Complex Number System

Indian mathematician Mahavira (850 A.D.) was first to mention in his work 'Ganitasara sangraha'; 'As in
nature of things a negative (quantity) is not a square (quantity), it has, therefore, no square root'. Hence, there
is no real number x which satisfies the polynomial equation x2+1=0.

A symbol √(-1), denoted by letter i was introduced by Swiss Mathematician, Leonhard Euler to provide
solution of equation x2+1=0.'i' was regarded as a fictitious or imaginary number which could be manipulated
algebraically like an ordinary real number, except that its square was -1. The letter i was used to denote √(-1),
possibly because i is the first letter of the Latin word, 'imaginarius'.

To permit solutions of such polynomial equations, the set of complex numbers is introduced. We can consider
a complex number as having the form a + bi where a and b are real numbers. It is denoted by z, i.e., z = a+bi.
'a' is called as real part of j which is denoted by (Re z) and 'b' is called as imaginary part of z which is denoted
by (Img). Here, a and b are real numbers.

Complex Plane:

The point ‘z’ represented in red is the complex number z = a+ib which
corresponds to an intercept ‘a’ on the x-axis while it corresponds to an intercept ‘b’ on y-axis. Complex
number does not actually mean complicated. In fact, it just implies that a complex number is a combination of
a real and imaginary number. The line in blue represents the position vector of the point z.

Complex plane is also termed as the Argand plane. A complex number is actually a point or a position vector
in a two dimensional Cartesian coordinate system. The real part of the complex number is graphed as the
horizontal component while the imaginary part is plotted against the vertical component. When we talk of a
position vector of a complex number, it always takes into consideration, the magnitude and the direction with
respect to the origin. All this is also emphasized in the polar form.

Some key points of Complex Numbers:

Complex numbers is an important topic of IIT JEE. Some of the key points of IIT JEE complex numbers are
listed below:
 As explained, complex numbers are generally expressed as z = a+ib. Hence z is:

1. Purely real, if b = 0

2. Imaginary, if b ≠ 0

3. Purely imaginary, if a = 0
 The set R of real numbers is a proper subset of the complex numbers.

 Zero is purely real as well as purely imaginary but not imaginary.

 i = √(-1), is called the imaginary unit. Also, i2 = -1; i3 = i; i4=1, etc.

 √a√b√c = √(abc........)

if at least one of a,b,c ........ is non-negative.

 If j = a + ib, then a-ib is called complex conjugate of j.

 Real numbers satisfy order relations whereas imaginary order relation, i.e.,

i > 0, 3+i < 2 are meaningless.

Addition and Multiplication of Complex Numbers

Complex numbers are not very different from real numbers except for the fact that they contain imaginary
numbers as well. The operations of addition and multiplication are defined in the same way as in the case of
real numbers and commutative, distributive and associative properties also hold true. We discuss the addition
and multiplication of complex numbers:

Addition of two complex numbers is the same as in real numbers. The real part is added to the real part, while
the imaginary parts get added to each other.

(a + ib) + (c + id) = (a + c) + i(b + d)

Multiplication of complex numbers is also very simple. Here, every term gets multiplied to every other term
and i2 = -1. Using these facts, let us multiply the complex numbers.

(a+ib)(c+id) = a.(c + id) + ib (c + id)

= [ac + aid] + [bic + bi.di]

= ac + adi + bci + bidi

= ac + adi + bci – bd

= (ac-bd) + (ad+bc)i

Argument of a Complex Number

Argument of a non-zero complex number p(z) is denoted and defined by arg (z)= angle which OP makes with
the positive direction of real axis.

If OP=|z| and arg (z)= θ, then obviously z=r (cos θ + i sin θ), called the polar form of z. 'Argument of z' would
mean principal argument of z (i.e., argument lying in (-∏,∏ )) unless the context requires otherwise. Thus
argument of a complex number z=a+ib = r (cos θ + i sin θ) is the value of θ satisfying r cos θ = a and r sin θ =
b.
Let θ = tan-1 |b/a|

(i) a>0, b>0

P.V. arg z= θ

(ii) a>0, b>0

P.V. arg z = ∏/2

(iii) a<0, b>0

P.V. arg ∏ - θ

Argument of a non-zero complex number p(z) is denoted and defined by arg (z)= angle which OP makes with
the positive direction of real axis.
If OP=|z| and arg (z)= θ, then obviously z=r (cos θ + i sin θ), called the polar form of z. 'Argument of z' would
mean principal argument of z (i.e., argument lying in (-∏,∏ )) unless the context requires otherwise. Thus
argument of a complex number z=a+ib = r (cos θ + i sin θ) is the value of θ satisfying r cos θ = a and r sin θ =
b.

Let θ = tan-1 |b/a|

(i) a>0, b>0

P.V. arg z= θ

(ii) a>0, b>0

P.V. arg z = ∏/2

(iii) a<0, b>0

P.V. arg ∏ - θ
(vii) a>0, b<0

P.V. arg z=-θ

(viii) a>0, b=0

P.V. arg z = 0

Conjugate of a Complex Numbers

Conjugate of a complex number z = a + ib is denoted and defined by = a-ib.

In a complex number if we replace i by -i, we get conjugate of the complex number. is the mirror image of z
about real axis on Argand's Plane.

Geometrical representation of conjugate of complex number -

|z| = | |

arg ( ) = - arg (z)

General value of arg ( )= 2nΠ P.V. arg(z)

Properties:

(i) If z = x+y, then x= z+ /2, y = z+ /2

(ii) z= = z is purely real

(iii) z+ = 0 = j is purely imaginary

(iv) | |2 = z

(v) =z

(ix) Imaginary roots of polynomial equations with real coefficient occur is conjugate pairs.

(x) If w=f(z), then = f( )

Algebraic Operations on Complex Numbers

Complex numbers is an extremely important chapter of Algebra a sit lays the foundation fro various other
chapters too. In this section, our focus would be on algebra of complex numbers which shall include equality
of two complex numbers, addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of complex numbers. Finally we
shall focus on computation of square root of complex number.
In performing operations with complex numbers we can proceed as in the algebra of real numbers replacing i2
by -1 when it occurs.

Let z1 and z2 be two complex numbers where z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2.

Then if both the complex numbers are equal i.e. if z1 = z2 then Re(z1) = Re(z2) and Im(z1) = Im(z2).

i.e. if x1 + iy1 = x2 + iy2

Then x1 = x2 and y1 = y2 simultaneously.

Let z1 and z2 be two complex numbers, z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2.

Then the addition of the complex numbers z1 and z2 is defined as

z1 + z2 = (x1 + iy1) + ( x2 + iy2) = (x1 + x2) + i(y1 + y2) ∈ C

Re (z1 + z2) = Re (z1) + Re (z2) and

Im (z1 + z2) = Im (z1) + Im (z2)

Let z1 and z2 be two complex numbers, z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2.

Then the subtraction of the complex numbers z1 and z2 is defined as

z1 - z2 = (x1 + iy1) - ( x2 + iy2) = (x1 - x2) + i(y1 - y2) ∈ C

Re (z1 - z2) = Re(z1) - Re(z2) and

Im (z1 - z2) = Im(z1) - Im(z2)

Watch the following video for more on addition and subtraction of complex numbers:

Let z1 and z2 be two complex numbers, z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2.

Then the multiplication of the complex numbers z1 and z2 is defined as

z1.z2 = (x1 + iy1).(x2 + iy2) = (x1x2 - y1y2 ) + i(x1y2 + x2y1) ∈ C

Re(z1 z2) = Re(z1) . Re(z2) - Im(z1) . Im(z2)

Im(z1 z2) = Im(z1) . Re(z2) + Im(z2) . Re(z1)

For a real number λ and a complex number z = x + iy,

λ.z = λ(x + iy) = λx + i λy

The following properties are obvious:

(a) λ (z1 + z2) = λz1 + λz2

(b) λ1 (λ2 z) = (λ1λ2)z

(c) (λ1 + λ2)z = λ1z + λ2z for all z, z1, z2 ∈ C and λ, λ1, λ2 ∈ R.
Let z1 and z2 be two complex numbers, z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2.

Then, z1 / z2 = (x1 + iy1) /(x2 + iy2)

= (x1 + iy1) /(x2 + iy2) x (x2 - iy2)/(x2 - iy2)

= (x1x2 - x1y2i + y1x2i - y1y2i2) / (x22 – y22i2)

= [(x1x2 + y1y2) + (y1x2 – x1y2)i ]/ (x22 – y22i2)

= (x1x2 + y1y2)/ (x22 + y22) + (y1x2 – x1y2)/ (x22 + y22)i

Note:
Inequalities are not defined in case of imaginary numbers. So we can’t say one complex number > another like
4 + zi < 2 + 4i is meaningless.

Example 1: If z = x + iy, z1/3 = a – ib and x/a – y/b = k(a2 - b2), then find the value of k.
Solution: (x + iy)1/3 = a – ib
So, x + iy = (a – ib)3

= (a3 – 3ab2) + i(b3 – 3a2b)

So, x = a3 – 3ab2, y = b3 – 3a2b

This gives x/a = a2 - 3b2 and y/b = b2 – 3a2.

So, x/a – y/b = a2 – 3b2 – b2 + 3a2 = 4(a2 - b2)

so, k = 4.

Example 2: Show that the polynomial x4p + x4q+1 + x4r+2 + x4s+3 is divisible by x3 + x2 + x + 1 where p, q, r, s ∈ N.
Solution: Let f(x) = x4p + x4q+1 + x4r+2 + x4s+3
x3 + x2 + x + 1 = (x2 + 1)(x + 1) = (x + i)(x – i)(x + 1)

f(i) = i4p + i4q+1 + i4r+2 + i4s+3 = 1 + i + i2 + i3 = 1 + i – 1 – i = 0

f(-i) = (- i)4p + (-i)4q+1 + (-i)4r+2 + (-i)4s+3 = 1 + (-i) + (-i)2 + (-i)3 = 1 – i – 1 + i = 0

f(-1) = (- 1)4p + (-1)4q+1 + (-1)4r+2 + (-1)4s+3 = 0

Thus, by division theorem f(x) is divisible by x3 + x2 + x + 1.

Example 3: If the expression (1 + ir)3 is of the form s(1 + i) for some real ‘s’ where ‘r’ is also real and i = √-1,
then the value of ‘r’ can be
(a) cot π/8

(b) sec π

(c) tan π/12

(d) tan 5π/12

Solution: We have (1 + ir)3 = s(1 + i)

1+3ri + 3r2i2 + r3i3 = s(1 + i)

1-3r2 + i(3r – r3) = s + si

So, 1 – 3r2 = s = 3r – r3

Hence, 1 – 3r2 = 3r – r3

r3 – 3r2 – 3r + 1 = 0 gives (r3 + 1) – 3r(r + 1) = 0

We have (r + 1)(r2 + 1 – r – 3r) = 0

Therefore, r = -1 or r2 – 4r + 1 = 0

So, r = [4 ± √16 – 4] / 2 = [4 ± 2√3] / 2

So, r = 2 + √3 or 2 - √3.

Hence, options (b), (c) and (d) are correct.

Geometrical Representation of Fundamental Operations

The various fundamental laws can be represented graphically. The graphical representation makes it easier to
understand the laws. The four fundamental laws of geometry have been explained below:

(i) Geometrical representation of addition:

If two points P and Q represent complex numbers z1 and z2

respectively in the Argand Plane, then the sum z1+z2 is represented by the extremity R of the diagonal OR of
parallelogram OPRQ having OP and OQ as two adjacent sides. The addition of the complex numbers z1 and z2
can be assumed to be the addition of the vectors by utilizing the parallelogram law.

(ii) Geometrical representation of subtraction:

The representation of the difference of two complex numbers is slightly complicated than the addition of the
complex numbers. The easiest way of presenting the subtraction is to think of addition of a negative vector. If
we want to represent z1-z2, then the easiest way of representing it would be to think of adding a negative vector
z1 + (-z2). The negative vector is the same as the positive one, the only difference being that the negative vector
points in the opposite direction.

The difference vector z1 - z2 is represented below

Remark: It is important to note here that the vector representing the difference of the vectors z1 - z2 may also
be drawn joining the end point of z2 to the tip of z1 instead of the origin. This kind of representation does not
alter the meaning or interpretation of the difference operator. The difference operator joining the tips of z1 and
z2 is represented below:
(iii) Modulus and argument of multiplication of two complex numbers: Modulus and argument are two
extremely important concepts associated with complex numbers.

Modulus of a complex number: The modulus of a complex number is defined to be the distance of the number
from the origin. It is denoted by |z| and the value of the modulus of z = x+iy is √x2+y2.

Argument of a complex Number: Argument of a complex number is basically the angle that explains the
direction of the complex number. It is measured in radians. If we have the complex number in polar form i.e. z
= r(cos θ + i sin θ), then its argument is θ.

Modulus of product of two complex numbers: Let z1 and z2 be two complex numbers in polar form

z1 = r1(cos θ1 + i sin θ1)

z2 = r2(cos θ2 + i sin θ2)

Hence their product is given by

z1z2 = r1r2 [(cos θ1 cos θ2 – sin θ1 sin θ2) + i(sin θ1 cos θ2 + cos θ1 sin θ2)].

This expression can be further simplified as

z1z2 = r1r2 [(cos (θ1 + θ2) + i sin (θ1 + θ2)].

The product z1z2 has the modulus r1r2 and the argument (θ1 + θ2).

Theorem: For any two complex numbers z1, z2

We have, |z1, z2| = |z1| |z2| and arg(z1, z2) = arg(z1) + arg(z2)

Proof: z1 = r1 eiθ1, z2 = r2 eiθ2

z1z2 = r1 r2 ei(θ1+θ2)
 => |z1 z2|=|z1|=|z2|

arg (z1z2) = arg(z1) + arg(z2)

i.e., to multiply two complex numbers, we multiply their absolute values and add their arguments.

Some Key Points:

(i) P.V. arg(z1z2) ≠ P.V. arg(z1) + P.V. arg(z2)

(ii) |z1z2 ...... zn| = |z1| |z2| ......... |zn|

(iii) arg(z1.z2 ......... zn) = argz1+argz2+ ........ + argzn

(iv) Geometrical representation of multiplication of complex numbers -

Let P, Q be represented by z1= r1 eiθ1, z2 = r2 eiθ2 respectively. To find point R representing complex number z1 z2,
we take a point L on real axis such that OL=1 and draw triangle OQR similar to triangle OLP. Therefore,

OR/OQ = OP/OL = OR = OP*OQ

i.e., OR = r1 r2 and ∠ QOR = θ,

R(z1z2) Q(z2) P(z1)

∠ LOR = ∠ LOP + ∠ POQ + ∠ QOR

= Q1 + Q2 - Q1 + Q1

= Q1 + Q2

Hence, R is represented by z1 z2 = r1 r2 ei(Q1+Q2)

(v) Modulus and argument of division of two complex numbers:

Theorem: If z1 and z2 ( ≠0 ) are two complex numbers, then |z1/z2| =

|z1|/|z2| and arg(z1/z2) = arg z1 - arg z2

Note:

P.V. arg(z1/z2) ≠ P.V. arg (z1) - P.V. arg (z2)

(vi) Geometrical representation of the division of complex numbers-

Let P, Q be represented by z1= r1 eiθ1, z2 = r2 eiθ2 respectively. To find point R representing complex number z1/z2,
we tale a point L on real axis such that OL=1 and draw a triangle OPR similar to OQL.

Therefore, OP/OQ = OR/OL

=> OR = r1/r2

and ∠LOR = ∠LOP - ∠ROP

= θ1 - θ2

Hence, R is represented by z1/z2 =r1/r2 ei(θ1 - θ2)

Demoivre’s theorem is an important part of the complex numbers. It is a simple topic and fetches a good
amount of questions in the Mathematics portion of the JEE exam. We first start by stating the theorem and then
proceed towards the applications:

Demoivre's Theorem: The theorem can be stated in two forms:

Case I

Statement:

If n is any integer, then

(i) (cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos nθ + i sin nθ

(ii) (cos θ1 + i sin θ1) = (cos θ2 + i sin θ2) ......... (cos θn + i sin θn)

= cos θ1 + θ2 + θ3 .................. + θn) + i sin (θ1 + θ2 + .............. θ3)

Case II

Statement:
If p, q ε and q ≠ 0, then (cos θ + i sin θ)p/q = cos((2kπ + pq)/q) + isin((2kπ+pq/q) where k = 0,1,2,3,.....,q-1

Note:

Continued product of the roots of a complex quantity should be determined using theory of equations.

Derivation: The Demoivre’s formula can be derived from the Euler’s formula:

eix = cos x +i sin x

The exponential law for integral powers gives

Then by Euler’s Formula

e i(nx) = cos (nx) + i sin (nx)

A more elementary motivation of the theorem comes from calculating

(cos + isin x)2 = cos2x + 2i sin x cosx –sin 2x

= (cos2x – sin2x ) + i(2sinx cosx ) = cos (2x) +i sin(2x)

where the last equality follows from the trigonometric identities.

Hence, this proves the result for n=2

Failure for non-integer powers

In general, Demoivre’s formula does not hold for non-integer powers. Many different values are possible for
the non-integer powers. But there is one generalization to this that the right hand side expression is one
possible value of the power.

As seen in the derivation above, the Demoivre’s theorem involves a complex number to the power n. But in
case the power is not an integer, the result is multi-valued. For instance, consider the case when n=1/2 then,

For x = 0 the formula gives 1½ = 1

For x = 2π the formula gives 1½ = −1.

Since the angles 0 and 2π are the same this would give two different values for the same expression. The
values 1 and −1 are however both square roots of 1.

These issues are not generally experienced wi9th the Euler’s formula since its different exponent powers are
not generally considered. Euler's formula involves a complex power of a positive real number and this always
has a defined value. The corresponding expressions are:

eiθ =1

eiπ= -1.
Applications
Demoivre’s Theorem has numerous applications. Its major application is in finding the nth roots of a complex
number. This application does not strictly use Demoivre’s formula as the power is not an integer. However
considering the right hand side to the power of n will, in each case, give the same value on the left-hand side.

Now if we write the complex number z in the polar form then,

z = r(cos x + isin x)

Then z1/n = [r (cos x +i sinx )]1/n = r 1/n [ cos ( x+2kπ/n) + i sin (x+2kπ/n)]

Here k is an integer. To get the n different roots of z one only needs to consider values of k from 0 to n − 1.

The following video will provide you more clarity

Example: Write (√2-i√2)4 in the form a + bi.

First determine the radius:

Since cos α = √2/2 and sin α = - √2/2, α must be in the fourth quadrant and α = 315°. Therefore,

You may also consult the Model Papers to get an idea about the types of questions asked.

Example: Find the value of x from

x4 − x³ + x² − x + 1 = 0.
Solution: Seeing the given expression it can be judged that it is a part of the expansion of (x5+1).

And we know that

x5 + 1 = (x + 1) (x4 − x³ + x² − x + 1)
(x4 − x³ + x² − x + 1) = (x5 + 1) / (x + 1), for x ≠ −1
x4 − x³ + x² − x + 1 = 0
(x5 + 1) / (x + 1) = 0, for x ≠ −1
x5 + 1 = 0, for x ≠ −1
x5 = −1, for x ≠ −1

We can find values for x using De Moivre's theorem given x5 = −1

This will actually give us 5 values for x, but we exclude x = −1
x5 = −1 = cos(180) + i sin(180)
x = cos(180/5 + 360/5 k) + i sin(180/5 + 360/5 k), k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
x = cos(36+72k) + i sin(36+72k)

Now k = 2 will give x = −1, which is not a solution, so we ignore it.

x = cos(36) + i sin(36)
x = cos(108) + i sin(108)
x = cos(252) + i sin(252)
x = cos(324) + i sin(324)

Example: Compute (3+3i)5.

Solution: We first convert the given term in exponential form and then by using the Demoivre’s theorem we
can get the required answer.

So consider the term (3+3i) and in this case r = √9+9 = 3√2.

tan θ= 3/3 so Arg z= π/4.

3+3i = 3√2 ei π/4

(3+3i)5 = (3√2)5 e i5π /4

= 972√ 2 (cos (5π/4) +isin (5π/4))

= 972√ 2 (-√2/2 – √2/2 i)

= -972-972i.

Reflection Points for a Straight Line

The concept of reflection assumes different meanings when it is talked about in context of a point or of a
straight line.
Point reflection arises when the figure is built around a single point which in that case is termed as the point of
reflection. In fact, corresponding to every point in the figure there exists a point which is directly opposite to it
on the other side of the center in such a way that the point is indeed the midpoint of the line joining the point
and its image.
The concept of reflection points of a straight line or reflection on a number line is important and a bit tricky
too. It is entirely different from the point reflection. Two points say P and Q are said to be the reflection points
for a given straight line if the given line is the perpendicular bisector of the segment PQ. Note that the two
points denoted by the complex numbers z1 and z2 will be the reflection points for the straight line

where r is real and α is non-zero complex constant.

Inverse points of a circle -
Two points P and Q are said to be inverse w.r.t. a circle with centre 'O' and radius P if
(i) The points O, P, Q are collinear and P, Q are on the same side of O.
(ii) OP.OQ = P2

Now, as depicted in the figure above, (OP)(OP’) = r2. Various conclusions

follow form this equation like:

 If (OP) (OP’) = r2, then (OP’)(OP) = r2.

This means that if point P is inverse of point P’, then the point P’ is the inverse of point P.

 In case OP < r, then OP’ > r

If a particular point lies in the interior of the circle of inversion, then its inverse will lie in the exterior.

 In case OP > r, then OP’ < r

This case is quite opposite to the previous case. If a particular point lies in the exterior of the circle of
inversion, then its inverse will lie in the interior.

 In case OP = r, then OP’ = r

Now, if the point lies on the circle of inversion itself then so does its inverse. Hence, the point in such a case
may be regarded to be invariant. This means that the point is its own inverse.

Remark: Mathematically, the inverse points may also be defined as:

Two points z1 and z2 will be the inverse points w.r.t. the circle

The concept of inverse points may also be considered in context of an inversion sphere. The inversion
sphere may also be regarded as the extension of the geometric inversion form two dimensional plane to
three dimensional space.
Ptolemy's theorem
Ptolemy theorem is basically a relation between the four sides and the two diagonals of a cyclic quadrilateral.
A cyclic quadrilateral is the one whose vertices exist on a common circle.

A cyclic quadrilateral with vertices as A, B, C and D

Here, the bars denote the lengths of the line segments.

Let us discuss the proof of the theorem in detail:

Proof: Consider the cyclic quadrilateral ABCD and extend CD to P in such a way that ∠BAD = ∠CAP.
The quadrilateral ABCD is cyclic, so m ∠ABC + m ∠ADC = 180°. But, we know that ∠ADP forms a linear
pair with ∠ADC. Hence, this implies that ∠ADP = ∠ABC.

This gives that ? ABC~ ? ADP (by AA similarity).

Now, AB/AD = BC/DP which means that DP = (AD) (BC)/ (AB).

Since the two angles subtend the same arc, so we have ∠ABD = ∠ACD. Moreover, ∠BAC + ∠CAD = ∠DAP
+ ∠CAD.

By cancelling the common angle on both sides we get,

∠BAD = ∠CAP.

Hence, ? BAD ~ ? CAP.

This gives AB/AC = BD/CP. Hence, CP = (AC) (BD)/ (AB).

But, CP = CD + DP. Making the required substitutions, we get

(AC) (BD)/ (AB) = CD + (AD)(BC)/ (AB).

Multiplying by AB on both sides gives,

(AC)(BD) = (AB)(CD) + (AD)(BC).

It may also be stated in another way. It says that the product of the lengths of the diagonals of a converse
quadrilateral inscribed in a circle is equal to the sum of the products of lengths of the two pairs of its opposite
sides, i.e.,

|z1-z3| |z2-z4| = |z1-z2| |z3-z4|+|z1-z4| |z2-z3|

Ptolemy’s Inequality: Another result that follows from the Ptolemy’s theorem is the Ptolemy’s inequality. If
A, B, C and D are any four points which are not necessarily concyclic then,
AB·CD + BC·AD ≥ AC·BD

Distance, Triangle Inequality

If z1 = x1 + iy1, z2 = x2 + iy2, then distance between points z1, z2 is argard plane is |z1-z2|= √((x1-x2)2 + (y1-y2)2)
In triangle OAC,

OC ≤ OA + AC

OA ≤ AC + OC

AC ≤ OA + OC

Using these inequalities we have

||z1| - |z2|| ≤ |z1+z2| ≤ |z1| + |z2|

Similarly from triangle OAB, we have

||z1| - |z2|| ≤ |z1-z2| ≤ |z1| + |z2|

Note:

(a) ||z1| - |z2|| = |z1+z2| , |z1-z2| = |z1| + |z2| iff origin, z1, and z2 are collinear and origin lies between z1 and z2.

(b) |z1 + z2| = |z1|+|z2| , ||z1| - |z2|| = |z1-z2| iff origin, z1 and z2 are collinear and z1 and z2 lies on the same side of
origin.

Representation of a Complex Number

A complex number is a number that can be expressed in the form a + bi, where a and b are real numbers and i
is the imaginary number satisfying i2 =-1. In this expression, a is the real part and b is the imaginary part of
the complex number. The complex number a + bi can be identified with the point (a, b) in the complex plane.
A complex number whose real part is zero is said to be purely imaginary, whereas a complex number whose
imaginary part is zero is a real number. Hence, the complex numbers contain the ordinary real numbers only.
In the early 19th century, Karl Friedrich Gauss and William Hamilton independently and almost simultaneously
proposed idea of redefining complex number as ordered pair of real numbers, i.e., a+ib = (a,b).

To each complex number there corresponds one and are point in plane, and conversely to each point in the
plane there corresponds one and only are complex number. Because of this we often refer to the complex
number z as the point z. A complex number may be represented in any of the following forms:

(a) Cartesian form (Geometric Representation):

Every complex number z = x+iy can be represented by a point on the Cartesian plane known as complex plane
(Argand plane) by the ordered pair (x, y).

Length OP is called modulus of the complex number which is denoted by |z| and 0 is the argument or
amplitude.

|z| = √(x2 + y2) and tan θ = (y/x) (angle made by positive x-axis).

The concepts of argument, principal value and modulus are also related to the Cartesian form of the complex
numbers. These terms have been discussed in detail at the end.

(b) Trigonometric / Polar Representation:

In polar representation a complex number z is represented by two parameters r and ??. Parameter r is the
modulus of complex number and parameter ?? is the angle with the positive direction of x-axis.

z = r(cos ?? + i sin ??) where |z| = r, arg z = ?? I = r(cos ?? - i sin ??).

Note: cos ?? + i sin ?? is also written as cis ??.

You can consult the Model Papers to get an idea about the types of questions asked.

(c) Euler's Formula

Z = reiθ, |z|=r, arg z = θ

= re-iθ

Proof of this formula is beyond scope of present discussion. A heuristic proof serving as motivation for this
formula is by considering expansion.

ex = 1+ x/1! + x2/2! + x3/3!

Put x = i θ

eiθ = (1 - θ 2/2 + θ 4/4! ............) + (θ - θ 3/3! + θ 5/5! - .............)i

= cos θ + sin θ

Note: If θ is real then cosθ = (eiθ + e-iθ)/2,

sinθ = (eiθ - e-iθ)/2i

(d) Vectorial Representation

Every complex number can be considered as the position vector of a point. If the point P represents the
complex number z then = z and | | = |z|.

The following video will provide you more clarity on the vector representation of a complex number:
Modulus, Argument and Principal Value Argument of a complex Number:

Modulus: The length of the vector OP is called the modulus or absolute value of the complex numbers z, and
is denoted by |z|. It is a nonnegative real number given by the equation
|z| = √x2+y2
The only complex number with modulus zero is the number (0, 0).

Example: Consider the complex number z= -2+4i.

Modulus |z| = √(-2)2 +42 = √20.

Argument: The angle between the positive real axis and the vector OP is called the argument of the complex
numbers z, and is denoted by Arg(z).
More exactly Arg(z) is the angle through which the positive real axis must be rotated to cause it to have the
same direction as vector OP. We assume that the point P is not the origin, P (0, 0).

If P = (0, 0), then |z| = 0 and Arg(z) is indeterminate.

Arg(z) is considered positive if the rotation is counterclockwise and negative if the rotation is clockwise.
|z| and Arg(z) are the polar coordinates of the point (x, y).
z = |z|{cos Arg(z) +i sin Arg(z)} is a polar representation of z.

Note: Argument of a complex number is a many values function. If θ is the argument of a complex number
then αnπ + θ; n ∈ I will also be the argument of that complex number. Any two arguments of a complex
number differ by 2nπ. A complex number is completely defined only once its modulus and argument are
defined.

0 is also a complex number as it can be written as 0= 0+0i. In this case, argument is not defined as this is the
only complex number that is represented by its modulus.

Examples: Arg (i) = π /2

Arg (-i) = -π /2

Arg (1) = 0

Arg (-1) = π

Arg (1+i) = π /4
Principal Value Argument: As the name suggests Principal Argument is one and only one value of Arg (z)
which satisfies the inequality:

-π< Arg z ≤ π

Note that while argument is abbreviated by Arg (z), principal argument is written as arg(z).

The relation between Arg(z) and arg(z) is given by

Arg(z) = arg(z) +2nπ ,
where n ranges over all integers 0, ±1, ±2, … .

tan arg(z) = y/x = Im (z) / Re (z)

Example: If the principal polar representation of z is given by z= 4 (cos π/3 + i sin π/3), then find other
instances of polar representation of z.

The other polar representations will occur at intervals of multiples of 2 π. Hence,

z = 4(cos 7π/3 + i sin7π/3). In fact the set z= 4 (cos π/3 + i sin π/3) represents all other polar representation of
z.

Important Results in Context with Rotation:

(i) arg z = 0 represents points (non-zero) on a ray emanating from origin making an angle θ with positive
direction of real axis.
(ii) arg (z-z1)= 0 represents points ( ≠3,) on ray emanating from z, making an angle θ with positive direction of
real axis.

Rotation theorem:

(i) If P(z1) and Q(z2) are two complex numbers such that |z1| = |z2|, then z2=z1 eiθ, where θ = ⁄POQ.
(ii) If P(z1), Q(z2) and R(z3) are three complex numbers and ⁄PQR=Q, then
(iii) If P(z1), Q(z2), R(z3) and S(z4) are three complex numbers and ⁄STQ= θ, then

2. amp (z) = θ is a ray emanating from the origin inclined at an angle θ to the x-axis.

3. |z-a|=|z-b| is the perpendicular bisectors of the line joining a to b.

4. The equation of a line joining z1 and z2 is given by z = z1 + t(z1-z2) where t is a real parameter.

5. z = z1 (1+it) where t is a real parameter is a line through the point z, and perpendicular to the line joining z,
to the origin.

6. The equation of a line passing through z1 and z2 can be expressed in the determinant form as
This is also the condition for three complex numbers z, z1, z2 to b collinear.

7. The equation of a circle having centre z0 and radius p is:

|z-z0| = p or z - z0 - 0 -z+ 0z0 - p2 = 0 which is of the form

z + z+α + k = 0, k is real.

Centre is -α and radius =√(α - k) circle will be real if α - k ≥ 0.

8. The equation of the circle described on the line segment joining z1 and z2 as
diameter is arg (z-z2)/(z-z2 )= ±Π/2 or (z-z1) ( - 2)+(z-z2 )( 1)=0

9. Condition for four given points z1, z2, z3 and z4 to be concyclic is the number
(z3 z1)/(z3-z2 ).(z4 z2)/(z4-z1 ) should be real.

Hence, the equation of a circle through 3 non-collinear points z1, z2 and z3 can be taken as

(z-z1 )(z3-z1 )/((z-z1 )(z3-z2)) is real

=> (z-z2 )(z3-z1 )/((z-z1 )(z3-z2))=( - 2 )( 3- 1)/((z-z1 )(z3-z2))

10. Arg((z-z1)/(z-z2)) = 0 represent

(i) a line segment if θ =Π

(ii) pair of ray if θ = 0

(iii) a part of circle, if 0<0<Π

11. Area of triangle formed by the points z1, z2 and z3 is

12. Perpendicular distance of a point z0 from the line

z+α + r = 0 is |( z0 + α + r )/α|α||
13. (i) Complex slope of a line z+α + r = 0 w = - α/α

(ii) Complex slope of a line joining the points z1 and z2 is w=(z1- 2 )/(z1- 2)
(iii) Complex slope of a line making Q angle with real axis w=l2iθ
14. Dot and Cross product

Let z1 = x1 + i y1 and z2 = x2 + i y2 be two complex numbers (vectors). The dot product (also called the scalar
product) of z1 and z2 is defined by z1.z2 = |z1| |z2| cos θ
= x1x2 + y1y= = Re { 1z2}
= 1/2{ 1z2 + z 1 2}
Where θ is the angle between z1 and z2 which lies between 0 and Π .

If vectors z1, z2 are perpendicular then z1.z2 = 0 => z1/z2 + z2/z2 = 0

i.e. sum of complex slopes = 0

The cross product of z1 and z2 is defined by

z1 × z2 = |z1| |z2| sin θ|

= x1y2 - y1x2

= Im{ z }
1 2

= 1/zi ( z2 - z1 2)

If vectors z1, z2 are parallel then z1 × z2 = 0 z1/z2 = z2/z2

i.e., complex slopes are equal.

Note:

w1 and w2 are complex slopes of two lines.

(i) If lines are parallel then w1 = w2

(ii) If lines are perpendicular then w1 + w2 = 0

15. If |z-z1| + |z-z2| = K> |z1-z2| then locus of z is an ellipse focii are z1 and z2.

16. If |z-z0| = | z+α + r/2K1| then locus of z is parabola whose focus is z0 and directrix is the line

z+α + r = 0 (provided z0+ α 0 + r ≠ 0)

17. If |(z-z1)/(z-z2)| = k < |z1-z2| then locus of z is a circle

18. If then locus of z is a hyperbola, whose focii are z1 and z2.

nth Roots of Unity

In general, the term root of unity which is also termed as de Moivre number is basically a complex number
which, when raised to some integer n gives the result as 1.

Mathematically, if n is a positive integer, then ‘x’ is said to be an nth root of unity if it satisfies the equation xn =
1. Thus, this equation has n roots which are also termed as the nth roots of unity.

How do we find the nth root of unity?

As stated above, if x is an nth root of unity, then it satisfies the relation xn = 1.

Now, ‘1’ can also be written as cos 0 + i sin 0.

So, we have, xn = 1

= cos 0 + i sin 0

= cos 2kπ + i sin 2kπ [k is an integer]

Taking the nth root on both sides, we get

x = (cos 2kπ + i sin 2kπ)1/n

= (cos (2kπ/n) + i sin (2kπ/n)) where k = 0 , 1, 2 , 3 , 4 , ……… , (n-1)

So each root of unity is

x = cos [(2kπ)/n] + i sin[(2kπ)/n] where 0 ≤ k ≤ n-1.

The complex numbers are in the form x+iy and are plotted on the argand or the complex plane. Also, since the
roots of unity are in the form cos [(2kπ)/n] + i sin[(2kπ)/n], so comparing it with the general form of complex
number, we obtain the real and imaginary parts as
x = cos[(2kπ)/n] , y = sin[(2kπ)/n].
Now, we see that the values of x and y satisfy the equation of unit circle with centre (0,0) i.e. x2 + y2 = 1.

Now, we consider some of the key results on nth roots of unity-

 The cube roots of unity are 1, (-1+i√3)/2, (-1-i√3)/2.
 If w is one of the imaginary cube root of unity then 1+ w + w2 = 0. In general 1 + wn + w2n = 0; where n ∈ I
but is not the multiple of 3.
 In polar form the cube roots of unity are:

cos 0 + i sin 0; cos 2π/3 + isin 2π/3; cos 4π/3 + I sin 4π/3.
 Product of the nth roots of any complex number z is z(-1)n-1
The three cube roots of unity when plotted on the argand plane constitute the vertices of an equilateral triangle.

 The following factorization should be remembered:

(a, b, c ∈ R and w is the cube root of unity)

a3 - b3= (a-b) (a-wb) (a-x2b);

x2 +x+1=(x-w)(x-w2);

a3 + b3= (a+b) (a+wb) (a+x2b);

a2 +ab+b2 = (a-bw)(a-bw2)

a3 + b3 + c3 - 3abc = (a+b+c) (a+wb+w2c) (a+w2b+wc);

View the video for more on nth roots of unity

nth Roots of unity -
If 1, α1, α2,......αn-1 are the n, nth roots of unity then:

 They are in G.P. with common ratio i(2π/n)

 1p + α1p + α2p + .... αn-1p = 0 if p is not an integral multiple of n.
 (1 - α1)(1 - α2).......(1 - αn-1) = n and,
 (1 + α1)(1 + α2).......(1 + αn-1) = 0 if n is even and
= 1 if n is odd.
 α1 . α2 . α3 ...... αn-1 = 1 or -1 according as n is odd or even.

The sum of the following series should be remembered:

(i) cos θ + cos 2θ + cos 3θ + ..................... + cos nθ

= (sin (nθ/2)/sinθ/2) cos((n+1)/2)θ

(ii) sin θ + sin 2θ + ..................... + sin nθ

= (sin(nθ/2)/sinθ/2) sin((n+1)/2)θ

Remark: If θ = 2π/2 then the sum of the above series vanishes.

Logarithm of a complex quantity -
(i) Loge(α + iβ) = 1/2 loge(α2 + β2) + i(2nπ + tan-1(β/α)) where n ∈ I.

(ii) ii represents a set of positive real numbers given by e-(2nπ + π/2), n ∈ I.

Illustration: Find the smallest positive integer n for which [(1+i)/ (1-i)]n = 1. (1980)
Solution: The given expression is [(1+i)/ (1-i)]n = 1
First, we rationalize the given expression by multiplying and dividing the given expression by the conjugate of
denominator,

[(1+i)/(1-i) . (1+i)/(1+i)]n = 1

This means (2i/2)n = 1

This gives in =1.

The smallest positive integer n for which in =1 is 4.

Hence, the value of n is 4.

Illustration: Let z1 and z2 be nth roots of unity which subtend a right angle at the origin, then what should be
the form of n if k is an integer?
Solution: We know that by the formula of argument,
arg z1/ z2 = π/2

Hence, z1/ z2 = cos π/2 + isin π/2 = i

So, z1n/ z2n = (i)n = 1

Hence, n = 4k.