Epithelial tissues

• Epithelial tissues consist of one or more layers
of cells.
• The cells of an epithelium are tightly
interconnected, with little space between
them.
• They form a continuous layer over body
surfaces (for example, the skin and mouth
area), and inner lining of cavities (digestive
tract and lungs).
• Some epithelial tissues also form glands
(exocrine and endocrine glands).
• The structure of epithelial tissue is adapted
to its function.
• Epithelial cells carry out functions
associated with protection, secretion and
absorption.

Epithelial tissue Adaptations and functions

(a) The epithelial tissue at
the surface of the skin and
linings of the mouth and
oesophagus.
• Form a protective barrier
against infections, mechanical
injuries, chemicals and
dehydration. They also regulate
body temperature

(b) The epithelial tissue at • The epithelial cells which line

the lining of body cavities,
heart, blood vessels and
lungs
(c) The epithelial tissue at
the lining of the small
intestine.
(d) The epithelial tissue at
the lining of glands, ducts
and kidney tubules.
the alveoli of the lungs and
form the walls of blood
capillaries are thin, flattened
and arranged in a single layer.
• This adaptation allows the
exchange of gases between the
alveoli and the blood in the
capillaries to take place
efficiently
• The epithelial cells in the
lining of the small
intestineabsorb nutrients after
digestion is completed
• Epithelial cells may undergo
modification to form mucus-
secreting goblet cells which
secrete mucus into the digestive
tract.
• Certain epithelial tissues are
modified to form glands in the
skin, for example, sweat glands
and sebaceous (oil-secreting)
glands

(e) The epithelial tissue at • The epithelial tissue that lines

the lining of the trachea. the trachea consists of
elongated cells with hair-like
projections called cilia. They
also secrete mucus.
• The mucus traps dust particles
while the cilia sweep the
impurities away from the lungs

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Muscle tissues
• Muscle is the most abundant tissue in most animals.
• Muscle tissues are composed of long cells called muscle fibres.
• There are three types of muscle tissues: smooth muscles, skeletal muscles and cardiac muscles.
Muscle Tissue Function
Types of muscle tissues • Responsible for the involuntary actions ol the
(a) Smooth muscles are found along the walls of body. For example, when the smooth muscles
the digestive tract, blood vessels, bladder and of the intestine contract, food is moved along
reproductive tract. the digestive tract.
• Also responsible for the churning action of the
stomach and the constriction of the arteries.
• Smooth muscles contract more slowly than
skeletal muscles but remain contracted for a
longer period of time.

(b) Skeletal muscles are attached to the bones of •Responsible for the voluntary movements of the
the skeleton. body.
•Contractions of skeletal muscles product
movements of various body parts.

(c) Cardiac muscles form the contractile wall of •Contract to pump blood to all parts of the body
the heart. •Contractions of cardiac muscles are involuntary.

Nerve tissues

Nerve tissues Functions

• Nerve tissues arc composed of neurones, or
nerve cells.
• Each neurone consists of a cell body and nerve
fibres called dendrites and axons.
• There are three types of neurones: afferent
neurones, efferent neurones and interneurones.
• Neurones are specialised to transmit signals
called nerve impulses over long distances.
• Nerve tissues control and coordinate activities
of the body.

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 Connective tissues

• Connective tissues consist of various types of • Examples of connective tissues are tendons,
cells and fibres separated by an extracellular ligaments, cartilage, bones, blood, lymph and
matrix. They are widely distributed and have many adipose tissue.
functions.
• Connective tissues, with the exception of
• The connective tissue which underlies epithelial blood and lymph, are interwoven with fibrous
tissues consists of a network of collagen, capillaries strands called collagen.
and spaces filled with fluid.

Connective Tissues Functions

• When the collagen fibres are densely packed,
they form tendons and ligaments.
• Tendons attach muscles to hones.
• Ligaments attach bones to bones.
• Cartilage is a strong yet flexible connective
tissue.
• Cartilage provides support to the nose, ears, and
covers the ends of bones at joints.
• Cartilage also forms discs between vertebrae.
This enables them to act as cushions to absorb
pressure.
• Bones consist of cells embedded in a matrix of • Bones provide protection to organs in the body and
collagen hardened by mineral deposits such as calcium. support the body.
This combination makes the bones harder than cartilage.

• Blood consists of red and 3 white blood cells and cell • Blood has regulating, transporting and protective
fragments called platelets, suspended in a fluid called functions.
blood plasma. • It transports nutrients and oxygen to cells and removes
• Blood cells are manufactured in the bone marrow, carbon dioxide and waste products from the cells.
located at the ends of long bones. • It helps distribute heat throughout the body and contains
regulatory substances such as hormones and enzymes.
• Red blood cells transport oxygen, white blood cells
assist in fighting infections while platelets aid in blood
clotting.

• Lymph consists mostly of fluid which leaks out of

blood capillaries.
• Fat cells, or collectively called adipose tissue, are • Adipose tissue stores energy and insulate the body.
tightly packed. They can be found in the dermis of the
skin

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Cell organisation In plants

1 Plant cells also undergo cell specialisation. Figure 2.30 shows some plant cells which undergo
differentiation and become specialised in structure and function.
2 Plant organs such as leaves, stems and roots are formed from two main types of tissues:
(a) the meristematic tissues
(b) the permanent tissues

Meristematic tissues
1 Meristematic tissues consist of small cells which have thin walls, large nuclei, dense
cytoplasm and no vacuoles.
2 They comprise young and actively dividing cells which have not undergone differentiation.
Apical meristems are located at the tips of roots and the buds of shoots. The tissues undergo
mitotic cell division to increase the number of cells for plant growth.
4 Lateral meristems or cambia (singular, cambium) are found in the peripheral areas of stems
and roots. They are responsible for secondary growth which adds girth to the plants.

Permanent tissues
1 Permanent tissues consist of more mature cells that are either undergoing differentiation or have
already undergone differentiation.
2 There are three types of permanent tissues:
(a) epidermal tissue : upper epidermis of leaf, root hair, guard cell
(b) ground tissue: Parenchyma tissues, collenchyma tissue, sclerenchyma tissue
(c) vascular tissue: xylem tissue, phloem tissue

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Regulating the Internal Environment
1. The internal environment consists of interstitial fluid and blood plasma. The nterstitial
fluid that fills the spaces, between the cells constantly bathes the cells and exchanges
nutrients and waste substances with the blood plasma in the blood capillaries.
2. The maintenance of a constant internal environment is necessary for the survival of an
organism in a varying external environment.
3. Two major factors affecting the internal environment are:
a) Physical factors such as temperature, osmotic pressure & blood pressure.
b) Chemical factors such as pH, blood glucose & salt
4. The factors kept to maintain optimal internal environment
a) There is a mechanism which regulates the physical and chemical factors in internal
environment for the optimal functions of cells / cells can function efficiently.
b) The mechanism is called homeostasis. The homeostatic control system regulates the
chemical and physical factors of the internal environment of the cells so that it is always
maintained at constant condition to prevent drastic changes to the cells.
c) When the value of physical / chemical factors increases, the homeostatic mechanism
will be triggered to reduce that value to the normal level. When the value of physical /
chemical factors decreases, the homeostatic mechanism will be triggered to raise it
back to the normal level
d) The homeostatic mechanism is carried out through a negative feedback mechanism in
the body.
e) Animals can regulate their internal environment by the action of hormones & nervous
system.

Schematic Diagram of a Negative Feedback Mechanism

Control centre
Temperature

Normal Normal
Condition Condition

Temperature

Control centre

Keys Correction
Receptor Effector
mechanism

The diagram above shows that:

i) Three components are involved: a receptor, a control centre and an effector
ii) The receptor detects a change (stimulus) in internal environment
iii) The receptor sends the message (impulse) to the control centre.
iv) The control centre processes the information / message and brings about an appropriate
response by the effector.

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v) The internal environment returns to its normal condition, the receptor is no longer
stimulated.

The important for the body to maintain the optimal internal environment:
a) The ability of organisms to control their internal environment to oppose the effect of
changes in the external environment on them
b) To enable them to live in a wider range of habitats.
c) Physiological processes and metabolic activities can still continue even though the external
environment fluctuates substantially. Organisms can control the metabolic according to
their needs.

The various systems that involve in regulating the internal environment

Factors affecting internal Systems involved Types of regulation

environment
1 ) Body • Integumentary On a hot day // temperature rises above
temperature • Muscular 37°C:
( Normal • Nervous - thermoreceptors in the skin detect the
Condition • Circulatory chanqes
37 °C ) • Endocrine - the nervous system conveys the
information to the hypothalamus // brain
(control centre)
- the information is then conveyed to
effectors.
- the effectors involved// negative
feedback are:
a)blood vessels dilate to increase heat loss
b) sweat alands secrete more sweat to cool
the body through evaporation
c) hair erector muscles relax to flatten
hair, to reduce insulation
d) the thyroid gland is less stimulated to
lower basal metabolic rate.
So. the bodv temperature is back to
normal.
# The opposite mechanism occurs on a
cold day.
2) Blood • Endocrine When the level of blood glucose rises,
glucose level (pancreas) - pancreas secretes insulin into the
(Normal condition 90 rng • Circulatory circulatory system to the liver.
per 100 • Digestive (liver) - insulin converts excess glucose into
Cm3). glycogen the blood glucose level drops.
- if the blood glucose level is below the set
point, pancreas secretes glucagon to
breakdown qlycogen into qlucose .

insulin
Glucose glycogen
Glucagons

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 Factors affecting internal Systems involved Types of regulation
environment
3) Blood osmotic • Endocrine Regulates the amount of water and
pressure • Nervous dissolved minerals in the tissue fluids
• Circulatory
• Excretory
4) Carbon dioxide and • Respiratory - Concentration of O2 and C02 are
oxygen levels • Nervous detected by nervous system.
• Circulatory -02 is trsndported by circulatory system
from the lung; // alveoli to the cells
-C02 is produced during cellular
respiration. it will be transported back
from the cells to the lungs
5) pH (Normal condition • Excretory - Regulate the concentration of hydrogen
7.4) (kidneys) ion, hydroxyl ions and hydrogen
• Circulatory carbonate ions
• Respiratory

2.3 APPRECIATING THE UNIQUENESS OF THE CELL

1) A cell is the basic unit of all living organisms and it is capable of functioning on its own.
2) The cellular components of the cell are completely dependent upon one another: eg: The
formation of extracellular enzyme

--Nucleus: contain genetic information of proteins synthesis in DNA

--Ribosome: the sites of proteins synthesis

--RER: transport the synthesised proteins in the form of vesicle which is called transport
vesicle. The vesicle is budded off from I he side of RER the vesicle then travels to Golqi
apparatus

--Golgi apparatus:The proteins are processed, modified and repackaged New membrane
buds off as secretory vesicle that travels to plasma membrane to be released to the
outside of the cell.

3) The sequence of events above show how each cellular component carries out its function
in an orderly manner. This also illustrates that an optimal cellular function is the result of
cellular order within the cell.