Industrial lasers and applications in automotive

welding
S T Riches, TWI

This paper was presented on 22 October 1998 at a Make It With Lasers TM Workshop
entitled Lasers in the Automotive Industry, held at Nissan Motor Manufacturing (UK) Ltd,
Sunderland.

Introduction
The use of lasers in automotive manufacture has increased dramatically over recent years to a
position where about 15% of all industrial processing lasers are installed in production. Although
the lasers are devoted mainly to cutting applications, a significant and growing proportion of
lasers is being applied to welding. In a survey in 1992, about 20% of the lasers installed in the
automotive industry were used in welding applications. [1] Since that time, there has been an
explosion of growth in welding applications, particularly involving steel manufacturers, for
tailored blank manufacture and in body-in-white welding applications.

This paper will review the industrial laser types which are available for welding applications, then
describe the range of current applications used in the automotive industry and highlight areas
where developments in processing techniques and equipment are poised to make an impact for
laser welding in the future.

Industrial Laser Types

There are two main types of industrial laser of interest to structural fabrication; CO 2 and
Nd:YAG lasers. The lasers have different characteristics that are summarised in Table 1.

Table 1. Summary of characteristics of CO 2 and Nd:YAG lasers

Property CO 2 laser
Nd:YAG laser
Neodymium doped yttrium
Lasing medium CO 2 +N 2 +He
aluminium garnet crystal rod
Radiation wavelength 10.6µm 1.06µm
Excitation method Electric discharge Flashlamps
Efficiency 5-10% 2.5-5%
Output powers Up to 60kW Up to 4kW
Beam transmission Polished mirrors Fibre optic cable
High power CO 2 lasers are predominantly used for the welding of automotive components, such
as gears and transmission components, which require circular and annular welds and in tailored
blank applications. The majority of lasers have a power of 6kW or less.

High power Nd:YAG lasers are now available at workpiece powers of 4kW, which have fibre-optic
beam delivery. The welding applications are concentrated in body-in-white assembly. Higher
power equipment is likely to be developed in the next 2-3 years and there are likely to be
improvements in the efficiency of Nd:YAG lasers with the arrival of diode pumped Nd:YAG lasers.

Within the laser industry, one of the main advances in the past two years has been in diode
lasers (wavelength 0.8-0.9µm), where 2kW systems are now commercially available. However,
at the current status of development, the power densities required for welding of sheet materials
used in the automotive industry (about 1x10 6 W/cm 2) have not been achieved. Research work
is underway in Germany to develop diode lasers and their applications and this situation may
change in the next 3 years.

Laser Welding in the Automotive Industry

Welding of Automotive Components
The applications of laser in the manufacture of components cover engine parts, transmission
parts, alternators, solenoids, fuel injectors, fuel filters, air conditioning equipment and air bags.
An example of a laser welded solenoid is shown in Fig. 1. and gear component is shown in Fig.
2. The attractions of laser welding for these applications are the ability to weld pre-machined
precision components with restricted heat input and minimal distortion [2] . This enables weight
savings to be made through the use of thin walled assemblies and optimisation of the
compactness of the component.

Fig. 1. CO 2 laser welded solenoid.

Fig. 2. CO 2 laser welding of gear component.

In industrial production, the advantages of the laser welding process have been established
compared to alternatives such as electron beam welding. This is due mainly to the high
productivity and small amount of down-time compared to vacuum based systems and the
subsequent reduced manufacturing costs [3] . However, there is a need to spend a high amount
of effort on component preparation and high precision of component handling and beam
transmission is required. [4]

Most automotive manufacturers have invested heavily in CO 2 laser technology for these types of
applications and most of the issues relating to the production of millions of components have
been resolved. Developments have focused on expanding the range of material combinations
which can be welded using lasers, including joining of cast irons to steels through the use of wire
feed techniques and optimisation of the procedures to harden components whilst avoiding
problems with cracking due to high carbon levels in the weld zone.
Welding in Automotive Body Assembly
For the past 40 years, welds in mass produced automotive body parts have been almost
exclusively fabricated from pressed steel sheets and joined using resistance spot welding. The
potential benefits of implementing laser welding technology are numerous - advantages may be
gained in respect of single sided access, reduced flange widths, increased torsional stiffness
(thus leading to improved vehicle structural performance and/or down gauging of material
thickness), smaller heat affected zones and less thermal distortion, high speed automated
processing and design flexibility (eg. in multi-layer joints).

Extensive work has been performed worldwide to realise the potential of laser welding for
automotive body manufacture. As the turn of the century approaches, the number of systems
installed in production is increasing, where two main types of laser welding are being employed.
The first is a direct replacement for resistance spot welding or adhesive bonding, where lap
joints or hem flange joints are utilised on pressed components for body-in-white assembly. The
second is the laser butt welding of flat sheets (which may be dissimilar thickness or material
grade), which are subsequently formed into pressings. The pressings are called "tailored blanks"
and the widespread acceptance of this technology has spawned a number of companies and
enterprises associated with steel producers to meet the demands of the automotive industry in
addition to in-house manufacture.

Body-in-white applications

The implementation of laser welding of sheet assemblies as a replacement for resistance spot
welding is growing, where welding of the roof to side panel is one of the most common
applications. [5,6] This component is normally a two layer lap joint in zinc coated steel, with
periodic three layer thicknesses to be welded, over lengths of 2.5-3m. One of the main
challenges for laser welding of these types of joints is the presence of the zinc coating at the
interface between the sheets, where the low vaporisation temperature of the zinc (906°C), can
cause problems with weld consistency due to the formation of blowholes and porosity, if the
sheets are tightly clamped together. Various approaches have been adopted to overcome this
problem including:

 Roller clamping systems which create a gap at the interface

 Stamping of dimples in the steel pressings of consistent depth
There are both CO 2 and Nd:YAG lasers in production for this kind of application, and it is
forecast that Nd:YAG laser applications will grow due to the flexibility of the fibre optic beam
delivery as higher powers become available. A recent review of laser applications at BMW has
indicated that 9-11m of laser welding is carried out on certain models [7] and the ULSAB
project [8] has used over 18m of laser welding in its concept structure.

Fig. 3. Lap joint in 1.6mm thick 5754 aluminium alloy sheet welded at 5m/min with CO 2 laser

Laser welding is also being applied in the production of partial penetration welds, for example, in
hem flanges often used in doors, bonnets, boot lids and other closures [9]. Although the
majority of work performed has been on steel sheet, there have been a number of programmes
conducted on aluminium alloys. [5] The laser welding of aluminium alloys is more difficult than
for steel, due to the high reflectivity and thermal conductivity of the material, the low viscosity
of liquid aluminium and the tendency for cracking and porosity in welds in certain alloys.
Extensive work over the past 10 years has demonstrated the feasibility of laser welding of
aluminium alloys using CO 2 and Nd:YAG lasers, where once a threshold power density is
exceeded for a particular alloy, keyhole welding can be established and seam welds can be
produced with similar welding speeds to steel sheets, see Fig. 3.

Fig.4. Tailored blank in door inner panel

Tailored blank welding

The principle of using laser welded tailored blanks in automotive manufacture started with the
production of a two piece floor pan for Audi. Since that time, the applications for tailored blanks
have grown significantly as it has been gradually realised that tailored blanking is a cost
effective method of manufacturing whilst achieving weight savings. The main advantages stem
from the ability to join materials of dissimilar thicknesses and grades (thus allowing
weight/strength to be placed where required), the improved utilisation of material from steel
strip and the high degree of automation possible. These advantages have enabled a reduction in
the number of pressing operations through the elimination of reinforcements, for example, which
have more than compensated for the cost of manufacture of the tailored blanks. The types of
application for tailored blanks are expanding and include rails, panel rockers, panel skirts, door
inners (Fig. 4.), body side outers and, in the ULSAB concept vehicle, ne

In the manufacture of tailored blanks, the two main points of debate centre on the preparation
of the edges for welding and the choice of laser type. For the edge preparation, there is a desire
to use standard blanked edges but this normally requires special clamping or welding systems to
ensure that the blanks can be welded consistently. The clamping systems developed include
using side pressure on the fixtures or using a roller system to deform the sheet adjacent to the
weld to bring the sheet edges into intimate contact (<0.1mm gap). The welding systems
employed where the gaps between the sheets are >0.1mm include beam weaving or twin spot
welding, but this generally reduces the maximum welding speeds that can be achieved. The use
of precision re-shearing of the edge prior to welding within a blank welding system is claimed to
improve weld consistency as the cross-sectional area of the joint is guaranteed and the welding
speed can be maximised. [10]

For the choice of laser type, the established technique is the use of CO2 lasers and automated
production systems normally have a 5-6kW laser. With the development of Nd:YAG lasers with
workpiece powers of >3kW, a number of production systems have been installed for tailored
blank manufacture, with claimed advantages of increased versatility due to the fibre optic beam
delivery, higher welding speeds (due to the improved coupling of the laser wavelength),
improved tolerances to gaps and negation of the need for gas shielding. [11] In a similar manner
to the edge preparation, the economics of manufacture is complex and will have to be resolved
on a case by case basis.
Fig. 5. Bulge test in laser welded aluminium alloy tailored blank

Low carbon and high strength steel sheets in thicknesses between 0.7-2mm are used with few
reported problems, provided that the welds are located in positions where the weld is not
subjected to much movement across the weld line during forming. For chassis and sub-frame
components, where thicknesses of steel sheet are generally between 2-4mm and yield strengths
are up to 400MPa, there is a similar desire to implement tailored blank technology, but the
selection of steel type is more critical to attain the required formability. [12]

There is a growing interest in the exploitation of aluminium alloys for tailored blank
application, [11] but the laser welding is more critical as the weld line is a zone of weakness,
see Fig. 5. Developments have focused on the application of wire feed and twin spot welding to
improve weld quality and consistency.

Laser cutting/welding
Lasers are capital intensive tools and, in order to ameliorate the costs, systems should be
utilised to maximise their production capacity. One method of achieving this is to use one laser
source for cutting and welding. This principle has been demonstrated industrially in the
manufacture of a C column, where two zinc coated steel sheets are overlaid in the clamping
system and then laser cut. The cut edges are then re-positioned and welded together in a butt
joint configuration using filler wire additions. [13] For this application, the main advantage is the
achievement of a high quality weld which requires minimum finishing to produce a Class A
surface.

Future Automotive Laser Welding Applications

Whilst it is predicted that the above automotive laser welding applications will grow, in some
cases, at a substantial rate, there are other components and materials that will benefit from the
advantages of laser welding. Listed below are some of the topics where laser welding is poised to
make an industrial impact:

 Pressed components to hydroformed tubes or extrusions

 Production of tailored hydroformed tubes or other stiffened structures consisting of welded
sheet
 Production of node structures in aluminium alloy castings/extrusions or
extrusions/extrusions
 Welding of magnesium alloy components
The success of these applications will ultimately depend on the weight, performance and cost
advantages that can be demonstrated for high volume manufacturing scenarios.

Concluding remarks
Laser welding has "come of age" for automotive manufacture, where it is an established
technique for automotive components, tailored blanks and body assembly. The main advantages
to be gained through the use of laser welding include low distortion, single sided access, high
torsional stiffness of components, and cost savings through elimination of other manufacturing
operations. Most of the applications to date have focused on welding of steels but there is a
growth in confidence in laser welding of aluminium alloys.

The advent of high average power Nd:YAG lasers, delivering over 3kW power to the workpiece,
will make an increasing impact on the type of laser welding systems installed in production, but
there will be considerable pressure to reduce capital costs and improve efficiencies of the laser
source. Competition will also be fierce from CO 2 laser manufacturers and non-laser processes in
this significant market.

References
N° Author Title
'Laser Materials Processing in General
Return
1 Roessler D et al Motors Corporation' Proc ISATA 92, June
to text
1992, pp37-51
'Laser Welding in Automobile Manufacture' Return
2 Dawes C J
Proc LAMP 87, May 1987, pp523-528 to text
'Laser Welding Production of Transmission
Delord E and Return
3 Shafts for the Automobile Industry' Proc
Sayegh G to text
ISATA 92, June 1992, pp439-446
'Power Train/Transmission Laser Beam
Welding of Gears - A Proven Technology
Return
4 Hopf G with Further Potential' Proc MIWL Seminar
to text
on Laser Fabrication for the Automotive
Industry, October 1995
'Laser Processing at Volvo',
Hanicke L and Lasermaterialbearbeitung in
5
Johansson G Transportwesen, September 1997, pp113-
132
'Laseranwendungen bei AUDI',
Lasermaterialbearbeitung in Return
6 Stumke A et al
Transportwesen, September 1997, pp145- to text
152
'Laserbearbeitung bei BMW',
Lasermaterialbearbeitung in Return
7 Hornig J
Transportwesen, September 1997, pp133- to text
144
8 ULSAB Electronic Report , June 1998.
'Lasermaterialbearbeitung bei der Adam
Schweikhard F Opel AG - Entwicklungen und Return
9
et al Andwendungen im Karosseriebau', to text
Lasermaterialbearbeitung in
 Transportwesen, September 1997, pp91-
102
Return
10 VIL private communication
to text
'Nd:YAG lasers for Steel and Aluminium
Alloy Tailored Blank Welding' Proc MIWL
11 Naeem M
Seminar on Lasers in the Automotive
Industry, October 1998
Waddell W, 'The Influence of the Weld Structure on the
Jackson S, Formability of Tailored Blanks' Body Return
12
Wallach E R and Manufacturing and Assembly, Proc IBEC to text
Riches S T 98, October 1998.
'Laser Applications in the Automotive
Return
13 Geiger M et al Industry' Proc ISATA 92, June 1992, pp69-
to text
85

Laser Welding in Automotive Industry

Dynamic Processes Open Up New Possibilities

Today, there is no modern vehicle on the streets, in which laser was not applied. Whether laser welded tailored
blanks, gear components or car keys – the applications are manifold. In the process the employment of modern
scanner technology plays an increasingly important role besides the already known advantages of laser technology.
Such scanners allow for maximal efficiency of the beam sources and thus increase productivity. With up to 200
welded joints per minute and with insignificant welding downtime the large capacity remote welding, for instance, took
root mainly in the production of automobile rear car seats.
Dynamic Beam Welding

Within the shortest possible time multi spot welds of any geometry can be generated with Dynamic Beam Welding
Systems in a very large work space. This system technology is applied amongst others in the production of
automobile seats and mountings.

For this application we recommend the: FL Series

Laser Welding of Battery Housings
Helium-tight seam welding with laser and galvanometric scanner. For this application high reflective materials such as
copper or aluminum are welded with a fiber laser. Besides many other industries, the batteries are used for example
within the automotive industry.

For this application we recommend: FL Series, StarFiber, StarPulse

Laser Welding for the Connection of Battery Cells

Single battery cells are connected in series or parallel within a battery module. This is realized by the electrical
connection of the contact tabs/arrestors. During the welding process for contacting, the heat input must be kept at a
minimum, making the laser the ideal tool. Because high reflecting materials such as copper or aluminum have to be
joined, the fiber laser in combination with a 2D scanner solution is the right choice for this application. Usually for this
application output powers of up to 2 kW are used.

Together with further peripheral components, several battery modules are assembled to one battery pack for use e.g.
in electric cars.

For this application we recommend: FL Series

Spot Welding of Copper Conductors for Electric Motors

For this application a high number of welds per part have to be realized. With scanner and fiber laser, the laser beam
can be positioned from weld to weld within milliseconds. Adjusted scanner movements melt the copper so that broad
welding gaps can be bridged. Due to their high absorption into highly reflective materials such as copper, the fiber
laser is the right tool for this application. Another advantage of laser welding with the fiber laser is the low heat input
due to very short process times. Therefore damaging the isolations because of high temperatures can be avoided.
For this application we recommend: FL Series
Laser Welding of Gears and Powertrain Components

Using lasers, gear components made from high-strength steels can be welded without cracking. The welding of gear
components using laser could be established already a long time ago due to its advantages such as low maintenance
costs, low distortions at the work piece, high flexibility and simple automation.

For this application we recommend the: DC Series, FL Series

Laser Welding of Tailored Blanks
Tailored blanks consist of laser joined flat sheets of different material thicknesses and alloys. Linear as well as non-
linear joints are generated. Due to the strength and ductility of the laser-welded seams, the tailored blanks can be
subsequently stamped into components such as car doors. For this application we recommend: DC Series, FL Series

As part of the preparation of high strength tailored blanks out of manganese-boron steel prior to laser-welding, q-
switched solid-state lasers can be used for decoating the aluminum-silica layer.
For this application we recommend: DQ Series
Laser Welding of Air Conditioning Cooling Pipes

For welding the aluminum of this air conditioning part, ROFIN fiber lasers are the ideal choice. The shorter 1um
wavelength is much better absorbed by high reflective materials such as copper, aluminum or brass, compared to
longer wavelengths.
For this application we recommend: FL Series
Laser Welding of Brake Sensors

The steel of ABS brake sensors is welded with high-power fiber lasers. Besides the brake sensors also various other
sensors like pressure sensors, force sensors and air-bag sensors are welded by laser.

For this application we recommend: FL Series

Laser Welding of Exhaust System Components

Stainless steel heat exchanger tubes are welded with laser scanner solutions in combination with ROFIN high power
fiber lasers. Stainless steel exhaust couplings and sleeves can be either welded with fiber or CO2 lasers
For this application we recommend: FL Series, DC Series
Laser Welding of SCR Injectors
To meet the emission standards, the harmful nitrogen oxides are converted into the air components nitrogen, water
and carbon dioxide by selective catalytic reduction (SCR method). The selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) Injectors
are welded with ROFIN fiber lasers and are used for AdBlue injection in large diesel engines.

For this application we recommend: FL Series

Welding of Safety Belt Pretensioner

Pretensioners preemptively tighten the seat belt to prevent the occupant from jerking forward in a crash. In case of an
accident, small bullets are shot into the shown component. The two parts of the pretensioner are laser joined with the
help of a ROFIN CO2 laser

For this application we recommend: DC Series

Welding of Fuel Filters

For welding of aluminum fuel filters, fiber lasers are the ideal choice due to their wavelength of 1µm. The shorter
wavelength is much better absorbed by highly reflective materials such as aluminum, copper and brass, compared to
the CO2 laser.

For this application we recommend: FL Series

Laser Welding of Carriages

Flexible fiber optics in connection with modern robots make fiber lasers a perfect tool in the highly automated welding
of carriages – independent of applied material and metal gauge.

For this application we recommend the: FL Series

Fine Welding (Spot and Seam Welding)
Spot and seam welding with the laser are primarily applied for particulate, mechanic and electro-mechanic work
pieces, for example when contacting spark plug connectors and power electronics, for sensors and airbag
detonators. Also heavily stressed screwed fastenings are replaced through fine welding. As in many cases copper or
aluminum have to be processed high pulse peak capacities of up to 20 kW are applied.

For this applications we recommend the: StarPulse, StarFiber

Laser Welding of Polymers

The transmission welding entirely displaces the joints into the inner part of the join partner, works with minimal heat
input and leaves perfect surfaces. This way, also sensitive components – for instance sensors – can be welded gas-
proof. One of the most well-known fields of application for plastics welding using the laser is car keys that are
common today. The laser welds all thermoplastic and thermoplastic elastomeric bonds, pressure-sealed and with
high stability.

For this application we recommend: MPS Lasermachine for laserwelding of plastic

The Future of Lasers in the

Automotive Industry
Photonics Spectra
Jan 2006Advances in laser technology are readily adopted by automakers.

KLAUS LÖFFLER, VOLKSWAGEN AG

The global automotive industry has been a pioneer in adopting laser technology into the
manufacturing process, perhaps starting as early as 1973 when Ford Motor Co. purchased an
underbody laser welding system for an assembly line. Today, new solid-state laser technologies
are evolving at an unprecedented pace — in some respects, even more rapidly than Moore’s law
predicts advances in semiconductor technology (Figure 1). How are these advances being used in
the automotive industry, and how will they be used in the future?
Figure 1. During the past several years, the evolution of high-power solid-state lasers has
outstripped Moore’s law. This chart shows the power available from commercial single-mode and
multimode solid-state lasers and, for comparison, what the power would be if it had doubled every
year.

Traditionally, the adoption of lasers by the automotive industry has been linked to new
applications. In the 1980s, for example, the use of lasers expanded into gear parts welding, the
production of air-bag components and the welding of engine components such as injection valves.
By the 1990s, they were finding applications in the manufacture of automobile bodies through the
greatly expanded use of tailor-welded blanks and hydroformed parts. Today they are at work at
contract suppliers around the globe.

One can gain some insight into the automotive applications of lasers by considering recent
developments at Volkswagen AG. Since 1993, the company has been integrating lasers into the
manufacture of its car bodies, especially for the Volkswagen and Audi brands. Now it has more
than 800 high-power lasers installed at its assembly plants worldwide.

The newly designed Passat presented a challenge to manufacturing engineers: Find an effective
way to cut the ultrahigh-strength steel with which the vehicle is produced. This new material
improves static and dynamic torsion stiffness, as well as dynamic bending stiffness. From the
manufacturer’s perspective, laser technology proved to offer the most economical method to cut
the material. From the customer’s perspective, laser technology produces a car with better
handling as a result of the stiffer body and with reduced fuel consumption as a result of the
vehicle’s lower weight.
 A robotic laser welds a Volkswagen
auto body.

Volkswagen, of course, is not the only

manufacturer pursuing new laser
technologies to increase product value.
DaimlerChrysler AG is active in
integrating lasers into the production of
auto bodies. The majority of
automotive manufacturers, including Audi AG, BMW AG, Toyota Motor Corp., Nissan Motor Co.
Ltd., Volvo and Hyundai Motor Co., have been using lasers for joining metals for many years. Ford
and General Motors Corp. are exploring the benefits of laser joining as well, and there are signs of
implementation within both companies.

Future trends

Most auto-body laser applications involve joining one metal to another; for example, in overlap
welding, in the brazing of edge joints and in the making of fillet joints such as those on the roof
and trunk lid (Figure 2). Nearly 400 4-kW solid-state lasers weld auto bodies in six Volkswagen
plants around the world — four in Europe, and one each in North America and Africa. The
materials are hot-dipped and galvanized, zinc-coated automotive steel. Golf, Touran and Jetta
models feature more than 50 m of laser joining per vehicle.

Figure 2. Laser welding has become the

favored technique for joining metals in
car bodies.

Laser techniques, which are likely to

continue to be important, have several
advantages over traditional metal-
joining technologies:

• Increased process speed, resulting in higher productivity, shorter cycle times and minimized heat
distortion of the joined parts.

• Compact manufacturing lines with reduced floor-space requirements.

• Enhanced strength of the joints, compared with most alternative joining methods by continuous
welds.

• Reduced width of — or elimination of — the flange, resulting in reduced vehicle weight.

• Greater tooling flexibility. The same laser can weld, braze and cut. Additionally, one laser can
service multiple work cells by means of fiber optic cables.

To understand the projected evolution of laser applications in automobile manufacturing, it is

useful to understand how some of the new technologies are affecting the field.

Disk lasers and fiber lasers

Disk lasers and fiber lasers offer higher powers with better beam divergence than previous lasers.
How will the industry use these lasers, with beam quality of 3 mm mrad and powers of 4 to 6 kW?

Consider the automated fiber optic delivery of laser power to a workpiece. A pair of scanning
mirrors at the end of a robotic arm move the beam quickly along the targeted joint. The
technique, originally developed by DaimlerChrysler’s Mercedes Car Group, has been embodied in
machines that are available from several vendors.

Although these laser welding systems produce better, lighter welds than conventional systems,
they also have more subtle advantages. They offer designers full flexibility in the location and
geometry of the welds without paying a penalty in terms of speed. Designers can place joints with
the best-fit geometry to the location of choice to accommodate the results of
calculation/simulation programs. Designers can minimize the number of welds required, optimize
the stiffness and safety of the vehicle and minimize manufacturing costs.

But a drawback to existing robotic-arm systems is the laser’s rather low utilization rate, which is in
the range of 30 to 50 percent. With the older lasers, the business end of the robotic arm must get
to within 150 mm of each weld, and it takes a significant amount of time to move it from one weld
to the next. The machine spends more time moving the robotic arm than it does welding.

The improved beam quality of the new disk lasers means that the same weld can be produced
using a lens with a longer focal length. A longer focal length means the robotic arm can be farther
from the workpiece that it had been — perhaps as far as 500 mm. Thus, the time spent moving
from one weld to the next can be reduced from seconds to milliseconds, and the utilization of the
laser can be much higher.

One of the first systems using a 4-kW disk laser in combination with a robotically controlled arm
was installed to produce the rear shelf of the new Volkswagen Passat.

Although disk lasers and fiber lasers have been behind many of the recent advances in automotive
technology, the future may see the direct application of diode lasers. Already, diode lasers are
nearly ready to be substituted for Nd:YAG lasers in brazing applications. Moreover, they will make
their way into automotive manufacturing with the increased use of plastic materials. Direct diode
lasers weld plastic containers and manifolds, and one can envision a time when they will be
applied to joints between plastic panels of a car’s exterior.

In the future, the ways that lasers are used in auto-body manufacturing will depend on the design
of the cars. Designs based on space frames are liable to accelerate the use of lasers. Materials such
as composites and magnesium might better be joined using other technologies.

Other applications

Assembling auto bodies is the heart of automotive manufacturing, but lasers also find application
elsewhere in the field. One such area is the manufacture of small sensor components; for
example, air-bag sensors and igniters, antilock brake system sensors and injection valves. Many
hundreds of lasers are involved in the production of these parts.

A promising new application is the treatment of surfaces developed by Gehring GmbH & Co. KG of
Ostfildern, Germany. The cylinder walls of the Volkswagen Race Touareg engine are structured
with a laser to create small depressions where lubricants collect to keep the engine running
smoothly. General Motors also is employing lasers to add microstructuring to the cylinder walls.

Looking further into the future, one envisions the evolution of nongasoline-powered engines in
automobiles. One day, gearboxes, drivetrains, transaxles, injection valves, gasoline engines and
steering columns may all be history. Drive-by-wire approaches and the alternative propelling
systems of the future will demand new manufacturing techniques. Lasers presumably will
continue to play a major role in these technologies.

Fuel cells, for example, often are discussed as power sources for future automobiles. Fuel cells are
composed of thin foils, and precision high-speed welding, cutting and drilling will be required to
mass-produce them. These requirements seem like a natural fit for the capabilities of laser
machine tools.

Meet the author

Klaus Löffler heads the joining department of production engineering at Volkswagen AG in

Wolfsburg, Germany; e-mail: klaus.loeffler@volkswagen.de.
Laser welding of aluminium alloys using different
laser sources
J P Weston (i) , I A Jones ( ii ) , E R Wallach (i)

(i Department of Materials Science, University of Cambridge)

(ii TWI)

Presented at CISFFEL6, 6 th International Conference on Welding and Melting by Electron and

Laser Beams, Toulon, France, 15-19 June 1998

Abstract
Five different aluminium alloys were welded using four laser sources: CO 2 , CO and Nd:YAG
(pulsed and high powered continuous). The laser welds were studied for their appearance,
mechanical properties, hot cracking response and microstructure. It is evident that high quality
welds could be produced using all four laser sources.

Introduction
Stricter environmental laws are leading automobile manufacturers to look for ways of reducing
fuel consumption and pollutant emissions of their vehicles. One of the main ways to achieve this
is by reducing vehicle weight, as fuel consumption and therefore exhaust emissions are directly
related to weight. With this in mind, there is keen interest in the use of laser welding to produce
lightweight and economical vehicle structures in aluminium. [l-3] Laser welding is a flexible high
energy density welding process that produces welds of low distortion and a small heat affected
zone through the use of easily automated and controlled equipment. [4, 5]

Currently there are two laser sources capable of delivering the power densities required to weld
aluminium alloys in industrial settings; these are the CO 2 gas laser and the Nd:YAG solid-state
laser. In addition, a new, high powered laser is under development, the CO gas laser. These
three types of laser differ greatly in their heat source characteristics as a consequence of
different means of laser light generation, beam delivery systems and wavelengths.

The aim of the current work was, therefore, to investigate the viability of using different lasers
to weld a range of aluminium alloys. Mechanical properties and hot cracking susceptibilities were
evaluated.

Experimental procedures
Materials and welding conditions
Five aluminium alloys of standard commercial composition were welded autogenously using CO,
CO 2 and Nd:YAG lasers, and welds were also made with filler wires using a CO 2 laser. The
alloys and their ultimate tensile strengths are shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Properties of materials used in this study

Thickness Ultimate tensile Welding Wire speed

Alloy
(mm) strength (MPa) wire (m/min)

2219
3.2 450 2319 3
T87
5083 1.8 314 5556A 2

6061 1.8 308 4047A 2

7475 Clad
1.2 480 5556A 2
T761 with Al

8090 1.8 288 4043 2

For each laser, a similar welding set-up was used. Sheets were guillotined to size (250xl00 mm)
and degreased with acetone. Samples to be butt welded were lightly abraded on the edges to be
joined. No other cleaning or drying procedures were used. The samples were clamped flat on a
jig mounted 3-8° off perpendicular to the laser beam. This prevented the reflected beam from
re-entering the optics. A summary of alloys welded and welding speeds is provided in Table 2.

Table 2: Welding speeds (m/min)

Nd:YAG
Alloy CO 2 Nd:YAG 2 kW CO
5 kW

CW with filler 100Hz 500 Hz

Autogenous CW CW CW
wire pulsed pulsed

2219 2.5 1.0 0.75 NA NA 7.0 0.4

5083 6.0 3.5 2.5 2.5 NA 11 1.75

6061 7.5 *
5.5 *
2.5 2.5 NA 10 1.25

7475 11 8.0 4.0 3.0 1.25 16 4.0

8090 12 8.0 2.75 2.75 1.25 14 3.5

*
Data from J.Y.Yoon. [12]

For the autogenous CO 2 welding, a Laser Ecosse AF5 fast axial flow DC excited 5 kW laser was
used, focused by a KCl lens of 150 mm focal length. Gas shielding was achieved by co-axial and
underbead flow of helium. In the wire feed welding system, a Laser Ecosse AF8 8 kW laser was
used, with reflective optics. Wire speeds and alloy/wire combinations are shown in Table 1.

A 2 kW Lumonics Multiwave TM was used for the medium powered Nd:YAG work. The laser beam
was sent down a 1 mm diameter fibre optic. A coverplate was used to prevent weld splatter and
fumes from reaching the lens. This coverplate had only 93% transmittance so the laser source
power was increased to compensate for this loss. Gas shielding was again achieved by co-axial
and underbead flow of helium. For the pulsed Nd:YAG laser work, square pulses were used, with
a duty cycle of 40% giving a 5 kW peak from a 2 kW mean power output laser.

The 5 kW continuous Nd:YAG work was carried out at Lumonics Ltd. in Rugby, England using an
experimental Multiwave TM laser, with a fibre optic delivery system.

The CO laser used at TWI was a converted 5 kW CO 2 Laser Ecosse laser fitted with chilling and
drying systems. It was run in a continuous mode, producing a 2.0 kW beam focused using
parabolic mirrors. The beam path was purged with dry air and beam path losses were
approximately 15% resulting in 1.7 kW power being delivered to the workpiece.
Lasers were characterised by measurements of spot size and delivered power. The spot sizes for
the gas lasers were measured using a Prometec Laserscope UFF1OO rotating needle beam; for
the Nd:YAG laser, spot sizes were calculated from fibre diameter. Delivered power
measurements were made with a Joule stick power meter. A summary of the results is
presented in Table 3.

Table 3: Laser parameters

Nd:YAG
CO 2 Nd:YAG 2 kW CO
5 kW

Filler
Autogenous Pulsed CW CW
wire

Power at workpiece 2 average 5

5.0 5.0 *
4.8 1.7
(kW) peak

Spot diameter (mm) 0.26 0.26 0.4 0.4 0.31

Focusing method 150 mm lens 150 mm lens lens mirrors

Irradiance W mm -2
9.4x10 4
9.4x10 4
4.0x10 4
3.8x10 4 2.2x10 4

*
6.0 kW was used for welding the thick 2219 material, giving
11.3x10 4 W/mm -2

Bead-on-plate melt runs were carried out to optimise welding parameters. The power delivered
to the workpiece was held constant at 5 kW where possible. Weld speed and focus height were
adjusted to give the highest quality full penetration welds at the fastest possible welding speeds.
For the 2219 wire feed welding, acceptable welds could not be made using 5 kW laser power.
The power delivered to the workpiece was increased to 6 kW resulting in an improvement in the
quality of welds.

Cracking evaluation
Melt runs, using run-in and run-off tabs, were carried out on tapered specimens to investigate
their cracking response. After welding, the samples were cleaned, degreased and then crack
lengths determined using a dye penetrant method. The cracking susceptibility was expressed as
percentage crack length, i.e. mm of cracked length compared with a sample length of 200 mm.

Examination of welds
Transverse cross-sections were taken from the welds, mounted and polished. For the optical
microscopy, samples were etched with Kellers reagent to reveal the second phase regions.

Tensile samples were machined with weld beads at the centre of the tensile sample gauge
length, normal to the axis of tensile loading. The weld beads were not machined off before
testing. The tensile tests were carried out on a Schenck Trebel electric screw tensile machine, at
a cross-head rate of 1 mm min -1.

Results and discussion

Metallography
Several of the alloy/laser combinations showed the characteristic 'wine glass' shape often found
in laser welding. An example is shown in Figure 1, a Nd:YAG laser weld in 2219 material. Two
types of heating take place during laser welding. One is the absorption of laser light from the
keyhole, which releases heat throughout the thickness of the material and tends to create a
parallel sided weld. The second heat source is the plasma above the weld, which absorbs and re-
emits laser energy to create a hemispherical weld centred near the surface of the sheet. The
observed weld shapes are affected by the balance between these two heat sources. [6]

In Figure 1, the rolled microstructure of the parent plate can be seen as can the very fine
microstructure of the weld bead. Small round pores are present and are more common in the
lower part of the weld. This autogenous weld shows only a small amount of undercutting due to
gap filling and some losses through evaporation and splatter.

Fig. 1 - Cross sectional weld shape of pulsed Nd:YAG laser welded 2219 aluminium

Figure 2 shows a plan view of the edge of a weld in 8090 made with the continuous wave
Nd:YAG laser. The weld metal, to the top of the image, shows the very fine growth structure in
comparison, to the base metal. The growth type in these welds was mainly cellular-dendritic,
with dendrite arm spacings, (where visible) of 5 µm or less.

Fig. 2 - Top section of fusion line of continuous wave Nd:YAG laser welded 7475 aluminium

A thin white layer is evident at the fusion line. In this region, the temperature gradient is high.
As the laser approaches and passes, the parent material melts back and then begins to solidify,
giving very low growth rates at the very edge of the weld. The growth rate then increases
slowly, depending upon the shape of the back of the weld pool. Thus the temperature
gradient/growth rate ratio is very large and this causes the initial stages of growth to be planar.
The rejection of solute that occurs as this solidification starts results in an initial layer of weld
metal that is free from second phase particles; it is this layer that is visible at the fusion line.

In the base metal, in the lower half of Figure 2, clear evidence of constitutional liquation can be
seen. The dark lines along the grain boundaries are areas where melting has occurred. These are
only present close to the fusion line where temperatures approach the bulk solidus and are
above the local solidus. This evidence of constitutional liquation was seen in all alloys, but most
clearly in the 7475 and 8090 alloys. In these parent materials, the composition is not
homogeneous on a micron scale, with variations in composition within primary α grains and
regions at grain boundaries where larger amounts of alloying elements are present, and so lower
the local melting point. [7]

The behaviour of the liquated regions depends upon the thermal cycle and upon diffision of the
solute materials into the grains. The narrow width of the films (<1 µm in this study) means that
the diffusion distances involved are short and it has been suggested that diffusion has a
controlling effect upon the behaviour and persistence of these films. [8]

These liquid films can act as initiation points for cracking. While no liquation cracking was
observed in the current study, if the hot cracking was reduced, for example by the use of
appropriate filler wires, then liquation cracking may become a difficulty in these alloys.

Hot crack tests

The five different alloys were welded under seven differing laser conditions and the cracking
results obtained are presented in Table 4. Note that the crack test used is very severe; no
cracking was observed in butt welds made for tensile testing. The measured crack lengths were
highly variable and this variation limits, to some extent, the deductions that can be made from
the data. The standard deviation within each group of nominally identical samples was on
average 15 mm. This variation might come from differences in sample geometry (the stress field
around each weld being a function of the geometry of the material around the weld) or from the
positioning of the laser beam path which may have not always been exactly central to the
sample.

Table 4: Cracking (% crack length) by alloy and welding method.

Nd:YAG 5
Alloy CO 2 Nd:YAG 2 kW CO
kW

CW with filler 100 Hz 500 Hz

CW CW CW CW
wire pulsed pulsed

2219 43 86 24 NA NA 50 NA

5083 18 71 2 0 NA 60 N0

6061 65 * 20-90 *
96 41 NA 84 50

7475 58 93 70 98 98 100 6

8090 7 91 93 83 95 74 21
*
Result from previous work by J.Y.Yoon. [12]

Even so, significant differences were found within the data. For example, the 500 Hz Nd:YAG
samples in the 6061 and 8090 materials cracked significantly less than the 100 Hz samples while
the situation was reversed in the 7475 material. As pulse rate affects energy deposition and thus
cooling rate, it is seems probable that cooling rate affects cracking in a manner that is different
for the various alloys.

Similarly, significant differences were seen between cracking in pulsed Nd:YAG laser welds and
in continuous high powered Nd:YAG laser welds. Several studies, reported in a recent literature
review, suggest that while pulsed Nd:YAG laser welds are extremely susceptible to cracking, this
is much less common in continuous wave Nd:YAG laser welds. [9] The results in the current study
do not support this suggestion. Comparing the 5 kW continuous Nd:YAG laser with the 2 kW 100
Hz pulsed Nd:YAG laser, both delivered equal powers to the weld (the 2 kW laser was run on a
40% duty cycle to give pulses of 5 kW). However, for the 2219, 5083 and 7475 alloys, the
continuous wave Nd:YAG laser welds cracked significantly more than their counterparts welded
with pulsed Nd:YAG lasers. For the 8090 alloy, the cracking of the continuous wave laser welds
was also higher than for the pulsed laser welds, but not significantly. Only in the 6061 alloy did
the continuous wave laser welds have significantly less cracking than in the pulsed laser welds.
However, in the work by Cieslak and Fuerschbach, quoted in the above literature review, three
alloys were studied including 6061. [10] They found that, for conduction mode, partially
penetrating welds, all pulsed laser welds showed cracks while no cracks were seen in welds
made with continuous laser sources.

Markedly more powerful lasers (5 kW versus 600 W) were used in the current work and only
keyhole mode fully penetrating welds were made. Thus comparisons between the current and
previous work may not be valid. Nonetheless, it is interesting to note that of the five alloys in
this study only 6061 showed lower cracking when welded with a continuous laser source rather
than with a pulsed laser.

While the above results refer to the comparison of pulsed and continuous lasers of equal incident
power, further work was carried out to compare lasers of equal average power, namely 2 kW
pulsed against 2 kW continuous wave. However, the 2 kW YAG laser was limited in its ability to
weld ~2 mm thick material in CW mode. Thus only two of the alloys in this study, the thin (1.2
mm) 7475 and the easily weldable 8090 aluminium-lithium, could be used to produce directly
comparable results between pulsed and CW laser welds. Both alloys produced high levels of
cracking, at the limit of the cracking susceptibility resolved by the test. Thus the only conclusion
that can be drawn about the effect of continuous versus pulsed laser sources upon cracking in
this case is that the crack responses were similar and that the continuous laser welded samples
did not have greatly reduced cracking susceptibilities.

In four cases out of five, the 5 kW continuous wave Nd:YAG laser produced significantly more
cracked welds than the 5 kW continuous wave CO 2 laser. Only in the 2219 alloy was this not
significant, although the results still show higher cracking for the Nd:YAG. The Nd:YAG laser
typically welded 30-50% faster than the CO 2 laser, despite its lower intensity (focused spot
diameter of 0.4 mm rather than 0.26 mm), suggesting that the lower wavelength of the Nd:YAG
laser increased the absorption of the laser beam by the workpiece. This has been confirmed in
recent work. Thus the heat input from the Nd:YAG laser was higher than that from the CO 2 . It
has been stated that higher heat inputs give more cracking [11] ; this was observed in this case.

In general, the CO laser gave significantly lower cracking than the majority of the other lasers
for each of the alloys.

It is evident from the results from all laser/alloy combinations that is not a simple relationship
between laser parameters, material parameters and cracking response.

Mechanical properties
Ultimate tensile strengths and joint efficiencies are shown in Table 5, from which it is seen that
the welds were, with a few exceptions, generally of high quality. To detemine joint efficiencies,
seven to nine samples of the base materials were tested. The results were consistent, producing
95% confidence limits generally of ±5 MPa. The strengths of the welds were more widely
distributed. At least five samples were taken from each weld run, (at least seven for the 5083
welds), producing 95% confidence limits of ±l5 MPa.

Table 5 As welded ultimate tensile strengths and joint efficiencies (%)

Autogeneous Pulsed 2 kW CO 2+ filler

Alloys CO welds
CO 2 welds Nd:YAG welds welds

Joint Joint Joint Joint

MPa MPa MPa MPa
Efficiency Efficiency Efficiency Efficiency

5083 283 90 264 84 297 95 250 80

6061 189 * 58 *
250 *
68 *
200 * 961 *
232 864

7475 233 49 126 26 324 68 301 63

8090 242 84 236 82 208 72 221 77

2219 263 58 (81 ) 270 59 (95 ) 278 61

* Figures from previous work by J.Y.Yoon, [12]

Joint efficiencies after T6 heat
treatment

In the welds that gave the highest joint efficiencies, the filler wire welds in 5083, three of the
eight tensile specimens fractured in the parent metal, not in or near the weld bead. Failure
modes varied with alloy. For example, the 6061 welds all failed in the weld bead, with the
fracture running from the fusion line at the top of the bead to the weld centreline at the
underside of the bead. Rounded porosity was seen on many of the fracture surfaces.

The high weld strengths are probably a result of the fine microstructures developed during the
rapid solidification found during laser welding. As can be seen from Figure 2, the weld
microstructure is significantly finer than that of the parent metal. For the non-heat treatable
alloy in the study, 5083, this effect was enough to produce very high joint efficiencies. However,
for the heat treatable alloys, the joint efficiencies are lower as the weld metal has not received
an optimal heat treatment. Clearly, the strength of such weld metal can be increased through
the use of an appropriate heat treatment. To test this, welds in the 2219 alloy were heat treated
to the T6 condition (solution treated, quenched then peak aged), along with a sample of base
metal for comparison. For pulsed Nd:YAG laser welds, joint efficiencies were raised from 58% to
81%, and for filler wire welds made with a CO 2 laser joint efficiencies were increased from 59%
to 95%.

Clearly, laser welding need not have a detrimental effect upon material properties.

Conclusions
High quality welds could be made in a number of aluminium alloys using a variety of laser
sources and processes. Joint efficiencies of 95% could be reached when welding a non-heat
treatable alloy. After heat treatment, joint efficiencies could also reach 95% for welds in heat
treatable alloys.
Cracking results have been found that extend current knowledge in an interesting way. For four
of the aluminium alloys in this study, the pulsed Nd:YAG welds showed less cracking than those
made with the continuous Nd:YAG laser. However, the current work confirmed
statements [10] that for 6061 alloy only, the use of continuous Nd:YAG lasers reduces cracking,
in comparison with pulsed Nd:YAG lasers. Moreover, there was not a consistent difference in
cracking behaviour in the five aluminium alloys when using the CO 2 laser compared with the
welds made using the pulsed Nd:YAG laser; the continuous Nd:YAG laser produced more
cracking than the CO 2 laser. Clearly the interaction of laser source and alloy parameters in
determining cracking susceptibilities is complex.

Note that less (or no) cracking would be expected in many real applications as no cracking was
seen when making the butt welds for tensile testing; the constraints introduced by the crack test
are particularly severe.

The two new types of lasers used here, CO and high powered continuous wave Nd:YAG lasers,
could both be used to produce high quality welds. While the CO laser used was of lower power
than others in this study, preventing a direct comparison, there was a tendency to lower
cracking for welds produced with this laser compared with welds using other lasers. In
comparison, the continuous wave Nd:YAG laser produced more highly cracked welds.

Acknowledgements
The authors wish to acknowledge both TWI and Lumonics Ltd for their generous provision of
both lasers and materials, and would in particular like to thank the technical staff at TWI whose
skill and patience made this study possible. This study was funded by the EPSRC. The authors
would also like to thank Professor Alan Windle for provision of laboratory facilities in Cambridge.

References
'Laser beam welding - thermal profiles and HAZ
hardness'. in Recent Trends in Welding Science and
1. Metzbower, E.A.
Technology. 1989. Gadinburg, Tennessee: ASM
International.

'Can the tree-huggers' car come of age?, in

2. Peritz, A.
Professional Engineering'. 1995. p. p24.

'Aluminium takes to the road. Advanced Materials and

3. Kazmier, R.J.
Processes', 1994. 141 (1): p. 42-44.

'Will the YAG laser revolutionise automotive

4. Irving, B. manufacturing?' Welding Journal, 1993. 72(7): p. 52-
56.

Jones, I.A. & S.T. 'Laser welding aluminium alloys'. TWI Bulletin, 1992.
5.
Riches 4(July/Aug.): p. 76-78.

'A method for calculating the fused zone profile of

6. Akhter, R., et al. laser keyhole welds'. Journal of Physics D, 1989.
22(l): p. 23-28.
 'Metallurgical Modelling of Welding'. Materials
7. Grong, Ø. Modelling Series, ed. H.K.D.H. Bhadeshia. 1994: The
Institute of Materials. pp. 541-546.

'Model for the formation and solidification of grain

Radhakrishnan, B. boundary liquid in the heat affected zone (HAS) of
8.
and R.G. Thompson welds' ' Metallurgical Transactions A, 1992.
23A(June): p. 1783-1799.

Çam, G., J.F. dos

'Laser and electron beam welding of Al-alloys:
9. Santos, and M.
Literature review.' 1997: GKSS-Foschungszentram.
Koçak

'On the weldability, composition and hardness of

Cieslak, M.J. and pulsed and continuous Nd:YAG laser welds in
10.
P.W. Fuerschbach aluminium alloys 6061, 5456 and 5086'. Metallurgical
Transactions B, 1988. 19B(4): p. 319-329.

Prevention of weld hot cracking. Welding

11. Ogawa, T.
International, 1991.5(12):p.931-935.

Laser welding of aluminium alloys, PhD thesis,

12. Yoon, J.W. Department of Materials Science and Metallurgy.
1996, University of Cambridge.