Application of PMU to Detect High Impedance Fault
Using Statistical Analysis
Sean Kantra1, Hany A. Abdelsalam1,2, Senior Member, IEEE and Elham B. Makram1, Fellow, IEEE
1
Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA
2
Electrical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Kafrelsheikh University, Kafrelsheikh, Egypt
Abstract—Utilities have recently installed phasor measurement
units (PMUs) in their systems. In the control room, massive
amounts of data come in from PMUs, but it is hard to utilize in
real-time. Situational awareness and event detection are
necessary to avoid cascading outages. Tangible algorithms need
to be implemented in order to make this abundant data useful to
a system operator. Several events cause frequency deviation,
including load variation and faults. Of these events, changing
loads and switching shunt capacitors on and off is necessary.
The developed algorithms need to flag faults without giving false
positives for other events. Of the fault types, a high impedance
fault (HIF) is the hardest to detect since it may not trip a
breaker and causes a smaller frequency deviation from lower
impedance faults. This paper proposes an approach to detect a
HIF using statistical analysis: a null and alternative hypothesis
test is conducted to determine whether a system has diverged
from the 60Hz average to another less probable value. The
approach uses utility PMU measurements at substations to
achieve the standard deviation of the system. A high impedance
fault is simulated in Matlab/Simulink, and the bus frequency at
the fault location is exported for analysis. Real-time PMU
measurements and the simulated frequency deviation are then
combined to test whether the HIF would be detectable in the
real system. The results show the effectiveness of this approach
for HIF detection.
Index Terms— PMU, statistical analysis, high impedance fault,
frequency analysis
I. INTRODUCTION
Phasor measurement units (PMUs)can provide abundant data
when assessing voltage stability, frequency changes, line
congestion, and changes in power flow across tie lines, which
have substantial impact on stability of the overall system [1]-
[6]. In reference [3], a Jacobian was built assuming the
system architecture is known and singular value
decomposition was applied to the matrix in order to
determine whether a system was approaching an instability
point. The system architecture for the PMU data is not always
given so a model-free based algorithm is needed, as is the
same case in [6]. A model-free algorithm is more flexible,
since it does not require any system architecture to operate
such as connectivity or admittance-bus matrix specifications.
If a model-free algorithm encounters a system without most
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of its parameters, the algorithm will not run. Most viable
model-free algorithms are more computationally intensive
since system architecture cannot be used to simplify the
analysis. The most desirable algorithm is one that can operate
quickly in real-time with a model-free architecture. The
proposed algorithm in this paper is not computationally
intensive, allowing it to run in real-time.
High impedance fault (HIF) occurs due to undesired
contact of a conductor with the ground through a high
impedance [7]-[11]. Since a HIF is many orders of
magnitude greater than the line in impedance, very little
current flows through it, making its presence difficult to
detect compared to low impedance faults which draw almost
all line current to ground. Regular faults can be detected by
relays, but dry earth and other mediums do not draw enough
current to be seen by these instruments [8]. References [9]
and [10] both seek to identify the location of a HIF by power
line communication techniques and analyzing magnetic fields,
respectively. Reference [11] utilizes time frequency analysis
to detect the HIF in a laboratory setting.
This paper introduces a new, simple, and computationally
inexpensive method to detect a HIF using PMU
measurements based on statistical analysis applied to a
Gaussian distribution. The remainder of this paper is
organized as follows: in section II, the methodology and
mathematical background are presented. Section III proposes
a specific algorithm to detect events including the HIF. In
Section IV, the approach is applied on a case study to verify
its effectiveness of detecting HIF. A conclusion is provided in
Section V.
II. METHODOLOGY TO DETECT FREQUENCY CHANGE EVENT
An approach using statistics was considered when
searching for a valid algorithm. For this algorithm design, a
Null and Alternative Hypothesis approach is utilized. A
Gaussian distribution would be ideal for this test, so in order
for a Gaussian distribution to be obtained, the data must be
normalized. In reference [12] the Central Limit Application is
explained so that the probability distribution function of a
large sum of samples will approach a Gaussian distribution.
The definition of a sufficiently large set of independent data H A :   60 (Alternative hypothesis) (2)
is arbitrary, but a well-known base sample size of 30 is
sufficiently large enough for the mean to be normalized.
The sample size used for the algorithm is set to 60 for two y 
P( Z  ) X (3)
reasons. The first point being that PMU data is being S
received at a rate of 30Hz so a window of 60 samples will
isolate an event to a 2 second window. The second reason is (y  N)/ S
that 60 samples is significantly more than the general
assumption of 30, and therefore the distribution will be more
, X is the area 

P( X ) dX (4)

accurate by definition. A perfect distribution can never be

obtained since it would require an infinite number of samples 2
[12], [13].  n 
Under the assumption that the mean of 60 samples can be n   yi 
applied to the Gaussian distribution, a standard deviation for  yi   i 1 
2

the data needs to be obtained. A global value for the standard n

deviation at a particular bus is impossible. However, this
variable can be updated infinitely during real-time system
operation, so the value of the calculated standard deviation
will converge to the theoretical ideal of the bus for all time.
Simulation showed that the standard deviation quickly
converged to a number, within 40 samples approximately,
and then did not change. This validates that the sample
window of 60 samples was sufficient, since the desired error
of the standard deviation is desired to be approximately zero
for a Gaussian distribution [12]. The actual distribution for
bus frequency can be seen in Fig. 1.
and S  i 1 (5)
n 1
where
• y is the mean of the sliding window of the last 60
measurements
•  =60 since taking the mean of an infinite amount
of samples is impossible
• S is the standard deviation which is the standard
error of the sample as calculations increase
• The standard deviation in (5) quickly converges to a
global standard deviation and as time increases, the
standard error will become more accurate by the
nature of its own definition as time increases to
infinity and its magnitude decreases to zero.

if X  0.995 or X  0.005 , reject H0

Fig. 1. Normal distribution curve
This concept is tied into the Null/Alternative Hypothesis
test. Consider that the whole system frequency is very close
to 60 Hz for all time. An analog measurement of 60 Hz
exactly is very improbable, but for the algorithm design, a
bus frequency mean of 60Hz is assumed for all time. The
mean of each 60-sample window is calculated, including the
most recent system measurement and the prior 59
measurements. The probability that this mean is a subset of
60Hz is tested. A level of significance of 1% is used: this will
be explained later.
The mathematical background is explained as follows:
H 0 :   60 (Null hypothesis) (1)
 H A is assumed to be true.
If the Null Hypothesis is not rejected, H0 is assumed to be
true (1). Rejecting the null hypothesis simply translates to an
anomaly in the system indicative of an event (2). The
probability of rejecting the null hypothesis falsely is 1% since
it is only rejected for an area of 0.01. There can never be a
zero percent chance of making an error so bounds are set
relatively low. Since the problem is an equivalence
hypothesis, the area is split between the left and right side of
the curve. Therefore, if the x-value in equation (4) is less
than 0.005 or greater than 0.995, the time of that particular
measurement is flagged as containing an event.
III. HIF DETECTION ALGORITHM
Figure 2 shows the flow chart explaining the steps of HIF
detection. In this figure, a sliding window which includes the
most current sample as well as the prior 59 samples is
analyzed to ascertain whether or not that window contains an
event. Recurring positive flags in the algorithm, logged in
the Event Matrix, translate to an increased likelihood of a HIF.
Although these events are not entirely independent, the
chances that a single window will register a false positive are

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only 1%. Recurring instances quickly translate to a 100% shows the X-values calculated in (3), which are used in the
percent chance that a fault has occurred. If these flags persist algorithm as the comparative value to 0.995 and 0.005. Fig. 5
for long period within the system, then a HIF is almost shows the probability of an event, starting with the first
guaranteed to be present. detection. The probably of an event quickly converges to 1
All previous iterations can easily be stored in a standard when the events are logged sequentially, which can be seen in
deviation variable and as long as the last iteration was known, (6).
the variable can continue to update as the system runs. Once Start
a new value is read in, the mean of the 2 second sliding
window is found. The area under the curve as given in
Load Prior System Data,
equation (4) is calculated. This value is compared to the including Standard Error
bottom .5% and upper 99.5% values. This maintains the 1%
error by sharing it equally among the upper tail and lower tail
Read in newest frequency data
of the graph.
Recurring positive flags effectively translate to:
Determine 60 most recent
P( E )  (1   n ) ,   0.1 (6) measurements for analysis

Although this is a slight simplification, when there are 400

Calculate updated standard
consecutive readings, there will likely be a HIF that does not deviation, Equation (5)
trip a breaker. Identification of the event is implied through
recurring event detections. A regular fault will set off the Calculate the mean of most recent
same flags as the HIF, but unlike the HIF, low impedance measurements
faults will quickly clear from the system and the anomaly can
be identified as a regular fault. The quality that sets the HIF Calculate the standard norm for the data, assuming
apart is that it does not clear from the system quickly and the the standard error is the standard deviation and the
effect it has on the system, although less detrimental initially mean system frequency is 60Hz, Equation (3)
as a regular fault, persists for long periods of time and is
difficult to detect. When an event is detected, the iteration
number of that event is logged in the Event Matrix in Fig. 2. Is X > 0.995?
Yes
When values of the Event Matrix are closely grouped and Log the time of
persist for a long period of time, the presence of the HIF is the event in a No
matrix
returned to the window, specifying bus location of the event. Yes

This can be used to aid operators since this event often is Is X < 0.005?
undiagnosed by current methods.
Yes
Is another system No
IV. CASE STUDY state available?
The data used in this paper has two parts. The first part is
obtained from already installed PMUs in a utility. This data is No
extracted from the openPDC data stream [14] on several days
during Summer 2015. The HIF data is obtained from a End

Matlab/Simulink [15] simulation of different faults with Fig. 2. Flow chart of HIF fault detection
different high impedance to ground. The system PMU data is
utilized to attain the standard deviation for a bus. The
simulation produces a standard deviation of 0 when no events
are present and the system is balanced. In a real system, there
is a constant fluctuation around 60Hz.
The standard deviation of the real system is also
important since it contains load shifting and voltage
modulation, accounting for regular system operations and
decreasing the likelihood of a false reading dramatically.
During testing of the algorithm, the system frequencies
were tested and a false reading was never made. In Fig. 3, a
high impedance fault of 100 ohms is introduced at the 4456 th
iteration and this same HIF is logged sequentially after
iteration 4483, which is relatively quick. All following
values are logged in the matrix until the end of the simulation. Fig. 3. Frequency deviation due to 100 ohm HIF
This sequential continuity of the events in the Event Matrix,
as seen in Fig. 2, causes a flag for the HIF to switch. Fig. 4

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 Figure 6 repeats the algorithm at a different bus with a
100,000 ohm fault. This is well beyond the standard
parameters of a HIF. The fault is introduced at the 4456th
iteration and detected at the 4474th iteration. All values until
the end of simulation were logged in the Event Matrix. Fig. 7
shows the X values as the bus first approaches the detectable
range of the algorithm.

V. CONCLUSION
This paper presented a new method for HIF detection using
statistical analysis as an application of PMU data. A
mathematical approach was explained and the HIF detection
Fig. 4. Magnitude of X-norm approaching rejection region 100 ohm
algorithm was described. Combined PMU data and HIF
HIF model
simulated data were utilized to test the capabilities of the
proposed method. This algorithm can run in real-time
alongside other situational awareness programs and expand
detection of events to HIFs. The algorithm registered no false
positives in several tests for a system that operates with load
switching. After the HIF was introduced, the algorithm
detected a fault for its entire duration less than 1 second later.
Even if an event is detected on one sample, multiple
detections are necessary to characterize an HIF. Future work
involves pairing this algorithm with others to monitor voltage
stability. This algorithm may also be modified in the future to
detect other undetectable fault types, such as internal
machine/transformer fault. Interactions with this algorithm
will be taken into account in order to generate more
Fig. 5. Probability of event 100 ohm HIF
redundancy and reliability when assessing possible events to
be relayed for detection.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work was funded by Clemson University Electric Power
Research Association (CUEPRA). Members of CUEPRA are:
Advanced Cable Bus Inc., ALSTOM, Duke Energy, South Carolina
Electric and Gas (SCE&G), and Santee-Cooper

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