MODULE 1

BOLTED CONNECTIONS
INTRODUCTION

The purpose of design of any civil engineering structure is that the structure shall fit its purpose,
safe, economical and durable. Safety of a structure is affected due to uncertainty about loading,
uncertainty about material strength and uncertainty about structural dimensions and behaviour.

In the method of design based on limit state concept, the structure shall be designed to withstand
safely all loads liable to act on it throughout its life; it shall also satisfy the serviceability
requirements, such as limitations on deflection and cracking. The acceptable limit for the safety
and serviceability requirements before failure occurs is called a ‘limit state’. The aim of design is
td achieve acceptable probabilities that the structure will not become unfit for the use for which
it is intended, that is, that it will not reach a limit state. All relevant limit states shall be
considered in design to ensure an adequate degree of safety and serviceability. In general, the
structure shall be designed on the basis of the most critical limit

In general, limit state of strength and limit state of serviceability are considered at the design
stage. Limit state of strength refers to loss of equilibrium of the structure and loss of stability of
the structure. Limit state of serviceability refers to the limits on acceptable performance of the
structure. Limit state of strength includes strength (yield, buckling), stability against overturning
and sway, fracture due to fatigue, plastic collapse and brittle fracture. . Limit state of
serviceability includes deflection, vibration, fatigue checks (including reparable damage due to
fatigue), corrosion and fire.

PARTIAL SAFETY FACTOR

In limit state method of design, one partial factor safety 𝛾𝑓 is used for loads and another partial
factor of safety 𝛾𝑚 is used for material. Partial factor of safety for loads account for:
a) Possibility of unfavorable deviation of the load from the characteristic value,
b) Possibility of inaccurate assessment of the load,
c) Uncertainty in the assessment of effects of the load, and
d) Uncertainty in the assessment of the limit states being considered.
The loads or load effects shall be multiplied by the relevant 𝛾𝑓 factors, given in Table 4 of
IS800-2007, to get the design loads or design load effects.

Partial safety factor for materials𝛾𝑚 , account for:

a) Possibility of unfavorable deviation of material strength from the characteristic value,
b) Possibility of unfavorable variation of member sizes,
c) Possibility of unfavorable reduction in member strength due to fabrication and tolerances,
d) Uncertainty in the calculation of strength of the members
The design strength is calculated by dividing ultimate strength with 𝛾𝑚 given in Table 5 of
IS800
It should be noted that 𝛾𝑓 makes allowance for possible deviation of loads and the reduced
possibility of all loads acting together. On the other hand 𝛾𝑚 allows for uncertainties of element
behaviour and possible strength reduction due to manufacturing tolerances and imperfections in
the material.

LIMIT STATE OF SERVICEABILITY

As stated in IS: 800, Serviceability Limit State is related to the criteria, governing normal use.
Serviceability limit state is limit state beyond which service criteria, specified below, are no
longer met:

a) Deflection Limit
b) Vibration Limit
c) Durability Consideration
d) Fire Resistance

The deflection under serviceability loads of a building or a building component should be such
that, they do not impair the strength of the structure or components or cause damage to finishing.
Deflections are to be checked for the most adverse but realistic combination of service loads and
their arrangement, by elastic analysis, using appropriate load factors. Table 6 of IS800 gives
recommended limits of deflections for certain structural members and systems.

As per IS: 800, suitable provisions in the design are required to be made for the dynamic effects
of live loads, impact loads and vibration due to machinery operating loads. In severe cases
possibility of resonance, fatigue or unacceptable vibrations shall be investigated. Unusually
flexible structures (generally the height to effective width of lateral load resistance system
exceeding 5:1) need to be investigated for lateral vibration under dynamic wind loads.
Durability or Corrosion resistance of a structure is generally, under conditions relevant to their
intended life as are listed below:

a) The environment
b) The degree of exposure
c) The shape of the member and the structural detail
d) The protective measure
e) Ease of maintenance
Fire resistance of a steel member is a function of its mass, its geometry, the actions to which it is
subjected, its structural support condition, fire protection measures adopted and the fire to which
it is exposed.

Advantages of steel structure:

 High strength to weight ratio.
 Speedy errection
 Long service life because of high homogenous strength and density properties of steel.
  Easy handling, , transportation, fabrication, inspection and replacement
 Gas and water tight joints
 Assured quality and high durability
 Recyclable and more scarp value.
Disadvantages of steel structure:

 Steel member ate suspectable to corrosion.

 Steel members are costly.
 Maintenance cost is more
 At high temperature, strength will reduce and leads to failure

Stress Strain relationship for mild steel

Uniform plastic Non-uniform plastic

f

fy 0.2% proof stress

Elastic Fracture

0.2% strain

y

Fig. 2 Stress strain curve for continuously yielding structural steels

Different types of rolled steel sections available to be used in steel structures

 Rolled steel beam section

  Rolled steel channel section
 Rolled steel T-section
 Rolled steel angle section
 Rolled steel bars
 Rolled steel tubes
 Rolled steel flats
 Rolled steel sheets and stripe
 Rolled steel plates
The designation, weight and geometric properties of rolled steel sections are available in steel
table.

Bolted Connections
Types of bolts: a) Bearing bolts/Ordinary bolts/ Black bolts
b) High strength friction grip (HSFG) bolts

Bearing bolts/Ordinary bolts/ Black bolts

Black bolts are unfinished and are made of mild steel and are usually of Grade 4.6. Black bolts
have adequate strength and ductility when used properly. The diameter of the hole is about 1.5 to
2.0 mm larger than the bolt diameter for ease in fitting. High strength black bolts (grade 8.8) may
also be used in connections in which the bolts are tightened snug fit. The main disadvantage of
bearing type of bolted connections is that the elements undergo some slip even under a small
shear, before being able to transfer force by bearing. This is due to clearance between the bolts
and the holes. Such a slip causes increased flexibility in the lower ranges of load and unexpected
joint behaviour in some situations. In such cases high strength friction grip (HSFG) bolts are
used.

HSFG bolts
HSFG bolts are made from quenched and tempered alloy steels with grades from 8.8 to 10.9. The
10.9 grade have a much higher tensile strength, but lower ductility and the margin between the
0.2% yield strength and the ultimate strength is also lower.

The HSFG bolts are expensive both from material and installation points of view. They require
skilled labour and effective supervision. Due to their efficient force transfer mechanism they
have become very popular recently. Moreover, their performance is superior under cyclic
loading compared to other forms of jointing.

FORCE TRANSFER MECHANISM

The force transfer mechanism under shear is as shown in Fig. 2(a). The force is transferred by
bearing between the plate and bolts at the bolt holes. The bolts experience single or double shear
depending upon the plate configuration. The failure may be either by shearing of the bolts or
bearing of the plate and the bolt. The transfer of tension by black bolts and HSFG bolts is shown
in Fig
Bearing bolts [Cl: 10.3]

In connections made with bearing type of bolts, the behaviour is linear until i) yielding takes
place at the net section of the plate under combined tension and flexure or ii) shearing takes
place at the bolt shear plane or iii) failure of bolt takes place in bearing, iv) failure of plate takes
place in bearing and v) block shear failure occurs
Shear capacity of Bolts [Cl: 10.3.3]
The design strength of the bolt, Vdsb, as governed shear strength is given by
𝑉𝑛𝑠𝑏
𝑉𝑑𝑠𝑏 =
𝛾𝑚𝑏
𝑉𝑛𝑠𝑏 = Nominal shear capacity of a bolt, calculated as follows:
𝑓𝑢𝑏
𝑉𝑛𝑠𝑏 = (𝑛𝑛 𝐴𝑛𝑏 + 𝑛𝑠 𝐴𝑠𝑏 )𝛽𝑙𝑗 𝛽𝑙𝑔 𝛽𝑝𝑘
√3
𝑓𝑢𝑏 = ultimate tensile strength of a bolt
𝑛𝑛 = number of shear planes with threads intercepting the shear plane
𝑛𝑠 = number of shear planes without threads intercepting the shear plane
𝐴𝑠𝑏 = nominal plain shank area of the bolt
𝐴𝑛𝑏 = net shear area of the bolt at threads, may be taken as the area corresponding to root
diameter at the thread
𝛾𝑚𝑏 = Partial safety factor for bolted connection with bearing type bolts
𝛽𝑙𝑗 = Reduction factor for long joints [Cl: 10.3.3.1]
𝛽𝑙𝑔 = Reduction factor for large grip length [Cl: 10.3.3.2]
𝛽𝑝𝑘 = Reduction factor due to packing plates [Cl: 10.3.3.3]

Bearing strength of Bolts [Cl: 10.3.4]

The design bearing strength of a bolt on any plate, 𝑉𝑑𝑝𝑏 , as governed by bearing is given by
𝑉𝑛𝑝𝑏
𝑉𝑑𝑝𝑏 =
𝛾𝑚𝑏
𝑉𝑛𝑝𝑏 = Nominal bearing strength of a bolt, calculated as follows:
𝑉𝑛𝑝𝑏 = 2.5𝐾𝑏 𝑑𝑡𝑓𝑢
𝑒
3𝑑0
𝑝
− 0.25
𝐾𝑏 = 3𝑑0 𝐾𝑏 is taken as the smaller values of all
𝑓𝑢𝑏
𝑓𝑢
{ 1.0

𝑒, 𝑝 = End and pitch distances of the fastener along bearing direction

𝑑0 = Diameter of the hole
𝑓𝑢𝑏 , 𝑓𝑢 = Ultimate tensile stress of the bolt and the ultimate tensile stress of the plate,
respectively
𝑑= Nominal diameter of the bolt
𝑡= Summation of the thicknesses of the connected plates experiencing bearing stress in the
same direction, or, if the bolts are countersunk, the thickness of the plate minus one half
of the depth of countersinking

In the direction normal to the slots in slotted holes the bearing resistance of bolts in holes other
than standard clearance holes is reduced by multiplying the bearing resistance obtained
(i.e.𝑉𝑛𝑝𝑏 ), by 0.7 for over size & short slotted holes or 0.5 for long slotted holes.

(a) Zone of
(b)
plastification

(c)

Fig. 9 Types of failures in a shear connection (a) Shearing of bolts

(b) Bearing failure of plate (c) Bearing failure of bolt

Tensile capacity of Bolts [Cl: 10.3.5]

A bolt subjected to a factored tensile force (𝑇𝑏 ) shall satisfy
𝑇𝑏 ≤ 𝑇𝑑𝑏
𝑇
Where, 𝑇𝑑𝑏 = 𝑛𝑏⁄𝛾𝑚𝑏
𝑇𝑛𝑏 is the nominal tensile capacity of the bolt, calculated as:
𝛾
0.9𝑓𝑢𝑏 𝐴𝑛 ≤ 𝑓𝑦𝑏 𝐴𝑠𝑏 𝛾𝑚𝑏
𝑚0
Where
𝑓𝑢𝑏 = Ultimate tensile stress of the bolt
𝑓𝑦𝑏 =Yield stress of the bolt
𝐴𝑛 =Net tensile stress area
For bolts where the tensile stress area is not defined, 𝐴𝑛 is taken as the area at the bottom of the
threads and 𝐴𝑠𝑏 is the shank area of the bolt.

Bolt Subjected to Combined Shear and Tension [Cl: 10.3.6]

A bolt required to resist both design shear force 𝑉𝑑𝑏 and design tensile force 𝑇𝑑𝑏 at the same
time shall satisfy
𝑉𝑠𝑏 2 𝑇𝑏 2
( ) +( ) ≤1
𝑉𝑑𝑏 𝑇𝑑𝑏
Where 𝑉𝑠𝑏 = design shear force in the bolt
 𝑉𝑑𝑏 = design strength of bolt [Cl: 10.3.2]
𝑇𝑏 = Tensile force in the extreme bolt
𝑇𝑑𝑏 = Design tension capacity of bolt [Cl: 10.3.5]

HSFG bolts

HSFG bolts will come into bearing only after slip takes place. Therefore if slip is critical (i.e. if
slip cannot be allowed) then one has to calculate the slip resistance, which will govern the
design. However, if slip is not critical, and limit state method is used then bearing failure can
occur at the Limit State of collapse and needs to be checked. Even in the Limit State method,
since HSFG bolts are designed to withstand working loads without slipping, the slip resistance
needs to be checked anyway as a Serviceability Limit State.

Slip Resistance [Cl: 10.4.3]

Design of friction type bolting in which slip is required to be limited, a bolt subjected only to a
factored design shear force 𝑉𝑠𝑓 in the interface of connections at which slip cannot be tolerated,
shall satisfy the following
𝑉𝑠𝑓 ≤ 𝑉𝑑𝑠𝑓
𝑉𝑛𝑠𝑓
Where, 𝑉𝑑𝑠𝑓 = 𝛾𝑚𝑓
𝑉𝑛𝑠𝑓 =Nominal shear capacity of a bolt as governed by slip for friction type connection, and is
calculated as:
𝑉𝑛𝑠𝑓 = 𝜇𝑓 𝑛𝑐 𝑘ℎ 𝐹0
Where,
𝜇𝑓 = Coefficient of friction (slip factor) as specified in Table 20 (µf < 0.55),
𝑛𝑒 = Number of effective interfaces offering frictional resistance to slip,
𝑘ℎ = 1.0 for fasteners in clearance holes, 0.85 for fasteners in oversized short slotted holes &
for fasteners in long slotted holes loaded perpendicular to the slot and 0.7 for fasteners in long
slotted holes loaded parallel to the slot
𝛾𝑚𝑓 = 1.10 (if slip resistance is designed at service load), 1.25 (if slip resistance is designed at
ultimate load),
𝐹0 = Minimum bolt tension (proof load) at installation and may be taken as,
𝐹0 = 0.7𝑓𝑢𝑏 𝐴𝑛𝑏
𝑨𝒏𝒃 = Net area of the bolt at threads

Calculation of Bolt Value

Given Diameter of bolt(𝑑), Grade of bolt 𝑓𝑢𝑏 , grade of plate𝑓𝑢 , Partial safety factor 𝛾𝑚𝑏 and
Partial safety factor 𝛾𝑚1 [table 5]
a) Determine diameter of bolt hole 𝑑0 [Table 19]
𝜋 𝜋
b) Calculate 𝐴𝑠𝑏 = 4 𝑑 2 and 𝐴𝑛𝑏 = 0.78 × 4 𝑑 2
c) Consider 𝛽𝑙𝑗 = 𝛽𝑙𝑔 = 𝛽𝑝𝑘 = 1, if no condition is given
d) Take , 𝑛𝑛 = 1.0, 𝑛𝑠 = 0 for single shear and , 𝑛𝑛 = 1.0, 𝑛𝑠 = 1 for double
shear
e) Calculate design strength of one bolt in shear
 f) If not given , assume edge distance 𝑒 [Cl:10.2.4] and pitch 𝑝 [Cl:10.2.2] to determine
value of 𝐾𝑏
g) Calculate design strength of one bolt in bearing
h) The bolt value is considered as the lesser between shearing strength and bearing strength
of the bolt

Efficiency of a joint
Efficiency of a joint (η) is defined as the ratio between strength of the joint and strength of
solid plate in tension. It is expressed as percentage
0.9 𝑓 𝐴
Strength of the plate is governed by its strength in yielding i.e. 𝑇𝑑𝑛 = 𝛾 𝑢 𝑛
𝑚1
Strength of joint is the smaller value between strength of joint in shear and strength in bearing.

ECCENTRIC CONNECTIONS
When the line of action of load coincides centre of gravity of group of bolts, the connection is
called as eccentric connection. The eccentric connection is of two types
a) Line of action load is in the plane of group of bolts
b) Line of action of load is in the plane perpendicular to the plane of group of bolts

Case A: Line of action load is in the plane of group of bolts

Fig shows the connection. The load P acting at an eccentricity e is equivalent to an axial load P
acting through the centre line of bolt group and moment P e acting on the joint. In this type of
connection, bolts are subjected to direct shear force and shear force developed to resist the
moment. P
e

p Bracket Plate

P2 P1
g
ɵ
Column Section

Let n be the number of bolts in the bracket connection.

ɵ
 𝑃
Direct shear force in a bolt 𝑃1 = 𝑛
The bracket is assumed to be rigid. Hence, the force in the bolt due to moment will depend on its
radial distance from the centre of gravity of bolt group. This force will act at right angles to the
radial line as shown in the Fig
𝑃2 𝛼 𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑃2 = 𝐾𝑟
Where K is the constant of proportionality
Equating resisting moment to the applied moment
∑ 𝑃2 𝑟 = 𝑃 × 𝑒
∑ 𝐾 𝑟2 = 𝑃 × 𝑒
𝑃×𝑒
𝐾 = ∑ 𝑟2
𝑃×𝑒×𝑟
∴ 𝑃2 = 𝐾𝑟 = ∑ 𝑟2
The resultant of 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 act on the bolt. Let the angle between 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 be 𝜃 .
Resultant P can be found
𝑃 = √(𝑃12 + 𝑃22 + 2 𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
Design of bolted Connection
a) Assume diameter of bolt, grade of steel for bolt and rolled steel section if data not
available in the question
b) Determine gross diameter, edge distance e ( minimum 1.5 gross diameter) and pitch
value p ( minimum value 2.5 times gross diameter)
c) Determine the shearing strength and bearing strength of a bolt and hence, bolt value (R).
6𝑀
d) Determine number of bolts using the formula 𝑛 = √ 𝑅𝑝 , where n is the number of bolts
required, M = applied moment (Pe), R is the bolt value and p is the pitch

(If there are two vertical lines of bolts, R is to be replaced by 2R)

e) Find the resultant force (P) in the extreme bolt as described in the analysis
f) If the resultant force (P) is less than the bolt value R, then the design is safe. If
𝑃 > 𝑅 , redesign.
Case B: Line of action load is in the plane perpendicular to the plane of group of bolts

e
Tb

Tbi

T section N
A

h/7

Beam section

Let P be the factored load acting at an eccentricity e and n is the number of bolts required for
connection. The section is subjected to a direct shear force P and a moment M = Pe
𝑃
Design shear force on each bolt due to direct shear force 𝑉𝑠𝑏 = 𝑛
Due to applied moment, the top side will be in tension and bottom side in compression. The
neutral axis is assumed to lie at h/7 from bottom edge of the section where h is the depth of
bracket measured from bottom of the section to the centre of top most bolt.
Let 𝑃𝑏𝑖 be the tensile force in a bolt and it is propotional to its distance 𝑦𝑖 from the line of
rotation.
𝑃𝑏𝑖 ∝ 𝑦𝑖
∴ 𝑃𝑏𝑖 = 𝑘 𝑦𝑖
𝑃
or 𝑘 = 𝑏𝑖
𝑦𝑖

Total moment of resistance 𝑀1 due to bolts in tension

 𝑃𝑏𝑖
𝑀1 = ∑ 𝑃𝑏𝑖 𝑦𝑖 = ∑ 𝑘𝑦𝑖2 = 𝑘 ∑ 𝑦𝑖2 = ∑ 𝑦𝑖2
𝑦𝑖
𝑀1 𝑦𝑖
or 𝑃𝑏𝑖 = ∑ 𝑦𝑖2
(1)
𝑀1 ∑ 𝑦𝑖
Total tensile force in bolts 𝑃𝑏 = ∑ 𝑃𝑏𝑖 = ∑ 𝑦𝑖2
For equilibrium, total force in tension = total force in compression
𝑀1 ∑ 𝑦𝑖
𝑃𝑏 = 𝐶𝑏 =
∑ 𝑦𝑖2
2 ℎ 2ℎ ∑ 𝑦
Taking moment about neutral axis, 𝑀 = 𝑀1 + 𝐶𝑏 × 3 × 7 = 𝑀1 ⌈1 + 21 ∑ 𝑦 2𝑖 ⌉
𝑖
𝑀
or 𝑀1 = 2ℎ ∑ 𝑦𝑖
(2)
⌈1+ ⌉
21 ∑ 𝑦2
𝑖
By putting equation (2) in equation (1), the value of 𝑃𝑏𝑖 i.e. the tensile force in the extreme bolt
can be determined.
The interaction formula for design requirement is
𝑉𝑠𝑏 2 𝑇𝑏 2
( ) +( ) ≤1
𝑉𝑑𝑏 𝑇𝑑𝑏
Where 𝑉𝑠𝑏 = design shear force in the bolt
𝑉𝑑𝑏 = design strength of bolt
𝑇𝑏 = Tensile force in the extreme bolt
𝑇𝑑𝑏 = Design tension capacity of bolt

Design of bolted Connection

a) Assume diameter of bolt, grade of steel for bolt and rolled steel section if data not
available in the question
b) Determine gross diameter, edge distance e ( minimum 1.5 gross diameter) and pitch
value p ( minimum value 2.5 times gross diameter)
c) Determine the shearing strength and bearing strength of a bolt and hence, bolt value (R).
6𝑀
d) Determine number of bolts using the formula 𝑛 = √2𝑅𝑝 , where n is the number of bolts
required, M = applied moment (Pe), R is the bolt value and p is the pitch
𝑃
e) Determine the direct shear force in the extreme bolt by using formula 𝑉𝑠𝑏 = 𝑛
f) Determine the tensile force acting in the extreme bolt as described in the analysis
𝑉 2 𝑇 2
g) Check the interaction formula (𝑉 𝑠𝑏 ) + (𝑇 𝑏 ) ≤ 1
𝑑𝑏 𝑑𝑏
h) If interaction formula is not satisfied, redesign
 WELDED CONNECTIONS
Advantages of welding
a) Welding is more adaptable than bolting or riveting, as even circular sections can be easily
connected by welding.
b) Full strength of a joint can be developed i.e 100% efficiency can be achieved in contrast to
bolted connection which can reach a maximum of 70-80% efficiency.
c) Since there is no deduction for holes, the gross section is effective in carrying loads and there
is no problem of mismatching.
d) Better resistance against fatigue, impact or vibration loads.
e) Results in lighter structures, due to absence of connecting plates, gusset plates etc.
f) Quicker & speedier as these is no necessity of making holes for fasteners.
g) Noise pollution is nearly eliminated.
h) Presents good asthetic appearance.
i) Connections are water and air tight.
j) Welded joints are rigid and alterations in the connections can be easily made in the design.

TYPES OF WELD
The basic types of welded joints are classified depending upon the types of weld. Mainly there
are three types of welds
1. Butt weld
2. Fillet weld
3. Slot weld & plug weld
Butt weld - This is also otherwisely known as groove weld. Butt welds are provided when the
members to be joined are placed end to end or aligned in the same plane. Depending upon
theshape of the groove made for welding, various types of groove welds are listed as follows:

Square butt weld one side

Square butt weld two sides

Single V butt weld

Double V butt weld

Single U butt weld

Single J butt weld

Square butt welds are used for plates upto 8 mm thickness only. It is most suitable for
transmitting alternating stresses since there will be no stress concentration due to absence of
abrupt change of section.

Fillet weld - Fillet welds are provided when two members to be joined are in different planes.
This type of situation is frequently met within the steel structures. Fillet weld is a weld of
approximately triangular cross-section joining two surfaces nearly at right angles to each other in
lap, tee or corner types of joint. Fig.4.1 shows typical fillet welds

When the cross-section of fillet weld is isoceles triangle with face at 450, it is called as a
standard fillet weld. In special circumstances, 300 & 600 angles may be used. Depending upon
the shape of weld face, a fillet weld is known as concave fillet weld, convex fillet weld or as
mitre fillet weld.

Slot and plug welds - Slot and plug welds are used to supplement the fillet welds, when the
required length of fillet weld can not be provided. The penetration of these welds into base metal
is difficult to ascertain and the inspection of these welds is difficult. Their principal use is
prevention of buckling in over lapping parts fig.4.3 & 4.4. shows typical slot or plug welds.
In slot weld, slots (rectangular or circular holes) are made on one of the plates, which is kept with
another plate and then fillet welding is made along the periphery of the hole. In case of plug welds,
small holes are made in one plate and are kept over another plate to be connected and then the
entire hole is filled with filler material.

Specification for Design of welded connections subjected to axial load

The specification and design details for welded connections is available in Cl: 10.5 IS 8002007.
ECCENTRIC CONNECTIONS
When the line of action of load coincides centre of gravity of weld, the connection is called as
eccentric welded connection. The eccentric connection is of two types
c) Line of action load is in the plane of welds
d) Line of action of load is in the plane perpendicular to the plane of welds

Case A: Line of action load is in the plane of welds

Fig shows the welded connection. The load P acting at an eccentricity e is equivalent to an axial
load P acting through the centre line of welds and twisting moment P e acting on the joint. In this
type of connection, bolts are subjected to direct shear stress and stress due to twisting moment.
Y

P
q2 q1
e
ɵ

ɵ
x x
G rmax
d

ɵ
e CG

Let consider a weld of Yuniform size s, effective throat thickness t, depth of weld d and width of
weld b as shown in figure.
𝑃 𝑃
Direct stress in the weld 𝑞1 = 𝐴 = (2𝑏+𝑑)𝑡
The maximum stress due to twisting moment occurs in the weld at the extreme distance 𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥
from centre of gravity of the group of weld and acts in the direction perpendicular to the radius
vector.
𝑃×𝑒×𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥
Maximum stress due to twisting moment 𝑞2 = 𝐼 𝑧𝑧
Polar moment of inertia 𝐼𝑧𝑧 = 𝐼𝑥𝑥 + 𝐼𝑦𝑦
The resultant stress 𝑞 = √𝑞12 + 𝑞22 + 2𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
If resultant stress is less than the resistance of weld per unit area, the design is safe.
The resultant stress can be written as 𝑞 = √𝑞𝑥2 + 𝑞𝑦2
Where, 𝑞𝑥 = 𝑞2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 and 𝑞𝑦 = 𝑞1 + 𝑞2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Combined axial and shear stress
If a weld is subjected to axial stresses, compression or tension due to axial force or bending
moment simultaneously with shear, the equivalent stress 𝑓𝑒 shall be calculated as follows
Fillet weld
 𝑓𝑦
𝑓𝑒 = √𝑓𝑎2 + 3𝑞 2 ≤
√3 × 𝛾𝑚𝑤
Where 𝑓𝑎 is the axial stress, direct or due to bending
𝑞 is the shear stress due to shear force or tension
Check for combination of stresses need not be done for
i) Side fillet welds joining cover plates and flange plates
𝑓𝑦
ii) Fillet welds where sum of normal and shear stresses does not exceed 𝑓𝑤𝑑 ≤
√3×𝛾𝑚𝑤
Butt weld
Check for combination of stresses in butt weld need not carried out provided that
i) Butt welds are axially loaded
ii) In single and double bevel welds the sum of normal and shear stresses does not
exceed the design normal stress, and shear stress does not exceed 50 percent of the
design stress.
Case B: Line of action of load is in the plane perpendicular to the plane of welds
As shown in Fig P is the factored load, e is the eccentricity, h is the effective depth of fillet weld
Let s is the size of weld and t is the throat thickness
6𝑀
Depth required for bending ℎ′ = √2𝑡𝑓
𝑤𝑑
To take care of shear, effective depth is increased by 10%
∴ ℎ = 1.1 ℎ′
Effective area of the weld 𝐴 = 2ℎ𝑡
𝑃
Direct shear stress 𝑞 = 2𝑡×ℎ
𝑀 𝑃𝑒 6𝑃𝑒
Bending stress𝑓 = =1 = 2𝑡ℎ2
𝑧 ×𝑡×(2ℎ)2
6
𝑓𝑦
Equivalent stress 𝑓𝑒 = √𝑓 2 + 3𝑞 2 ≤
√3×𝛾𝑚𝑤
Hence, design is safe.
P

Bracket Plate
 MODULE II
TENSION MEMBERS

INTRODUCTION
Tension members are linear members predominantly subjected to pulling (direct axial tensile
loads) which tend to stretch / elongate the member. A rope, for example, is a tension member. A
tension member in a truss is known as tie. Suspenders of cable stayed and suspension bridges,
sag rods of roof purlins and suspenders of building systems hung from central core are other
examples of tension members. Tension members are also used as bracings for lateral load
resistance in transmission line / satellite towers, braced frames etc.

Tension members are most efficient because a member in pure tension can be stressed up to and
beyond the yield limit without local or overall buckling. But such members are likely to be
nonfunctional due to excessive elongation. In members subjected to stress reversal, like X-type
bracings, the members which are normally under tension due to lateral load acting in one
direction, may undergo compressive force, when he direction of lateral load is changed or vice-
versa. Hence such members are to be designed to resists both tensile and compressive forces.
The form of a tension member is governed to a large extent by the type of structure of which it is
a part or by the method it is joined to the adjacent member of the structure. With a view to avoid
/ minimise stress concentration, a tension member should be so arranged that as large portion of
it as possible is connected to the gusset plates.

5.1. : COMMON SHAPES OF TENSION MEMBERS

Tension members can have a variety of cross sections Fig.5.2 shows various forms of tension
members. Wire cables / ropes, circular, square and flat bars are the simplest forms of tension
members in use for light bridges and roof trusses.
Steel sections, such as angles, I-, channel and tee- sections provide more rigidity towards
buckling in compression when reversal of load takes place under wind load. Single-angle
sections develop bending stress due to eccentricity between end connections and position of their
centre of gravity. Double angle and channel sections develop relatively less eccentricity. Built-up
sections are used for heavy loads. The arrangement of butt up sections are made with angle or
channel - sections and cover plates etc. in order to provide sufficient cross sectional areas and to
be suitable for connection with adjoining members.

Types of failure of tension members

A tension member may fail in any of the following modes
(a) Yielding of the gross section
Yielding of the gross section occurs when considerable deformation of the member in
longitudinal direction takes place before it fractures, making the structure unserviceable.
(b) Rupture of the net critical section
Rupture of critical section takes place when the net sectional area of the member reaches
the ultimate stress.
(c) Block shear
A segment of the block of material at the end of the member shears out due to the
possible use of high grade steel and high strength bolts resulting in smaller connection
length.

Design of tension members [Cl: 6.1]

The factored design tensile load (𝑇) in the member should be less than the design strength in
tension (𝑇𝑑 ) of the member. Design strength of a member under axial tension (𝑇𝑑 ) is taken as
the lowest of the design strength due to
a) Yielding of gross section (𝑇𝑑𝑔 )
b) Rupture strength of critical section(𝑇𝑑𝑛 )
c) Block shear(𝑇𝑑𝑏 )

Design strength due to yielding of gross section (𝑇𝑑𝑔 ) [Cl: 6.2]

𝐴𝑔 𝑓𝑦
𝑇𝑑𝑔 =
𝛾𝑚𝑜
Where
𝑓𝑦 = Yield stress of the material
𝐴𝑔 = Gross area of cross section
𝛾𝑚𝑜 = Partial safety factor for failure in tension by yielding [Table 5]

Design strength due to rupture of critical section (𝑇𝑑𝑔 ) [Cl: 6.3]

Plates [Cl: 6.3.1]
0.9𝐴𝑛 𝑓𝑢
𝑇𝑑𝑛 =
𝛾𝑚𝑙
Where
𝑓𝑢 = Ultimate stress of the material
𝛾𝑚1 = Partial safety factor for failure at ultimate stress [Table 5]
𝐴𝑛 = Net effective area of the member is given by
𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝐴𝑛 = [𝑏 − 𝑛𝑑𝑜 + ∑ 2 ] × 𝑡
4𝑔𝑖
Where
𝑏 = Width of the plate
𝑡 = Thickness of the plate
𝑑𝑜 = Diameter hole [Table 19]
𝑔 = Gauge length between the bolt holes
𝑝𝑠 = Staggered pitch length between line of bolt holes
𝑛 = Number of bolt holes in the critical section
𝑖 = Subscript for summation of all the inclined legs

Single Angles [Cl: 6.3.3]

0.9 𝐴𝑛𝑐 𝑓𝑢 𝛽𝐴𝑔𝑜 𝑓𝑦
𝑇𝑑𝑛 = +
𝛾𝑚1 𝛾𝑚𝑜
Where
𝐴𝑛𝑐 = Net area of the connected leg
𝐴𝑔𝑜 = Gross area of the outstanding leg
𝑤 𝑓𝑦 𝑏𝑠 𝑓𝑢 𝛾𝑚𝑜
𝛽 = 1.4 − 0.076 × × × ≤ × ≥ 0.7
𝑡 𝑓𝑢 𝐿𝑐 𝑓𝑦 𝛾𝑚1
Where
𝑤 = Outstand leg width
𝑏𝑠 = Shear lag width [Refer Fig 6 IS 800]
𝐿𝑐 = Length of the end connection i.e. the distance between the outermost bolts in the end joint
measured along the load direction or length of the weld along the load direction

Other Section [Cl:6.3.4]

The rupture strength, 𝑇𝑑𝑛 , of the double angles, channels, I-sections and other rolled steel
sections, connected by one or more elements to an end gusset is also governed by shear lag
effects. The design tensile strength of such sections as governed by tearing of net section may
also be calculated using equation in 6.3.3, where 𝛽 is calculated based on the shear lag distance,
𝑏𝑠 , taken from the farthest edge of the outstanding leg to the nearest bolt/weld line in the
connected leg of the cross-section.

Design strength due to block shear (𝑇𝑑𝑏 ) [Cl: 6.4]

Failure by block shear occurs when a portion of the member tears out in a combination of tension
and shear. The strength as governed by block shear is the minimum of
𝐴𝑣𝑔 𝑓𝑦 0.9𝐴𝑡𝑛 𝑓𝑢
𝑇𝑑𝑏1 = [ + ]
√3𝛾𝑚𝑜 𝛾𝑚𝑙
Or
0.9𝐴𝑣𝑛 𝑓𝑢 𝐴𝑡𝑔 𝑓𝑦
𝑇𝑑𝑏2 = +
√3𝛾𝑚1 𝛾𝑚0
Where
𝐴𝑣𝑔 , 𝐴𝑣𝑛 = Minimum gross and net area in shear along bolt line parallel to external force,
respectively (1-2 and 3-4 as shown in Fig 6.3a and 1-2 as shown in Fig 6.3b).
𝐴𝑡𝑔 , 𝐴𝑡𝑛 = Minimum gross and net area in tension from the bolt hole to the toe of the angle, end
bolt line, perpendicular to the line of force, respectively (2-3 as shown in Fig 6.3b).
𝑓𝑢 , 𝑓 = Ultimate and yield stress of the material, respectively

1 2
4 3 1 2
4 3

FIG 6.3 BLOCK SHEAR FAILURE

DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBERS SUBJECTED TO AXIAL LOAD
The following procedure may be adopted in the design of axially loaded tension members:
𝑇 𝛾
a) Calculate the net area 𝐴𝑛 = 𝑢𝛼𝑓𝑚1 [Cl: 6.3.3]
𝑢
α = 0.6 for one or two bolts, 0.7 for three bolts and 0.8 for four bolts along the length in
the end connection or equivalent weld length
𝑇𝑢 = Factored design tension
b) Assuming gross area 25 to 35% excess of the net area, suitable section may be selected
from steel table
c) Design the connection by calculating the number of bolts or the length of weld required
and make the arrangement of connection details
d) Calculate the design strength under axial tension (𝑇𝑑 ) [i.e. the lowest of the design
strength due to Yielding of gross section (𝑇𝑑𝑔 ), Rupture strength of critical
section(𝑇𝑑𝑛 )and Block shear(𝑇𝑑𝑏 )]
e) If 𝑇𝑢 ≤ 𝑇𝑑 , design is safe. If not repeat from step (b)
 COMPRESSION MEMBER
4.1. INTRODUCTION
Any structural element subjected to axial compressive forces only is called a compression
member. In a compression member, the loads are applied along a longitudinal axis through the
centroid of the member cross section. A compression member may be a column (i.e. a structural
member subjected to compressive force in a direction parallel to its longitudinal axis), end posts
(i.e. end compression members in truss bridge girders) and strut (i.e., a member in a truss
subjected to compressive load). The compression member of a crane is called a boom. The
compression members may also be subjected to both axial compression and bending.

4.2. COMMON SHAPES OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS

Any cross sectional shape can be selected to resist a compressive load. The practical limitations
to adopt a section as compression member are as follows
a) Limited number of sections are rolled by steel manufacturers
b) Problems in connecting them to the other components of the structure.
c) Due to the adverse impact of increasing slenderness ratio on compressive strengths; the
use of wide plates, rods and bars are excluded.

Generally rolled steel sections are selected to resist compression. Different types of sections are
as follows
 Single angle section- used in light roof trusses and as bracings in plate girders and
built-up columns
 Angles back to back- Top chord members of roof trusses and members in light truss
 T section- welded roof trusses
 Single channel section- generally not satisfactory for use in compression, because of
the low value of radius of gyration. Seldom used as columns
 Circular hollow section- most efficient as they have equal values of radius of
gyration about every axis and used in tall buildings
 Square and rectangular hollow sections – Used in tall buildings
 Built up sections- Commonly used as compression member subjected to large load

(a) Single (b) Double (c) Tee

Angle Angle

(d) Channel (e) Circular (f) Rectangular

Hollow Section Hollow Section
(RHS)
Fig 4.1: Cross Section(CHS)
Shapes for Rolled Steel
Compression Members
Effective length of column
The effective length corresponds to the distance between the points of inflection in the buckled
mode. The effective column length can be defined as the length of an equivalent pin-ended
column having the same load-carrying capacity as the member under consideration. If the
effective length of a column is less, the chance of lateral buckling will be less and the load
carrying capacity of the column will be more. In practice, no column ends are perfectly fixed or
perfectly hinged.

As per IS: 800-2007, the effective length, KL, is calculated from the actual length, L, of the
member, considering the rotational and relative translational boundary conditions at the ends.
The actual length shall be taken as the length from centre to centre of its intersections with the
supporting members in the plane of the buckling deformation, or in the case of a member with a
free end, the free standing length from the centre of the intersecting member at the supported
end.
To determine effective length of prismatic compression members, Table 11 may be referred.

Slenderness ratio
Slenderness ratio is defined as the ratio between effective length of the member and appropriate
radius of gyration based on effective section.
𝐾𝐿
Mathematically 𝜆 = 𝑟
Where 𝜆 = Slenderness ratio
KL = Effective length of the member
r = Radius of gyration

Section classification
Columns may buckle about Z, Y, V or U axis. It is necessary to check the safety of the column
about several axes, so that the lowest load that triggers the onset of collapse may be identified.
For various types of column cross sections, IS: 800-2007 recommends the classifications of the
column buckling curves a, b, c and d as detailed in Fig. 8 in IS code. Buckling class is also
guided by the geometric dimensions of individual structural elements and their corresponding
limits. Table 7.2 of IS: 800-2007 defines the buckling classes with respect to their respective
limits of height to width ratio, thickness of flange and the axis about which the buckling takes
place .

Steps in design of compression members

(i) Assume slenderness ratio and determine design compressive stress from Table 9 of IS
800 considering grade of steel and assuming buckling class. (The slenderness ratio may
be considered as 70 t0 90 for rolled steel beams, 110 to 130 for angle struts and 40 for
members carrying large loads.)
𝑃
(ii) Calculate effective sectional area, 𝐴𝑒 = 𝑓 𝑑
𝑐𝑑
(iii) Choose a trial section from steel table
(iv) Find 𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛 of the trial section
(v) Find effective length KL considering end conditions
 𝐾𝐿
(vi) Determine slenderness ratio i.e 𝜆 = 𝑟
(vii) Determine actual compressive stress from Table 9 of IS 800 considering grade of steel
and actual buckling class.
(viii) Compute the strength of the member 𝑃𝑑 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑓𝑐𝑑
(ix) Calculate the factored applied load and check whether the column is safe against the
given loading i.e. 𝑃𝑑 >factored applied load.

(x) If 𝑃𝑑 < factored applied load, repeat the steps (i) to (ix) by choosing another section.

(xi) The most economical section can be arrived at by trial and error, i.e. repeating the above
process.

Laced and Battened columns

The standard rolled steel sections available/ manufactured have limited shape and size. When
large sectional area or large radius of gyration required in two different directions, built up
sections are preferred. For economical design of heavily loaded long columns, the least radius of
gyration of the column section becomes maximum. Rolled sections are kept away from the
centroidal axis of the column and are connected by lacings or battens or lacings with battens and
perforated cover plates. The lacing bars and batten plates are not load resisting members. The
primary objective of lacing bars or batten plates is to keep different parts of the column in
position and to equalise the stress distribution between its different parts.

For detailed design procedure of laced and battened columns, section 7.6 and 7.7 of IS800 may
be referred.

Design of column bases

The load on column is transferred to the soil through column base. A column base spreads the
load over a large area so that the intensity of bearing pressure on the concrete block or masonry
block does not exceed the permissible bearing stress. The column base shall be of sufficient
strength, stiffness and area to transmit the load. The design compressive stress in a concrete
footing is much smaller than a steel column. So it is necessary to provide a suitable base plate
below the column to distribute the load from it evenly to the footing below. The main function of
the base plate is to spread the column load over a sufficiently wide area and keep the footing
from being over stressed.
Codal provisions are laid down in section 7.4 of IS800

The column bases are of two types

a) Slab base
b) Gusseted base

Slab bases are used for carrying small loads and the columns have independent concrete
pedestals. A thick steel base plate and two cleat angles connect the flanges of the column to the
base plate. In addition to these, web cleats are provided to connect the web of the column to the
base plate. These web cleats guard against the possible dislocation of the column during
erection. The ends of the column and also the base plate should be mechanized so that the
column load is wholly transferred to the base plate.

Gussetted bases are provided for columns carrying heavier loads requiring large base plates. A
gusseted base consists of a base of reduced thickness and two gusseted plates are attached one to
each flange of the column. The gusseted plates, cleat angles and fastenings (bolts, rivets) in
combination with bearing area of shaft shall be sufficient to take all loads.

Design procedure for slab base subjected to axial loading

(i) Determine the factored axial load 𝑃𝑢 and shear at the column base.
(ii) Decide on the number and type of holding down bolts to resist shear and tension. The chosen
number of bolts is to be arranged symmetrically near corners of base plate or next to column
web, similar to the arrangement sketched in Fig. 5.2.
(iii)Find maximum allowable bearing strength = 0.45𝑓𝑐𝑘
(iv) Determine area of the base plate required by dividing factored load 𝑃𝑢 with allowable
bearing strength 0.45𝑓𝑐𝑘
(v) Choose size of the base plate and find its area.
(vi) Determine the actual intensity of pressure on concrete (w) by dividing factored load 𝑃𝑢 with
the actual area of the base plate. The actual intensity of pressure on concrete (w) shall be less
than allowable bearing strength 0.45𝑓𝑐𝑘 Determine base plate thickness t;
2.5𝑤 (𝑎2 − 0.3𝑏 2 )𝛾𝑚0
𝑡=√ > 𝑡𝑓
𝑓𝑦

𝑡𝑓 = thickness of the flange of the supported column.

𝑤 = pressure in N/mm2 on underside of plate, assuming a uniform distribution.
𝑎 = larger plate projection from column [See Fig. 5.3]
𝑏 = smaller plate projection from column
𝑓𝑦 = design strength of plate, but not greater than 250 N/mm2 divided by m

(vii) Check for adequacy of weld. Calculate the total length of weld to resist axial load.
(viii) Select weld size.
(ix) Check shear stress on weld.
(x) Vector sum of all the stresses carried by the weld must not exceed pw, the design strength, of
the weld.
(xi) Check for bolt. Check maximum co-existent factored shear and tension, if any, on the
holding down bolts.
(xii) Check the bolts for adequacy. Use suitable angles with adequate diameter of bolts for
connection.

Design procedure for gusseted base subjected to axial loading

A gusseted base consists of a base plate connected to the column through gusset plates. Gusset
angles are used to connect the column with the base plate. The load is transmitted to the base
plate partly through bearing and partly through gussets. For the same axial load, the thickness of
the base plate for gusseted base is less than that of slab base since the bearing area of the column
on base plate increases by gusset plates. The design procedure for gusseted base subjected to
axial load with concrete footing is as follows.

(a) Determine the factored axial load 𝑃𝑢 .

(b) Determine area of the base plate required by dividing factored load 𝑃𝑢 with allowable
bearing strength 0.45 𝑓𝑐𝑘
(c) Assume thickness of gusset plate (generally in the range of 14 to 20 mm). Assume size of
gusset angle such that its vertical leg can accommodate two bolts in one vertical line and
the other leg can accommodate one bolt. The thickness of gusset angle is approximately
equal to the thickness of gusset plate. Generally, ISA 150x 115x 15 mm is used.
(d) Determine the width of the base plate (B) = width of column+ 2x ( thickness of cover
plate+ thickness of gusset plate+ connected leg of gusset angle to base plate+ projection
of base plate outside the gusset angle).
(e) Determine length of the gusset plate (L) by dividing area of the base plate required to the
width of the base plate (B).
(f) Find the area of the base plate provided i.e. L x B
(g) Determine the actual intensity of pressure on concrete (w) by dividing factored load 𝑃𝑢
with the actual area of the base plate provided. The actual intensity of pressure on
concrete (w) shall be less than allowable bearing strength 0.45 𝑓𝑐𝑘
(h) Compute the thickness of the base plate by flexural strength at the critical section i.e. one
at the face of the vertical leg of the gusset angel X-X and the other being at the middle of
the central portion Y-Y.

Moment of resistance (MR) = Maximum bending moment at the critical section (BM)
1
Considering 1 mm strip, 𝑀𝑅 = 6 × 1 × 𝑡 2 x bending strength of the plate = 𝑍𝑒 × 𝑓𝑏𝑑
𝑓
Bending strength of the plate 𝑓𝑏𝑑 = 𝑦⁄𝛾𝑚0
Where, 𝑓𝑦 is the characteristic strength of the steel 𝛾𝑚0 is the partial factor of safety for
the material.
𝑤𝑎2
Maximum bending moment at 𝑋 − 𝑋 = 2
𝑤(𝐵−2𝑎)2 𝑤𝑎2
Maximum bending moment at 𝑌 − 𝑌 = −
8 2
Where, w = actual intensity of pressure on concrete
B = Width of the base plate
a = Length of connected leg of gusset angle to base plate+ projection of base plate
The greater value of thickness obtained from two criteria is adopted.
(i) Design the connection between gusset plate and column for 50 percent of axial load when
ends of columns are faced for complete bearing and design for full load to which the base
plate is subjected when ends of columns are not faced for complete bearing. Adopt the
design load assuming the actual condition.
(j) The connection is designed for 50 percent of the design load transferred to both face of
the column.
(k) Assume size and type of bolt.
(l) Find strength of bolt in shear and bearing. Determine bolt value.
(m) Determine number of bolts by dividing design load on each face with bolt value.
(n) Sketch the detailing.

MODULE 3
 BEAMS
Introduction
A beam is a structural member subjected to bending. It is subjected to transverse loads normal to
its axis. Beams of light sections that support floor construction are termed as joists. Horizontal
beams spanning between the adjacent trusses are known as purlins. Lintel is a beam that spans
over openings in buildings. The beam framed to two beams at right angles to it, and supporting
joists on one side of it, used at openings such as stair wells are known as headers. Beam that
supports the headers is termed as trimmer. The beam supporting the stair steps is termed as
trimmer. Rolled I sections with and without cover plates are normally used for floor beams.
Channel, tee and angle sections are used in roof trusses as purlins and common rafters. Laterally
stable steel beams can fail only by (a) flexure (b) shear or (c) bearing, assuming that local
buckling of slender components does not occur. These three conditions are the criteria for Limit
State of collapse for steel beams. Steel beams would also become unserviceable due to excessive
deflection and this is classified as a limit state of serviceability.

Beam types
The different types of beam sections are shown in fig.

Wide Flange Beam Standard beam Channel Angle Tee

Open sections

Tubular Box
Closed sections

Fig. 6.7 Open and closed sections

Section classification
Beams are classified into four categories as discussed below
 Plastic cross-sections: Plastic cross-sections are those which can develop plastic hinges and
have the rotation capacity required for failure of the structure by formation of plastic
mechanism.
 Compact cross-sections: Compact cross-sections are those which can develop plastic moment
of resistance, but have inadequate plastic hinge rotation capacity for formation of plastic
mechanism due to local buckling.

 Semi-compact cross-sections: Semi-compact cross-sections are those in which the stress in

the extreme fibers should be limited to yield stress, but cannot develop the plastic moment of
resistance due to local buckling

 Slender cross-sections: Slender cross-sections are those in which yield in the extreme fibers
cannot be attained because of premature local buckling in the elastic range.

Plastic
Mp
Compact
My

Semi-compact
Slender

y u Rotation 
Fig. 6.8. (a)Section Classification based on Moment-Rotation Characteristics

The maximum values of limiting width to thickness ratio of elements for different classification of
sections are given in Table 2 of IS800.

Lateral stability of beams

Generally, a beam has higher value of moment of inertia about its major axis (i.e. z-z axis) and
has a tendency to bend about the major axis. If the compression flange of the beam is not
adequately supported, the beam will bend in lateral direction with twisting. The beam,
adequately supported against lateral torsional buckling, is called as laterally supported beam and
its bending strength is governed by the yield stress. The beam, not supported adequately against
lateral torsional buckling, is called as laterally unsupported beam and its bending strength is
governed by the lateral torsional buckling strength. The lateral buckling of beams can be
prevented by providing restraints at supports and intermediate points.

At supports, full lateral restraint and nominal torsional restraint in a compression flange of a
beam may be achieved by
 Web or flange cleats
 Partial depth end plate, fin plates or continuity with the adjacent span
 Being built into the wall
 Bearing stiffeners
Full lateral restraint to compression flange may be assumed to exist if the frictional and other
positive restraint of a floor connection to the compression flange of the member is capable of
resisting lateral force not less than 2.5 percent of the maximum force in the compression flange.

Beams may be considered as laterally supported in the following cases [Cl: 8.2.2]
a) Bending is about the minor axis of the section
b) Section is hollow rectangular/tubular or solid bars
c) In case major axis bending 𝜆𝐿𝑇 < 0.4
𝑓𝑦
Where 𝜆𝐿𝑇 = √𝑓 , 𝑓𝑐𝑟,𝑏 is the critical stress calculated from Table 14 of IS800
𝑐𝑟,𝑏

Calculation of design bending strength for laterally supported beam

𝑑
Case.1 ≤ 67𝜖 and factored design shear force < 0.6𝑉𝑑 [Cl: 8.2.1 & Cl: 8.2.1.2].
𝑡𝑤
Design bending strength 𝑀𝑑 = 𝛽𝑏 𝑍𝑝 𝑓𝑦 /𝛾𝑚𝑜 [Cl: 8.2.1.2]
To avoid irreversible deformation under serviceability loads, 𝑀𝑑 shall be less than1.2𝑍𝑒 𝑓𝑦 /𝛾𝑚𝑜 ,
in case of simply supported and 1.5𝑍𝑒 𝑓𝑦 /𝛾𝑚𝑜 in cantilever beams
Where
𝛽𝑏 = 1.0 for plastic and compact sections
𝛽𝑏 = 𝑍𝑒 /𝑍𝑝 for semi-compact sections;
𝑍𝑝 , 𝑍𝑒 = Plastic and elastic section modulii of the cross-section, respectively;
𝑓𝑦 =Yield stress of the material
𝛾𝑚𝑜 = partial safety factor

Case-2 factored design shear force >0.6𝑉𝑑

𝑀𝑑 = 𝑀𝑑𝑣 [Cl 8.2.1.3]

Where
𝑀𝑑𝑣 = design bending strength under high shear as defined in 9.2.

a) Plastic or Compact Section [Cl: 9.2.2 (a)]

𝑀𝑑𝑣 = 𝑀𝑑 − 𝛽(𝑀𝑑 − 𝑀𝑓𝑑 ) ≤ 1.2𝑍𝑒 𝑓𝑦 /𝛾𝑚𝑜
Where
2𝑉 2
𝛽 = (𝑉 − 1)
𝑑
𝑀𝑑 = Plastic design moment of the whole section calculated as per [Cl: 8.2.1.2]
V = Factored applied shear force as governed by web yielding or web buckling,
𝑉𝑑 = Design shear strength as governed by web yielding or web buckling (see 8.4.1 or 8.4.2),
𝑀𝑓𝑑 = Plastic design strength of the area of the cross-section excluding the shear area,
considering partial safety factor 𝛾𝑚𝑜 , and
𝑍𝑒 = Elastic section modulus of the whole section

b) Semi-compact Section [Cl: 9.2.2 (b)]

𝑀𝑑𝑣 = 𝑍𝑒 𝑓𝑦 /𝛾𝑚𝑜
Calculation of design shear strength for laterally supported beam [Cl: 8.4]
Design shear strength 𝑉 𝑑 = 𝑉𝑛 /𝛾𝑚0
Where
𝛾𝑚0 = partial safety factor against shear failure [Table 5]
𝑉 𝑛 = 𝑉𝑝 = The nominal plastic shear resistance under pure shear [Cl 8.4.1]
Where
𝐴𝑣 𝑓𝑦𝑤
𝑉 𝑝 = √3
Av = shear area, and
𝑓 𝑦𝑤 = yield strength of the web
The shear area may be calculated as given below: [Cl: 8.4.1.1]
I and channel sections:
Major Axis Bending:
Hot-Rolled — ℎ𝑡 𝑤
Welded — 𝑑𝑡𝑤
Minor Axis Bending:
Hot-Rolled or Welded — 2𝑏𝑡 𝑓
Rectangular hollow sections of uniform thickness:
Loaded parallel to depth (h) — A h/ (b + h)
Loaded parallel to width (b) — A bi (b + h)
Circular hollow tubes of uniform thickness — 2 A /π
Plates and solid bars — A
Where
𝐴 =cross-section area
𝑏 = overall breadth of tubular section, breadth of I-section flanges,
𝑑 =clear depth of the web between flanges,
ℎ = overall depth of the section,
𝑡𝑓 = thickness of the flange
𝑡𝑤 =thickness of the web.

NOTE— Fastener holes need not be accounted for in plastic design shear strength calculation
provided that:
𝑓𝑦 𝛾
𝐴𝑣𝑛 ≥ (𝑓 ) (𝛾𝑚1 ) 𝐴𝑣 /0.9
𝑢 𝑚0
If 𝐴𝑣𝑛 does not satisfy the above condition, the effective shear area may be taken as that
satisfying the above limit. Block shear failure criteria may be verified at the end connections.
Section 9 of IS 800 maybe referred to for design strength under combined high shear and
bending.

Web buckling and Web crippling

The application of heavy concentrated loads produces a region of high compressive stresses in
the web either at the support or under the load. This may cause either the web to buckle as
shown in the Fig.13 (a) or the web to cripple as shown in Fig.6.13 (b). In the former case the
web may be considered as a strut restrained by the beam flanges. Such ‘idealised struts’ should
be considered at the points of application of concentrated load or reactions at the supports as
shown in Fig.6.14 and Fig.6.15.
 (a) Web buckling (b) Web crippling

Fig.6.13 Local buckling of the web

In both the cases the load is spread out over a finite length of the web as shown in Fig.6.14. This
is known as the ‘dispersion length’. The dispersion length is taken as (b1 + n1) where b1 is the
stiff bearing length and n1 is the dispersion of 45 line at the mid depth of the section as shown
in Fig.6.15. Hence the web buckling strength at the support is given by
𝑃𝑤𝑏 = (𝑏1 + 𝑛1 )𝑡𝑓𝑐 (6.20)
where ‘𝑡’ is the web thickness and 𝑓𝑐 is the allowable compressive stress corresponding to the
assumed “web strut”. The effective length of the strut is taken as 𝐿𝐸 = 0.7𝑑 where ‘𝑑′ is the
depth of the “strut” in between the flanges. The slenderness ratio of the idealised web strut
𝐿 𝑑
could be written as 𝜆 = 𝐸 ≈ 2.5
𝑟𝑦 𝑡
W

450 b1 450
b1+n1 D/2

b1 b1+2n1
450 D/2

Fig.6.14 Dispersion of concentrated loads and reactions for evaluating web

buckling
 D/2 b1 n1

D/2

450

Fig.6. 15 Effective width for web buckling

In case of web crippling, the dispersion length is considered as b1+n2, where n2 is the length
obtained by dispersion through the flange, to the flange to web connection, at a slope of 1:2.5 to
the plane of the flange (i.e. n2=1.5d) as shown in Fig.16.
The crippling strength of the web at supports is calculated as
(𝑏1 +𝑛2 )𝑡𝑓𝑦𝑤
𝑃𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑝 = (6.22)
𝛾𝑚0
where fyw is the design yield strength of the web.
At an interior point where concentrated load is acting, the crippling strength is given by,
𝑃𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑝 = (𝑏1 + 2𝑛2 )𝑡𝑓𝑦𝑤 (6.23)

b1 n2
1:2.5 slope

Root radius

Fig.6. 16 Effective width of web bearing

Limit state of serviceability – deflection
A beam with adequate design strength may become unsuitable if it cannot support its loads
without excessive deflection. The deflection under serviceability loads of a building or a building
component shall not damage the structure and its components as well as finishing. The deflection
in beams is restricted by codes of practice by specifying deflection limitations which are usually
in terms of deflection to span ratio.
The permissible deflection limits are presented in Table 6of IS800

Limit state design of steel beams

The steps for design are as follows
a) Determine the service load on the beam and multiply with 𝛾𝑓 to find the ultimate
load/factored load.
b) Determine the effective span of the beam.
c) Calculate the maximum bending moment M and maximum shear force V.
d) Determine a trial plastic section using the formula
𝑍𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑑 = 𝑀 𝛾𝑚𝑜 /𝑓𝑦
Where M = Maximum bending moment determined in step (c)
𝛾𝑚𝑜 = Partial factor of safety
𝑓𝑦 = Yield stress of the material
e) From steel table, choose a trial section having plastic section modulus more than that
required.
f) Check the classification of section (see Table 2.1)
g) Determine shear strength 𝑉𝑑 of the section (Cl 8.4) and compare with maximum shear
force V determined in step (b).
h) Find design bending strength depending 𝑉 < 0.6𝑉𝑑 or 𝑉 > 0.6𝑉𝑑
If 𝑉 < 0.6𝑉𝑑 , 𝑀𝑑 = 𝛽𝑏 𝑍𝑝 𝑓𝑦 /𝛾𝑚𝑜 ≤ 1.2𝑍𝑝 𝑓𝑦 /𝛾𝑚𝑜 (Cl 8.2.1.2)
If 𝑉 ≥ 0.6𝑉𝑑 , 𝑀𝑑𝑣 = 𝑀𝑑 − 𝛽(𝑀𝑑 − 𝑀𝑓𝑑 ) ≤ 1.2𝑍𝑒 𝑓𝑦 /𝛾𝑚𝑜 (Cl 9.2.2) for compact
section and 𝑀𝑑𝑣 = 𝑍𝑒 𝑓𝑦 /𝛾𝑚𝑜 for semi compact section
i) Check M (maximum bending moment) < Design bending strength determined in step
(h). If not satisfied, repeat from step (e) to (h)
j) Check the section for web buckling (Cl 8.7.3.1). The web buckling strength
Pwb  ( b1  n1 ) t fc shall be greater than end reaction at the support.
k) Check for web crippling (Cl 8.7.4). The web bearing strength Pcrip  ( b1  n2 ) t f yw
shall be greater than load transferred by bearing i.e. reaction.
l) Check for deflection (Cl 5.6.1 & table 6). Calculate the maximum deflection in the beam
considering effective span, loading and support condition. The maximum deflection shall
be less than the permissible value given in Table 6 of IS 800.

Laterally unsupported beam

Calculation of design bending strength
a) Find the section properties from steel table
b) Find effective length KL ( from code) and radius of gyration r ( from steel table)
𝐾𝐿 ℎ
c) Determine 𝑟 and 𝑡
𝑓
d) Calculate critical stress 𝑓𝑐𝑟,𝑏 from Table 14 by double interpolation
 e) Calculate design bending compressive stress 𝑓𝑏𝑑 from Table 13 corresponding to lateral
buckling and imperfection factor 𝛼𝐿𝑇 ( 0.21 for rolled steel section and 0.49 for welded
section)
f) Determine the section classification [Table 2.1]
g) Calculate 𝑀𝑑 = 𝛽𝑏 𝑍𝑝 𝑓𝑏𝑑 [Cl: 8.2.2]
𝛽𝑏 = 1 for plastic and compact section
𝑍𝑝
= 𝑍 for semi compact section
𝑒

Design of laterally supported beam

a) Determine the service load on the beam and multiply with 𝛾𝑓 to find the ultimate
load/factored load.
b) Determine the effective span of the beam.
c) Calculate the maximum bending moment M and maximum shear force V.
d) Assume 𝑓𝑏𝑑 = Design bending compressive stress corresponding to lateral buckling
e) Determine a trial plastic section using the formula
𝑍𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑑 = 𝑀 /𝑓𝑏𝑑
Where M = Maximum bending moment determined in step (c)
f) From steel table, choose a trial section having plastic section modulus more than that
required.
g) Find the section properties from steel table
h) Find effective length KL ( from code) and radius of gyration r ( from steel table)
𝐾𝐿 ℎ
i) Determine 𝑟 and 𝑡
𝑓
j) Calculate critical stress 𝑓𝑐𝑟,𝑏 from Table 14 by double interpolation
k) Calculate design bending compressive stress 𝑓𝑏𝑑 from Table 13 corresponding to lateral
buckling and imperfection factor 𝛼𝐿𝑇 ( 0.21 for rolled steel section and 0.49 for welded
section)
l) Determine the section classification [Table 2.1]
m) Calculate 𝑀𝑑 = 𝛽𝑏 𝑍𝑝 𝑓𝑏𝑑 [Cl: 8.2.2]
𝛽𝑏 = 1 for plastic and compact section
𝑍𝑝
= 𝑍 for semi compact section
𝑒

n) Check M (maximum bending moment) < Design bending strength determined in step
(m). If not satisfied, repeat from step (e) to (m)
o) Check for shear
p) Check the section for web buckling (Cl 8.7.3.1). The web buckling strength
Pwb  ( b1  n1 ) t fc shall be greater than end reaction at the support.
q) Check for web crippling (Cl 8.7.4). The web bearing strength Pcrip  ( b1  n2 ) t f yw
shall be greater than load transferred by bearing i.e. reaction.
r) Check for deflection (Cl 5.6.1 & Table 6). Calculate the maximum deflection in the beam
considering effective span, loading and support condition. The maximum deflection shall
be less than the permissible value given in Table 6 of IS 800.
 ROOF TRUSS
A roof truss consists of number of triangular frame work. Due to external loads on truss, the
members of a truss are subjected to axial force i.e. either tension or compression. Trusses may
be two dimensional or space truss. Trusses are light in weight, but its fabrication requires more
labour. Trusses are used in following places
 Long span floors and roofs of multi-storey buildings, column free long span
 Roofs of single storey industrial buildings
 Multi-storey walls and horizontal planes of industrial structures to resist lateral load
 Long span bridges

Types of roof truss

The different types of truss and their suitability for different span is shown in Fig.

(a) King Post Truss (b) Queen Post Truss

(c) Pratt Truss (d) Howe Truss

(e) Fink Truss (f) Fan Truss

(g) Fink Fan Truss (h Mansard Truss

(i) Warren Truss

(j) Space Truss

(k) Lattice Girder

(l) K type Web
Fig. 1 Types of Trusses
Economical span of roof truss
Loads
A truss is designed for following loads
a) Dead load
b) Imposed load
c) Wind load
d) Snow load
e) Earthquake load
.
Dead load

Dead load on the roof trusses consists of self weight of truss, weight of sheeting, bracings,
purlins and additional special dead loads such as truss supported hoist dead loads, special ducting
and ventilator weight etc.

Self weight of truss of span ‘L’ may be calculated using empirical formula
a) 𝑤 = 20 + 6.6𝐿𝑁/𝑚2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝐿𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑓 2 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 . If live load is more than 2 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 ,
the value is increases by Live load/2
𝐿 𝑠
b) 𝑤 = 10 [3 + 5] 4 𝑁/𝑚2 where s is the spacing of truss

The unit weight of different materials is available in IS875 Part-1. However, roof sheeting
including laps, connectors etc may be considered as 100 − 150𝑁/𝑚2 and 170 − 200 𝑁/𝑚2 for
GCI sheets and AC sheets respectively.

Weight of bracings may be taken as 15𝑁/𝑚2 of plan area

Weight of purlins may be taken as 100 − 120𝑁/𝑚2 of plan area

Live load
As per IS875 Part II, live load for design of sheets and purlins may be considered as
0.75 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 up to 100 slope and [0.75 − 0.02 (𝜃 − 10)]𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 for slope more than 100

In any case, live load shall not be less than0.4 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 .

For design of trusses, the above live load may be reduced to two-thirds

The purlin and sheets should be checked to support a concentrated load of 0.9 kN at the worst
position.

Wind load
Wind load is calculated as per the provisions of IS875 Part III
Steps for estimation of wind load
(All the clauses, figures and tables are referred to IS875 part 3)
a) Determine the basic wind speed 𝑉𝑏 from wind zone map of country [Fig1]
b) Calculate risk coefficient𝑘1 [Table 1]
 c) Calculate terrain, height and structure factor𝑘2 [Table 2]
d) Calculate topography factor 𝑘3 [Appendix C]
e) Determine design wind speed 𝑉𝑧 = 𝑉𝑏 𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘3 [Cl: 5.3]
f) Determine basic wind pressure 𝑝𝑧 = 0.6𝑉𝑧 2 [Cl: 5.4]
g) Calculate wind force 𝐹 = (𝐶𝑝𝑒 − 𝐶𝑝𝑖 ) 𝐴 𝑝𝑧 [Cl: 6.2.1]

Earthquake load
Earthquake load on a structure depends on the mass of the structure. In general, this load does
not govern the design of light industrial steel buildings. Wind loads usually govern. However, in
the case of industrial buildings with a large mass located at the roof, the earthquake load may
govern the design. For this particular case, loads due to earthquake are calculated as per IS:
1893-2002.

Snow load
It depends upon geographical situations of roof structure, latitude of place and atmospheric
humidity. In absence of any specific information, the loading due to snow may be assumed to be
2.5 N/mm2 per mm depth of snow. The possibility of total or partial snow load should be
considered i.e. one half of the roof fully loaded with the design snow load and the other half
loaded with half the design snow load. In case of roof slopes greater than 500, snow load may be
disregarded.

Design procedure for purlins

a) Calculate the factored load normal and parallel to sheeting
b) Calculate factored moments (𝑀𝑧 , 𝑀𝑦 ) and shear forces (𝐹𝑧 , 𝐹𝑦 )about z-z and y-y axes
c) Assume a trial section and note its properties from steel table
d) Calculate the section modulus about z-z axis by using the equation
𝑀𝑧 𝑑 𝑀𝑦
𝑍𝑝𝑧 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 = × 𝛾𝑚0 + 2.5 × × × 𝛾𝑚0
𝑓𝑦 𝑏 𝑓𝑦
Where 𝛾𝑚0 = Partial safety factor for material
𝑑 = Depth of the trial section
𝑏 = Breadth/width of the trial section
If the 𝑍𝑝𝑧 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 > 𝑍𝑝𝑧 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑, section is adequate. If not, then try another section
till the condition is satisfied.
e) Check for shear by using following equations
𝑓𝑦 1
𝑉𝑑𝑧 = × × ℎ𝑡𝑤
√3 𝛾𝑚0
𝑓𝑦 1
𝑉𝑑𝑦 = × × 2𝑏𝑡𝑓
√3 𝛾𝑚0
f) Check for design capacity of the section in both the axes
𝑍𝑝𝑧 𝑓𝑦 𝑓𝑦
𝑀𝑑𝑧 = ≤ 1.2 𝑍𝑒𝑧
𝛾𝑚0 𝛾𝑚0
𝑍𝑝𝑦 𝑓𝑦 𝑓𝑦
𝑀𝑑𝑦 = ≤ 1.2 𝑍𝑒𝑦
𝛾𝑚0 𝛾𝑚0
g) Check the interaction formula
 𝑀𝑧 𝑀
+𝑀𝑌 ≤ 1 If this is not satisfied, repeat the procedure from step (c) to (g).
𝑀𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑦
h) Check the interaction formula for wind load case.
i) Check for deflection

Simplified design procedure for angle purlins

a) Fix the dimension of the trial section considering the following guidelines provided roof
slope is less than 300
𝐿
Width of angle leg perpendicular to sheeting ≥ 45
𝐿
Width of leg parallel to sheeting ≥ 60
b) Select a suitable angle section from steel table and note its properties
c) Calculate the factored load normal and parallel to sheeting. Determine the critical load
(W)
𝑊𝐿
d) Calculate maximum bending moment about z-z direction using the formula 𝑀𝑧 = 10
Where L is the spacing of trusses
e) Determine the bending strength of the trial section using the equation
1 𝑍 1 1
𝑀𝑑 = 𝛽𝑏 𝑍𝑝 𝑓𝑦 𝛾 = 𝑍𝑒 𝑍𝑝 𝑓𝑦 𝛾 == 𝑍𝑒 𝑓𝑦 𝛾 (Cl 8.2.1.2)
𝑚𝑜 𝑝 𝑚𝑜 𝑚𝑜
f) If 𝑀𝑑 > 𝑀𝑧 , the section is adequate. If not satisfied, repeat step (b) to (f).
g) Check for deflection

Design of members of roof truss and joints

a) Considering all the joints in the truss are pin jointed, analyse the truss for load
combination dead load+ Imposed load and Dead load +Wind load to calculate member
forces
b) The members may be grouped as top chord members, bottom chord members, main
struts, main slings and other minor members. Determine the maximum design force in
each group for design.
c) The members will be either compression or tension or both tension as well as
compression. Compression and tension members will be designed as per codal provisions
already explained earlier. The member which is compression for one load case and
tension for other load case, it may be designed for maximum force and checked for other
case.
d) Joints will be designed either bolted or welded connection as per requirement.
e) Design end bearings
f) Sketch the detailing of joints and members