years. More recently, it has been applied to select mobile sources including cars, trucks, marine
vessels, and locomotives. Applying SCR to diesel powered vehicles provides simultaneous
reductions of NOx, PM, and HC emissions.
 12

Many engine manufacturers are now offering SCR systems on new highway heavy-duty engines sold
in Europe to comply with the European Union’s Euro V or Euro VI heavy-duty engine emission
requirements. More than 100,000 new, SCR-equipped trucks are operating in Europe using a urea-
based reductant. SCR systems have also been installed on marine vessels, locomotives and other
non-road diesel engines. Significant numbers of marine vessels have been equipped with SCR
including auto ferries, transport ships, cruise ships, and military vessels. The marine engines range
from approximately 1250 hp to almost 10,000 hp and the installations have been in operation since
the early to mid-1990s. SCR offers a high level of NOx conversion with high durability.

Open loop SCR systems can reduce NOx emissions from 75 to 90 percent. Closed loop systems on
stationary engines have achieved NOx reductions of greater than 95 percent. Engine manufacturers
in North America are seriously considering combined DPF+SCR system designs for complying with
EPA’s 2010 heavy-duty highway emission standards. Number of combined DPF (Diesel Particulate
Filter) + SCR system demonstration projects have been completed or are still underway on highway
trucks both here in the U.S. and Europe. DOC+SCR systems are being used commercially in Japan
for new diesel trucks by several engine manufacturers to comply with Japan’s 2005 emission
standards.

Modern SCR system designs combine highly controlled reductant injection hardware, flow mixing
devices for effective distribution of the reductant across the available catalyst cross-section, durable
SCR catalyst formulations, and ammonia slip clean-up catalysts that are capable of achieving and
maintaining high NOx conversion efficiencies with extremely low levels of exhaust outlet ammonia
concentrations over thousands of hours of operation.

An SCR system uses a metallic or ceramic wash-coated catalyzed substrate, or a homogeneously

extruded catalyst, and a chemical reductant to convert nitrogen oxides to molecular nitrogen and
oxygen. In mobile source applications, an aqueous urea solution (AdBlue) is the preferred reductant.
In open loop systems, the reductant is added at a rate calculated by a NOx estimation algorithm
that estimates the amount of NOx present in the exhaust stream. The algorithm relates NOx
emissions to engine parameters such as engine revolutions per minute (rpm), exhaust temperature,
backpressure and load. As exhaust and reductant pass over the SCR catalyst, chemical reactions
occur that reduce NOx emissions. In closed loop systems, a sensor that directly measures the NOx
concentration in the exhaust is used to determine how much reductant to inject. SCR catalysts
formulations based on Vanadia-Titania and base metal-containing zeolites have been
commercialized for both stationary and mobile source applications. The maximum NOx conversion
window for SCR catalysts is a function of exhaust gas composition, in particular the NO2to NO ratio.

The three common NOx reduction reactions are:

4 NH3+ 4 NO + O2  4 N2+ 6 H2O (1)

2 NH3+ NO + NO2  2 N2+ 3 H2O (2)

8 NH3+ 6 NO2  7 N2+ 12 H2O (3)

 13

Low temperature SCR is promoted by NO2. Of the three competing reactions over a vanadia
catalyst, reaction 3 is the slowest and reaction 2 is the fastest. Titania supported vanadia catalysts
have been used for many years and are effective at temperatures less than 500oC. Modern zeolite
based SCR catalysts aged at 700oC for 50 hours show little deterioration whereas the vanadia
catalyst degrades rapidly at these temperatures (Fig 3). Base metal zeolite SCR catalysts, in
particular, have been selected, and are continuing their development, for applications that require
NOx performance and durability under higher exhaust operating temperatures that may be
encountered in some mobile source applications. For low temperature NOx conversion efficiency,
emission control system design engineers have a number of options available including the
composition of the SCR catalyst itself, control of the ratio of NO2 to NO present at the inlet of the
catalyst, and improving the urea decomposition process at low exhaust temperatures (Fig 3).

Figure below compares the conversion window for a vanadia SCR catalyst and two zeolite-based
SCR catalysts. Catalyst A represents a copper zeolite catalyst having the lowest temperature light-off
characteristics of the three shown. The vanadia based catalyst shows better low temperature
conversion that the iron zeolite system (Catalyst-B) however the conversion efficiency drops off
above 400oC whereas the iron zeolite maintains peak efficiency above 500oC. Both zeolite-based
catalysts show better high temperature conversion than the conventional vanadia catalyst. (Fig 2)

- Fig 2. NOx conversion percentage vs Temperature oc

 14

- Fig 3. Durability of vanadia catalyst (V-SCR) compared to a base metal zeolite catalyst (B)

SCR catalysts based on vanadia exhibit a strong sensitivity of NOx conversion to the NO2: NOx ratio
of the exhaust gas. Optimum conversion is achieved at a ratio of 1:1 or a 50 percent O2 composition.
Zeolite based catalysts have shown less sensitivity to NO2 concentration as shown in Figure 4.

-Fig 4. Catalyst A and Catalyst B are compared to a vanadia based SCR catalyst with respect to NO2
sensitivity

All the above plots justify the switch over from Vanadia based catalyst to Zeolite based catalyst.

EURO 6-1 Regulation

At the introduction of EURO 6 regulation in September 2014, a list of requirements with regards to
NOx emissions will apply. NOx emissions will be measured in an NEDC (New European Driving
Cycle) test cycle and may not exceed 80 mg/km. Measurement of NOx emissions in other driving
conditions is currently in discussion. For the moment there is no NOx emission level applying at
these conditions.
 15

The OBD (On Board Diagnostics) threshold with regards to NOx is set at 180 mg/km. The NEDC test
is performed starting from a temperature at 20°C. At this moment, there is no NOx emission limit
applied at temperatures lower or higher than the NEDC test temperature.

EURO 6-2 Regulation

With the introduction of EURO 6-2 in September 2017, EURO 6 regulations will evolve. The details of
this regulation are still under discussion, but the main evolution can already be seen. Fig 5 presents
a time line with a summary of the changes expected to apply requirements in relation to NOx
emissions.

-Fig 5. EURO 6 evolution of requirements.

NOx Level

The maximum NOx emission level remains at 80 mg/km as in EURO 6-1. The WLTP test cycle is in
discussion in parallel to the current NEDC test cycle. Differences between WLTP and NEDC include a
more dynamic test cycle requiring higher loads and RPM levels during testing. Increased NOx
reduction efficiency in these new driving conditions becomes mandatory to continue to meet the
max 80 mg/km requirement from the regulation.

RDE (=Real Driving Emissions)

 16

Measurement methods representing emissions in real driving conditions will be imposed called RDE
requirements. Currently 2 methods are being analyzed: Random cycle generator and PEM methods.
The Random cycle generator allows the measurement organization (OEM, country, homologation
organization …) to use a vehicle bench to perform emission testing in a well-known under well know
conditions. However the exact cycle to be applied during the measurements is defined by a machine
randomly selecting city drive and highway drive profiles from a wide database of profiles recorded
on the road. The PEM method defines the use of a portable NOx emission device installed on a
vehicle, which measures emissions during operation of the vehicle. Irrespective of the applied
measurement method, the NOx emission reduction performance of the vehicle will be measured in a
wide range of conditions. The corresponding NOx level limitations will impose the highest level NOx
reduction efficiency. In the period between September 2014 and September 2017, measurements
will be performed on vehicles. It is currently in discussion whether the results of these
measurements will be published or whether lowers NOx emission levels will become mandatory in
this period.

OBD

With regards to OBD, the OBD threshold levels will evolve from 180 mg/km to 140 mg/km. This
corresponds to a reduction of 22%. Therefore the performance of the NOx emissions reduction
system needs to be more closely monitored.

Low Temperature Performance

In addition to the 20°C NEDC test cycle temperature condition, applicable since the introduction of
EURO 6, a mandatory max NOx emission level will apply at −7°C. The level of this requirement is still
under discussion. At present, a NOx level restricted to 5 times the EURO 6 NOx level is anticipated.
This will require NOx emissions to be below 400 mg/km.

The main challenge for this low ambient temperature condition is to heat up the catalyst and to
start injecting at low temperature. Exhaust system architecture will have to be adapted and heat up
strategies of the exhaust line will require optimization. It is currently in discussion whether the
results of these measurements will be published or whether NOx emission levels will become
mandatory in this period.

The SCR technology enables a very efficient reduction of NOx emissions in combination with a large
independence from engine control parameters. As opposed to NOx reduction by LNT, fuel injection
strategy does not need to be modified for catalyst regeneration. Engine CO2 optimization can be
accomplished even if it creates higher engine-out NOx emissions. In comparison to additional
measures on the engine, such as a low pressure EGR loop, NOx after treatment by SCR can reach far
higher reduction levels.

OVERVIEW OF ONBOARD SCR DOSING SYSTEM FOR CURRENT REGULATIONS

SCR System Functions

In order to meet the requirements set out in the regulations, the onboard passenger car SCR dosing
system has to assure a set of functions. A first function of the dosing system is to deliver
 17

AdBlue®/DEF at a defined pressure to the injector. Current injectors are designed to operate at
nominal pressures between 5 and 6 bar. In order to assure a correct formation of spray in the
exhaust, a minimum pressure of 4.5 bar needs to be exceeded. In addition, the dosing rate needs to
be precisely controlled. Flow varies when the pressure at the inlet of the injector changes. Therefore,
pressure regulation tolerances should be kept close. Typical flow rates for current passenger car SCR
systems lie between 50 and 150 g/h.

However, to allow fast recharge of the catalyst with ammonia, a far higher peak flow rate from the
SCR dosing system is required. Today's systems allow a peak flow of 3000 g/h to assure this
function. A second main function of current SCR dosing systems is heating and melting of
AdBlue®/DEF. AdBlue®/DEF is known to freeze down as soon as it reaches temperatures of -11°C
(12°F) or below. These low temperatures are regularly reached in winter time in regions in
US/Canada and Northern Europe, as well as in mountain regions. To assure correct functioning of
the passenger car SCR system, an onboard electrical heating system is installed.

In Europe, EURO 6 regulation specifies that a maximum of 20 minutes of heating time is allowed
before having a full functioning SCR system at −15°C ambient temperature. In US, heat-up times
apply as well and go down to temperatures as low as −30°C. A third main function of the SCR
dosing system consists of detecting when the level in the AdBlue®/DEF tank reaches a level below
the pre-defined reserve level. In Europe for instance this corresponds to 2400 km of remaining
autonomy.

Passenger car SCR systems are designed to last the life of the vehicle. In coherence with fuel system
durability testing requirements, a 6000 hour durability test including temperature excursions to
−8°C and +60°C are applied. In addition, represent SCR applications, purge cycles are added on the
durability test, in order to simulate vehicle stops and the corresponding AdBlue®/DEF purge cycle.

SCR dosing system description

Figure 6 shows a schematic view of a production SCR onboard system, meeting the current EURO 6-
1 and US LEV-II Tier 2 Bin 5 regulations.
 18

-Fig 6. Current production passenger car SCR system

It consists of a plastic tank with corresponding venting and filling system. To assure the functions
listed in the previous section, a tank bottom integrated ADM (AdBlue® Delivery Module) is fitted.
This module is driven by an SCR Control Unit. A heated line assures the supply of AdBlue®/DEF
from the ADM to the injector.

The tank assures a maximum capacity of AdBlue®/DEF to cover the need for dosing over a service
interval. In Europe service intervals range from 20000 to 30000 km. At an average AdBlue®/DEF
consumption of 0.75 to 1 l/1000km, the required useable capacity of the tank lies between 15 and
30 liters. AdBlue®/DEF filling can be done at the service station. In emergency cases filling can be
done alternatively by the car driver using for example Kruse bottles available on the market.

-Table 3. Main technical performance levels of current passenger car SCR dosing system

The other functions and performances of the system are assured by the ADM. Figures below show a
top and bottom view of the ADM. Table 4 lists the technical content of the ADM.

-Fig 7. Top and Bottom Views of ADM

 19

The feeding pressure performance of the ADM ranges from 5 to 7 bar, as can be seen in table 3,
thus exceeding the required nominal pressure between 5 and 6 bar. With regards to pressure
accuracy, the tolerance is kept at a level +/− 0.5 bar. At ambient temperature above AdBlue®/DEF
freezing temperature, start-up times can be kept below 1 minute depending on injector line length
and design. Peak flow rates of 3000 g/h for fast recharging of the SCR catalyst can be reached. In
addition, average flow rates exceeding 250 g/h can be met, thus exceeding the typical maximum
flow rate of 150 g/h. This average flow rate is made possible by corresponding filter dimensioning
and heater design.

Current gasoline/diesel life time fuel filters are designed for a typical capacity of 12g of
contamination. AdBlue® consumption at 0.75 to 1l/1000km is approximately 100 times lower than
diesel consumption. Therefore an AdBlue®/DEF filter capacity of 0.12 g would suffice to be
equivalent to diesel filter autonomy. The current filter is designed and validated to exceed a
contamination capacity of 0.5 g. To heat AdBlue®/DEF in the tank, a flexible heater with maximum
heat exchange surface is applied. In addition, the heater contains legs with a typical surface of 225
cm2 allowing to reach in the tank outside of the ADM central area. For level detection, 2
technologies of level sensors are available. A discrete level sensor allows detecting European
regulations required 2400 km remaining AdBlue®/DEF autonomy. OEMs requiring continuous
AdBlue®/DEF level reading in the tank, can select a continuous level sensor. Durability of the system
is assured applying a durability test of 6 000 hours of operation with purge cycles every 15
minutes. In addition, temperature extremes at −8°C and 60°C are tested.

-Table 4. Main technical performance levels of current passenger car SCR system
 20

SCR dosing system new requirements related to the introduction of euro 6-2

Application of SCR on Passenger Cars

The increased efficiency required for the NOx reduction device onboard the vehicle in combination
with worldwide CO2 reductions favor the use of SCR on more compact vehicles. Previously SCR was
reserved for SUVs, Pick-up trucks and D-class passenger cars, sometimes ranging down to C-class
passenger cars. With the implementation mainly of EURO 6-2, SCR systems will also be widely used
on passenger cars as compact as B-class vehicles. Even on A class vehicles, SCR will find its entry as
onboard NOx reduction technology. A direct consequence of this wider scope of applications is an
increase in production volumes. Economies of scale can be achieved under the condition that
worldwide requirements can be communized and standardized to a wide extent.

AdBlue®/DEF Consumption Increase

Due to the need for increased NOx-reduction efficiency, AdBlue®/DEF consumption is expected to
increase. Table 5 lists AdBlue®/DEF consumption for typical EURO 6-1 applications and
compares with the consumption level at EURO 6-2 level.

-Table 5. AdBlue Consumption in Euro 6-1 vs. Euro 6-2 per KM

As can be seen in table 5, AdBlue®/DEF consumption levels are increased by 50 to 100%.

SCR tank size

 21

-Table 6. AdBlue Tank volume strategies

Applying increased AdBlue®/DEF consumption levels of table 5 to the European service intervals
between 20 and 30000 km leads to a required volume of 45 liters for a passenger car and exceeds
90 liters for a light duty vehicle. A strategy for refilling the AdBlue®/DEF tank needs to be redefined.
Table 6 shows possible strategies to assure the required availability of AdBlue®/DEF onboard the
vehicle at all times. As can be seen in table 6, all strategies have advantages and disadvantages. For
European applications, over the past decades, the trend has been to increase oil exchange intervals
for customer satisfaction and cost reasons. To apply oil exchange intervals reduced to 10 to 15000
km is opposite to the evolution.

Little applications are known to date to apply this strategy. Lowering AdBlue®/DEF consumption to
current levels is technically feasible. However diesel consumption penalties have to be taken as a
consequence. This is opposite to the worldwide tightening of CO2 emission limits. On medium to
long term, this strategy presents mayor hurdles to keep on meeting the combined NOx and CO2
reduction requirements.

A further strategy consists of increasing the tank useable volume to maintain refills at service
intervals. For a typical passenger car application the tank useable capacity is to increase to 45 liters.
This will lead to a system weight of 50 kg when the tank is full, and 30 kg in average (tank half full).
Refilling by the driver is not required and can remain at dealer service.

A final strategy consists of decreasing the tank useable volume which requires drivers to refill their
AdBlue®/DEF tanks. For a typical passenger car a tank useable capacity of less than 10 liters can be
 22

applied. This leads to a system weight below 13 kg for a full tank, and 8 kg in average (tank half full).
Refilling by the car driver becomes mandatory. The weight gain of the system could allow a
theoretical CO2 emissions gain up to 3.5 g CO2/km compared to the maximum tank capacity
strategy. The need for refill by the driver will require an AdBlue®/DEF distribution network widely
accessible to passenger car drivers.

For European applications a clear trend to the final refill and tank sizing strategy can be seen. This
trend is linked with the limited space available in A- and B- class vehicles, which require SCR for
NOx-reduction.

AdBlue®/DEF Distribution Network

The current AdBlue®/DEF distribution network in Europe is set up for truck applications. It consists
of a wide network of automatic refill stations, more than 4500 in number, and largely spread
over the main roads. These refill stations are typically dedicated to trucks, or are refueling
stations for mixed usage of both trucks and passenger cars.

Due to the large tank sizes, and higher AdBlue®/DEF consumption rates of trucks,
corresponding truck refill nozzles are designed for a refill speeds up to 40 l/min. Truck refill devices
and station are described in ISO 22241-4.

In addition, AdBlue®/DEF can be purchased in plastic 5 or 10 liter containers at more than 7000
locations. For comparison, in US more than 700 automatic AdBlue®/DEF refill stations exist. These
stations are complemented by over 6500 locations where AdBlue®/DEF can be purchased in jugs.

Dedicated to passenger cars, special bottles have been put on the market since 2008. These bottles
include a shut-off device to avoid spilling. This allows emergency refill even in locations at the
interior of the vehicle.

For regular refill by drivers of passenger cars, a new standard is about to be finalized. The ISO
22241-5 standard describes this interface. The refill speed is reduced to 10 l/min and the connection
to the filler opening is designed to allow a fixed connection limiting spilling as much as possible.

Durability Requirements Evolution

Linked with the AdBlue®/DEF consumption increase illustrated in table 7, the total volume of
AdBlue®/DEF consumed in a vehicle over life time is significantly increased.
 23

-Table 7. AdBlue consumption in EURO 6-1 and 6-2 per life time

For a passenger car application, 360 l of AdBlue®/DEF will be consumed. As a consequence all
components of the system have to be designed correspondingly.

Pump Durability

For the feeding function, the total time of operation over life does not change, but the volume of
AdBlue®/DEF passing by the pump is increased by 50% or more. In addition to the 6000 hours of
operation testing condition, total flow through the pump must be increased to 360 liters for
passenger car applications and up to 900 - 1000 liters for light duty vehicles. Depending on the
pump technology applied, extended durability testing including 50 to 100% flow increase may be
mandatory.

Filter Dimensioning

The SCR system life time filter is required to hold sufficient contamination retaining capacity
corresponding to the increase consumption volumes. Required filter capacity is calculated using 2
comparisons with diesel/gasoline fuel life time filter capacity. In a first comparison total life time
consumption of fuel is compared with total life time consumption of AdBlue®/DEF.

For 250000 km of distance over life and a max average diesel consumption of 10 l/100 km, total
consumed fuel is calculated at 25000 liters of diesel fuel. For a worst case light duty vehicle
application, a total consumption of AdBlue® over life time is estimated at 900 to 1000 liters.
Therefore we can conclude that diesel consumption is more than 25 times as large as AdBlue®/DEF
consumption.

Diesel/gasoline fuel filters typically hold a contamination retention capacity of 12 grams. Required
AdBlue®/DEF contamination capacity is calculated by dividing 12 grams by a factor of 25. 0.48
grams is the resulting filter capacity. In a second comparison, diesel max allowable contamination
levels are compared with AdBlue®/DEF maximum contamination levels.
 24

Diesel specification EN590 indicates a maximum contamination level of 24 mg/kg. AdBlue®/DEF

specification ISO 22241-1 states a maximum allowable level of insoluble at 20 mg/kg. Therefore the
retention capacity required can be diminished by a factor 24/20 = 1.2. The 0.48 grams previously
calculated is therefore reduced to 0.4 grams of capacity. The multiplication factors of both
calculations of this paragraph do not take into account a higher or lower percentage of
contamination coming through the filling or venting system. Contamination coming through the
filling system depends on the number of refilling occurrences, which strongly depends on the tank
size.

Although AdBlue®/DEF refill occurrences are foreseen to be far less than diesel refill occurrences,
the amount of contamination that can apply is not known to date. As for contamination coming
through the venting system, some of the onboard AdBlue®/DEF tanks are foreseen with closed
venting systems, using a pressure-vacuum relief valve to limit venting occurrences. In more recent
SCR Systems, venting membranes are applied completely blocking the way to contaminants
entering the tank.

Heating Sustainability

Average AdBlue®/DEF consumption rates are increased from maximum 150 g/h to 250 g/h. The
heater melting capacity and reach in the tank has to be adapted accordingly. This applies on both
long duration driving to cover large distances (example - 8 hours’ drive at maximum average
injection rate and at constant ambient freezing temperatures) and multiple short drive cycles
simulating daily drive to work and back. For EURO 6-1 applications these test conditions require a
total injected amount of 1.5 to 2 liters in total. With EURO6-2 regulations these volumes are
increased to 2.5 to 3.5 liters and more.

Ammonia storage solution as an alternative to SCR by liquid ADBLUE®/DEF

Alternative to SCR systems using ammonia from an AdBlue®/DEF liquid, solutions using ammonia
gas stored in salts are under development.

Table 8 shows a comparison between tank sizes and weight for both AdBlue®/DEF based SCR and
ammonia gas storage based SCR.

For AdBlue®/DEF based SCR, 2 solutions have been put side by side : large tank solution meeting
30000 km oil exchange refill and a small tank of 10 liters regularly refilled by the driver. As
mentioned previously, the solution with regular refill is seen as a clear trend in the industry.

For Ammonia gas storage based SCR, no refill by car drivers is foreseen at this stage. Therefore, only
the tank dimensions with refill at oil exchange after 30 000 km, are illustrated.

In comparison to the large AdBlue®/DEF tanks meeting 30000 km oil exchange interval, for
passenger cars, useable tank volume reductions from 45 to 15 liters can be achieved by applying
solid storage of ammonia gas. In reality, ammonia gas storage tanks need to resist to far
higher pressures, which dictates round or cylindrical shapes, or other measures to keep the tank
shape, which significantly increase the required space in the vehicle. It is not sure that a reduction of
space required in the vehicle can be achieved. This has to be evaluated on a case by case basis.
 25

-Table 8. Tank size and weight comparison between liquid AdBlue®/DEF based SCR and
ammonia gas storage based SCR

The tank size reduction applied for a regular refill AdBlue®/DEF tank will lead to a significant space
reduction, since the design constraints for a large liquid tank and a small liquid tank are similar.

System weight for a passenger car application can be reduced when adopting solid storage of
ammonia, when considering a full tank. However, when a half full tank is considered, which the
average weight of the system, is during normal operation, the weight gain disappears. This is linked
to the empty weight of a solid storage of ammonia gas being far higher that the system
weight of a liquid system.

System weight for the application of an AdBlue®/DEF tank with regular driver refill is significantly
reduced. When considering a half full tank, representing the average weight of the tank in normal
operation, a weight reduction from 30 to 8 kg can be achieved.

Finally driver refill is not required for systems dimensioned to a 30000 km autonomy, which applies
to the large AdBlue®/DEF tank and the solid storage of ammonia gas tank.
 26

For the regular refill AdBlue®/DEF tank, a driver accessible refill infrastructure is required. This
infrastructure is currently in preparation, for application at EURO 6-1 and further expansion in the
years to follow.

Filling Compatible with New AdBlue®/DEF Refill Interface

With the introduction of regular refill by vehicle drivers and the creation of ISO 22241-5 describing
interface dimensions, a new filler head has been created.

Figure 8 shows the outer view of this new filler head.

-Figure 8. Refill interface compatible to ISO 22241-5

Mechanically this filler head is designed to be compatible to both truck and passenger car refill
interfaces. These interfaces are described in ISO 22241-4 and ISO 22241-5. Nevertheless, with the
reduction of passenger car tank sizes to volumes below 10 liters, truck nozzle refill speeds of
40 l/min are very high. Passenger car refill venting systems are therefore not on every system
foreseen to accommodate the required venting for 40 l/min filling. A rapid expansion of the
AdBlue®/DEF distribution network on the basis of ISO 22241-5 is therefore mandatory.

Pump Durability for Increased AdBlue®/DEF Consumption Rates

The various requirements to the feeding system of a passenger car AdBlue®/DEF system
include fast priming, constant pressure control and reverse operation (purge).

These requirements can be met by a gear pump with by-pass. The flow capacity of the pump is
designed for fast priming. By nature the pump can run in reverse, so that purge operation
can be assured without additional components. Constant pressure regulation and control is
aided by the use of a by-pass with check valve. Within the range of the pump maximum feed
capacity (up to 3 000 g/h), the AdBlue®/DEF consumption can be increased without significant
change to pump operation and durability performance. Therefore EURO 6-2 and LEV-III SULEV
30 increased AdBlue®/DEF consumption levels are covered in the EURO 6-1 design using a
gear pump with by-pass.
 27

Technologies using a volumetric pump such as piston pumps or membrane pumps, can meet the
increased EURO 6-2 and LEV-III SULEV 30 increased AdBlue®/DEF consumption provided 50%
to 100% extended life time durability performance, over the EURO 6-1 Tier 2 Bin 5 design.

Filter Capacity

Filter capacity required has been calculated to a maximum of 0.4 g or 0.48 g according to the
calculation method applied and taking abstraction of the filling/venting system contamination
increase or reduction. This includes not only passenger car, but also light duty vehicle contamination
quantities.

Therefore a filter with a contamination retention capacity of 0.5 g is proposed for application on
EURO 6-2 applications.

SCR CONTROL SYSYEM

SCR Configurations

A typical Diesel or lean burn engine after-treatment system consists of a Diesel Oxidation Catalyst
(DOC), a Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF), a urea SCR catalyst, and an optional Ammonia Oxidation
Catalyst (AOC). The DOC, DPF, and SCR can be combined in a variety of exhaust system
configurations. The DOC is usually placed first, to benefit from the hot engine exhaust. The SCR can
be either in front of or behind the DOC catalyst. Both layouts have advantages for different
applications. For instance, show a typical set-up where the SCR system is downstream of the
DOC/DPF system (Figure 9). This order has the advantage that the DOC can reform NO into NO2,
which makes the NOx conversion in the SCR system more effective.

-Fig 9. SCR system setup in the exhaust (Harder, Brugger et al. 2011)

However, putting the SCR before the DPF helps to avoid fuel economy losses from diesel engines,
and may help to mitigate deposit formation. Alternative configurations of after treatment devices in
the exhaust line are possible. In the integration of DPF and SCR catalysts in one place is proposed to
reduce system size. The inclusion of a NOx trap before the SCR system can significantly improve
cold start behavior by capturing the NOx and releasing it when the SCR system is operational. The
 28

addition of an Ammonia Oxidation Catalyst (AOC) or Ammonia Slip Catalyst (ASC) after the SCR
system is able to reduce the release of NH3 into the environment. This also allows running the SCR
catalyst with excess ammonia to increase the conversion. The on-board generation of NH3 is
considered to avoid the use of urea mostly for practical reasons.

Issues in SCR Controls

Control and control-related tasks in SCR systems have to satisfy a number of concerns. Keeping
below the emission limits is essential, but so is the avoidance of damage to the system via deposits
or excessive temperatures.

The key challenges of the SCR control system can be summarized as:

• Cross sensitivity of NOx sensors to NH3

• High nonlinearities in the chemical reaction rates, and

• A combination of short, medium and very long time scales in one system.

Most SCR control strategies generally involve a combination of open-loop and closed-loop control.
Both output feedback (based on sensors only) and state feedback (using a model based state
estimate) is being used.

Model

In order to facilitate an effective control strategy, a model of an SCR system has to capture the key
characteristics of the system, without being too complex to evaluate or to calibrate.

-Table 9. Chemical Reaction Mechanism

Time Scales

The relevant effects of the SCR system happen on very different time scales, and from a control
point of view it can be very helpful to separate them. An overview of the different effects is shown in
 29

Table 9, and a structured block diagram can be found in Figure 10. The fastest time scale is the
transport and reaction in the gas phase, which typically only takes fractions of a second.

-Fig 10. Block diagram with signals and time scales

The medium time scale concerns the catalyst states: temperature and NH3 coverage. Both typically
change in the order of minutes, and this dynamic can be shaped using control within reasonable
boundaries. Finally the ageing and poisoning of the system happens over hundreds of hours.
Poisoning can be partially reversed using regeneration cycles, while ageing is typically a one way
process.
 30

-Table 10. System Time Scales

Nonlinearities

The SCR model typically exhibits strong nonlinearities, which originates from the reaction kinetics of
the chemical reactions. This means that the behavior of the model is highly dependent on the
system operating point. It is tempting to linearize the model, and to use fixed gain or gain
scheduled linear controllers designed for specific operating points. However, this can lead to a
significant loss of accuracy, and it can prevent the system from reaching the best possible NOx
conversion over a wide range of operating conditions.

A very prominent nonlinearity appears due to the cross-sensitivity of the NOx sensor to NH3. This
leads to an ambiguity, because elevated sensor readings could indicate excess NOx or excess NH3.
In extreme cases, this can destabilize the control system. The use of an NH3 sensor can help to avoid
this ambiguity, because the NH3 sensor is not sensitive to NO (although there is an issue with high
NO2 levels). From a control point of view, neither a perfect NOx sensor nor a perfect NH3 are
currently available.

The most important nonlinearity is dependent on the temperature of the catalyst. The interaction
between the different reactions means that SCR catalysts are only efficient within a certain
temperature window. The exact temperature limits depend on the catalyst technology and
parameters, but the general shape is surprisingly little affected, as shown in Figure 11. At low
temperatures, conversion is insufficient because the reaction rates are low (and injection may not be
possible due to potential deposits). At higher temperatures, desorption is so fast that it becomes
impossible to maintain sufficient NH3 coverage without excessive NH3 emissions.
 31

-Fig 11. Conversion over temperature

Finally, the system performance is not only dependent on the temperature, but also on the flow rate
(or space velocity).

Control Methods

The traditional control methods of SCR systems are considered first, followed by typical modern
control methods. The review then proceeds to advanced experimental methods, which have been
developed to meet expected future vehicle emissions legislation.

Traditional SCR Control Methods

The following section presents an overview of research within the field of traditional SCR control
methods. The principle of the open loop control strategy is simple and based on calculation of the
required amount of urea as a fraction of the estimated or measured NOx content in the exhaust gas,
and it is provided via a urea injector (see Figure 12). Due to the nature of open-loop control, it
cannot compensate for measurement errors, which means that errors in the required NH3 dosage
will accumulate in the catalyst and eventually lead to higher NOx or higher NH3 emissions of the
same order as the measurement error.

Open Loop Control

Still, open-loop approaches have proven to be sufficient to meet Euro-4 and Euro-5 emission
standards, with a conversion of 60%-80% being easily achievable. If operating conditions change
only slowly, open-loop controllers are an especially suitable solution to the SCR control design
problem.

On the other hand, the study in suggests that open-loop control cannot handle engine transient
exhaust gas conditions well, because the delay caused by the NH3 storage in the system is not
considered. Therefore, rapidly changing conditions necessitate the use of advanced closed-loop SCR
control techniques.
 32

-Fig 12. Open Loop Control Structure

Conventional PID Control

-Fig 13. Output Feedback Control Structure

Conventional controllers can be seen in most control systems of SCR after-treatment. They typically
follow an output feedback approach (see Figure 13), which can be combined with an additional feed
forward branch. A typical sensor/actuator pair would be NOx conversion to ammonia dosing, as
direct control of the tailpipe NOx concentration is not an appropriate control problem.

Although the results show that it works as expected, the output feedback approach is not entirely
convincing from a theoretical perspective. Because ammonia slip causes a sign reversal, the control
loop can easily become unstable at high conversion or when an excess of ammonia is present in the
catalyst. The basic control structure is only stable and feasible at low conversion where NH 3 slip is
rare. Even with gain scheduling, the control remains fragile.

To avoid this, an accurate way of slip detection is required, for example using a model of the SCR
system. This causes additional complexity similar to model based control, without providing the
benefits expected of modern systems in terms of clear structure and model-based design. There are
examples of early attempts to combine classical PI control with a model-based approach. The
benefit of this latter approach compared to a modern, observer based, approach is in its reduced
complexity, but this also means that the performance is less than ideal. Alternatively, a nonlinear
model of an SCR system can be used together with a PID control scheme with NH3 slip detection.

Slip Detection
 33

NH3 slip is the amount of NH3 released at the catalyst tailpipe. This can happen due to over-dosage
of NH3 beyond the capacity of the catalyst, or due to the faster desorption at higher temperatures.

This has three negative effects:

• It causes potentially harmful emissions

• It causes the loss of ammonia for the SCR reaction,

• It can also lead to erroneous readings from the NOx sensor due to cross sensitivity to NH3.

The cross sensitivity can cause a sign reversal in the system response, which can render classical
control unstable.

A typical extension of classical control is therefore a separate slip detection function, which will
identify a situation of excess tailpipe NH3 and reset the system by stopping urea dosing for a period
of time. There have been many studies focusing on the detection of NH3 slip.

They are typically model-based, and may use sensor information to improve the accuracy of the
detection. For example, a simple first order model is used for the NH 3 slip in a method. The NH3 slip
model gets activated when the NH3 storage on the catalyst is around 95% to 100% full, although it
is not clear whether this refers to percent coverage or another maximum level.

Other models proposed a model-based control system for SCR urea dosing that employed an
embedded real-time SCR model and an NH3 sensor. Furthermore, they demonstrated the potential
of an NH3 sensor for on-board diagnostics. Instead of an actual NH3 sensor, a model can be used for
determining reaction rates and NH3 emissions. However, it is to be expected that this kind of
forward simulation model is rather sensitive to disturbances and the accumulation of model errors.

Another patent proposes the use of a test signal (“wiggle test”) to determine the differential
response of the NOx sensor to changes in urea dosing. The change in response can be used to
resolve the sensor ambiguity and therefore to distinguish NH3 slip conditions from low NOx
conversion. However, this approach is limited to steady-state operation; otherwise the effect of NOx
volatility tends to dominant the slow response to urea dosing.

Adaptive Control

Several SCR control designs for automotive applications have been proposed in recent years that
use adaptive control. This can be considered a variation of a nonlinear estimator, but the analysis
and design is significantly different. The uncertainly is addressed in the controller, not in the
estimator, and usually a global stability analysis is performed for the design.

For instance, a patent proposed a closed loop PI controller, based on real time NH3 surface coverage
computations, and using NH3 sensor feedback. The advantage of adaptive control schemes is that
they can reduce the mismatch between the model and the actual system behavior by adjusting the
model parameters. An overview of further adaptive approaches can be found in Table 11.
 34

-Table 11. Examples of adaptive control techniques used in SCR system

Integrated Strategies

-Fig 14. An Integrated Control Structure

Many efforts have been made to simultaneously minimize both fuel consumption and emissions
from combustion engines. High NOx conversions within allowable NH3 slip limits are achieved by
separately controlling both the engine and SCR systems in response to varying operating
 35

conditions. The growing complexity of these two systems, due in turn to the growing number of
actuators, sensors, and sub-systems, make it a challenge to optimize the overall performance.

The calibration effort using basic tuning methods increases exponentially with the number of
actuators, which have been increasing significantly during the last decade. Therefore, maintaining
separate controls for the engine and after treatment systems is no longer considered to be practical
to meet future emission legislation, and an integrated control approach between the engine and
SCR is considered to be the way forward. The key difference is that the engine is now considered as
a part of the plant that is subject to control as shown in Figure 14.

Research in this area of Integrated Emission Management strategies is still in the development
phase and only limited publications on the interaction between engine and after treatment control
systems are found.

An example of such a strategy is presented by a patent. The structure of the proposed concept is
shown in Figure 15 below. The proposed strategy deployed a supervisory controller that would aim
at satisfying the commanded torque by determining the optimal combination of control moves
originating from the sub-controller level. To obtain an optimal balance between the control moves,
an overall objective function is developed that is minimized by taking into accounts all the
constraints and trade-offs.

Another example of a combined heavy duty diesel engine and SCR system is also presented. The
proposed optimization method is based on a Sequential Quadratic Programming (SQP) algorithm
and is claimed to have been successful in finding the instantaneous optimal balance between NOx
reduction across the combined engine-SCR system and engine fuel economy.

Recently, researchers have presented a new design of the Integrated Emission Management
strategy. The Integrated Emission Management functions as a supervisory controller, which
determines the desired control settings for the different low-level controllers using online
optimization.
 36

-Fig 15. Concept of an Integrated Emission Management Strategy

The greatest potential for the proposed Integrated Emission Management framework is in exploring
the trade-offs inherent in a closely connected system. Unlike the conventional approach of
separately optimizing components of the overall system individually without consideration for the
interactions, the global optimization approach can find a solution that is optimal for the whole
system. This makes it a strong contender for the next phase in Euro-VI engine and after treatment
calibration, with extension to other industrial applications.

DeNOx System with Secondary Injection

The key feature of the HMC DeNOx system is ‘a secondary injector’ located between a turbocharger
and a close-coupled converter as shown in Fig. 16. The HC (hydrocarbon) from the injector the
exhaust gas stream DeNOx-favorable, and then NOx is converted into N2 on the surface of catalyst.
In comparison with the usual LNT system controlled by engine (in-cylinder rich), the disadvantage of
the HMC DeNOx system which is difficult to produce more active DeNOx reductant, such as H2 and
CO, could be overcome by the combination of fine injection of HC and DFC (Diesel Fuel cracking
catalyst). On the other hand, there are lots of advantages such as no oil dilution, no transition
engine mapping for DeNOx (lean ↔ rich), good NVH and so on. The NEDC mode test of this DeNOx
system was done with a Euro 5 vehicle (ETW=1,810 kg, 143 kW, 430 N·m), which resulted in that the
 37

Euro 6 emission standards were met. The NOx and HC emission were, respectively, measured to be
0.059 g/km and 0.087 g/km with the hydrothermal aged catalysts, and CO2 was increased by < 4 %.

-Fig. 16. After-treatment system for Euro 6: DeNOx system with secondary injector

There are some candidate layouts of after treatment systems that can meet the Euro 6 standard.
Most of them use LNT or Urea-SCR, and DPF (Diesel Particulate Filter) is mandatory. The Urea-SCR
has higher NOx conversion efficiency than the LNT, while it is very expensive due to lots of
additional driving components such as Urea pump, tank, injector, NOx sensors, and mixer and so on.
Hence many vehicle manufacturers have preferentially considered the LNT as a Euro 6 after
treatment system.

Selection of DeNOx system layouts for EURO 6

According to the positions of LNT in the exhaust system, the LNT layouts are classified into two
types like a close coupled LNT (Figs. 17(a) and (b)) and a under floor LNT (Fig. 17(c)).

The former has low LOT (light-off temperature), which means that the LNT catalyst can be activated
in short time, but more severe thermal deterioration by DePM (soot regeneration) and DeSOx
(desulfation) is expected. It is closely related with low NOx reducing capability after aging. On the
other hand, the latter is less thermally degraded, but needs to be heated up at the beginning of cold
start. When the system layout is selected and fixed, it should also be considered how difficult other
applicable devices like LP EGR (Low Pressure Exhaust Gas Recirculation) can be adopt. In this view
point, the combination of close coupled LNT and under floor DPF (Fig. 17(a)) is not proper.

Consequently, the majority of motor companies have considered one of both closed coupled
LNT/DPF, and closed coupled DPF and under floor LNT as a solution for the Euro 6 after treatment.
 38

In order to reduce NOx adsorbed in the LNT, the AFR (air-fuel ratio) of the exhaust gas passing
through it should be frequently changed, such as lean to rich and rich to lean. It is controlled by
main injectors equipped at the cylinder block or an additional secondary injector located at the
exhaust pipe before the LNT. By means of the in-cylinder rich control by the main injectors plenty of
highly reactive reductants (H2 and CO) can be produced, while the transition between lean and rich
states is followed by torque fluctuation, worse NVH and drivability. However the AFR control by the
secondary injection does not completely affect vehicle drivability so as to be easier to apply to the
retrofit as well as already developed vehicles. But the liquid fuel is initially injected into the exhaust
gas, which leads to low NOx conversion efficiency.

-Fig 17. LNT layouts for Euro 6

-Table 12. Characteristics of secondary injectors

The present development concept is

1) To minimize the change or modification of hardware already established

2) To apply a new DeNOx system even to the retrofit easily

3) To ensure more than 2.0ℓ DeNOx catalyst volume.

Therefore the close coupled DFC/DPF and the under floor LNT with the secondary injector were
chosen. This layout had two drawbacks as discussed before, however, both would be overcome by:

1) Efficient FHU (fast heat-up) and

2) DFC to produce short chain HC and CO from the injected fuel.

 39

HMC DeNOx system

The present HMC DeNOx after treatment system is composed of a secondary injector, close coupled
DFC/DPF and a under floor DeNOx catalyst (HC-SCR/LNT) in order. In this section, the characteristics
of each component were investigated and examined through various engine dyno tests in detailed.
The R2.2 std. engine (I4, 2199 cc, 1800 bar common rail, compression ratio = 16.0) for Euro 5 was
used in this study and its maximum power and torque were 143 kW and 430 N·m.

Secondary Injector

Three different types of injectors were examined to decide the permissible ranges of spray
characteristics such as SMD (Sauter mean diameter), spray angle and spatial uniformity of fuel, of
which each injector were summarized in Table 12.

Based on the XM (R2.2 std., Euro 5, 6M/T) NEDC mode test results, two test conditions were set as
listed in Table 13, which were TLNC, in > 250 °C and O2 < ∼5 % necessary for reducing NOx in the
DeNOx catalyst. Under these conditions, the steady mode tests were done with an aged catalyst
equivalent to 160,000 km (X catalyst dealt with in the below section of ‘DeNOx Catalyst’) and the
fuel was supplied at the same flow rate, 1.19 g/s (P fuel = 4.0 bar, f operating = 30 Hz, number of
injection/cycle = 80 and time interval between cycles = 60 s), which was regulated by the pulse
width control. When each injector was used, the NOx conversion (%) and the average THC slip were
shown in Figs. 18 and 19. Generally, the NOx conversion efficiency becomes higher as the exhaust
gas temperature increases or the O2 concentration in the exhaust gas decreases (e.g., test condition
shift: 1,900 rpm → 2,000 rpm). With the injector “A,” the NOx conversion was worse from 1,900 rpm
to 2,000 rpm, which was contradictory to physics. Except this, the injector “C” showed the best
performance of NOx reduction (23-31 %).

And the THC slip that should be minimized was low, when the injectors “B” and “C” were adopt. Only
if ∼25 % NOx conversion is necessary, less amount of fuel can be used with the injector “C,” and the
THC slip and CO2 emission be lower.

-Table 13. Engine test conditions (steady)

 40

-Fig 18. NOx conversion according to each injector

-Fig 19. Average THC slip according to each injector

DeNOx Catalyst

In the present study, a new HC-SCR/LNT catalyst was introduced as a DeNOx catalyst, which had
two layers. At the lower one (LNT layer), were adsorbed in the typical diesel operating mode, and
the adsorbed NOx moved to the upper layer to be purified when HC was supplied by the
secondary injector (HC/NOx > 3∼5). Also by HC included in the engine-out gas, NOx in the exhaust
gas could be directly reduced on the upper HC-SCR layer.

In order to select the DeNOx catalyst that had high NOx conversion and was activated at lower
temperature, two hydrothermal aged catalysts were evaluated at three different exhaust
temperatures. The results were shown in Fig 20, which simply revealed that the catalyst “X” was
better than “Y” one at the whole test temperatures. Additionally, the THC slip was plotted with
 41

temperatures at the inlet of the DeNOx catalyst in Fig 21. It showed the same tendency: the THC slip
from the catalyst “X” was lower than that from “Y”

-Fig 20. NOx conversion efficiencies of two DeNOx catalysts according to their inlet temperatures

-Fig 21. THC slips of two DeNOx catalysts according to their inlet temperatures

Lean NOx Traps

Lean NOx traps adsorb and store NOx under lean conditions. A typical approach is to speed up the
conversion of nitric oxide (NO) to nitrogen dioxide (NO2) using an oxidation or three-way catalyst
mounted close to the engine so that NO2 can rapidly be stored as nitrate. The function of the NOx
storage element can be fulfilled by materials that are able to form sufficiently stable nitrates
within the temperature range determined by lean operating engine points. Thus especially
alkaline, alkaline earth and to a certain extent also rare-earth compounds can be used.
 42

When this storage media reaches its capacity, it must be regenerated. This is accomplished in
a NOx regeneration step. Unfortunately, alkaline and alkaline earth compounds have a strong
affinity for sulfation. As a consequence, alkaline and alkaline earth compounds are almost
irreversibly poisoned by the sulfur contained in the fuel during the NOx storage operation mode,
leading to a decrease in NOx adsorption efficiency.

The stored NOx is released by creating a rich atmosphere with injection of small amounts
of fuel. The rich running portion is of short duration and can be accomplished in a number of ways,
but usually includes some combination of intake air throttling, EGR, late ignition timing and post-
combustion fuel injection.

The release NOx is quickly reduced to N2 by reaction with CO (the same reaction that
occurs in three-way catalysts for spark-ignited engines) on a rhodium catalyst site or another
precious metal that is incorporated into this unique single catalyst layer.

-Fig 22. NOx adsorber system

Under oxygen rich conditions, the thermal dissociation of the alkaline and alkaline earth sulfates
would require temperatures above 1000°C. Such temperatures cannot be achieved under realistic
driving conditions. However, it has been demonstrated in various publications that it is in principle
possible to decompose the corresponding alkaline earth sulfate under reducing exhaust gas
conditions at elevated temperatures. In this way, the NOx storage capacity can be restored.

For engines less than 2.0 to 2.5 liters, NOx adsorbers may be more cost effective than SCR. Also,
mixed mode engines with reduced low-load NOx allow NOx adsorbers to focus on NOx emitted at
higher temperatures (> 350°C), more than half the precious metals might be removed, which
may make them economically attractive for light-duty applications with mixed-mode engines
of 5-6 liters. Also improved NOx adsorber formulations with greatly improved precious metal
dispersion, result in less PGM usage for better performance.

New Lean NOx Traps with High Sulfur Resistance

In this new LNT catalyst Barium is supported on one basic material, and Strontium is coated in the
whole catalyst with high dispersion. It shows higher NOx storage performance against conventional
LNT one even though 10g/L of sulfur was introduced to the catalysts.
 43

According to analysis results of new LNT catalyst after sulfur poisoning, it was found that sulfur was
mainly adsorbed on Strontium selectively, and then it formed sulfate compound as SrSO4. On the
other hand, another sulfate compounds could be hardly observed. And regarding Barium on basic
material some analysis measurement said that it has not only better NOx storage function, but also
better sulfur release function.

The assumption why new LNT catalyst has high sulfur resistance is that Strontium works like
scavenger effect against sulfur, therefore it enables to keep higher NOx storage performance by
Barium even if it contains much sulfur amount in the catalyst.

The results obtained were:

1). By combining Barium with basic materials X, it shows better NOx storage performance,
Temperature of sulfur release gets lower and the amount of sulfur is able to be released.

2). In case of Strontium, to exist in the whole catalyst with high dispersion shows better NOx storage
performance.

3). New LNT catalyst (BaO/X + SrO with high dispersion) shows better sulfur release and better NOx
storage performance, especially at more amount of sulfur poisoning. And better sulfur release from
lower temperature.

4). Sulfur is mainly existed at inlet position, so that it expects it shows much better sulfur resistance
even if more than 10g/L of sulfur introduces.

5). Sulfur is mainly existed at the same position as Strontium and forms SrSO4. Strontium works like
scavenger effect against sulfur therefore Barium is able to work as NOx storage material.

Low Pressure Exhaust Gas Recirculation

Exhaust gas Recirculation has been one of the best bets for the NOx reduction from ages and were
found very useful till EURO 5. The main reason for NOx is temperature in diesel engines as we have
abundance of Oxygen and Nitrogen already. As the temperature increases, the reaction between
oxygen and Nitrogen becomes strong. To summarize, NOx directly depends on the peak
temperature.

One way to reduce peak temperature is by reducing the combustion efficiency. Some impure gases
from exhaust manifold can be added to input air. This reduces the combustible air and reduces the
quality of combustion, thereby reducing the peak temperature.

But the exhaust gases are at temperature very high when compared to inlet temperatures, which
may raise the inlet air temperature again, making the peak temperature to rise. So this can only be
used to some extent until the temperature doesn’t shoot up.

Once we go to regulations like EURO 6, we get to increase the amount of recirculated gases and so
the peak temperatures increase in spite of decreasing. So what we can do is to reduce the
temperature of the exhaust before we input it into the inlet manifold.
 44

As we already know that in diesel engines, we have a DPF and a Turbo charger. Both of these
devices basically bring down the pressure and temperature in the exhaust gas. So in spite of taking
exhaust gas samples before these two devices, we can sample low pressure and temperature gas
from later these devices. This reduces NOx drastically and is also widely used now a days.

Of course, it reduces the torque, and also effects the acceleration as there may be some delays in
the whole process.

-Fig 23. Low Pressure EGR.

Some PM regulation techniques include

Diesel Particulate Filters

Particulate filters are generally used with diesel engines to remove diesel particulate matter (PM),
but in principle can be used with other types of engine/fuel combinations, although these produce
less particulate matter. Based on engine technology and application specificities, different filter
technologies may be used to reduce particles emissions.

Diesel Particulate Filters (DPFs) have been applied to production vehicles since 2000 and are now
standard equipment on most new diesel cars in Europe. Some buses and trucks meeting the Euro IV,
V and EEV (Enhanced Environmentally-friendly Vehicle) emissions standards are equipped with DPFs
 45

and most Euro VI heavy-duty vehicles are expected to be equipped with them so as to meet the PM
mass and particle number emissions requirements.

There is, as a result, quite an active field of development in regeneration optimization, substrates
materials and catalyst improvements plus developments in related On-Board Diagnostics.

Wall-Flow Filters

In the most common type – wall-flow filters – particulate matter is removed from the exhaust by
physical filtration using a honeycomb structure similar to an emissions catalyst substrate but with
the channels blocked at alternate ends. The exhaust gas is thus forced to flow through the walls
between the channels and the particulate matter is deposited as a soot cake on the walls. Such
filters are made of ceramic (cordierite, silicon carbide or aluminium titanate) honeycomb materials.

-Fig 24. Exhaust gas flow through a wall-flow filter channel.

Ceramic wall-flow filters remove almost completely the carbonaceous and metallic particulates,
including fine particulates of less than 100 nanometers (nm) diameter with an efficiency of >95% in
mass and >99% in number of particles over a wide range of engine operating conditions. The latest
European emissions limit values (i.e. Euro 5, 6 and VI) are set on the basis of both mass and number
counts to ensure control of the ultrafine particles, which are thought to be more critical indicators of
health impact.

Since the continuous flow of soot into the filter would eventually block it, it is necessary to
'regenerate' the filtration properties of the filter by burning-off the collected particulate on a regular
basis. The most successful methods to achieve regeneration include:

- Incorporating an oxidation catalyst upstream of the filter that operating as a conventional

oxidation catalyst also increases the ratio of NO2 to NO in the exhaust. NO2 provides a more
effective oxidant than oxygen and so provides optimum passive regeneration efficiency.

- Incorporating a catalytic coating on the filter to lower the temperature at which particulate burns.
New formulations and process development intend to lower backpressure and to substitute
platinum by palladium where ultra-low sulfur fuels are available. In, Pt/Pd formulations at a 3:1 ratio
had lower light-off temperature (the temperature at which the catalyst starts to work) than Pt-only
catalysts (240°C vs. 295°C) in the aged state, generated as much NO2 for passive soot oxidation, and
were resistant to sulfur contamination. In one investigation, platinum was completely substituted for
 46

palladium with use of a base metal catalyst. New formulations are using ceria or zirconia to make
the soot react directly with oxygen at the catalyst-soot interface. One paper shows a new zirconia-
based soot catalyst that transfers oxygen from the gas to the soot-catalyst interface for 70% faster
soot oxidation rates at 75°C lower temperatures. Enhanced versions based on ceria are showing
potential to oxidize soot at temperatures as low as 260°C with very little precious metal.

- Using very small quantities of Fuel-Borne Catalyst (FBC), such as ceria or iron additive compounds
added to the fuel using an on-board dosing system. The FBC, when collected on the filter as an
intimate mixture with the particulate, allows the particulate to burn at lower exhaust temperatures
(around 350°C instead of 650°C) and increases the combustion kinetic s (typically 2-3 minutes)
while the solid residues of the catalyst are retained on the filter as ashes. The third generation of
FBC is based on 3 ppm iron allowing a 1.7 liter tank to last the life of the vehicle (240000 km) and
requiring no process for ash cleaning.

-Fig 25. Fuel-borne catalyst dosing unit.

- Fuel injector placed in the exhaust line upstream of the DPF. This provides a source of
hydrocarbons to initiate the temperature rise for regeneration.

- Electrical heating of the trap either on or off the vehicle. Trapped particulate burns off at normal
exhaust temperatures using the powerful oxidative properties of NO2 and can burn in oxygen when
the temperature of the exhaust gas is periodically increased through post combustion. Maximum
exothermic temperatures must be controlled, especially in worst-case “drop-to-idle‟ conditions
when the soot combustion starts at high temperature and flow and then the engine drops to idle.
One study suggests that a Diesel Oxidation Catalyst is needed to get higher temperatures at the
inlet face of DPF to assist the first centimeters to regenerate.

As the understanding of DPF fundamentals has moved forward, a porous membrane can now be
added to the inlet wall so that soot is kept out of the wall. This improves filtration efficiency and
back -pressure, as well as the correlation between back -pressure and soot loading. This correlation
can be used for OBD purpose and for example, soot models using wall permeability algorithms have
been developed. Soot sensors may also be needed in the future. Sensor concepts are being tested
 47

and compared. Concepts include using charge transfer by soot from one charged plate to another
and using PM film electrical property measurement.

-Fig 26. Wall flow particulate filters.

Partial-Flow Filters

Diesel Partial-Flow Filters normally use a metallic substrate. The metallic partial-flow filter uses a
special perforated metal foil substrate with a metal 'fleece' layer so that the exhaust gas flow is
diverted into adjacent channels and the particles are temporarily retained in the fleece before being
burnt by a continuous reaction with the NO2 generated by an oxidation catalyst located upstream in
the exhaust. It offers an option for reducing PM emissions by 30-80% depending on filter size and
operating conditions.

-Fig 27. Diesel partial-flow filters.

Open Filters

So-called open filters are available in various materials from fibre-based to metallic “foams‟. “Open‟
filters do not have a storage function. Their efficiency is normally limited and they are usually used
in some retrofit applications.
 48

Diesel Particulate Filter + Heat Exchanger

Significant progress towards reducing diesel engine fuel consumption and emissions is possible
through the simultaneous Waste Heat Recovery (WHR) and Particulate Matter (PM) filtration in a
novel device described here as a Diesel Particulate Filter Heat Exchanger (DPFHX). This original
device concept is based on the shell-and-tube heat exchanger geometry, where enlarged tubes
contain DPF cores, allowing waste heat recovery from engine exhaust and allowing further energy
capture from the exothermic PM regeneration event.

The heat transferred to the working fluid on the shell side of the DPFHX becomes available for use
in a secondary power cycle, which is an increasingly attractive method of boosting powertrain
efficiency due to fuel savings of around 10 to 15%. Moreover, these fuel savings are proportional to
the associated emissions reduction after a short warm-up period, with startup emissions relatively
unchanged when implementing a WHR system.

In the DOC, heterogeneous surface reactions reduce hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide to CO2
and H2O. To accommodate these species conversions, a DOC features a honeycomb of channels,
which are coated with catalytic metals to lower the activation energy of the desired reactions. A
different type of flow network is found in the DPF, where a monolith of cordierite or silicon carbide
porous walls provides a compact way to achieve filtration of PM. Since alternating channels of the
DPF are blocked, all of the exhaust must pass through a porous wall before exiting the filter.

For this reason, standard DPF terminology specifies that flow enters an inlet channel and passes
through the porous wall into an outlet channel before finally exiting the DPF. As a result of this
filtration eliminating nearly 100% of PM emissions, DPF devices are currently the preferred industry
method for carbon capture in CI engine exhaust. After removal of PM in the DPF, Diesel Exhaust
Fluid (DEF) injection facilitates the SCR of NOx into H2O and N2 over a zeolite catalyst. Reported
conversion efficiencies around 90% establish SCR as the industry standard NOx abatement
technique.

Despite significant progress in reducing fuel consumption and hazardous emissions, the internal
combustion engine (ICE) continues to be plagued by the same challenges: increasingly low emission
limits, concerns over foreign oil, and high fuel prices. Looking towards the future, the potential for
CO2 standards requires further adaptation of the internal combustion engine. Unlike other harmful
emissions, CO2 is an inevitable result of combustion, requiring less fuel usage to reduce production.
For this reason, legislated CO2 limits will effectively mandate the improvement of engine thermal
efficiency when using carbon-based fuels. In contrast to LTC methodologies that are only possible at
lower engine loads, another option exists through Waste Heat Recovery (WHR) under all engine
operating regimes. In particular, around 60-70% of the fuel chemical energy is lost as waste heat
through the coolant or the exhaust. Hence, drawing from these resources can provide for a thermal
efficiency gain without requiring a wholesale change in engine operation.

The two primary sources of waste heat from an ICE are the engine exhaust (medium-grade) and
engine coolant (low-grade). Other options for heat recovery include the relatively smaller amounts
available from an EGR cooler and Charge Air Cooler (CAC). Despite both primary sources having
similar energy content, the higher temperature of the engine's exhaust makes it more
thermodynamically attractive when viewed from the perspective of exergy. This results in a higher
 49

theoretical efficiency gain when coupled to a heat engine. Among the available WHR methods, most
studies choose a Rankine cycle due to its simplicity, use of standard components, and efficient
operation with moderate temperature differences. A thorough review of the ICE WHR literature by
the authors describes historical ORC efforts and highlights a renewed interest in this WHR approach,
concluding that fuel economy improvements around 10% are a feasible outcome. Furthermore, the
component-based ORC modeling efforts, based on laboratory exhaust condition measurements,
further support ORC efficiency claims around 15%.

Of the previous WHR installations, the predominant energy recovery device has largely been
independent heat exchangers in the engine exhaust stream. However, we demonstrate here, the
creation of a combined evaporator and catalyst serving a dual purpose of energy recovery and
emissions abatement. To date, the authors have not discovered anything in the literature that
considers recovering heat by using a combined Diesel Particulate Filter and Heat Exchanger
(DPFHX). This promising WHR method modifies an existing after treatment device instead of
requiring the installation of an additional component in the exhaust stream.

This method focuses on the preliminary research of a novel combined DPFHX for simultaneous
reduction of emissions and fuel consumption, by using the DPFHX as the evaporator in an ORC. In
this concept, the DPFHX (see Figure 27) functions identically to a standard DPF except that the
device contains several small DPF cores instead of one large filter. To double as a heat exchanger, a
working fluid circulates inside the DPFHX shell and over the tubes containing the DPF cores,
receiving energy from the engine exhaust. Through coupling the DPFHX to an ORC, installation of
this device could result in a 10 to 15% savings in fuel consumption. Moreover, there is the potential
for further energy capture from the regeneration event, where rapid combustion of the PM
entrained releases a significant amount of thermal energy.

-Fig 28. Section view of theorized DPFHX based on shell-and-tube heat exchanger

In addition to the emissions and efficiency advantages of recovering heat during regeneration, the
device also has the potential to limit DPF core temperatures during PM combustion, reducing the
possibility of thermal cracking of the DPF. Thus, installation of a DPFHX system could decrease
premature failures of PM filtration devices, reducing maintenance costs and preventing damage to
the engine from excessive backpressure. This energy removal from the filter could allow less
 50

frequent regeneration events (higher soot loadings would not be as detrimental), requiring fewer
late fuel injection events to initiate regeneration resulting in an improvement of fuel economy.
Furthermore, insulation of the DPFHX and the potential to circulate a hot fluid around the DPF cause
the cores to remain at elevated temperatures through short shutdown periods to decrease warm-up
times, similar to the tactic adopted by Toyota in the Prius coolant system.

Insight into the heat transfer pathways for a DPFHX can be observed from an examination of the
DPFHX geometry in Figure 28. From a thermodynamic perspective, insulation of the DPFHX allows
maximum thermal extraction from the exhaust. Under these conditions, the amount of energy
leaving the exhaust is equal to the quantity entering the ORC working fluid.

-Fig 29. Detail view of the DPFHX highlighting stages of the heat transfer mechanism.

Examination of the specific heat transfer pathways within the DPFHX is possible by examining the
heat transfer resistor network of Figure 29. Heat transfer from the exhaust gas to the interior of the
tubes can occur following three pathways. The first method is direct convection between the flowing
gas and the tube, which is present only in the outermost DPF channels. An alternative avenue for
heating the tubes uses the intermediate of the DPF core, where convection from the exhaust gas to
the core occurs in the channels and porous wall, preceding radial conduction to the tube interior.
Further radial conduction from the tube interior to the tube exterior is the next heat transfer
process, and presumably occurs rather efficiently for metal tubes. Finally, the working fluid
contained between the DPFHX outer wall and the DPFHX inner tubes convects heat from the
exterior of the tubes. This convection causes significant thermal resistance in areas of the DPFHX
where the working fluid is in the liquid phase with much less resistance occurring if the ORC working
fluid is boiling (i.e., the convective heat transfer coefficient for a boiling working fluid is significantly
higher). Thus, heat transfer from the exhaust to the tube interior should be the predominant thermal
resistance when the ORC working fluid is boiling. Whereas, liquid convection may be comparable to
recovery within the tubes everywhere else, due to similar coefficients for heat transfer aided by the
DPF cores and slow fluid flow.

The shell side of the DPFHX represents a commonly studied portion of a shell-and-tube heat
exchanger, facilitating the estimation of heat transfer performance based on previous efforts.
 51

However, the heat transfer process occurring inside the tubes is relatively unknown, and valuable
insights are possible through construction of a DPFHX prototype and subsequent heat transfer
performance experiments.

-Fig 30. Resistor network illustrating the heat transfer mechanism of a DPFHX

Since the engine exhaust passes through the DOC before reaching the DPFHX, conversion
efficiencies for HC and CO are unaffected during and after startup. Therefore, these emissions are
reduced in proportion to the fuel consumption improvement with the DPFHX-ORC system. In the
experiments conducted, a non-catalyzed DPF core was utilized in the DPFHX; therefore, the only
change in emissions through this device would be via the standard PM storage mechanisms.
Because of the prototype nature of the setup and need to provide a switching mechanism for the
AVL Smoke Meter in the authors' laboratory, PM measurements were not taken across the device.

DPF cores provide around 20% higher heat transfer coefficients than standard tubes. Alterations to
the DPFHX design that could improve the overall performance include using silicon carbide DPF
cores instead of cordierite due to superior conductivity. On the shell side, a number of different
convection enhancing features could be incorporated, such as finned tubes to increase surface area
or baffles to produce more cross-flow. With respect to managing temperatures during regeneration,
the use of bellows to reduce thermal stresses could improve the durability of the final product.

In this situation, the primary emissions concern becomes the reduction of NOx in the presence of
reduced exhaust temperatures coming from the DPFHX. A researcher suggest that 90% conversion
efficiencies are achieved by Fe-ZSM-5 from 350-500°C and similar performance is observed for Cu-
ZSM-5 from 250-350°C, while a combined catalyst will provide NO reduction over a wide
temperature range. Confirmation of this suggestion is found in the work of Krocher and Elsener in
 52

the same year, where combinations including vanadia catalysts are also evaluated. As an alternative,
Pt-ZSM-5 catalysts using propylene injection have been shown to convert almost 80% of NO at
140°C.

Therefore, NOx conversion may be possible at temperatures well below standard engine exhaust
levels and this is a current avenue of research. Furthermore, adjustment of the ORC working fluid
mass flow rate can occur in order to maintain a higher outlet gas temperature.

As a result, the final design of a diesel after treatment system featuring a DPFHX should also
consider placing the SCR system upstream of a DPFHX. In this configuration, the NOx reduction
efficiency will be unaffected and the overall nitrogen oxide emissions will decrease in the same
manner as HC and CO. However, initiation of the regeneration event for the DPFHX will be affected
and will need to be considered. As an alternative to late fuel injection events, actively heating the
DPF cores could provide further control. The final emissions species to examine are CO2 and PM. As
expected, the change in carbon dioxide emissions is proportional to the fuel consumption decrease,
which starts out as zero and increases after the DPFHX reaches operational temperatures. Even after
the DPFHX heats up, filtration of PM must occur at reduced temperature levels. However, these
conditions will not harm the PM collection efficiency because the filtration mechanisms are primarily
mechanical in nature.

Modification of engine operation for higher loading events simply involves fewer periods of post
combustion fuel injection events, allowing more of the fuel's chemical energy to go towards power
generation, instead of being utilized to heat the filter. With respect to cost, the DPFHX concept
requires additional expense when compared to an after treatment system without WHR, due to the
DPFHX being more complex than a standard DPF. However, when incorporating WHR the DPFHX
would be more affordable than a separate DPF and heat exchanger.

Some of this advantage results from the large tubes within the DPFHX generating fewer joints than
standard heat exchangers. Also, the cost of large numbers of small tubes tends to exceed a small
number of large tubes. In addition to the DPFHX, the other three ORC components (expander,
condenser, and pump) must be included for conversion of waste heat to usable power. With three
of the four ORC components being unchanged and the DPFHX's cost advantage described
previously, the cost-benefit analysis of the DPFHX-ORC system resembles that of an ORC. While the
annual miles traveled and engine size influence the payback period, under normal circumstances the
additional expense of an ORC (or DPFHX-ORC) may be offset in 2-3 years through fuel savings. After
this period of recuperating the additional up-front cost, the consumer retains the 10-15% fuel
savings.

HC emission regulation techniques include-

Crankcase ventilation system

A crankcase ventilation system is a one way passage for gases to escape in a controlled manner
from the crankcase of an internal combustion engine. This is necessary because internal combustion
inevitably involves a small but continual amount of blow-by, which occurs when some of the gases
from the combustion leak past the piston rings (that is, blow by them) to end up inside the
crankcase.
 53

Road draft tube

The first refinement in crankcase ventilation was the road draft tube, which is a pipe running from a
high location contiguous to the crankcase (such as the side of the engine block, or the valve cover
on an overhead valve engine) down to an open end facing down and located in the vehicle's
slipstream. When the vehicle is moving, airflow across the open end of the tube creates a draft that
pulls gases out of the crankcase. The high location of the engine end of the pipe minimizes liquid oil
loss. An air inlet path to the crankcase, called the breather and often incorporated into the oil filler
cap, meant that when a draft was generated at the tube, fresh air swept through the crankcase to
clear out the blow-by gases.

The road draft tube, though simple, has shortcomings: it does not function when the vehicle is
moving too slowly to create a draft, so postal and other slow-moving delivery vehicles tended to
suffer rapid buildup of engine sludge due to poor crankcase ventilation. And non-road vehicles such
as boats never generated a draft on the tube, no matter how fast they were going. The draft tube
discharged the crankcase gases, composed largely of unburnt hydrocarbons, directly into the air.
This created pollution as well as objectionable odors. Moreover, the draft tube could become
clogged with snow or ice, in which case crankcase pressure would build and cause oil leaks and
gasket failure.

Positive crankcase ventilation (PCV)

During World War II a different type of crankcase ventilation had to be invented to allow tank
engines to operate during deep fording operations, where the normal draft tube ventilator would
have allowed water to enter the crankcase and destroy the engine. The PCV system and its control
valve were invented to meet this need, but no need for it on automobiles was recognized.

-Fig 31. Typical PCV Valve

In 1952, Professor A. J. Haagen-Smit, of the California Institute of Technology at Pasadena,

postulated that unburned hydrocarbons were a primary constituent of smog, and that gasoline
powered automobiles were a major source of those hydrocarbons. After some investigation by the
GM Research Laboratory (led by Dr. Lloyd L. Withrow), it was discovered in 1958 that the road draft
 54

tube was a major source—about half—of the hydrocarbons coming from the automobile. GM's
Cadillac Division, which had built many tanks during WWII, recognized that installation of PCV on
vehicles could bring the first major reduction in automotive hydrocarbon emissions. After
confirming the PCV valve's effectiveness at hydrocarbon reduction, GM offered the PCV solution to
the entire U.S. automobile industry, royalty free, through its trade association, the Automobile
Manufacturers Association (AMA). The PCV system thus became the first real vehicle emissions
control device. PCV quickly became standard equipment on all vehicles worldwide because of its
benefits not only in emissions reduction but also in engine internal cleanliness and oil lifespan.

In the decades since, legislation and regulation of vehicular emissions has tightened substantially,
and the toxic emissions of cars and light trucks have decreased substantially. Today's petrol engines
continue to use PCV systems.

The PCV valve is only one part of the PCV system, which is essentially a variable and calibrated air
leak, whereby the engine returns its crankcase combustion gases to the air intake. Instead of the
gases being vented to the atmosphere, gases are fed back into the intake manifold, to re-enter the
combustion chamber as part of a fresh charge of air and fuel. The PCV system is not a classical
"vacuum leak". All the air collected by the air cleaner (and metered by the mass flow sensor, on a
fuel injected engine) goes through the intake manifold. The PCV system just diverts a small
percentage of this air via the breather to the crankcase before allowing it to be drawn back into the
intake tract again. It is an "open system" in that fresh exterior air is continuously used to flush
contaminants from the crankcase and into the combustion chamber.

The system relies on the fact that, while the engine is running under light load and moderate
throttle opening, the intake manifold's air pressure is always less than crankcase air pressure. The
lower pressure of the intake manifold draws air towards it, pulling air from the breather through the
crankcase (where it dilutes and mixes with combustion gases), through the PCV valve, and into the
intake manifold.

The PCV system usually consists of the 'breather tube' and the 'PCV valve'. The breather tube
connects the crankcase to a clean source of fresh air—the air cleaner body. Usually, clean air from
the air filter flows into this tube and into the engine after passing through a screen, baffle, or other
simple system to arrest a flame front, to prevent a potentially explosive atmosphere within the
engine crank case from being ignited from a back-fire into the intake manifold. The baffle, filter, or
screen also traps oil mist, and keeps it inside the engine.

Once inside the engine, the air circulates around the interior of the engine, picking up and clearing
away combustion byproduct gases, including a large amount of water vapor which includes
dissolved chemical combustion byproducts, then exits through another simple baffle, screen, or
mesh to trap oil droplets before being drawn out through the PCV valve, and into the intake
manifold. On some PCV systems, this oil baffling takes place in a discrete replaceable part called the
'oil separator'.

Also reduction of CO2 emissions have gained voice today because of increased global warming. The
only way to reduce CO2 emissions in an IC engines is to reduce the fuel consumption or increase the
thermal efficiency. New injection patterns and new injector constructions have been in the field sice
people started stringent emissions.
 55

Next Generation Fuel Injector

Delphi Diesel Systems (DDS) - Heavy Duty Business is developing a new range of Ultra High
Pressure Common Rail Fuel Injectors with the functionality to allow the combustion heat release to
be heavily adapted during operation. This allows the injector performance to be simultaneously
optimized across a broad range of engine conditions, removing the constraints of having to select a
single rate shape type for all operating conditions. This new technology range builds on the
performance of Delphi's 2700 bar Fuel Systems of F2E, F2P and F2R, whilst adding in new levels of
injector control, beyond what is available in the current market. In addition to this new functionality,
Delphi's new Heavy Duty Injector range also demonstrates greatly reduced leakage and improved
accuracy of fuel control.

Types of Rate Control Strategies for Future Combustion

There are a range of possible future combustion strategies that can be used to achieve future
legislated emissions and fuel efficiency levels. These different strategies can address the demand for
different powertrain packages that are tailored to best suit particular markets. Different trade-offs of
cost, fuel efficiency, weight, available space and vehicle complexity are required. One key example
being the variation in adoption of Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) and Selective Catalytic Reduction
(SCR) for NOx control. These variations in NOx control approach have a significant impact on the
combustion strategy, driving a need for flexibility from the FIE, in terms of injection pressure and
injection rates. Figure 31 highlights the range of engine out emissions and EATS permutations being
utilized in HD applications and developments today.

-Fig 32. Trends in Emissions Control, incorporating Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) and Selective
Catalytic Reduction (SCR)
 56

The FIE is one of the most important components of the overall combustion system. By offering
precisely controllable variation in the way the fuel is introduced to the air in the engine, the FIE can
enable optimization of the combustion process.

To date, development of FIE has been largely focused on making higher pressure available to the
injection spray holes, which can improve the way that the fuel mixes with the air in the combustion
chamber. The availability of extremely high pressure is still important for some combustion
strategies, such as those using very high EGR rates. Here high injection pressure is required to
achieve sufficient spray momentum and vapour penetration for efficient air-fuel mixing, in order to
prevent excess soot formation in a high charge density environment.

Another FIE development focus has been on control of the rate of injection with respect to time
during the injection, normally referred to as “rate shaping”. Precise control of the instantaneous rate
of injection can be used to modify the combustion heat release profile, enabling the combustion
process to be optimized with respect to specific noise or NOx emission targets.

Pulsed Rate

One approach to rate shaping is to split the conventional injection period into multiple smaller
periods of injection, such that the fuel is injected in pulses, Figure 32. Multiple discrete injections
have been used in this fashion extensively and to great effect in the past, but the traditional limits to
use are the minimum fuel quantity that can be injected and the minimum time between successive
injections (commonly termed the ‘dwell time’). These limits, along with the difficulty of controlling
the FIE to give a reliable and stable injection pattern have constrained the practical use of this
approach.

If the minimum quantity of fuel that can be injected can be reduced sufficiently, and the time
between the end of one injection and the start of the next can be reduced accordingly, then the
scope for this type of discrete pulse rate shaping can be extended considerably.

-Fig 33. Pulsed Rate Shaping

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Shaped Rate

Another approach to rate shaping is to vary the rate of injection continuously during a single
injection. This is especially important at the start of injection for NOx control, Figure 33. One way of
achieving this is to vary the injector line pressure during injection. This is employed by some
systems, but is difficult to control for a wide variation of injection rate shapes and tends to lead to
hydraulic inefficiencies (due to the fundamental method of raising and lowering the fuel pressure
within the injector).

Another way of achieving continuous rate shaping is to control the motion of the injector nozzle
needle during injection, which is followed by Delphi. Using this approach it is possible to realize a
wide variety of freely selectable injection rate shapes. The small masses of the moving parts and the
close proximity of all functional components within the compact design enable fast and responsive
control of injection rate.

-Fig 34. Example of Rate Shaping at the Start of Injection

Control Valve Technology Requirements

The pulsed rate shaping demands of smallest controllable injection quantities and minimum
possible separation between injections, drive towards a miniaturization of the FIE component
design. The Nozzle Control Valve (NCV), its electromagnetic actuator, and the needle control
chamber all benefit from improved responsiveness if made smaller.

The additional future combustion demands of ultra-high pressure capability and low usage/loss of
pressurized fuel for high hydraulic efficiency are mutually compatible with the miniaturization of the
FIE components.

Next Generation Delphi Heavy Duty Injector Design

The next generation of Delphi diesel fuel injector takes the evolution of reduced leakage and fast
response a stage further than for the Euro VI injector, thereby enabling operational pressures in
excess of 3000 bar and controllable multiple injection at this pressure. The balanced valve concept
ensures good seat sealing, whilst still enabling a rapid response associated with a low mass control
valve. The key to this is a significantly smaller control valve and a very short hydraulic path between
 58

the control valve and the end of the needle, which guarantees the fast response and good hydraulic
efficiency. The patented arrangement is shown in Figure 34.

-Fig 35. Construction of the compact control valve concept

Hydraulic Efficiency

Total Leakage

Figure 35 shows the total leakage of high pressure fuel from the injector as a function of pressure.
The leakage shown is for a single high quantity injection, and includes static leakages and switching
losses.

-Fig 36. Total leakage as a function of pressure

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The static leakage with the new injector is low enough to ensure negligible penalty in operation at
pressures up to 3600 bar. This development means that it is worth revisiting the options of using
high rail pressure with EGR for achieving optimal engine out NOx and good fuel economy.

The ability to utilize high rail pressure combined with an EGR approach to NOx reduction, is
particularly relevant when the impact of Real Driving Environment (RDE) emissions are considered.
Here the option to control NOx generation in cylinder, when exhaust gas and EATS system
temperatures are below optimum for NOx conversion efficiency, presents a potential benefit.

Switching Losses

Another potential cause of hydraulic inefficiency is the quantity of high pressure fuel that is used in
order to control the needle motion. This quantity will tend to increase with the number of discrete
injections and is commonly referred to as the switching loss.

It can be inferred from Figure 36 that switching losses for this injector are also very low.

-Fig 37. Switching loss as a function of the number of injections

Figure 36 shows the results of a test used to confirm this. The number of injections was increased
successively from 1 to 7 or 9. It can be seen that the DFI 5 injector has approximately 8mm3
switching loss associated with each injection, whilst the more compact design of the DFI 21 injector
has less than 2mm3 switching loss per injection.

These results show that there is a much reduced hydraulic efficiency penalty associated with running
multiple injection strategies, whatever emissions control method is preferred. This reduction in
parasitic losses would also be a benefit to current combustion strategies in use today.

Engine Efficiency Results

Figure 37 provides confirmation that the DFI 21 injector design has very low leakage when fitted to
a multi cylinder Euro VI heavy duty engine. The total leakage for 6 injectors running on diesel is as
 60

expected approximately 6 times that for a single injector on the test bench. The relative difference
between the new injector and the DFI 5 injector is also similar to that seen on the test bench.

-Fig 38. Leakage and temperature results for 6 cylinder engine

The lower graph shows the temperature of the back leak fuel coming out of the cylinder head. It can
be seen that the new injector has a back leak temperature close to the engine water temperature
(85 °C), whilst the back leak temperature from the DFI 5 injector is rising significantly above the
water temperature, as pressure is increased. The difference in response is due to the improved
hydraulic efficiency of the DFI 21 injector.

Multiple Injection

Rig Test Results

Figure 38 shows the inherent stability of multiple injections by overlaying results for all pressures
from 400 bar to 2400bar. The same electrical waveform for demand and separation was used at all
pressures. This stability comes from the details of the design concept; the balanced control valve,
small control volume, significant volume in the injector above the nozzle and carefully specified
force characteristics on the nozzle needle.

-Fig 39. 8 pilot injections at a range of rail pressures

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Engine Combustion Results

Continuing on from the above hydraulic performance assessment, in-house emissions &
performance testing on Single Cylinder Engines (SCE) and Multi Cylinder Engines (MCE) was carried
out. Performance comparisons of existing combustion strategies and those possible with the next
generation hardware were the main focus. Tests showed that the enhanced multiple injection
quantity stability and low separation capability of the DFI 21 injector makes more extensive use of
multiple pulsed injection feasible.

-Fig 40. Pulsed pilot cylinder pressure optimization

Initial pulsed rate performance screening activities produced significant benefits in terms of
combustion noise and Particulate mass (Pm) reductions. This was primarily achieved through
enhanced pulsed pilot and post injection strategy optimization, utilizing up to 8 pilot or post
injection events. The cylinder pressure and instantaneous Rate of Heat Release (RoHR) curves, Figure
39, for a mid-load non-EGR combustion configuration highlight the potential benefits of this pulsed
rate scenario. The cylinder pressure curve clearly shows the benefits of pulsed pilot injection in
smoothing of the cylinder pressure rise rate (dP/dθ), resulting in a 6dB(A) combustion noise
reduction.

Optimization activity is continuing with pulsed pilots and posts in an effort to make further gains on
a NOx/BSFC trade-off; an area that is particularly relevant with today’s trend towards low, or no EGR
combustion strategies. Figure 40 details the improvements in combustion efficiency, in terms of
Indicated Specific Fuel Consumption (ISFC) and soot oxidation benefits with the addition of 3 pulsed
post injections. Precise control and stability of the individual post pulse quantities and separations is
critical to achieving this scenario without promoting excess soot formation.
 62

The DFI 21 3-way valve configuration help this ISFC benefit translate directly to a measured Brake
Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC) benefit, thanks to its inherent low static leakage and switching
losses.

-Fig 41. Soot & BSFC benefits from pulsed post optimization on a Single Cylinder Engine

Increasing peak injection pressure is a combustion optimization tool, which has been established
over several decades as a method of reducing soot emissions. The improved fuel mixing due to high
injection pressure to particularly relevant in situations where significant EGR rates are employed for
NOx control.

When operating under high EGR conditions (Engine out NOx <2g/kWh) clear benefits are seen in
both soot and ISFC reductions with increasing injection pressure. Traditionally this ISFC benefit is
negated by ever increasing parasitic losses from the FIE when operating at extreme pressures.

Figure 41 highlights the soot reduction benefits of increasing from 1600 to 3500 bar rail pressure
over a range of EGR rates & engine out NOx levels. In this case the low leakage of the DFI 21
injector allows the utilization of 3500 bar rail pressure, resulting in soot reductions at low NOx levels
(<2g/kWh).

At very low NOx levels it can be seen that the improvements in ISFC resulting from the improved
air-fuel mixing outweigh the increased parasitic loads, leading to a BSFC improvement. At higher
 63

engine out NOx levels the soot reduction and ISFC benefits of elevated pressure quickly diminish,
highlighting the importance of optimizing rail pressure calibration in relation to EGR levels and
engine out NOx targets.

-Fig 42. Soot and ISFC benefit of elevated injection pressure under high EGR conditions on a Single
Cylinder Engine

Future Injector Concept - DFI 7

Design

The extensive miniaturization associated with the DFI 21 injector now allows a 2nd control valve to be
packaged within the same injector envelope that is used currently on DFI-5 (Delphi's current Heavy
Duty fuel injector for Euro VI and US13 emission levels), Figure 42.

The concept draws on Delphi’s E3 twin-valve unit injector, which enabled fine tuning of injection
pressure on a shot to shot basis. This is combined with the high efficiency precision multiple
injection and low noise common rail system to produce a new injector, DFI 7, that can take rate
shaping and combustion control a stage further.
 64

-Fig 43. DFI 5 injector envelope and the new DFI 7 concept, which fits into the same pocket

The design of the DFI 7 allows the concept of pulsed rate shaping to be extended to give near zero
separation between injections and to allow continuous uninterrupted rate shapes starting at
relatively low rate, progressing to maximum rate within a short period, to enable full rate end of
injection even at part load.

The optimum choice of injection rate will be possible not only within combustion cycles, but also
between the different injection events of one cycle (pilots main and posts).

Simulation Results

Detailed simulation has identified many rate shaping possibilities with the prototype concept. Figure
43, shows one example with an initial injection rate targeted at approximately 30% of maximum.

The simulation used a 1D physical model of an Accumulator Pipe-Injector system. Injector

geometries are modelled, as well as pressure wave activity within the Accumulator, Pipe and Injector.
The effect of a real-world rate gauge on the measured injector rate signal is also simulated. Only a
single injector is modelled within the system, making it equivalent to a Single Cylinder Injector Test
Rig.

According to simulation the new injector will have better control stability than the current DFI 5 as
the transition from low to high rate can be precisely controlled. This precise control also lends itself
to closed loop combustion control via a cylinder pressure sensor.

The potential of zero dwell multiple injection has also been identified in the simulation results, as
shown in Figure 44. In this example two small pilots with very close separation are followed by a full
rate main injection. Zero dwell is achievable because the DFI-7 injector includes 2 control valves for
the nozzle, meaning that the scheduling of valve operations can be overlapped, reducing the effect
of valve travel times and hydraulic delay on the needle motion.
 65

-Fig 44. Progressive controlled rate shaping

Simulation of pilot separation shows that the new control method produces much more stable
injections at these close separations than the DFI 5 and DFI 21 injectors discussed earlier.

-Fig 45. Simulation of zero separation multiple injection

 66

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