Evelyn Ho

Evolution Discussion Questions

1. Be able to describe Darwin’s personal history, including his voyage on the Beagle.
2. Be able to explain the scientific meaning of the term theory as it pertains to Darwin’s
theory of evolution by natural selection.
3. What book did Darwin publish in 1859, and what did it propose to explain? What were
the two major claims that were part of his overall theory, and which of these two claims
is best supported by the evidence that Darwin presented? Briefly explain your answer.
Darwin published his book, The Origin of Species, in 1859, which proposed the
concepts of common descent and natural selection—his two major claims—as
mechanisms to explain evolution. Darwin’s theory of natural selection was best
supported by the observations he made and the evidence he gathered while
traveling. For example, the finches he found on the Galapagos Islands occupied
different niches in the environment, consuming different types of seeds and
thereby being selected for within their own niches. In a niche where tougher,
larger nuts were available, finches with bigger, rounder beaks to crack these nuts
were selected for, while niches where insects were available favored finches with
longer, slimmer beaks to reach these insects and did not favor larger beaks.
4. Cite (don’t explain) two specific observable examples that give evidence that natural
selection definitely occurs.
The changes to the populations of Peppered Moths during the Industrial
Revolution, and antibiotic resistance in bacteria.
5. Why did it take Darwin so long to publish his book on the origin of species, and what
prompted him to eventually present his findings?
Darwin anticipated the controversy that his theory of natural selection would
cause, and refrained from publishing any of his findings until Alfred Russel
Wallace sent him documents proposing a very similar theory, and Darwin
hurriedly published his works in order to claim originality for his ideas.
6. In general, what did Darwin and Lamarck agree on, and what did they disagree on?
Darwin and Lamarck agreed that there was change in organisms over time but
disagreed on the “reason” for evolution and the mechanisms of evolution;
Lamarck thought that a drive to become more complex was the reason for
evolution of complex organisms while Darwin thought that natural selection was
the reason for evolution. Lamarck believed that evolution over time would result
in an organism with perfect adaptations—a perfect organism. Darwin believed
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that the adaptations that species evolved were a result of environmental pressures
favoring these positive adaptations and eliminating negative adaptations—natural
selection—and that changes in the environment could change what phenotypic
traits were favored and selected for. Therefore, there could not be a perfect
organism because the environment could always change and an organism with
previously favorable phenotypes could be eliminated from the population.
7. How would Darwin’s explanation of the evolution of the giraffe’s long neck differ from
Lamarck’s explanation?
Lamarck would explain the giraffe’s neck to be an acquired trait; giraffes born
with short or normal necks stretched and used their necks to reach higher up
vegetation to feed on. This continuous stretching of their necks throughout their
lives resulted in these giraffes acquiring the trait of having longer necks. The
offspring of these giraffes would be born with slightly longer necks than their
parents originally had, and would also use and stretch their necks to acquire
longer necks, passing on traits for longer necks to their offspring. However,
Darwin would explain the evolution of a giraffe’s long neck using his theory of
natural selection by saying that the environmental pressure of few food resources
would select for giraffes with longer necks able to reach vegetation in the trees.
This variation of longer necks would be existent within the population, and
giraffes with longer necks would have more access to food, thus being able to
survive to reproductive age and pass on their genes for longer necks to their
offspring, who would also have longer necks. As food became more scarce,
giraffes with shorter necks would not be able to access food in the taller trees and
would die off, unable to pass their genes for shorter necks on to the next
generation. Therefore, the phenotype of longer necks would be more prevalent in
the next generation than the phenotype of shorter necks. If this environmental
pressure persisted, over a long period of time, all the giraffes would inherit the
gene for longer necks and would express this gene.
8. Looking at the phylogenic tree of fish evolution (page 3 in Evolution notes packet),
explain how the organisms relate to one another by answering the following questions:
(these questions should be answered briefly in a word, a phrase, or a few sentences).
a. How do the jawless fishes relate to the Coelacanths?
Jawless fishes are the ancestor of the Coelacanths from the Ordovician era.
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b. What do the Lepospondyls and the Anthracosaurs have in common?

They are descended from the organism Ichthyostega.
c. What was the most recent common ancestor of the Paleoniscids and the
Lungfishes?
Placoderms.
d. What was the most recent common ancestor of Frogs and Reptiles?
Ichthyostega.
e. Examine the line of descent from the Labyrinthodonts. What happened to these
animals?
They were not able to continually reproduce and as a result, the
descendants of Labyrinthodonts died out and went extinct.
f. Can you explain the statement: “Frogs are more closely related to salamanders
than frogs are related to Reptiles.”
Frogs more recently share a common ancestor with salamanders than they
do with reptiles. Frogs, salamanders, and reptiles are all descended from
Ichthyostega. However, the descendants of Ichthyostega split into two
evolutionary branches—Lepospondyls and Anthracosaurs. The
descendants of Lepospondyls would be frogs and salamanders, while the
descendants of Anthracosaurs would be reptiles. For this reason, frogs are
more closely related to salamandars than they are to reptiles because frogs
and salamanders split evolutionarily later than frogs and reptiles did.
g. How can Coelacanths (Lattimeria) that first appeared in the Permian period still
be alive today swimming with modern Teleosts such as Herring? In other words,
why have Coelacanths not changed in over 250 million years?
Coelacanths have not changed much for such a long time because they are
well adapted to their environment. In this way, they are similar to some
prokaryotic organisms that were around 3.5 billion years ago and have
retained the same characteristics because these traits allow them to be
reproductively successful and therefore evolutionary fit.
9. Explain the following five specific pieces of information (evidence) that Darwin used to
formulate his theory of evolution. Some of this information came from observations that
Darwin made during voyage on the Beagle while other pieces of information were
gathered by him from various sources after he returned to England. Some of this evidence
supports Descent with Modification and some supports Natural Selection. After you
explain the evidence. Mention which part of his theory it supports. **Some information
must be gotten from the textbook.
a. His observations on biogeography (the distribution of different species throughout
the world). This would include his observations made when he visited the
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Galapagos Islands, the South American mainland, Australia, and other areas
around the world. Use the birds known as Darwin’s Finches as one example. In
this specific example, you should use the terms adaptive radiation, divergent
evolution, and reproductive isolation. In addition to the finches, describe one
other example of his observations on biogeography. (Don’t use marsupials in
Australia).
Biogeography demonstrates how many species of the world descended
from common ancestors in other geographical locations. For example,
Darwin’s Finches originated from a common ancestor on the South
American mainland, and somehow migrated to the different Galapagos
Islands. Through adaptive radiation, the finches filled the different niches
of the Galapagos Islands—some living in the trees, others living on the
ground. These different niches and environments encouraged divergent
evolution in the then separated finch populations; finches in the trees
eating insects had more use for thin beaks, and so natural selection favored
thin beaks for finches in the trees while finches on the ground eating nuts
were favored for thicker beaks.

b. The information he gathered on fossil evidence during his lifetime in South

America, and from other scientists (such as Charles Lyell). For example,
information about sedimentary rock and the relative dating of fossils.
Sedimentary rock can preserve the chronology of evolution—fossils found
in deeper rock are older than fossils found in rock closer to the surface.
Transitional fossils in the fossil record supported Darwin’s theory of
gradual evolution by indicating intermediate stages of evolution.
c. His observations on artificial selection (selective breeding).
Darwin’s observations on artificial selection supported his theories of
natural selection. Human implementations and selections for traits were
similar to natural selections for favorable traits. For example, farmers
might select for favorable traits in crops such as thicker leaves. By only
allowing plants with thicker leaves to reproduce, the next generation of
plants would inherit genes for thicker leaves and would express this
phenotype. Over time, all the plants of a crop would have thicker leaves.
This supports Darwin’s theory of natural selection because selective
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pressures like predation or climate change can similarly decide which

organisms pass on their genes to the next generation by selecting for
phenotypes that can survive in particular environmental conditions.
Individuals with unfavorable phenotypes are eliminated from the
population by these environmental pressures, similar to the way farmers
will not allow crops with unfavorable phenotypes to reproduce.
d. His observations on homologous structures, including vestigial structures. Give at
least one example of each of these structures in your explanation.
Darwin’s observations on homologous structures and vestigial structures
supported his theory of descent with modification. For example, the
forelimbs of tetrapods are all homologous structures because they
inherited genes for these forelimbs from a common ancestor, and over
time, this gene underwent mutations to produce variations in forelimbs
found in different species. However, many forelimbs of tetrapods today
still have homologous structures—two bones of the forelimb, wrist bones,
hand bones, and finger bones. Over time, homologous structures of
animals adapting from the same species may have lost their purpose in
organisms, but vestigial structures would still remain as evidence of
descent from a common ancestor. For example, snakes have vestigial bone
structures where their tetrapod ancestors would have had limbs. Because
these vestigial structures do not provide a selective disadvantage, they
remain in the evolutionary lineage of the organism.
e. Information from Thomas Malthus’s essay on human population.
Thomas Malthus’s essay described the tendency of the human population,
like others to over-reproduce and create more variation through sexual
combination in that manner. He described human suffering as being
caused by overpopulation leading to resources being depleted. Darwin
linked this concept of competition to his theory of natural selection by
stating that competition with in a species for food, mates, and habitat put
selective pressure on the individuals of a population. Not all offspring
would be able to survive because of the limited resources—only offspring
with the phenotypes that allowed them to find food more efficiently,
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attract more mates, and dominate territory would be able to survive and
pass on their genes to the next generation.
10. Using the four important points Darwin used to explain his theory of evolution (on page 2
of the notes), give an example of how the process of natural selection would act on the
evolution of a population of organisms. You can use a real example, or a made-up one.
All four points should relate to the same organism.
Spiders lay many eggs at one time. This is increases the chances evolutionary
success; the more offspring are produced at one time, the more likely that some
will survive long enough to be able to reproduce and pass down their genes to the
next generation—more offspring are produced than survive. Variations arise in
sexual recombination and random mutations and are existent within the
population before natural section can act upon them. These genetic variations can
be expressed as phenotypic adaptations such as the mimicry of harmless
organisms—for example, ant-mimicry in spiders that deceives prey into regarding
the spider as harmless so the spider is able to capture prey more easily. These
variations will be passed down to offspring through gametes and the variations
that promote the survival and reproduction of organisms will be selected for in a
population. Because ant-mimicry allows spiders to capture prey more easily, in
times of food scarcity, these spiders will be well fed and will survive better than
spiders that did not develop this type of mimicry, or spiders that do not have
accurate mimicry. Therefore, the spiders with the best ant-mimicry will be able to
reproduce and pass this adaptation to the next generation, while spiders that did
not have adequate mimicry or no mimicry will be eliminated from the population
because they could not capture prey as well and died without reproducing.
11. In your own words, what is differential reproduction? This should be 1-2 sentences.
Differential reproduction is the idea that an organism that expresses phenotypes
best suited to its environment—allowing the organism to survive and reproduce—
will be more likely to pass these traits to their offspring and therefore have
reproductively successful offspring as well.
12. Many people misinterpret the phrase “survival of the fittest.” What makes an organism
“fit” in an evolutionary sense?
In an evolutionary sense, an organism is evolutionarily fit if it survives long
enough to reproduce, and produces viable offspring in the next generation who
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are also reproductively successful. Even if an organism produces many offspring,

if these offspring do not go on to produce their own viable offspring—if the
genetic material of the original organism does not continue to be a part of the
gene pool—the organism is not evolutionary fit.
13. Explain how this statement is incorrect: “After the industrial revolution changed the
colors of the tree trunks in England from light-mottled to black, the Peppered Moths
acquired the adaptation of black color to help them blend in with their environment.”
The Peppered Moths did not acquire the adaptation of black color to help them
blend in with the environment—this variation in wing color was already existent,
however it was previously unfavorable because black moths would stand out
against lighter colored trees and would be selected against by predators that could
see them. After the industrial revolution changed colors of the tree trunks to be
darker, the lighter Peppered Moths stood out against the darker trees and were
therefore seen by predators and eliminated from the population. The remaining
black moths could then blend in with the darker trees and survive to produce
offspring with darker wings. The black color of the moths was not an acquired
adaptation—it was an existing variation that became favorable after a change in
the environment (the color of the trees).
14. List and briefly explain 3 different environmental forces that contribute to natural
selection.
Predation is an environmental force that contributes to natural selection because
predators can eliminate individuals of a particular population based on the
phenotype of these individuals—for example, the ability of individuals to
camouflage and thereby avoid being hunted. Predation would prevent the hunted
and dead individuals from reproducing and passing on their genes to the next
generation, so the next generation would likely have less of or none of the
phenotype that allowed predators to kill members of the previous generation.
Instead, individuals that inherited the adaptation to camouflage—phenotypes for
specific markings or fur color—would have been selected for; they would have
survived long enough to reproduce and pass their genes for these phenotypes on
to the next generation. Similarly, climate can contribute to natural selection by
selecting for individuals able to survive in the climate, and eliminating individuals
of a particular population that are unable to survive in a changing climate. Limited
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resources within an environment can also incite competition among a population;

only individuals with adaptations best suited to utilize or find the limited
resources will be able to survive, and will pass these adaptations on to the next
generation.
15. (a) What is an adaptation?
An adaptation is an inherited phenotype or phenotypes that increases the chances
of survival and reproduction for an organism by providing a selective advantage;
the phenotype is favored by current environmental conditions and is thus selected
for.
(b) How do new adaptations arise?
New adaptations arise from sexual recombination—the crossing over of genetic
material between chromosomes during meiosis and the random combination of
gametes during sexual reproduction gives rise to variation. These variations are
ultimately caused by mutations in the genetic sequence of an organism that result
in different proteins being produced from the mutated gene, and different or new
phenotypes being expressed because of this. More sudden adaptations can arise
from mutations in Hox genes, which are regulatory genes that control regions of
the body of an animal and are crucial to development. Because Hox genes control
so many other genes, mutations in a Hox gene may affect many other genes, and
therefore a more drastic change in phenotype may occur from the mutation of a
Hox gene.
(c) What influences which adaptation will be selected for?
If an adaptation increases the ability of an organism to survive and reproduce—
for example, if an adaptation allows an organism to attract more mates than other
individuals of the same species, then the adaptation increases the reproductive
success of that organism and will therefore be selected for. The female will select
for the adaptation if she finds it more attractive, and so the individual with the
adaptation will be able to pass on his genes over other individuals without the
adaptation.
16. Explain how some present-day prokaryotes are similar to those that first evolved over 3.5
billion years ago, while other prokaryotes eventually evolved into all present-day
organisms, including humans.
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The prokaryotes from 3.5 billion years ago were well adapted to their
environment, and as a result have not changed much and are still a thriving
population of organisms, evolutionarily successful. However, at one point, many
open niches were available approximately 3.5 billion years ago, and some
prokaryotes developed mutations and were able to fill these niches and survive,
eventually evolving into eukaryotic organisms with a nucleus, which must have
provided an advantage that would promote the natural selection of these
eukaryotic organisms. As a result, these mutated prokaryotes—now eukaryotes—
would eventually evolve into multicellular, complex organisms such as humans,
while the other, original line of prokaryotes, well adapted to their environment,
would remain about the same as they were 3.5 billion years ago.
17. Some opponents of evolution have claimed: “I just can’t believe we came from a
chimpanzee!” What is their misconception about evolution?
Although humans and chimpanzees are closely related, this is due to the fact that
humans and chimpanzees evolved from a common ancestor; humans did not
evolve from chimpanzees. These opponents of evolution may view evolution in a
very broad, inaccurate sense that is not represented by phylogenetic trees—seeing
evolution as linear instead of branched.
18. Explain the most common way a single species can give rise to two or more different
species (be sure to use the words population(s) and reproductive isolation in your
answer).
Allopatric speciation is speciation that occurs because of populations that undergo
geographic isolation. This stops gene flow between the two populations—any
mutations that will develop in population A will stay within the organisms in
population A and likewise for population B—there is no exchange of genetic
material between the two populations. In addition to this, the two populations will
also be exposed to different selective pressures in the environment, which favor
different phenotypes within each population, and therefore select for different
phenotypes that are inherited by future generations. Over a very long period of
time, the two populations may become so genetically different from each other
that they are no longer able to interbreed and produce fertile offspring. This is
known as reproductive isolation, which defines a species—two individuals are
only members of the same species if they can interbreed and produce fertile
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offspring. A plethora of pre-zygotic barriers enforces reproductive isolation such

as mechanical isolation (reproductive organs that only fit properly with that of an
individual's of the same species), gamete isolation (chemical differences between
sperm and egg that only allow sperm and egg of the same species to form a
zygote), temporal isolation (differences in breeding times and time of activity
during the day), behavioral isolation (differences in mating rituals between
different species), and habitat isolation (a more specific geographic isolation in
which organisms exist in the same environment, but do not interact because of
their different habitats). Some post-zygotic barriers include reduced hybrid
fertility—hybrids often are infertile and cannot reproduce, or reduced hybrid
survival: hybrids cannot survive for long due to developmental problems that
arise from the cross of species.

19. Distinguish between convergent and divergent evolution using marsupial and placental
mammals. You must include the terms homologous and analogous structures.
Divergent evolution is the evolution of different species from a common ancestor,
shown by the homologous features that the descendants share with one another,
although these homologous structures may be used for different purposes for each
species. For example, the paws of a groundhog are homologous to the paws of a
mouse—both the groundhog and the mouse evolved from a common mammalian
ancestor that had a paw used for movement on land, so the groundhog and the
mouse both have paws. This trait was inherited from a common ancestor although
it is now somewhat different between the two species due to isolation of the two
populations and differences over time leading to reproductive isolation and
speciation. However, convergent evolution is the evolution of similar structures or
species not because of a common ancestor but due to similar selective pressures
on multiple species. The evolution of marsupial and placental mammals is an
example of this because they did not share a recent common ancestor; similar
species with analogous structures evolved on separate continents without a
common ancestor. For example, the skin flaps of the flying squirrel and the flying
phalanger are analogous structures because they were a result of similar selective
pressures to escape predators, not a homologous structure inherited from a
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common ancestor. These structures serve a similar purpose but were not inherited
from a common ancestor.
20. How does comparative embryology support Darwin’s theory of evolution?
Comparative embryology supports Darwin’s theory of evolution by showing that
all organisms come from a common ancestor. All organisms share some or many
stages of embryonic development, implying common descent from an ancestor
with similar embryonic development. For example, structures akin to gill slits are
apparent in the embryology of most vertebrates because vertebrates evolved from
fish. In humans, these structures do not evolve into gills anymore, but become the
ears and jaw structures.
21. What does it mean to say that something is conserved in evolution? Why would
something be conserved in evolution? Give an example.
A process or feature that has been consistently selected for because of efficiency
would be conserved in evolution—it has been selected for so much that it has
become universal. For example, the use of the DNA genetic code is universal and
conserved in evolution—no other organism developed a more efficient genetic
code, and as a result, the prokaryote using DNA was selected for billions of years
ago, and all life afterwards used the inherited DNA genetic code. Similarly, the
processes of cellular respiration and photosynthesis have been preserved in
evolution because of the advantage they provide organisms to store energy in the
form of ATP and glucose.
22. Why does comparative biochemistry provide the best evidence for evolution? Explain
your answer by providing two specific examples of the type of analysis used in this field
of science.
Comparative biochemistry provides clear, quantitative evidence for evolution,
which is more valuable and works alongside qualitative evidence such as
observations of comparative anatomy. One method of comparative biochemistry
is the direct comparison of organisms’ genomes. Because mutations are the
ultimate cause of variation between organisms and thereby are the ultimate cause
of speciation, differences in the amino acid changes produced from the genetic
sequence indicate the relation between two species. The more closely related two
species are, the fewer the mutations that have occurred in the genetic sequence to
result in these two different species, and therefore the fewer the differences in the
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amino acid sequence produced by the genome. Other evidence that comparative
biochemistry offers for evolution is the existence of conserved biological
pathways such as cellular respiration and photosynthesis. However, comparative
biochemistry is limited in terms of timeframe because DNA is not always
available for older specimens.
23. Why is coevolution important when discussing evolutionary theory? Give one example
other than the one given in the notes packet that explains the concept of evolution.
Coevolution is important when discussing evolutionary theory because it is an
example of biotic factors in the environment influencing evolution because
coevolution is the interaction of two species exerting selective pressures on one
another. An example of coevolution is the evolution of brood parasites in avian
evolution. Brood parasites such as cuckoo birds have evolved with eggs that
mimic eggs in a host brood, with young that have characteristics that encourage
the host bird to feed the young cuckoo birds. In response to this mimicry and
parasitism, some host birds have developed heightened abilities to distinguish
between their eggs and cuckoo eggs, so they are able to destroy the cuckoo eggs
and therefore ensure that they will only feed and raise their young, not young
cuckoos.
24. Why wouldn’t mutation (changes) in body cells other than sperm and egg bring about
evolutionary change?
Mutations in body cells, or somatic cells, would not be passed on to offspring
through reproduction—only the genetic material in sperm and egg cells—
reproductive cells—would be passed on to the offspring of an organism.
Therefore, only mutations in the genes of a sperm or egg cell could possibly be
expressed in the phenotypes of the next generation of a population, and possibly
bring about evolutionary change. If mutations are not passed on to the next
generation—if they are not present in gametes—then they will have no bearing on
the evolution of the population or species.
25. Which is of greater significance in evolution, the individual or the population? Explain.
In evolution, a population is more important than an individual—populations can
evolve, not individuals. The various individuals of a population may possess traits
that better their chances of survival and through reproduction will pass these traits
to the next generation of a population. In this way, natural selection acts upon a
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population of organisms, selecting for organisms that will best survive and
reproduce and thereby continue the survival of the species.
26. (a) Does the theory of punctuated equilibrium exclude the process of natural selection?
Explain.
No, the theory of punctuated equilibrium is an addition to the process of natural
selection. Scientists who support punctuated equilibrium believe that this process
of evolution works alongside natural selection.
(b) Antievolutionists often point to punctuated equilibrium as evidence that the theory of
evolution as proposed by Darwin is under extreme scrutiny by the scientific community.
This of course makes it seem that Darwin’s theory of evolution is no longer valid. One of
the points they bring out is that the reason punctuated equilibrium is being used as an
alternative theory is because there is no evidence of transitional fossils. Is this true?
Briefly explain.
No, this is not true. Transitional fossils exist for many species and show gradual
evolution to support Darwin’s theory. However, the lack of transitional fossils in
some areas of the fossil record have given rise to the theory of punctuated
equilibrium—punctuated equilibrium attempts to explain these particular
absences of transitional fossils but does not claim that there is no evidence at all
for transitional fossils that support Darwin’s theory.
(c) How do proponents of punctuated equilibrium explain the gaps that do exist in the
fossil record?
Proponents of punctuated equilibrium have theorized that the gaps in the fossil
record are due to quick environmental changes resulting in rapid evolution.
Because of this burst of evolution taking place over a short period of time, there
is no fossil record for this period and there will likely not be any transitional
fossils to link fossils prior to the environmental change and fossils afterwards.

“This was not a new idea, but, crucially, Darwin refined it by developing the theory that
plants and animals gradually selected the physical peculiarities best adapted to their
environment.”
27. Based on what you know about evolutionary theory, fix the part of the above statement so
that it makes sense.
This was not a new idea, but, crucially, Darwin refined it by developing the
theory that selective pressures in the environment gradually selected the physical
traits and adaptations of plants and animals that allowed them to survive and
reproduce successfully in their environments.
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28. Does natural selection usually make individuals of the same species more similar or
dissimilar? Explain your answer. If the environment of this particular species changed,
would your answer change? Explain.
Natural selection usually makes individuals of the same species more similar
because the conditions of an environment place the same selective pressures on all
the individuals of a population. If water is only available in cacti in the desert, and
only birds with long beaks can access the water without being hurt by cactus
spines, then birds with shorter beaks will die off without reproducing, and the
next generation of birds will have longer beaks. More of the next generation will
have longer beaks than the previous generation because of natural selection and
this environmental pressure that favors long-beaked birds—in this way, natural
selection has made the population more similar.
If the environment changed, then the selective pressures would be different and
therefore favor different phenotypes. This might result in directional selection or
disruptive selection. Directional selection would result in the continued similarity
between individuals of a population—the only difference would be the favored
phenotype being selected for because it was better suited to the changed
environment; variation still exists within the population because of sexual
recombination and mutation to provide for a change in favored phenotype.
Disruptive selection is also a possibility because the changed environment may
favor extreme phenotypes and therefore the frequency of phenotypes in a
population will shift to extreme phenotypes. This would result in increasing
differences between individuals of a population.
Another situation in which the species would not tend to become more similar
through natural selection is the possibility of a quick environmental change,
which would open many niches and may result in adaptive radiation, or the
formation of many species. The population might separate into different niches
and thereby be exposed to different selective pressures that select for different
phenotypes, resulting in an increasingly dissimilar species and possibly
speciation.
Furthermore, the phenomenon of heterozygote superiority, in which both alleles
stay within the population because heterozygous individuals are more fir than
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homozygous individuals, is also an exception to natural selection making species

more similar. Because heterozygous individuals are selected for, the recessive
allele is present in a higher frequency than might be expected, and therefore more
individuals will be homozygous recessive—different from homozygous dominant
individuals.
29. Explain why evolution does not always produce perfect adaptations. Give several
examples of species that contain structures that are not perfectly adapted to some
function.
Evolution does not have an end goal or purpose and therefore it does not produce
perfect adaptations; evolution is a result of selective pressures from the
environment, not intentional development of perfect adaptations. The process of
descent with modification may result in vestigial organs or structures to remain in
an organism although they no longer serve a purpose. For example, whales have
bones near their tail that are vestigial hind legs. These vestigial hind legs are
homologous structures to the hind legs of other mammals such as those of
hippopotamuses or horses. Because whales and hippopotamuses descended from a
common mammalian ancestor with hind legs, both have homologous organs.
However, because whales evolved to be marine animals, hind legs may have
inhibited their ability to swim and therefore whales with more prominent hind
legs were selected against—eventually hind legs became a vestigial structure from
their descent from a land mammal with hind legs—these vestigial structures were
not perfectly adapted to some function. Vestigial structures do not disappear
because there is no need for the organism to be perfect—as long as vestigial
structures do not interfere with the reproductive or survival success of an
organism, it will be able to pass its genes on to the next generation. This is true of
all phenotypes; they do not need to perfectly serve the organism, they just have to
allow the organism to survive selective pressures in order to reproduce and pass
on genes. Furthermore, phenotypes are dependent on available, existing variation
within the population caused by mutation—mutations are not formed with a
purpose, they are formed by chance. Therefore it is very unlikely that a perfect
phenotype would evolve and be selected for in the evolution of a species.
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In addition to this, some positive phenotypes that are selected for also come with
disadvantages, although these disadvantages are not so significant as to be
selected against. These compromises make it impossible for any phenotype to
perfectly serve an organism. For example, humans are flexible, which is favorable
because it allows for movement, but this flexibility also makes humans prone to
injury.
30. Does increasing complexity in organisms correspond to an increasing ability to adapt to
the environment? (are more complex organisms more adapted to the environment than
less complex organisms?) Briefly explain.
No, more complex organisms are not necessarily better adapted to the
environment than less complex organisms. For example, some bacteria have
barely changed from their prokaryotic ancestors from 3.5 billion years ago
because they were and are so well adapted to their environment. A more complex
organism simply indicates a different line of evolution, not necessarily better
adaptation to the environment. It is also possible that complex organisms are more
likely to be too fine-tuned for their specific environment than simpler organisms,
so they would not be able to quickly adapt to another environment and survive as
simpler organisms like bacteria might be able to.

31. Change the following sentence so that it makes sense: Natural selection causes variation
in a population. (First change the word “causes” so the sentence makes sense.)
Natural selection acts upon existing variation in a population—selecting for
phenotypic adaptations that allow organisms to better survive and reproduce in
their environment.
32. Several students were asked to define an adaptation, and they wrote: “Adaptations are
mutations that allow organisms to better survive and reproduce.” Fix this sentence so it
sounds more logical.
Mutations occur in the genomes of organisms, leading to phenotypic variation.
Adaptations are phenotypic variations that allow organisms to better survive
selective pressures and reproduce in their environment.
33. In light of the fact that vestigial structures are no longer functional in the organisms in
which they are found, why have they not disappeared completely over time?
Although vestigial structures are no longer functional in the organisms in which
they are found, these structures may be reduced forms of the structures their
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ancestors had, and these reduced structures may not inhibit the organism from
performing any functions or processes. For this reason, vestigial structures may
not have a negative impact, or any impact, on an organism and therefore will not
be selected against.
34. Discuss how an evolutionary biologist would explain how the evolution of extremely
complex structures or processes (irreducibly complex structures) could have evolved
without a predetermined plan, given that if any one part of the structure or process was
missing, the structure or process would not function.
Extremely complex structures or processes, throughout their evolutionary history,
may not have served the same purpose or function in an organism as they do
today. For example, ears may have begun as a group of sensory cells used to
detect vibrations or movement in the air instead of for hearing. These structures
would develop without the end goal of ears being able to hear, but the traits for
hearing in this manner may have provided advantages and would be slowly
selected for over an extensive period of time. Complex biochemical machines
arise not from completely individual parts, but from simpler biochemical
machines that are less complex, but formed from the same individual parts. These
simpler parts have other functions in the cell before joining/evolving together to
form a complex structure. For example, smaller groups of proteins that form
flagella in bacteria function separately in the cell as well, but when combined,
form the flagellal structure.
35. Some people wonder how complex, functional structures could have evolved if mutations
are random. Antievolutionists often use the argument that just as a tornado in a junkyard
could not cause the junk pieces of metal to randomly come together to form a 747 jet,
random mutations could not produce complex organisms. How would an evolutionary
scientist explain their misconception?
Mutations and the adaptations resulting from mutations are random, but the
influence of natural selection upon the existing phenotypic features of a
population is not random. Random mutations would occur in an organism’s
genome, resulting in different proteins produced from a particular gene and
therefore a different phenotype might be expressed in that organism. New
phenotypes might be favorable, unfavorable, or might be neutral in the current
environment of an organism. Natural selection would eliminate unfavorable
phenotypes and select for favorable phenotypes while also allowing non-harmful
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phenotypes to remain in the gene pool of a population. In this way, natural

selection, and in turn, evolution, is not random—it acts upon random mutations,
but selects for favorable traits. Over time, these traits would accumulate, and
more complex processes and functions would develop through natural selection
and exist in complex organisms.
36. Much of the evidence that has accumulated for evolution, such as comparative
biochemistry, supports other pieces of evidence such as the fossil record and comparative
embryology. Explain how comparative biochemistry supports the information gathered
on the relative dating of fossils using several of the different classes of vertebrates (fish,
amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals) as an example.
Comparative biochemistry allows scientists to see differences in organisms’
genomes, thereby seeing where mutations occurred over the organisms’ evolution,
leading to variation and divergence. Organisms with more similar genomes would
have fewer mutations separating their species and would therefore have diverged
from the same evolutionary line later than organisms with more dissimilar
genomes. This corroborates evidence gathered on the relative dating of fossils that
supports the chronological evolution of vertebrates from fish branching to
amphibians, branching to reptiles, branching to mammals, then birds branching
from the reptile lineage later on. Scientists use the relative dating of fossils to
determine when a species might have evolved—the earliest fossil record of that
species would indicate when it appeared in evolutionary history and what other
species it might have evolved from. For example, the oldest amphibians appear in
the fossil record above fish, so it can be inferred that amphibians evolved from
fish. Comparative biochemistry supports this inference because amphibians share
much of their genetic sequence with fish—it is already established that fish
evolved before amphibians because of the oldest fish fossils being 100 million
years older than the oldest amphibian fossils.
37. An ex-student posed the following problem:
Assume that there is a catastrophe in the environment such that a new lethal microbe, and
that an individual has a variation that enables them to survive. What is the chance that
other individuals of the same species will also have that beneficial variation, so that they
can survive, reproduce, and help establish a new population that is resistant to the new
infection?
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How would you clear up this student’s misconceptions? (Include something about how
diploidy contributes to the ability of a population to adapt to a changing environment.)
If this is a novel mutation—a mutation that changed one allele and was expressed
in the organism, therefore the mutated allele is dominant and 50% of the
individual’s offspring would inherit the dominant allele and the mutation. This
does not offer a positive outlook for the species; the chance that individuals can
find another organism to mate with is low. However, if the individual with the
mutation is homozygous, then the allele for the phenotype of resistance must be
recessive and may be present in other individuals of the population, masked by a
dominant allele. The allele for resistance had to be inherited from the individual’s
parents. Therefore, the probability for the individual to mate with another
organism that has this resistance allele to produce resistant offspring is greater
than the first scenario. Most likely neutral mutations carried by ancestors. This
shows how diploidy leads to variation—by carrying that mutation through
generations and preserving variation in the population that may be selected for (or
against) in the future when environmental pressures change.
38. What evidence exists for the statement that all organisms evolved from a common
prokaryotic ancestor that must have evolved in one location on the early earth, rather than
many different prokaryotic ancestors arising in many different locations?
Processes conserved in evolution like cellular respiration, photosynthesis, and the
universal DNA genetic code indicate that all life on earth evolved from a single
common prokaryotic ancestor. These systems were the most efficient and were
conserved in evolution and inherited by all life that descended from this common
ancestor.

39. Suggest two instances in which humans in modern society seem to overcome the forces
of natural selection (are modern humans actually outside the forces of natural selection?).
One instance in which humans in modern society overcome selective pressures is
the use of modern medicine in treating diseased or ill individuals that may
otherwise have been eliminated through natural selection. Another instance is the
use of agriculture in modern society; in first world countries, humans do not have
to worry about food or hunting, because food is available pre-packaged in
supermarkets. At least in these first world countries, the selective pressure of food
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scarcity is gone—nature can no longer select for phenotypes in humans that make
them better at hunting prey. (Instead, wealth or poverty may be a discerning factor
in whether an individual lives or dies, but wealth and poverty are human
inventions, not determined by phenotype and not acted upon by natural selection.)
40. In light of what you know about evolution and speciation, do you think that humans will
eventually evolve into two or more separate species, as did our ancestors the
australopithecines?
Yes, eventually humans will likely evolve into two or more separate species,
especially if we advance space travel technology and colonize other planets,
interacting with the biomes and organisms of other planets in the universe. This
would be a drastic form of geographical isolation and could lead to speciation.