Chapter 4.

Introduction to Life Science

Content Standards:
The learners demonstrate the understanding of:

 the historical development of the concept of life

 the origin of the first life forms
 unifying themes in the study of life

Performance Standards:
The learners shall be able to :

1. value life by taking good care of all beings, humans, plants, and animals.

Learning Competencies:
The learners:
a. explain the evolving concept of life based on emerging pieces of evidence
b. describe classic experiments that model conditions which may have enabled the first forms
to evolve
c. describe how unifying themes (e.g., structure and function, evolution, and ecosystems) in
the study of life show the connections among living things and how they interact with each
other and with their environment

BIG IDEA
Although there is no universal agreement as to definition of life, its biological; manifestations
are generally considered to be organization, metabolism, growth, irritability, adaptation, and
reproduction. Single-celled organisms like Paramecium performs life functions as those carried
on by the complex tissues and organs of humans and other highly developed organisms.
These life attributes inherent in such minute structures. In seeking for an understanding of
life, myriad of life of life science emerged.

Why do we study Biology?

Biology, which is the study of life, is essential to human society because it gives an
understanding of how life is formed and how it works, changes and responds to environmental
influences. It influences human health, reproduction, quality of life, nutrition and almost every
aspect of human’s everyday life.
 • Two important reasons for studying Biology:
– Biology is relevant to our everyday
experience:
• Medical advances
• Addressing needs of growing human
population
• Challenges of decreasing rate of
biodiversity
• Biotechnology advances Fig. 4.1a Biology in Action

– Biology can be controversial

• Examples:
• Dealing with endangered species?
• Use of human fetal tissue in biomedical research? Safety of
irradiated foods.
What is Biology?
 It is the study of life.
 It is a branch of science.
– A way of understanding nature.
 It is human endeavor.
– An attempt to understand, explain, integrate and describe the world of living
things.

Biology, as a study of life.

Everything on Earth that has life are the subject of study in Biology, as such, one emerging
question is: What is life? How do we know one has life?
Generally, living organisms, do have the following characteristics:
– Highly organized and complex.
– Are composed of one or more cells.
– Contain a blueprint of their characteristics.
– Acquire and use energy.
– Carry out and control numerous reactions.

Fortunately, biologists have developed a list of eight characteristics shared by all living
organisms. Characteristics are traits or qualities. Here is the list of characteristics shared by living
things:

1. Cellular organization
2. Reproduction
3. Metabolism
4. Homeostasis
5. Heredity
6. Response to stimuli (Irritability)
 7. Growth and development
8. Adaptation through evolution

Cellular Organization
This simply means that living things are made of
cells. Cells are the most basic unit of life. It doesn't matter if
those cells are plants, animals, fungi, or bacteria. If
something is going to be alive, it must be made of cells.

Reproduction Fig. 4.1b Cellular Organization

If something is alive it must be capable of reproducing. Multicellular life forms such as

humans reproduce sexually, while unicellular life forms like bacteria reproduce asexually. The
important thing to remember is that in either case, living things reproduce.

Metabolism

It is essentially a collection of chemical reactions

Fig. 4.1c Reproduction in seahorse
occurring within the body (or cell). These reactions vary
in form and function but promote processes such as
protein synthesis, chemical digestion, cell division, or
energy transformation. Because metabolism includes
reactions that link to other characteristics, it is
sometimes grouped with those other characteristics.

Homeostasis

It means maintaining a stable internal environment. For instance, regulating

constant body temperature, controlling blood sugar, otherwise, if homeostasis is
disrupted, and we spike a fever, it simply indicates that something is threatening life.

Heredity

It refers to the genetic information passing for traits

from parents to their offspring, either through asexual
reproduction or sexual reproduction. This is the process by
which an offspring cell or organism acquires or becomes
predisposed to the characteristics of its parent cell or organism.
Fig. 4.1d Transmission of traits
Irritability

It describes the ability of any cell or organism to recognize and react to stimuli in its
immediate surroundings, which is responsible for framing a corresponding response.

Growth and Development

Development is the progression from earlier to later stages in maturation, e.g. a fertilized
egg develops into a mature tree. It is the process whereby tissues, organs, and whole plants are
produced. It involves: growth, morphogenesis (the acquisition of form and structure), and
differentiation.

Adaptability

It refers to the ability to change in response to the

changing environmental conditions. Through time,
organisms tend to develop features that enable them to
adapt to the environment. There are ways of adaptation:
Fig. 4.1e Camouflaging in the environment
mimicry and camouflaging. Mimicry is to look, act,
smell or sound like something else, such as another
organism or other natural object, it is a form of deception practiced by a variety of animals, to
gain some advantage of protections. For many animals, including insects and spiders, a key
problem is how to eat without being eaten. By mimicking something else, they gain some
protection and increase their chances of survival. To camouflage is to look, act, smell or sound
such that it blend in with their surroundings.

Evolution

Evolution pertains to the sequence of events

depicting the gradual progression of changes in the genetic
composition of a biological population over successive
generations. Accordingly, all life on earth originates from a
common ancestor, which is referred to as the last universal
common ancestor, some 3.5 to 3.8 billion years ago.
Fig. 4.1f Evolution in Man

Biology, as a branch of science, and a human endeavour.

It is both an activity and body of knowledge. In fact it is a way of understanding the natural

world. Scientists make predictions and test those predictions.

So, how is Biology studied?

In an attempt to understand how life operates on

Earth, Scientists employ a logical or systematic way of

dealing with problems pertaining to life- though

scientific method. Scientific method is a body of

interconnected concepts. It is s supported by much

experimental evidence and scientific reasoning. It helps

express ideas of which we are most certain.

Fig. 4.1g The Scientific method

Biology is indeed a broad Science, a body of

knowledge. BIOLOGY as a broad Science is consist of branches. The following are few of the sub-

branches:

• Zoology- the study of animals.

• Botany-study of plants.

• Microbiology-study of microorganisms.

• Cytology-study of cells.

• Genetics-study of heredity and variation.

• Ecology-study of ecosystem.

• Taxonomy-study of classification of organisms, etc.

These branches of study are Natural Sciences. Living things on Earth share common

characteristics or properties typically not found in inanimate object, and are clustered into themes

called, UNIFYING THEMES in the study of life.

1. Cellular Composition According to the Cell theory…(a) All

organisms composed of cells. (b) Cells are life’s basic

units and (c) All cells come from preexisting cells.

Fig. 4.1h Cellular Composition

 2. Organizational hierarchy Living systems show

hierarchical organization: (a)cellular level, which consists of

atoms, molecules, organelles; (b) organismal level, which

includes issues, organs, and organ systems; and

populational level, which refers to the population and the

community.

3. Structure and Function The proper function of a

Fig. 4.1i Organizational heirarchy
molecule is dependent on its structure. The structure of a

molecule can often tell us about its function. There are four major classes of

Biomolecules:(a) nucleic acids (b) amino acids (c) lipids, and (d) carbohydrates.

4. Reproduction and Inheritance All organisms produce new organisms like themselves

through reproduction. Organisms transmit hereditary information to their offspring in a

process called inheritance.

5. Evolution by Natural Selection/Evolutionary conservation All organisms today

descended from a simple creature 3.5 billion years ago. Some characteristics preserved –

use of DNA. Conservation reflects that they have a fundamental role in the environment.

Those organisms that had evolved through time, are living proofs of the rule of thumb:

“Survival of the fittest”. Those that are unfit are dis selected against.

6. Ecosystem This refers to the interplaying of components in an ecosystem. In fact,

everything is connected with everything else.

7. Homeostasis This means maintaining balance in and out of the cell condition. Cell

transports materials under different conditions: -hypotonic, isotonic and hypertonic

solutions in order to achieving constant and stable conditions such as body temperature,

consisten blood sugar, etc.

8. Diversity of life arises by evolution Underlying unity of biochemistry and genetics

argues for life from the same origin event. Diversity is due to evolutionary change over

time. Though the passing years, may domains of life had been identified to emerge; life

then, in the beginning consists of 3 domains: (1)bacteria – single-celled prokaryote, (2)

archaea – single-celled prokaryote, and (3) eukarya – single-celled or multicellular

eukaryote. What domain do we belong then? We, humans are the living testimonies that

life then begun from a simple composition, until life begins its complexity as time flies by.

Life on Earth and Its Beginnings

One belief that governed people’s thinking in the past is the theory of

SPONTANEOUS GENERATION. This states that life arise from nowhere. This is

popularized by Aristotle, ancient Greek philosopher. People in the past believe that when

a person is suffering from an illness, it a punishment from a god due for a life not lived

well. It is curse. This is regarded as an anomalous generation, it is an obsolete body of

thought on the ordinary formation of living organisms without descent from similar

organisms. Typically, the idea was that certain forms such as fleas could arise from

inanimate matter such as dust, or that maggots could arise from dead flesh. People, as

well think that dampen clothes undisturbed would generate mouse.

Later, BIOGENESIS, is acknowledged by people, in which it states that life

originates from preexisting life. Biogenesis is the production of new

living organisms or organelles. The law of biogenesis, attributed to Louis Pasteur, is the

conclusion that complex living things come only from other living things,

by reproduction (e.g. a spider lays eggs, which develop into spiders). That is, modern life

does not arise from non-living material, which was the position held by spontaneous

generation.

There is a clash between the ideas as to how really life originates.

Since then, a lot of experiments have been done, to answer the following questions:

 When did life form?

The Earth had lived already for 4.6 billion years. In fact, the oldest rocks are dated

approximately 3.8 – 4.0 billion years. Oceans were established to be > 3.8 billion years ago,

although, life not possible during period of heavy bombardment ~ 4.0 billion years ago

The signatures of life is 12C/13C suggests that photosynthetic life existed ~ 4.0 billion years

ago. Bacteria is the earliest life on Earth.

 Where did life form?

 Clouds formed as the Earth began to cool, producing enormous volumes of

rainwater that formed the oceans. For the next 1.3 billion years (3.8 to 2.5 billion years

ago), the Archean Period, first life began to appear and the world's landmasses began to

form. Most literatures point out oceans, lakes, ponds, tide pools, and even deep ocean

geothermal vents, as the place of the first life form origin. Eventually, moved to the

terrestrial place where scorpions were noted to be the 1st land animal to inhabit.

 How did life form?

As to the question raised, there were plenty of challenges to explain how really did life

originate. In fact, there were plenty of questions were asked associated with the initial query:

• Where did the organic molecules come from?

• How does chemistry become biology?

• How did self replication begin?

• Do we really come from organic molecules? All life is based on organic chemistry.Today,

organic molecules cannot form outside of living cells. So, where did the organic molecules

come from? There are several experiments and theories that attempt to trace the origin of

life forms.

Miller-Urey Experiment

The Miller Urey Experiment. In the 1950's, biochemists Stanley

Miller and Harold Urey, conducted an experiment, which

demonstrated that several organic compounds could be formed

spontaneously by simulating the conditions of Earth's early

atmosphere. With the following components: water vapor +

methane + H2 + (CH4) + ammonia (NH3), a primitive ocean was

simulated. The experiment ran for week of condensation and

recycling. The condensed mixture contained amino acids and

complex organic molecules. However, there was a problem – early atmosphere was mostly CO2,

little methane and ammonia. The experiment was redone with CO2 and UV light obtaining less
quantities but produced all amino acids found in life on Earth. Complex sugars and lipids formed,

not to mention, all 5 chemical bases used in DNA and RNA formed-uracil, thymine, guanine ,

cytosine and adenine. These are the chemical bases of life.

However, there were noted external sources of organic molecules –these are the comets,

asteroids, and meteors. About 100’s of tons of debris fall to Earth each year, especially from the

Murchison Meteorite that happened on 1969. Amino acids, the 5 bases, and even the simple

sugars and fatty acids were not only found on Earth but on other planets as well.

As to how life really originate remain a question subject to debate, thus, chemistry made an

attempt to solve the problem. It states that with all the ingredients in life available, the following

could eventually take place.

(1) Creation of polymers (long chains of molecules that have a repetitive pattern)

(2) Ability for life to reproduce

(3) Clays could serve as a template for life initiation. How does this happen? Self-

replication needs to happen. DNA is too complex to be the original self replicating

molecule, RNA is most likely candidate because it is easier to manufacture – still contains

hereditary information. RNA replication requires enzymes… production of enzymes

requires DNA/RNA, yet it was found out that RNA can act as its own catalyst (simulating

the role of enzyme)

• To cut it short, atmospheric chemistry, chemistry near deep sea vents, impacting bodies

produced concentrations of organic molecules. Organic molecules dissolved in a

“primordial soup”. Complex molecules grew from organic soup (perhaps helped by

clays) and later produced some RNA molecules were capable of self-replication.

Membranes formed spontaneously in the organic soup creating pre-cells. Natural

selection among RNA molecules in pre-cells leads to complexity and true living

organisms. Natural selection makes DNA the favored hereditary molecule.

 Summary of steps leading to life

So, how did life originate?

There were alternative theories exploring the origin of life.

The Divine Creation

It is regarded as the oldest hypothesis.“Life came

from a divine God”, is most widely accepted belief. Life

forms and everything in the universe were created God created life

through a supernatural power rather than naturalistic

means. The belief that arose from nothing though the

power of divine being is called CREATIONISM.

Spontaneous Generation of Miller-Urey Experiment

In 1920’s, scientists hypothesized that the chemicals in the

early atmosphere, fueled by sunlight, would

spontaneously create organic molecules. This was tested

by Miller-Urey experiment in 1950’s.

In the Miller-Urey experiment, the first flask was

partially filled with water and heated to produce water

vapor (sea).Water vapor was moved to a second flask where methane and ammonia vapor was

added (atmosphere). Electric sparks (lightening) in second flask was the energy source for

chemical reactions. Below second flask, water vapor cooled (rain) and recycled to first flask (sea).
The experiment resulted to a substance that turned brown with amino acids and other complex

organic molecules.

Panspermia , as postulated by Svante Arrhenius

• Life could arose from outside the Earth like (MARS) and life forms were transported from

another planet to seed life on Earth. Panspermia proposes that a meteor or cosmic dust

may have carried to Earth significant amount of organic molecules which started the

evolution of life! Panspermia, was even ridiculed for the idea of – “seeds everywhere”,

which further states that life is transported from one planet to another. Complex organic

molecules found in space (ISM, meteors, comets). This promotes the concepts that the (a)

formation of life is very rare; (b) life on Earth formed too quickly; and (c) if formed

elsewhere, then could have had more time to form. Panspermia did not at all explain the

origin of life. But, it suggested that life is transported from outside space through exposure

to bombardments and space environments which would most likely kill life. But, there

has been organisms to live in a hostile environment such as: the halophile, the bacteria

that can withstand super salty environment, acidophile, with extreme acids and even

thermophile for an extreme temperature, and many more.

The past explanations as to the origin of life remains daunting, thus, there were

current experiments being done to clarify matters:

Francesco Redi’s Experiment

He observed that maggots arose from eggs laid by

flies on the rotten meat but not on the meat covered with

gauze. He concluded that life arose from living matter

such as maggots from eggs, not from spontaneous

generation in the meat.

John Needham’s Experiment

He concluded that life in the broth caused spontaneous generation to occur. In actuality,

he did not heat it long enough to kill all the microbes.

 Abbe lazaro Spallanzani’s Experiment

He concluded that life occurred from something

that entered the unsealed flask that it was the one

responsible for life to grow.His experiment disprove the

theory of spontaneous generation.

How did Needham’s and Spallanzani’s experiments

differ?

Louis Pasteur’s experiment

His experiment supported the

theory of biogenesis and disproves

spontaneous generation. The evidence

suggest that new bacteria appear only

when they are produced by existing

bacteria

As of today, there are several competing theories for

how life arose on Earth. Some question whether life

began on Earth at all, asserting instead that it came from

a distant world or the heart of a fallen comet or asteroid.

Some even say life might have arisen here more than

once.

How do you think life originate? You may form conjectures based on the different

assumptions presented or would you rather believe of the supreme being, who makes life

possible on Earth?