UNIT 312 MEAN-VALUE THEOREMS

Structure
12.1 Introduction
Objectives
12.2 Rolle's Theorem
12.3 Mean Value'Theol.em
Lagrmge's Meal] Value Theorem
Cauchy's Mean Value Theorem
Generalised Mean Value Theorem
12.4 Intermediate Value Theorem for Derivatives
Darboux Theorem
12.5 Summary
12.6 A~swers/Hints/Solutions

12.1 INTRODUCTION

In Unit 11, you were introduced to the notion of derivable functions. Some interesting and
very useful properties are associated with the functions that are continuous on a closed interval
and derivable in the interval except possibly at the end points. These properties are formulated
in the form of some theorems, called Mean Value Theorems which we propose to discuss in
this unit. Mean value theorems are very imporjant in Analysis because many useful and
significant results are deducible ftom them. First we shall discuss the well-known Rolle's
theorem. This theorem is one of the simplest, yet the most fundarncntal theorem of real
analysis. It is used to establish the mean-value theorems. Finally, we shall illustrate the use of
these theorems in solving certain problems of Analysis.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
know Rolle's theorem and its geometrical meaning
9 deduce the mean value theorems of differentiability by using Rolle's the or en^
+ give the geometrical interpretation of the mean value theorems
9 apply Mean Value Theorems to various problems of Analysis
@ understand the Intermediate Value Theorem for derivatives and the related Darboux

Theorem.

12.2 ROLLE'S THEOREM

The first theorem which you are going to study in this unit is Rolle's theorem given by
Michael Rolle (1652-1719), a French mathematician. This theorem is the foundation stone for
all the mean value theorems. First we discuss this theorem and give its gemetrical
interpretation. In the subsequent sections you will see its application to various types of
problems. We state and prove the theorem as €allows

THEOREM 1 : (ROLLYS THEOREM)

If a function f : [a, b] -. R is
(i) continuous on[a, b]
(ii) derivable on ]a, b [,
and (i) f(a) = f(b),
then there exists at least one real number c €]a, b[ such that f'(c) = 0.
PROOF : Since the function f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b], it is bounded and
attains its bounds (refer to Uei: 19). Let sup. f = M and inf. f = m. Then there are points c,
d E[a, b ] such that
f(c) = M and f(d) = m.
Only two possibilities arise :
Either M = m or M Z m.
Case (i) When M = m.
 Then M = m 3 f is constant over [a, b] , Mean-Value Theorems
.- f(x) = k V x E [a, b], for some fixed real number k.
3 f'(x) = OV x G[a, b].

Case (ii) : When M Z m. Then we proceed as follows :

Since f(a) = f(b), therefore at least one of the numbers M and m, is different from f(a) (and
also different from f(b)).

Suppose that M is different from f(a) i.e. M # f(a). Then it follows that f(c) f f(a) which
implies that c # a.

Also M # f(b). This implies that f(c) # f(b) which means c f b. Since c # a and c # b,
therefore c E ]a, b[.

Again, f(c) is the supremum off on [a, b]. Therefore

f(x) 5 f(c) V x E [a, b]
I
* f(c - h) 5 f(c), =
I
for any positive real numbers h such that c - h E [a, b]. Thus

for a positive real number h such that c - h E [a, b].

-
Taking limit as h 0 and observing that ff(x)exists at each point x of ]a, b[, in particular at
x = C, we havr
f'(c -) 2 0
Again f(x) If(c) also implies that
+
f(c h) - f(c)'
50
h
-
for a positive real number h such that c 4- h E ra, b]. Again on taking limits as 11 0, we get
ff(c +) 1 0.

But
f'(c -) = f'(c +) -- f'(c).
Therefore f'(c -) 2 0 and f'(c +) 5 0 imply tint
f'(c) 5 0 and f'(c) 2 0
which gives f'(c) = 0, where c E]a, b[.
You can discuss the case, m # f(a) and m # ((b) in n similar manner.

Note that under the conditions stated, Rolle'r theorem guarantees the existence of at least one
c in ]a, b[ such that' f'(c) = 0. It does not say *mythingabout the existence or otherwise of a

more than one such number. ,Is we shall see in pral~lems,for a given f, therc may exist several
numbers c such that f'(c! = 0.

Next we give the geometrical significance of the theorem.

Geometrical Interpretation of Rolle's Theorem

Fig. 1
Differentiability You know that f'(c) is the slope of the tangent to the graph of f at x =.c. Thus the theorem
simply states that between two end points with. equal ordinates on the graph off, there exists
at least one point where the tangent is parallel to the axis of X, as shown in the Figures I.
After the geometrical interpretation, we now give you the algebraic interpretation of the
theorem.
Algebraic Jnterpt-etationof Rolle's Theorem
You have seen that the third condition of the hypothesis of Rolle's theorem is that f(a) = f(b).
If for a function f, both f(a) and f(b) are zero that is a and b are the roots of the equation
' f(x) = 0, then by the theorem there is a point c of ]a, b[, where ff(c) = 0 which means that c
is a root of the equation f'(x) =: 0.

Thus Rolle's ttleorem implies that between two roots a and b of fix) ='a, there always exists
at least one root c of f'(x) = 0 where a < c < b. This is the algebraic interpretation of the
theorem.
Before we take up problems to illustrate the use of Rolle's theorem you may note that the
hypothesis of Rolle's theorem cannot be weakened. To see this, we consider the following
three cases :
Case (i) Rolle's theorem does ncjt hold i f f is not continuous in [a, b].

For example, consider f where

f(x) =
I xifO5x< 1
O i f x = 1.
Thus f 1s continuous everywhere between 0 and 1 except at x = I. So f is not continuous in
[O, 11. Also it is derivative in 10, I[ and f(0) = f(1) = 0. But f'(x) = 1 Y x E]O, I[ i.e.
+
f'(x) OU x x 10, 11.

Case (ii) The theorem no more iemains true iff' does not exist even at one point in ]a, b[.
Consider f where
f(x) = I X 1 v- x E I - I, ir.
Here /is continuous in [- 1, I], f(- 1) = f(l),
but f is derivable'ff x E 1- 1, 1 [ except at x = 0:

- 1,- 1<x<O
Also fl(x) =

Hence there is not point c G 1- 1, I[ such that ff(c) I= 0.

Case (iii) The theorem does not hold if f(a) # f(b). For example iff is tbe function such that
f(x) = x in [l,2], then I

+
f(1)' = 1 z 1 2 = f(2).
Also ff(x) = 1 V x G ]I, 2[ i.e, there is no point c E ]1, 2[ such that E'(c) =: 0.

Now we consider one example which illustrates the theorem :

EXAMPLE 1 : Verify Rolle's theorem for the fi~nctionf defined by

(i) f(x) = x3- 6x2 f: 11x - 6 V x E [I, 31.
(ii) f(x) = (x - a)"' (x - b)" x E [a, b] where m and n are positive integers.
SOLUTION : (i) Being a polynomial function, f is continuous on [ I , 31 and derivable in
11, 3[.
Also €'(I) = f(3) = 0.
Now ff(x) = 3x2 - 12x 1 1 = O +
- x = 2 + - - - , 2 - - -1
4
I
6
Clearly bolh of them lie in ]1,3[.
n
(4) f(x) = (X - a)" (X - b)"
Obviously f is continuous in [a, b] and derivable in ]a, b[.
 Also f(a) " f(b) = 0. Mean-Value Theorems
NOWf'(x) = m(x - a)"-' ( X - b)" +(x - a)" ( X - b)"-' = 0 implies that
( X - a)"-' (x - b)"-' [rn(x.- b.) t n(x - a)] = 0
+
i.e, m(x - b) n(x - a) = 0.
(As x f a or b : we wan1 those points which are in ]a, b[).

Thus x =
na rnb
+
+,
This is point c and it clearly lies in ]a, b[. YOUmay note from Example I(i) that point c is not
unique.
Now you should be able to try the following exercises :

EXERCISE 1
Verify Rolle's Theorem for the function f where
f(x) = slinx, x E [- 2rr, 2 4 .
EXERCISE 2
Examine the validity of the hypothesis and the conclusion of Rolle's theorem for the function f
defined by
(a) f(x) = CQS x'o' x E [- ~ / 2 ~, / 2 [
(b) f ( ~ =
) 1 + (X E LO,21.

Next we give an example which shows application of Rolle's Theorems to the theory of
equations.

EXAMPLE 2 : Show that there is no real number A for which the equation
+
x3 - 27x A = 0 has two distinct roots in [O, 21.
SOLUTION : Let f(x) =. x' - 27x + A.
Suppose for some value of A, f(x) = 0 has two distinct root (Y and P that is f has two zeros' n
and p, a # p in [O, 21.
Without any loss of generality, we can suppose, cu < P.
Therefore [a, P] C [0, 21.
Now f is clearly continuous on [a,PI, derivable in ]a,,!3[ and (a) = f(P) = 0.

-
Therefore by Rolle's theorem, 3 c E ](Y,P[ such that
f'(c) = 0
3c2 - 27 = 0
-c2-9=0==3c=&3.

' Clearly none of 3 or - 3 lies in 10, 2[, whcnce

- 3 or 3 $ ] a , p[.
Thus we arrive at a contradiction. Hence the result.

EXERCISE 3
Prove that between any two real roots of ex sin x = 1, there is at least one real root of
excosx+ 1 =O.
, EXERCISE 4
i Prove that if ao, a], ...,a, E R be such that
- a0 + -;a1+ ... +a,-l
+ a, = 0, then there exists at least one real number x between 0
n t l n n
and 1 such that
a0xn+ alxW-'+ ... + a, = 0.
Next examples show how Rolle's Theorem helps in solving some difficult problcrns.
 EXAMPLE 3 : Iff and g are continuous in [a, b3 and derivhble in
]a, b[ with g'(x) Z OY x E ]a, b[; prove that thete Cxisb c C ]a, b[ such that

SOLUTION : The result to be proved can be written as .' '

f(c) g'(c) 4 fl(c) g(c) - f(a) g'lc) - g(b) f'(c) = 0

the left hand side of which is the derivative of the function f(x) g(x) - f(a) g(x) - g(b) f(k) at
x = c. This suggests that we should aljply Rolle's Theorem to the function d where
44x1 = f(x) g(x) - f(a) g(x) - g(b) f(x),v x E [a, bl.
Since f ad; g are continuous in [a, b] and derivab!e in ]a, 8,
therefore is continuous in [a, b]
#J

and derivable in ]a, b[. Also $I (a) = - g(b) f(a) = +fb);!So 4 satisfies all the conditions of
Rolle's Theorem. Thus there is a point c in ]a, b[ such that G'(c) = 0 that is
f(c) gf(c) f ff(c)g(c) - f(a) gf(c)- g(b)f'(c) = 0

which proves the result.

EXAMPLE 4 ;If a function f is such that its derivative, f' is continuous on [a, b] and
derivable on ]a, b[, then show that there exists a number c E ]a, b[ such that
+ 1
I@) = f(a) @ - a) f'(a) 4- y (b - a)' Ff(c).
SOLUTION : Clearly the functions f and f ' are continuous and ddrivable on [a, b].
Consider the function where
4lx) = f(b) - f(x) - (b - X ) fO(x)- (b - x)' A , V x E [a, b] wherc A is a constant to be
determined such that
4 (a) = 4 (b).
.'. f(b) - f(a) - (b - a ) ff(a)- ( b - a ) ' =
~ 0 (1)
Now +,being the sum of continuous and derivable functions, is itself continuous 6n
, [a, b] and derivable on ]a, b[ and also +(a) = +(b), for the value of A given by (1).

Thus #J satisfies all the conditions of Rolle's theorem.

Thereforc there exists c E ]a, b[ such that #Jf(c)= 0.
+
Now $(x) = - fl(x) ff(x) - (b - X ) ff'(x) 4 2(b - x)A
+
This gives 0 = 4'(c) = - (b - c) ff'(c) 2(b - c)A
I
which means A = - 2
f"(c) since b # c.
,Putting the value of A in ( I ) , you will get
1
+
f(b) = f(a) (b - a)' f '(a) 4 - (b - a)' f "(c).
2

EXERCISE 5
Assuming f" to be continuous on [a, b], show that
b- c c- a 1
.-
f(c) - f(a) b - , a- f(b) * b a = - 2
(c - a) (c - b) f"(d)
where both c and d lie in [a, b].

Note that the key to our proof of the above examples 3 and 4 and Exercise 5 and many more
such situations, is the judicious choice of the function, 4, and many students compare it with
the magician's trick of pulling a rabbit from a hat. If-one can hit at a proper choice of 4. the
problems are more than half done.

12.3 MEAN VALUE THEOREM

In this section, we discuss some of the most useful results in Differential Calculus known as the
mean-value theorems given again by the two famous French mathematicians Cauchy and
LagrangL'Lagrange pr0vi?d a result only by using the first two conditions of Rolle's theorem. Mean-Value Theorems
Hence i t is called Lslgrango's Mean-Value Theorem. Cauchy gave another mean value theorem
in which lie used two functions inslcad of one function as in the case of Rolle's theorem and
Lagrange's Meqn-Value Theorem, You will see later that Lagrange's theorem is a particular of
~ $ ~ c h Mean
~ ' s Value Thcorem. Finally, we discuss the generalized form of these two
theorems. We begin with Mean-Value Theorem given by J.L. Lagrange 11736-18131

THEOREM 2 : LAGRANGE'S MEAN VALUE THEOREM

-
If a function f : [a, b] P is
(i] continuous on [a, b]
and (ii) derivable on ]a, b[,
theq there exists at least one point c E ]a, b[ such that
f(b) - f(a)
f'(c) =
b- a
(Tllis is also known as the First Mean Value Theorem of Differential Calculus.)
J.L. L.ugrnsgu
PROOF : We define a new function $ as follows :
cp(x) = f(x) -I- A x V x E [a, b]
where A is a conetaut to be chosen such that 4(a) = $(b).
+
$(a) = f(a) Aa and $(b) f(b) + Ab.
$(a) = &(b) gives

Now the function @, being the sum of two continuous and derivable functions is itself
(i) continuous on [a, b]
(ii) derivable on ]a, b[,
and (iii) @(a) = $(b).
Therefore by,Rolle's theorem 3 'a real number c E ]a, b[
such that +'(c) = 0.

So Q = $'(c) - ++
But cpf(x) = f'(x) A
fl(c) A
f(b) - f(a)
which means that f'(c) = - A =
-a
In the statement of the above theorem, sometimes b is replaced L;' i i + h, so that the number c
+
between a and b a n be taken as n Oh where 0 < 0 < 1. Accordingly then, the theorem can
bc restated as follows : '
Let f be defined and continuous on [a, a 4- h] and derivable on ]a, a + h[, then there exists
4,0 < 6 .f:1 such that
+ +
ffa h) = f(a) bf' (a Oh). +
Certain important and useful results can be deduced from Lagrange Mean-Value Theorem.
We state and prove these results as follows :
You already know that derivative of a constant function is zero. Conversely if the derivative of
a function is zero, then it is a constant function. This can be formalized in the following way :

I, If a function f I s continuous on [a, b], derivable on ]a, b[ and f'(x) = O V x E ]a, q,

then f(x) = k T x E [a, b], where k is some fixed real number.
.To prove it, let A be any point of [a, b].
.Then [a, A] C [$, bl.

Thus f is
i) continuous on [a, A]
ii) derivable on ]a, A[
Therefore, by Lagmnge's mean value theorem, 3 c E ]a, A[ such that
Differentinbility Now f'(x) = 0 V x E ]a, b[
* f'jx) = OV x E ]a, h[
i.f'(c) = 0
f(h) = f(a) V h €[a, b]

But X is any arbitrary point of [a, b]. Therefore

f(x) = f(a) = k (say) V x E [a, b].
Note that if the derivatives of two functions are equal, lhen they diffzr by a constant. We have
the following formal result :

11. If two functions f and g are (i) continuous in [a, b], (ii) derivable in la, b[ and
(iii) f'(x) = g'(x) V x € ]a, b[, then f - g is a constant function.

PROOF : Define a function & as

$(x) = f(x) - g(x)Yx E [a, b]
Therefore &'(x) = 0 Y x t- ]a, b[ because it is given that
f'(x) = gf(x)for each x in ]a, b[
Also 4 is continuous in [a, b], therefore,
+(x) = k, Y x € [a, b],
where k is some fixed real number. This means that
i(x) - g(x) = k V x € [a, b]
i.e. (f - g) (x) = k Y x E [a, b].
Thus f - g is a constant function in [a, b]
The next two results give us method to test whether the given function is increasing or
decreasing.

111. If a function f is (i) contiriuous on [a, b] (ii) derivable on ]a, b[ and

(iii) f'(x) > 0 V x E ]a, b[, then f is strictly increasing 011 [a, b].

For the proof, let X I x,2 ( X I< x?) be any two points of [a, b]. Then f is continuous in [ X Ix:]
,
and derivable in 1x1, XZ[,SO by Lagrange's mean value theorem,
f(x2) - f(x1)
= ff(c) > 0, for x, < c < xz
X? - X I
which implies that
f(x2) - XI) > 0 a f(xz) > ~ ( Xfor I ) xz > x,
Thus f(x2) > f(x1) for xz > X I .
Therefore f is strictly increasing on [a, b].
If the condition (iii) is replaced by ff(x) 2 0 'd- x E [a, b], then f is increasing in [a, b] since
you will get f(xz) > f(x1) for xz > X I .

IV. If a function f is (i) continuous on [a, b] (ii) derivable on la, b[ and

(iii) f'(x) < 0 V x E la, b[ tlien f is strictly decreasing on [a, b].

Proof is similar to that of 111. Prove it yourself. If condition (iii) in IV is replaced by

ff(x)5 0 V x E ]a, b[, then f is decreasing in [a, b].

The result 111 and IV remain true if instead ol[a, b] we have the intervals [a, a[,']- m, b],
I- *, a[,la, a [ , I- b[, etc.
Note that the conditions of Lagrange's mean value theorem cannot be weakened. To see this,
consider the following examples :
(1) Let f be the function defined on [I, 21 as follows :

!
1 ifx= 1
f(x) = x' if l < x < 2
2ifx=2

Clearly f is continuous on [ I , 2[ and derivable on 11, 2[, it is not continuous only at x = 2 i.e.
the first condition of Lagrange's 'Mean Value Theorem is violaled.
f(2) - f(1)
Also =2-1=1.
2- 1
 and f'(x) = 2x for 1 < x < 2. Mean-Value Theorems

If this theorem is to be true then

f'(x) = 1 i.e. 2x = I i.e. x = 1/2 must lie in 11, 2[, which is clearly false.

(2) L,et f be the function defined on [- 1, 21 as

' f(x) = 1 x 1.
Here f is continuous 011 [- 1, 31 and derivable at all point of 1- 1, 2[ except at x = 0, so that
the second condition of Lagrange's Mean Value Theorem is violated.

( 2 - f - 1- -
Also -
- 2 - + --
1) - 1
2 - (- 1) 2 3
f(2) - f(- 1)
so that # f'(x) for any x in 1- 1,2[.
2 -- (- 1)
We may remark that the conditions of Lagrange's mean value theorem are only sufficient.
They are not necessary for the conclusion. This can be secn by considering the function on
[0, 21 defined as :

I
1 1
For-<x <-yf'(x) = 1.
4 2
In particular, f'(3/8) = 1.
I
f(2) - f(0) - 2 - 0
Also - 1 = f' (3/5)
2- 0 2- 0
even though f is neither continuous in the interval [O,21 nor it is derivable on 10, 2[, since f is
neither continuous nor derivable at 1/4 and 1 /2.
Now you will see the geometrical significance of Lagrange's Mean Value Theorem.
Geometrical Interpretation of Lagrange's Mean Value theorem

Fig. 2
 Differentiability Draw the graph of the function f between the two points A(a, and B(b, f(b)). The

number f(b) - f(a) gives the !lope of the chord AB. Also fl(c) gives the slope of the tangent
b-a
to the graph, at the point P(c, f(c)). Thus the geometrical meaning of Lagrange's Mean Value
theorem is stated as above :
If the graph o f f is continuous between two points A and B and possesses a unique tangent at
each point of the curve between A and B, then there is at least one point on the graph lying
between A and B, where the tangent is parallel to the chord AB.

Before considering example, we have another interpretation of th'e theorem.

We know that f(b) - f(a) is the change in the function f as x changes from a to b so that
{f(b)- f(a))/(b - a)
is the average rate of change of the function over the interval [a, b]. Also f'(c) is the actual
rate of change of the function for x = c. Thus, the Lagrange's mean value theorem states that
the average rate of change o f a function over an interval is also the actual rate of change of the
function at some point of the interval.

This interpretation of the theorem justifies the name 'Mean Value' for the theorem.
Now we consider an example which verifies Lagrange's Mean. Value Theorem.

EXAMPLE 5 : Verify the hypothesis and conclusion of Lagrange's mean value theorem
for the functions defined as :

1
ii) f ( x ) = l o g x V x E [1,1 te].

SOLUTICJN: (i) Here f(x) = l/x; x E [ l , 41.

Clearly f is continuous in [I, 41 and derivable in 11, 4[. So f satisfies the hypothesis of
Lagrange's mean value theorem. Hence there exists a point c E ]1,4[ satisfying

Putting the values off and f', you get

which gives c2 = 4 i.c. c = t 2.

Of these two values of c, c = 2 lies in ]I, 4[.
(ii) Here f(x) = log x; x E [l, 1 t e-'1.
+
Clearly f is continuous in [l, 1 e-'1 and derivable in 11, 1 t e-I[.
Therefore the hypothesis of Lagrange's mean value theorem is satisfied by f. ~herefdrethere
exists a point

c E 11, 1 t eFl[such that

Putting the values off and f', you get

+
-= log (1 e-') - log 1
1
c e- I
+
which gives c = [ e log (1 e-I) 1".

I You can use the inequality

Now try the following exercises.

 EXERCISE 6

-
Verify Lagrange's Mean Value theorem for the function f defined in [0, n/2]wlwre
f(x) ms x V x E [0, n/2].

EXERCISE 7
Find 'c' of the Iagange's M a n Value Theorem for the function f defined as
s f(x) = x(x - 4 ) (X - 2)V x E [O, 31.

Nc\w you wi!l be givcn cxaniplcs ihowing the use of Lagrange's Mean Vi~lueTheorcm in
solving different types of roblems.
EXAMPLE 6 : Piove that for any quadratic functioli, 1x
2
+
mx f - n, the value of 8 in
1
Lagrange's Mean Value theorem 'is always -, whatever I, m, n, a and h may be.
2
SOL,UTION : l,ct f(,x) =- lx? -1- rnx t n; x E [a, a -I- h].
f being a polynoniial funcliol~IS conlinuous in [a, a +
h] and desivablc in ]a, a + h[. Thus f
satisrics the condi~io~is
of I,agrangels Mcan Value thcorem.

f(a -I- h) -
Therefore thcrc exists 0 ( O c: (I .I I j such 1?1a~
1'(;1) I - hf'(a -1- (!h)

+
-
lin -I 11)' ni(a t- 'h) -i.II la'
lh'
i . ~ . z.2.. 21 ()h2
-
.Putting the values of C and f' you will gel
+ +
1113 4:.n -1- Ii [2 1 ( i ~ 0 11) t m]
ill 11, I, In, 11 II~!LJ/ be.
which gives O .= 1 /"), ulh:itt:v~~.

EXAMPLE 7 : if a and b {a < b) arc ~.e!il~~urnbers,

ifiel~there exists a real number c between
a and \, sucli that

SOLJU7'1(9N: Consicier the function, f, dd'ined by

i'(i)- x' V x t? [a, bJ.

Clearly f satisfies thc hypothesis of Lagrange's mean value theorcm. Therefore thcre exists
c :t ]a, h[ such t1i;lt
=- [(b)
-
f(a)
h- a
which gives

EXERCISE 8
Show that an the curve, y = ax2 + bx + c, (a, b, c E R a # O), the chord joining the points
whose abscissae are x = m and x = n, is parallel to the tangent at the point whose abscissa is
+
given by x = (m n)/2.

EXERCISE 9
Let f be defined and continuous on [a - h, a +
h] and derivable on ]a - h, a + h[. Prove
that there exists a real number 8 (0 < 6 < 1) for which
+ +
f(a h) f(a - h) - 2f(a) = h[fl(a +
Oh) - f'(a --- Oh)].

With the help of Lagrange's Mean Value Theorcm we,can prove some inequalities in Analysis.
We consider the followilig example.

EXAMPLE 8 : Prove that sin x < x for O < x 5 n/2.

SOLLITION : Let f(x) = x - sin x; O 5 x 5 7r/2.
f is continuous in [O, n/2] and derivable i l l 10, n/2[.
Differentiability Also, ffx) = 1 - cosx > 0, for 0 < x < xl2.
Therefore f is strictly increasing in [O, ~121,which means that
f(x) > f(0) for 0 < x I xI2. (Using corollary I11 of Lagrange's Mean Value Theorem)
i.e., x - sin x > 0, for 0 < x 5 xI2.
i.e., sin x < x for 0 < x S 7112.
We can also start with the function g(x) = sin x - X, for 0 Ix Inl2. Then we have to use
corollary IV of Lagrange's Mean Value Theorem to arrive at the desired result.
EXAMPLE 9 : Prove that tan x > x, whenever 0 -= x 7112.

-
SOLUTION : Let c be any real number such that 0 < c < nl2. Consider the function f,
defined by f(x) tan x - x, V E [0, c].
The function f is continuous as well as derivable on [0, c]:
Also, fi(x) = sec2 x - 1 = tan2 x > 0, b' x E]O, C[
Thus f is strictly increasing in [0, c].
Consequently, f(0) < f(c) 3 0 < f(c),
which shows that 0 < tan x - x, when x = c. , ,
This implies, tan x > x, when x ='c'.
Since c -is any real number such that 0 < c < 7112, therefore,
tanx > x, whenever 0 < x < ~ 1 2 .
X
EXAMPLE 10: Show that - c ]log (1 + x) -= x, b' x > 0.
l + x
SOLUTION :Let f(x) = x - log (1 + x), x 2 0.
Therefore, f'(x) = 1 - -1 -- -X
l+x l+x' '
Clearly, fi(x) > 0, for x > 0.
Therefork, f is strictly increasing in [o, m[. Therefore,
f(x) > f(0) = 0, b' x > 0
i.e., x > log (1 + x), V x > 0
i.e., log (1 + x) < x, V x > 0.

Again, let g(x) = log (1 + x) - --

X
l+x
, x 2 0. Then

Clearly, gt(x) > 0, b' x > 0.

X
i.e., log (1 k x) > - V x > O
1+x '
.i.e., -
x
< log (1 + x), b' x > 0.
1 +x
Now try the following exercise.

EXERCISE 10
Prove that
' i) x - x' < tan-' x, if x > 0; and
ii) e-' > 1 - x, if x > 0.

Cauchy generalized Lagrange's Mean Value Theorem by using two function as follows.
THEOREM 3 : CAUCHY'S MEAN VALUE THEOREM
Let f and g be two function defined on [a, b] such that
i) f and g are continuous on- La, b]; -.
 Mean-Value Theorems
ii) f and g are derivable on ]a, b[, and
iii) g'(x) # 0 tf x € ]a, b[, '
then there exists at least one.rea1 number c € ]a, b[ such that

I
{This is also known as Second Mean Value Theorem of Differential Calculus.)
ROOF : Let us first observe that the hypothesis implies g(a) # g(b) .
i
$Since g(a) = g(b), combined with the other two conditions g has, means g satisfies the
'hypothesis of Rolle's Theorem. Thus there exists c E ]a, b[ such that g'(c) = 0, which violates
3.cohrlition (iii)).
L,et a function $ be defined by
+
c$(;.)= f(x) A g(x)tf x € [a, b],
wh~xeA is a constant to be chosen such that

.which gives
A = - (f(b) - f(a)j (g(b) - g(a)).
_I

(A,, proved above, g(b) - g(a) # 0).

Nc w (1) $ is continuous on [a, b], since f and g are so,
(2) $ is derived on ]a, b[, since f and g are so,
ant1 (3) $(a) = 4(b).
Thus 4 satisfies the conditions of Rolle's Theorem. Therefore there is a point c E ]a, b[ such
thai $'(c) = 0
+
which means that f'(c) Ag'(c) = 0

I Alternative statement of Cauchy's Mean Value Theorem

+
If in the statement of above theorem, b is replaced by a h, then the number c E ]a, b[ can
+
be written as a Oh where 0 < 8 < 1. The above theorem then can b$ restated as :
+ +
Let'f and g be defined and continuous on [a, a h], derivable on ]a, a h[ and g'(x) # 0
+
t f x E ]a, a h[, then there exists a real number 8(0 < 0 < 1) such that
f'(a + - f(a +h) - f(a)
Oh) -

,
g'(a + +
Oh) g(a h) - g(a) . .
.As remarked earlier, Lagrange's Mean Value Theorem can be deduced from Cauchy's
1 Mean Value Theorem in the following way
1
In Cauchy's mean value theorem, take g(x) = x. Then g'(x) = 1 and have g'(c) = 1. ~ i s o
I g(a) = a, g(b) = b. Result of Cauchy's mean value theorem becomes

I
This holds if (i) f is continuous in [a, b] and (ii) f is derivable in ]a, b[ which is nothing but
I &agrange's mean value theorem.

Dote that you might be tempted to prove Cauchy's mean value theorem by applying
Lagrange's mean value theorem to the two functions f and g separately and then dividing. The
desired result c a e o t be obtained in this manner. In fact, we will obtain
1 :'(CI) -- _'f(b)-f(a)
-
i t (~2) g(b) - g(a) '
where CI E ]a, b[ and cz E ]a, b[. Note that here cl is not necessarily equal to cz.

1 'ASin the case of Rolle's Theorem and Lagrange's Mean Value Theorem we give geometrical
significance of Cauchy's Mean Theorem
1 Geometrical Interpretation of Cauchy's Mean Value Theorem
The conclusion of Cauchy's mean value theorem may be written sr .
Differentiability

This nleans
slope of rh:: chord joining (a, f(a!) and-(h,
- f(bi)
slope of tht. chord joining (a, g(aj) and (b, g(b))

--
- slope of the tangent to y = f(x) at (c, f(c))
-----A-

slope of r k ~iar~gentto y:g(x) at (c, g(c)!

Suppose that two curves y = f(x) and y = : g(x) arc continuously d a w n between the two
ordinates x = a hnd x = b ds shown in ihe 1:;gul.e 3. Suppose furthc.1 that the Langent can be
drawn to each of thc curves at each point lying between Lhrse abscissae ant1 no where does tlie
tangent to the curve, y = g(x), between these abscissae become parallel to the X-axis. Then
there exists a point c between a and b such that the ratio of the slopcs of thc chords joining the
end points of the curves is equal to ratio of the slopes of ihe tangents to the curves at the points
obtained by the intersection of the curves and the ordinate at c.

Fig. 3

As in the case of Rolle's Theorem and Lagrange's Mean Value Theorem, are now give
examples concerhing the verification and application of Cauchy's Mean Valut: Theorem.
EXAMPLE 11 : VerQ Cauchy's Mean ~ k u Theorem
e for the functions f and g defined as
f(x) = x2,g(x) = x4'd- x E [2, 41.
SOLUTION: The function f and g, being polynomial functions, are conti~luousin [2, 41 and
derivable in 12, 4[. Also g'(x) = 4x3 $ O'f x E ]2,4[. All the conditions of Cauchy's Mean
Value Theorem are satisfied. Therefore there exists a point c E 12, 4[ such that
f(4) - f(2) ff(c)
-
g(4) - g(2) g'(4

-
i t . c k l./E
c filies in ]2,4[
So Cauchy's Mean Value Theorem is verified.
EXAMPLE 12 : Apply Cauchy's Mean Value Theorem to the functions f aqd g defined as
f(x) = x2, g(x) = x.V x € [a, b],
and show tiiat 'c' is the arithmtrtic mean of 'a' and 'b'.
 1Mea1a-Vnlue Theorems
SOLUTION : Clearly Lhe filnciion f and g satisfy the hypothesis of C a u ~ hMcnn
~ ' ~ Vallle
Theorem. Therefort
3 c E ]a, b[ such that
-ft(c)
- -f(b)
-- - f(a)
g'(c) 6th) - g(4
Puttirlg the valul::; or' f, g, f'. g' we get
2~ -
_- - t>2- ii? _-- h -k a
_I-

1 b- a
1
-c=-
-4..

2 (;\ 13j.
+

which shows that c is the arithmetic mean of 'a' and 'h'.

EXAMPLE 83 : Show that -----
sin a! - sin ,!j
----
cos 63 - CCIS IY
-
cot 0.

I SOP,IJTION : Let f(x) = sin x and gjx) = cos s.

10, 01 C ]O,, 7r
where x E
- [.
Now f'(x) - cos x and g'(x) = - sin x
Fil~ictionsf , ~ n dg are both continuol!~on [a,/3]. derivable on ]a,Pi', and
g'(x) + O i/- x E ]a,@[.
By Cnuchy's filean vnlue theorem, there. exists O E ]a,fi[ such that
sin /3 -- sin a - cos
- --
cos p - cos a. - sin O
sir1 ru -- sir) p
-=COl O.
cos p - cos eu
Try the following exercise.
, %
. a- L -0 4 - d , . - . - - W u ~ --.--
EXERCISE 1 l '
Verify the Cauchy's mean value theorem for the fuactions, f(x) = sin x, g(x) = cosx in
the interval 1- x / 2 , 0 ] .
II

'1
EXTRCSE 12
1
I
Let the functions f and g be dsfined us : f(r) = ex and g(x) = c", V x E [a, b].
I
Show that 'r' obtained from Ceuehy's mean value theorem is $ 1 arithmetic
~ mean or's
and b.

I EXERCISE 13
Lei f(r) = 41 and g(x) = I/ &,V x a [a, bl given that 0 < a < b. VC& Cnuehy's *earl
1 value theorem and slliow thai c obtained thus is ill@geometric mearm of a nnd b.
EXERCISE 114
Two functiorls f and g are defined as :
f@) = x-' and g(x) =- X-2, V x E (a, b], given tlant 0 e [a, b].
i ' Apply Cauchyrs mean value thecarem and show that c thus obtained is the harmonic
I mean of a and b.

The following theorern generalises bath Lngrar~ge'sand Couchy's mcun value theorems. In
this theorem, threc functions f, g, h we involved. Both Lagrange's and Cauchy's mean
value theorems are its spec,ial cases.

THEOmM4 : GENEWJSED MEAN 'bTAl,UETHEOR%M

If three functions, f, g and h we continuo~sin [a, b] and derivable in ]a, bh, illen there
exists a real number c ~ ] a b[
, such that
Differentiability PROOF : Define the'function, $I , as

for all x in [a, b].

Since each of the functions f, g and-h is continuous on [a, b] and derivable on ]a, b[, therefore
4 is also continuous on [a,. .b] and derivable on ]a, b[.
f(a) g(a) h(a)
4(a) = f(a) g(a) h(a) = 0, since two rows of the determinant are identical.
f(b) g(b) h(b)
Similarly 4(b) = 0.
Thus 4(a) = 4(b)
Therefore 4 satisfies all the conditions of Rolle's theorem.
So there exists c E ]a, b[ such that

which proves the theorem. .

Now we show that hgrange's and Cauchy's mean value theorems are deducible from this
theorem by choosing the functions f and g specially.
i) First we deduce Lagrange's Mean Value Theorem from the Generalized Meal) Value
Theorem.
Take g(x) = x and h(x) = 1 V x E [a, b],
so that

#(x) =
1

Now 4'(c) = 0 gives fl(c) = f(b) - f(a) which is Lagrange's mean value theorem.
b- a
ii) Next we deduce Cauchy's mean value theorem from the Generalized Mean-Value
Theorem
Take h(x) = 1 V x E [a, b].

f(x) g(x) 1
So that d(x) = f(a) g(a) 1

fl(x) g'(x) . 0
--.4'(x)= f(a) ~(a) 1 = f'(x) [g(a) - g(b)] - g'(x) [f(a) - f(b)l

Now 4'(c) = 0 * f'(c) [g(a) - g(b)] - gl(c) [f(a) - f(b)] = 0

a--
ff(C)- - f(a) provided gf(x) # 0 for x E b,b[.
g'(c) g(b) - g(a)
which is the Cauchy's mean value theorem.
 Mean-Value Theorems
12.4 INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM
We end this unit by discussing Intermediate Value Theorem for derivatives. Just as you
Intermediate Value Theorem for continuous functions in Unit 10, there is an
Intermediate Value Theorem for derivable functions, which we now state and prove.

THEOREMS: (DARBOUX) LNTEEMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM FOR DEWlVATlVES

If a function f is derivable on [a, b] and ff(a) # fl(b), then for each k lying between fl(a)
and fl(b), there 'exists a point c €]a, b[ such that f'(c) = k.
 In case, gr(a) < 0 and gl(b) > 0, then
-gt(a) > 0 and -gf(b) 0.
Therefore, at some point c ~ ] a ,b[,
--g'(c) = 0 or - f'(c) + k = 0 i.e., ff(c) = k.
Theorem 5 is due to French mathematician, J.G. Darboux [1842-!917'], which is usefill in
determining the rnaxirnuni or minimum values of a function. This is popularly known as
Darboux Theorem. Another important result, which is a particular case of Darboux's
Intermediate Value Theorem, is as given below.
THEOREM 6 :
Let f be derivable in [a, hj. If P(a) aeld ff(b) are of opposite signs, then there exists a
poirei c ~ j a b[
, such that fr(c) =: 0.
PROOF .: Since ft(a) and fyb) are of opposite signs, thereforz one of ft(aj or ft(b) is
positive and other is negative. Take k = 0 in the Darboux Tt~eoaern.You get a point
c ~ ] a b[
, such that f'(c) = 0.
An immediate deduction froan above theorem is that if the der~vativeof a hnctioil does
not vanish for any point x in ]a, b[, then the derivative has the same sign for all x in
]a, b[. This is proved in the following example.
EXAMPLE 14 : I f f is derivalblle in ]a, b[ and f'(x) + 0, 'd x la, b[, then ff(%!,retains t11c
same sigrl, positive o r negative, for ali x inn la, b[.

SOLUTION : If possible, suppose x,, x, ~ ] a b[, , x, <: x,, are such that t"(x,), ft(x,) have
, c]a, b[ such that f'(c) = 0,
opposite signs. By Theorem 6 , there exists a point c ~ ] x , x,[
which is a contradiction. I-Ience fr(x) retains the same sign, for all x in ]a, b[.
----
82.6
- SUMMARY
In this unit mean value theorems of differentiability have been proved. In Section 12.2,
Rolle's theorem, the fundamental tlleorem of Real Analysis is proved. According to this
theorem: if f : [a, b] -P R is a function, continuous in [a, bj, derivable in ]a, b[ m d f(a) =
f(b), then there is at least one point c ~ ] a b[, such that f'(c) = 0. 'The geometric
significance of the theorem is also given. Geometrically, on the graph of the fu~lctionf,
there is at least one point between the end points, where the tangent is parallei to the
x-axis. Using Rolle's theorem, Lagrange's Mean Value Theorem is proved in Section 12.3. It
states that if a function f : [a, b] --+ R is continuousin [a, h] and derivable in ]a, b[, there
is at least one point c in ]a, b[ such that - f(b)-- f(a) = f'(c). An irnportarit consequence of
b-a
the theorem is that i f f is continuous on [a, b] and derivable on ]a, b[ with ft(x) = 0 on
]a, b[, then f is a constant function on [a, b]. Another important deduction from the -,,
theorem is that i f f is continuous in [a, b] and derivable in ]a, b[ then (i) f is increasing
or decreasing on [a, b] according a s fl(.x) 2 0, 'd x ~ ] a b[, or f(x) 5 0,V x ~ ] a b[, (ii) f is
strictly increasing or strictly decreasing in [a, b] according as f'(x) > 0, 'd x €la, b[ or
f'(x) .:0, V x ~ ] ab[.
, Applying these results, some inequalities in real analysis are
established, With the help of Rolle's theorem, Cauchy's theorem is proved in Section 12.4.
It states that if f and g be two functions tiom [a, b] to R such that they are continuous
in [a, b], derivable in ]a, b[ and g'(x) + 0,V x ~ ] a b[,, then there exists at least
f(b) - f(a) = -fl(c) . Lagrange's Mean Value Theorem is
one point c in ]a, b[ such that
g(b) - g(a) g'(c)
particular case of Cauchy's mean value theorem if we choose the fhnction g as g(x) = x
'd x ~ [ ab].
, A more general theorem, known as generalised mean value theorem is given
in Section 12.5. You have seen that it is also established with the help of Rolle's ,
Theorem. According to this theorem, iff, g, 11 be three functions from [a, h] to R such
that they are continuous in 1% b] derivable in ]a, b[, then there exists at leakone point c
e]a, b[ such that

v.
 Both Lagrange's and Cauchy's theorem are particular cases of ihis iheorem. [f you tske Mean-Value Theorems

-
g(x) = x and h(x) -- I +sifE [a, b]. then you get Lagrange's theorem lroni it. Cauchy's mean
value theorem l'olluws from this general iheorern if you take only h(x) I -V.x E [a, h].
Finally, in this section, lnterlnediaie Value Theorcm for derivatives is given according to

-
which iff is derivable in [a, b], f'(a) ?' f(b) snd k is any !lumber lying beiween fl(a) and fP(b),
then there exists a point c E ]a, b[ such that fl(c) k From this ibI!ows 1)arboux Theorem
naineiy iff :s$erivable in [a, I.)]and f'ja). f'(b) < 0, then there is a point c'in ]a, b[ such that
f'(c) = 0.

E I) f is ~oiltinuousin [- 27i., 2sr] and derivabie in 1- 2rr, 2rr[

f(- 2 7 ~ --
j f(2.rr) = 0. All conditions of Kolle's Tlieoren~arc satis!ied. Therefore there
exists z point c in I-- 2 n , 31d such that
f'(q I7 0
--.,,
- (.US C =0
-- ,.
2.
c: I Tr/:!
Both the points k IT/?. E I-- 2x,27r[.
E 2) (a) Clearly f(x) - - cos x :;atisfie>the hypothcsis of Roliiz's ~hccbren~
over
[-- sr/2, rri?]. So conclusion of the theorean will alsv be truc.

Thus there is point c E 1- r/2, 7r/2] SUCII that fl(c) = 0

x -
Here f'(x> = sin x and f'(x) -- 0 irnpiies
0. S O c = 0 E 1- 71./2, n./2[.
2
of Rolle's The~remare not satisfied, as t 'ix) ==
(b) Contlitlo~~s (u - I ) ' '
3
f c x~ f 1 and f is no1 dcnvable at x =- 1 a point of 10, 21. So f is not llerivablc in
10, 2[. So hypothcsis of Rolle's theoren1 is not valid. As f'(u) f O For ally x in
10, 2[, so conclusi'on of the theorem is not tme.

E 3) Let a and b, ;I # b, be ally two roots of

e'sin x = 1 <:-' sin x -;- e '
.%<> e-' -. :;in x = 0.
&
.. c " -- sin a O and e"' - sin b = O
. I

Let f(x) e - "-

sin x -V x E [a, h].
Clearly I' is continuous in [a, b'j and derivable in ]a, b[. Also ffa) = f(b) -= Q
l'hcrefbrc thc hypothesis of Rolle's Theorem is satisfird by f ovcr [ti, b].

Therefore there exists c E ]a, b[sucli that fr(c) z:O which implies
- e-' - cos c -- 0 *
eCcos c .t I = 0.
So e" cos x -1 I = I) has a root c tbr some c i-- ]a, b[.

f E 4) Consider t!ie function, 1: defined as :

sox"+' f --alx" -t. . . . . . -1
f(x) =
n f l n 1
E [Q, I].,
Here f is continuous on [0, I], derivable on 10, 1[ and f(0) = 0
al aI I
f(1) =- + - - I - . . . . . f a,, = 0 (given condition)
n f 1 n
.'. f(O) = f(1)

such that f'(c) -

So f satisfies the hypotllesis of Rolle's theorem ancl therefore there is a point c E 10, 1[
0 that is there is x E 10, 1[ such that f'(x) = 0 that is

E 5) We have to show that 1

(b - a) f(c) - (b -- c) [(a) - ( C - a) [(I.))= - (13 -- a) jc - a) fP'(d)for'sorne
2
c, d, E [a, b].
Consider the functioli 4, defined by
 $(x) = (b - a) f(x) - (b - x) f(a) - (x -- a) f(b) - (b - a) (x T a) ( x b) A -
where the constant A is to be determined such that +(c) = 0.-
This implies
(b - a) f(c) - (lj - c) f(a) - (c - a) f(b) - (b - a) (c - a) (c - b) A = 0. (2)
It is given that f" is continuous on [a, b] which implies that f ~f',, f" are continuous on
[a, bl.
+(a) = +(b) = 0 and 4 is differentiable in [a, b]. So C#J sat~sfiesall the conditions of
Rolle's theorem on each of the intervals [a, c] and [c, b]
Thus there exists two numbers C I ,c2 respectively in ]a, c[ and ]c, b[ such that
#(cr) = 0 and c#~(c'z) = 0.
Again @(x) = (b - a) fP(x) f(a) - f(b) - (b - a) [2x - (a b)] + J$ which i s
continuous and derivable in [a, b] and in particular on [c,, c2]. Also
) (b'(c2) = 0.
~ ' ( c I=
By Rolle's theorem, L3d E ]c ,, c2[such that
r#)"(d)= 0
Now @'(x) = (b - a) fJ'(x) - (b - a). 2A
1
f(d) = (b - a) f"(d) - (b - a) 2A = 0 ==s-A = --.f"(d)
2 (3)
where a < cl < d < cz < b and the result follows from (2) and (3).

E 6) Here f(x) = cos X,x € [O, n/2]. f is continuous in [O, n/2]and derivable in 10, n/2[.
By Lagrange's Mean Value Theorem, there exists a pt, c in 10, .rr/2[ such that

2
i.e. sin c = -
n-
2
i.e, c = sin-' - E 10, n/2[.
7T
E 7). Here f(x) = x' - 3x2 +
2x
Therefore f'(x) = 3x2 - 6x +2
Let qsolve the equation ff(c) = f(b) - f(n) - f(3) - f(O)
b- a 3- 0

-,>; Since 0 does not lie in 10, 3[, this value of c is rejected. So the required value of
c which lies in 10, 3[ is c = 2.
E 8) Apply Lagrange's Mean Value theorem to the function f, given by
+ +
f(x) = ax2 bx d3' E [m, n].
You will get a c E In, n[ satisfying
f'(c) = f(n) - f(m) (Assume : n > rn)
n- m

+2ac i-
b=
(an2 i-bn d) (an + - 2
+ bm + d)
n- m
=a(n+m)S b
m n +
* C = ~ and c E ]m, n[

nl n +
which implies that at x = -, the tangent to the given curve is panllel to the
2
chord joining the points whose abscissae are x = m and x n.
E 9) Define a function. 4, by setting
.42 $(x) = f(a i- hx) + f(a - hx)Y x E [0, I].
 ' As x varies over [0, 11, a - hx varies over [a - h, a] and a t hx varies over . Mean-Value Theorems
[a, a t h].
I ' Therefore Q, is continuous in [0, 11 and derivable in 10, I[. By Lagrange's mean value
theorem 3 8(0 < 8 < 1) such that

E 10) i) Consider F(x) = tan-' x - (x - x3/3), x 10.

1 x4
F '(x) = --- - (1 - x2) =
+
I x2
- 1 t x2
> 0 for x > 0.
+ Thus F is svictly increasing in [0, m[.
.: F(x) > F(0) for x > 0
3
x
i.e. tan-' x - (x - - j > 0 for x > 0
3 .
i.e. tan-' x > x - x3/3 for x > 0.
ii) Consider F(x) = e-" (1 - x) for x 1 0 and proceed as in (i).
E 11) The given'functions satisfy the hypothesis of Cauchy's mean value theorbm.
-
:. '3. . 8 E ] - .rr/2,O[ such that

which clearly lies in 1- 7r/2,0[.

E 12) ~2 find c from

. Thus 2c = a -I b G = (a t b)/2.
which means that c is the arithmetic mean of a & b.
'E 13) We find c from

which gives c = =66 a

q-"

-
Thus c is the geometric mean of a and b,
E 14) We find c from

r(d -- f(b) - f(a)

-
g'(c) g(b) - g(a)

Thus c is the harmonic mean of a and b.