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Published by: Parahyangan Catholic University

Jalan Ciumbuleuit No. 94
Bandung, Indonesia

ISBN 978-602-71964-5-2
 PREFACE

Landslides have become a major threat and disasters at large scale residence area in urban as well as
suburban area or villages. Our profession has important roles in public safety against landslides and man
made slope failures and the potential of shaping the future of landslides risk management. The theme of the
conference “ADVANCEMENT OF RESEARCH, PRACTICE, AND INTEGRATED SOLUTION ON
LANDSLIDE” reflect the effort to synergize the academic research and findings and practical experience in
facing climate change and human interference on the nature.
Engineering Geologists, Civil Engineers and Environmental Engineers and other professionals are concerned
with the problems of debris flow, landslides and rockslides which may be caused by natural disasters, river
erosion, climate change, human errors and geo-environtmental problems. Eventhough we have gained
experience, knowledge and advanced technology, there are still numbers of deadly events that recently
occured at many places in Indonesia such as in Padang Pariaman in Sumatera 2009 (more than 600 fatalities),
South Cianjur 2009 (54 fatalities) and recently at one particular district area of Banjarnegara, Central Java
with 351 fatalities (Legetang/Kepakisan, 16 April 1955), 90 fatalities (Sijeruk, 4 January 2006) and 108
fatalities (Jemblung, 12 December 2014) and also in many other countries as well.
Landslides Risk Reduction is hence very important steps in every country. They require multi hazard
approach including institutional capacities such as policy, legislation, education and training, community
awareness etc as an essential condition for its effectiveness. Many universities, research institutions,
landslides centers and geological or geotechnical consultants have gained experience and knowledge which
are of valuable importance. Case histories of landslides contribute to the state of the art for research and
practice on landslides and rock slides. It is with the objectives of sharing knowledge, the conference has been
aimed for the goals. Hence the conference is very important event for exchange of ideas and experience and
for contribution among many countries all over the world.
We would like to extend my appreciation to all of you who have been travelling from far distance and
specially to the Keynote Speakers and authors who made their efforts to share their knowledge and
experience to the audience. This conference cannot be successful without the support of the department, the
faculty of engineering, specially the dean Dr. Adhijoso Tjondro, Rector of Parahyangan Catholic University
Dr. Mangadar Situmorang, and Director of LIPI Geoteknologi Dr. Haryadi Permana for their encouragement.
Last but not least, to all members f the committee for their endless hard work and dedication, I have to
acknowledge that they are the people behind the scene, for without them, this event will not come to reality.
Finally to all participants, I wish you find this conference useful and beneficial to you, and your institution.

Organizing Committee
International Conference on Landslides and Slope Stability
(SLOPE 2015)

Prof. Paulus P. Rahardjo, Ph.D.

Chairman

Dr. Adrin Tohari

Co-Chairman

i
 TABLE OF CONTENT

KEYNOTE

CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERFRONT LANDSLIDES INDUCED BY EARTHQUAKES

Kenji Ishihara 1-1

THE EARLY WARNING TECHNOLOGY OF LANDSLIDE DISASTER MITIGATION; IMPLICATIONS

OF RAIN-INDUCED SLOPE FAILURE IN A VOLCANIC ISLAND OF IZU OSHIMA
I. Towhata, S. Goto, G. Wang and T. Akima 2-1

TOOLS, TECHNIQUES AND TECHNOLOGIES FOR CAPACITY ENHANCEMENT TO REDUCE

LANDSLIDE RISKS AND PROMOTE COMMUNITY RESILIENCE
Surya Parkash 3-1

CONTROLLING FACTORS OF RAINFALL-INDUCED SLOPE FAILURES IN RESIDUAL SOILS

H. Rahardjo and A. Rahimi 4-1

SUSCEPTIBILITY ASSESMENT OF RAINFALL INDUCED LANDSLIDES: A CASE STUDY OF A

LANDSLIDE IN UMYEONSAN (MT.) KOREA
Sangseom Jeong, Joon Kyu Lee and Junghwan Kim 5-1

THEORY TO REALITY OF FAILURES OF SOIL SLOPES INCLUDING FORENSIC ANALYSIS OF AN

INDIAN LANDSLIDE DISASTER
Deepankar Choudhury, Ashutosh Kumar and Milind Patil 6-1

INSTABILITY OF A HIGH CUT SLOPE OF VOLCANIC BRECCIA LAID ON CLAY SHALE AT

KM 31_875 IN CENTRAL JAVA, INDONESIA
Alatas I. M., Irsyam M., Himawan A., Nawir H. and Wiriodinoto I. D. 7-1

BEHAVIOR OF PILES IN LANDSLIDE AND SLOPE PROTECTION

Paulus P. Rahardjo, Aris Handoko, Adityaputera Wirawan and Petrus C. S. Santoso 8-1

CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT FOR THE LANDSLIDE MITIGATION

Dwikorita Karnawati 9-1

LANDSLIDE HAZARD MITIGATION IN INDONESIA

Surono 10-1

A. SOIL AND ROCK BEHAVIOR FOR SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS

IMPORTANCE OF LOWER-BOUND SHEAR STRENGTH IN THE RELIABILITY OF SPATIALLY

RANDOM CLAYEY SLOPES
Z. Farah, S. Najjar and S. Sadek A1-1

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SHEAR STRENGTH AND SUCTION OF GRANITIC RESIDUAL SOIL

A. Nurul Huda, M. J. Md. Noor, I. B. Mohamed Jais A2-1

THE EFFECT OF SATURATION ON THE STRENGTH PARAMETERS OF COMPACTED COHESIVE

SOILS
Cindarto Lie, Yosep Purnama and Sucipto A3-1

iii
ANALYSIS OF INCREASING SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOIL TO SLOPE STABILITY AFTER
CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT COMPLETED WITH VARIOUS METHOD
Yudhi Lastiasih and Putu Tantri K.S. A4-1

BACK CALCULATION METHOD TO ESTIMATE SHEAR PARAMETER (c and ) OF CILILIN,

WEST JAVA LANDSLIDES
Ikah N. P. Permanasari, Gunawan Handayani, Arif Rohman and Lilik Hendrajaya A5-1

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON RESIDUAL SHEAR STRENGTH AND IMPROVE SHEAR STRENGTH

WITH COMPACTION TEST ON AREA LINGGAMANIK, SUKABUMI
Lestari, A. S., Satria Yogie and Assidiq Bagus A6-1

BEHAVIOR OF ROCK INTERFACE BASED ON BACK ANALYSIS USING FINITE ELEMENT

METHOD
Anita Theresia, Paulus P. Rahardjo, Aris Handoko and Sylvia Herina A7-1

B. LANDSLIDE MECHANISM

CHARACTERISTICS AND FAILURE MECHANISM OF LANDSLIDES IN WEATHERED GRANITIC

ROCKS IN HAI VAN MOUNTAIN, VIETNAM
P. V. Tien, K. Sassa, K. Takara, H. T. Binh and L. H. Loung B1-1

PREDICTION OF TIME VARIATION OF SHEAR DEFORMATION OF SANDY MODEL SLOPE

UNDER RAINFALL BASED ON THE MONITORING OF THE SHEAR STRAIN AND THE PORE
PRESSURE IN THE SLOPE
K. Sasahara B2-1

STUDY OF CUT-SLOPE STABILITY ON QUATERNARY VOLCANIC DEPOSITS CASE STUDY:

TRANS JAVA TOLL ROAD, EAST JAVA
Kwari D. Pelupessy and Felicia Sutomo B3-1

PHENOMENA OF EXPANSIVE SOIL SOFTENING AS A TRIGGER TO LANDSLIDE OF CUT SLOPE

P. C. Tamsir and P. P. Rahardjo B4-1

FLEXIBLE FACEING UNDER REAL 1:1 FIELD TEST CONDITIONS

C. Balg, C. Wendeler and P. Baraniak B5-1

THE EFFECT OF DISCONTINUITY ORIENTATION ON THE STABILITY OF ROCK MASSES

Cindarto Lie and H. R. G. K. Hack B6-1

INFLUENCE OF HYDRAULIC CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS IN THE UNSATURTED SOIL SLOPES

WITH VARIOUS HORIZONTAL WATER TABLE
Indra Noer Hamdan B7-1

IMPORTANCE OF ELONGATION FACTOR IN DETERMINING GEOSYNTHETICS STIFFNESS FOR

FINITE ELEMENT CALCULATION
GOUW Tjie-Liong B8-1

C. THE IMPORTANCE OF GEOLOGY ON LANDSLIDES AND ROCK SLIDES

HIDDEN LANDSLIDE: AS THE CALDERA RIM DEFORMATION AT FUKAYAMADAKE PLATEAU,

AT THE FOOT SLOPE OF KURIKOMA VOLCANO, KURIHARA, JAPAN
Le Hong Luong and Toyohiko Miyagi C1-1

iv
ASSESSMENT AND MONITORING STRATEGY FOR SLOPES IN DIFFERENT GEOLOGICAL
FORMATIONS
Agus Setianto Samingan C2-1

GEOLOGICAL HAZARD POTENTIAL ANALYSIS OF CIMANUK WATERSHED

Fikri Noor Azy, Luthfan Harisan Jihadi, Mohamad Sapari Dwi Hadian and Zufialdi Zakaria C3-1

LANDSLIDE HAZARD IN GEOTHERMAL AREA OF PATUHA

Putu Krishna Wijaya and Dwikorita Karnawati C4-1

LANDSLIDE RISK EVALUATION BY COMBINATION OF MORPHOLOGY, GEOLOGY AND

SIMULATION APPROACH IN TROPICAL HUMID REGION
Le Hong Luong, Toyohiko Miyagi, Shinro Abe, Eisaku Hamasaki and Pham Van Tien C5-1

THE IMPORTANCE OF ADEQUATE GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATION FOR SLOPE STABILITY

REMEDIATION – LESSON LEARNT
Henrico Winata and Achmad Muzni Chasanudin C6-1

D. COUNTRY REPORTS AND LANDSLIDE CONTROL

ENGINEERING CONTROLS FOR HILL-SITE DEVELOPMENTS IN MALAYSIA

Yee Thien Seng D1-1

WIDESPREAD SLOPE MOVEMENTS WITHIN THE AUSTRIAN ALPS

G. Moser D2-1

LANDSLIDE DISTRIBUTION AND LANDSLIDE SUSCEPTIBILTY IN THE Río LA CARBONERA

WATERSHEAD, PICO DE ORIZABA VOLCANO, MEXICO
Gabriel Legorreta Paulin, Marcus I. Bursik and Trevor Contreras D3-1

FEATURES OF FORMATION AND ACTIVIZATION OF LANDSLIDE PROCESSES IN

KYRGYZSTAN
Kamchibek Kozhogulov Chonmurunovich and Olga Nikolskaya Victorovna D4-1

THE HONG KONG EXPERIENCE IN LANDSLIDE RISK MANAGEMENT FOR SUSTAINABLE

URBAN DEVELOPMENT
Jenny F Yeung D5-1

E. ANALYSIS OF DEBRIS FLOW AND MUDFLOWS

RESEARCH ON MUDFLOW BEHAVIOR

B. Widjaja E1-1

LARGE DEFORMATION ANALYSIS OF DEBRIS FLOW ON MT. UMYEONSAN CONSIDERING

ENTRAINMENT OF BED SEDIMENT
Sangseom Jeong, Kwangwoo Lee and Hyunsung Lim E2-1

LANDSLIDE AND DEBRIS FLOW AT KHAO PANOM BENJA, KRABI, SOUTHERN THAILAND
N. Phienwej and A. Iyaruk E3-1

SIMULATION OF WHOLE LANDSLIDE PROCESS USING MOBILIZATION CRITERION FOR

UMYEON MOUNTAIN IN KOREA
Kang, Sinhang, Lee, Seung-Rae and Vasu, N. N. E4-1

v
SPATIAL STUDY ON SHALLOW LANDSLIDE WITH IMPLEMENTATION OF INFINITE SLOPE
ANALYSIS METHOD ON GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM PLATFORM FOR
KARANGKOBAR, BANJARNEGARA, CENTRAL JAVA
Andriansyah and Tommy Ilyas E5-1

F. CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACT AND RAIN INDUCED LANDSLIDES

ASSESSMENT OF CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACT ON LANDSLIDE HAZARD IN WEST JAVA

A.Tohari and H. Santoso F1-1

INCORPORATING CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION AND DISASTER RISK REDUCTION ON

LANDSLIDE INTO SPATIAL PLANNING, CASE STUDY: TARAKAN ISLAND
Setiawan B. and Fad Z. G. F2-1

THE INFLUENCE OF RAINFALL PATTERNS ON SEEPAGE CHARACTERISTICS AND STABILITY

OF SLOPE
Yu Luo, Si-ming He and Jin-chuan He F3-1

THE ROLE OF RAINFALL RESOLUTION IN SLOPE FAILURE MECHANISMS

M. Suradi, A. Fourie and A. Hasan F4-1

STABILITY ANALYSIS OF A SHALLOW SLOPE FAILURE DURING RAINY SEASON IN

KULONPROGO, INDONESIA
Agus Setyo Muntohar and Eko Soebowo F5-1

G. SEISMIC RESPONSE AND EARTHQUAKE INDUCED LANDSLIDE

LANDSLIDE INDUCED BY THE YOGYAKARTA 2006 EARTHQUAKE

Eko Soebowo and Dwi Sarah G1-1

STUDY ON SEISMIC RESPONSE OF REINFORCED SLOPE USING SMALL DIAMETER STEEL

PILES
Y. Mochida, A. Takahashi and M. Sawaishi G2-1

THE INFLUENCE OF DYNAMIC ACCELERATION OF SINUSOIDAL LOADS TO THE LANDSLIDE

SURFACE OF CANTILEVER RETAINING WALLS
Anissa M. Hidayati, Sri Prabandiyani R. W. and I Wayang Redana G3-1

SEISMIC STABILITY ANALYSIS OF EARTH FILLED DAM – A MODEL STUDY OF THE LEFT
EMBANKMENT OF NAGARJUNA SAGAR DAM, INDIA
Sunu Cecil Edem, M. Padmavathi, V. Padmavathi and P. N. Rao G4-1

INFLUENCE OF SEISMIC EFFECTIVE DURATION TO SLOPE SAFETY FACTOR

Anggun Mayang Sari and Arifan Jaya Syahbana G5-1

EARTHQUAKE INDUCED LANDSLIDE ON NEARLY SATURATED ZONE OF SCORIA AT

PADANG PARIAMAN, WEST SUMATRA
R. Karlinasari, D. K. Andiany and P. Rahardjo G6-1

H. STABILITY OF DAMS AND EMBANKMENT

A BACK STABILITY ANALYSIS OF AN EARTH DAM THAT FAILED AFTER THE FIRST FILLING
Raúl Flores Berrones, Víctor Hugo Alcocer Yamanaka and José Alfredo González Verdugo H1-1

vi
PREDICTION OF FAILURE OF SMALL EARTH-FILL DAMS BY HEAVY RAIN
A. Kobayashi, K. Yamamoto and Y. Tsukada H2-1

MODELING EROSION AND LANDSLIDES AS SEDIMENT SOURCES TO ASSESS DAM SILTATION

D. Brambilla, L. Longoni and M. Papini H3-1

REHABILITATION OF DOWNSTREAM SLOPE OF EARTH DAM DUE TO WETTING

D. Djarwadi H4-1

RISKS OF HIGH EMBANKMENTS ON STEEP SLOPES

Andreas Brandner H5-1

SEEPAGE ANALYSIS OF PT. FREEPORT INDONESIA TAILING EMBANKMENT

Ratna Dewi, Yulia Hastuti and Danar Kharisma Utama H6-1
SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS OF PT. FREEPORT TAILING EMBANKMENT
Yulia Hastuti, Ratna Dewi and Paisal Al Raza H7-1

I. NUMERICAL AND PHYSICAL MODELLING FOR SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS

A NEW PHYSICAL MODELING APPROACH TO ANALYZE SLOPE STABILITY FOR SHALLOW

LANDSLIDE ASSESSMENT
Z. Yousaf, T. Lebourg and D. Provitolo I1-1

CENTRIFUGE MODEL TESTS AND NUMERICAL ANALYSES OF SLOPE REINFORCED BY ROCK

BOLT WITH FACING PLATE
S. Nakamato and J. Takemura I2-1

FUNDAMENTAL STUDY ON APPLICATION OF CAPILLARY BARRIER FOR SLOPE FAILURE

PREVENTION
Shunya Kobashi, Keigo Koizumi, Keiji Sakuradani, Kazuhiro Oda, Masashi Takemoto
and Adrin Tohari I3-1

STABILITY ANALYSIS OF SLOPES IN NILGIRIS DISTRICT OF TAMILNADU, INDIA USING

STRENGTH REDUCTION TECHNIQUE
V. Senthilkumar, S. S. Chandrasekaran and V. B. Maji I4-1

AN ADVANCED TWO-DIMENSIONAL FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS APPLIED IN PILE-

STABILIZED SLOPES
I-Hsuan Ho I5-1

SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS REGARDING RAINFALL-INDUCED LANDSLIDES BY COUPLING

SATURATED-UNSATURATED SEEPAGE ANALYSIS AND RIGID PLASTIC FINITE ELEMENT
METHOD
Yu. Ando, Kentaro. Suda, Shinji Konishi and Hirokazu. Akagi I6-1

EFFECT OF DEWATERING IN SLOPE STABILIZATION: OBSERVATIONS FROM EARTHERN

DYKE, SOFT ROCK SLOPE AND HARD ROCK SLOPE
Sukanya Chakraborti I7-1

2D AND 3D FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS AND GEOTECHNICAL MONITORING FOR SLOPE

STABILITY ASSESSMENT OF CIHERANG BRIDGE ABUTMENT
Santoso P. C. S., Nandya D., Wirawan A., Sugianto A. and Rahardjo P. P. I8-1

vii
3D FINITE ELEMENT MODELING OF SLOPE FAILURES DUE TO FILL PLACEMENT ON SOFT
SOILS BEHIND BRIDGE ABUTMENT
Wirawan, A., Handoko, A. and Rahardjo, P. P. I9-1

J. BIO-ENGINEERING AND OTHER TECHNIQUES FOR SLOPE STABILIZATION

GEOENVIRONMENTAL AND BIOENGINEERING IMPACTS ON GROUND TERRAIN MOVEMENTS

D. C. Wijeyesekera and E. W. K. Loh J1-1

FINITE ELEMENT MODELING OF LIGHT-WEIGHT SLOPE BIO-STABILIZATION AND ITS EFFECT

ON STABILITY OF HILL SLOPES
S. Gugan Vignesh and Pradeep Kumar R. J2-1

LIVE POLE TECHNIQUE AS A SLOPE SAFETY PREPAREDNESS FOR EFFECTS OF CLIMATE

CHANGE
Bujang B. K. Huat, Afshin Asadi and Mohammad Hamed Fasihnikoutalab J3-1

LANDSLIDE IN THE PHILIPPINES: ASSESSING THE ROLE OF BIOENGINEERING AS AN

EFFECTIVE ALTERNATIVE MITIGATION TECHNIQUE
A. Indelicato J4-1

K. USE OF PILES, SOIL NAILING AND GROUND ANCHORS FOR LANDSLIDE CONTROL
AND SLOPE STABILITY

CASE STUDY OF SLOPE PROTECTION MEASURES BY SHOTCRETE FRAME AND GROUND

ANCHOR IN INDONESIA
Hisashi Tanaka, Msahide Tanaka and Susilarto K1-1

SLOPE STABILITY MEASURE FOR BASEMENT EXCAVATION, A CASE STUDY OFFICE

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION IN BANDUNG
Sugianto, A. and Cindarto Lie K2-1

STABILIZATION OF NAINITAL LANDSLIDE BY SOIL NAILING – A CASE STUDY

Satyendra Mittal K3-1

EFFECT OF BORED PILE ON SLOPE STABILITY

Asriwiyanti Desiani and Daud Rahmat Wiyono K4-1

CASE STUDY ON THE EXCAVATION STABILITY AT NEAR EXISTING PILE FOUNDATION

Joko Sudirman N. S. K5-1

L. CASE HISTORIES ON LANDSLIDES

STABILITY ANALYSIS OF SLOPES SUPPORTING THE WORLD’S HIGHEST RAILWAY BRIDGE

G. Madhavi Latha and V. Padmavathi L1-1

LANDSLIDE EVIDENCE PROBLEM SOLVING ON NATIONAL ROAD BANDUNG – JAKARTA AT

KM 18+000 IN CILOTO – PUNCAK PASS REGIONS
Eddie Sunaryo Munarto, Hery Vaza and Rudy Febrijanto L2-1

SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS OF TONJONG NATIONAL ROAD, CENTRAL JAVA PROVINCE

Hedy Rahardian and Hendarto L3-1

viii
LIMESTONE STRIP AS REMEDIAL MEASURES OF A LANDSLIDES IN EXPANSIVE CLAY,
A CASE STUDY
Eddy Triyanto Sudjatmiko L4-1

FAILURE OF BRIDGE ABUTMENT EMBANKMENT ON SOFT SOIL A CASE STUDY IN LAMPUNG,

SOUTH SUMATRA
Cindarto Lie and Djoko Koestijanto L5-1

ANALYSIS OF SOIL CEMENT MATERIAL TO SLOPE STABILIZATION ON ACCESS ROAD OF

JATIBARANG DAM PROJECT
Abdul Hakim L6-1

MECHANISM AND COUNTERMEASURE IN PENGALENGAN LANDSLIDE, WEST JAVA

Toshiaki Hosoda, Aris Handoko and Paulus P. Rahardjo L7-1

M. LANDSLIDES MONITORING AND EARLY WARNING SYSTEM

PROPOSED EARLY WARNING SYSTEM OF SLOPE FAILURE BY MONITORING CHANGES IN

MULTI-POINT TILT AND VOLUMETRIC WATER CONTENT
Wang Lin, Uchimura Taro, Towhata Ikuo, Nishie Shunsaku, Eto Ippei, Tao Shangning and Su Ling M1-1

LANDSLIDE MONITORING AND SLIP SURFACE ESTIMATION BY GEOMETRICAL APPROACH

CASE STUDY: CILOTO-PUNCAK, WEST JAVA
Hasanuddin Z. A., Vera Sadarviana, Irwan G., Dudy D. W. and Achmad R. T. M2-1

BANK EROSION AND INSTABILITY MONITORING WITH A LOW COST TERRESTRIAL LASER
SCANER
D. Brambilla, L. Longoni and M. Papini M3-1

CHARACTERIZATION OF SOIL CHEMICAL PROPERTIES FOR STABLE AND UNSTABLE SLOPE

AS HAZARD MONITORING RATING SYSTEM FOR SHALLOW SLOPE FAILURE
Rashidi Othman, Mohd Shah Irani Hasni, Ruhul ‘Izzati Shaharuddin and Noor Shakilah Mhd Radzi M4-1

THE POTENTIAL OF SOIL COLOR PROPERTIES TO PREDICT SHALLOW SLOPE FAILURE IN

NORTH-SOUTH HIGHWAY SLOPE, MALAYSIA
Rashidi Othman, Mohd Shah Irani Hasni, Ruhul ‘Izzati Shaharuddin and Zainul Mukrim Baharuddin M5-1

LANDSLIDE PROCESSES MODELING, MONITORING AND RISK REDUCTION

Valentina Svalova M6-1

N. LANDSLIDE MAPPING, RISK ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT

COMPARING SINMAP LANDSLIDE SUSCEPTIBILITY MODELS IN THE Río EL ESTADO, SW

FLANK OF PICO DE ORIZAVA VOLCANO, MEXICO
Gabriel Legorreta Paulin, Fernando Aceves Quesada, Juan Umana Romero and Hector Alfredo Legoreta
Cuevas N1-1

MANAGING AND ASSESING LANDSLIDE RISK INCLUDING THE CONSEQUENCES

Ferry Haryono and Budijanto Widjaja N2-1

REGIONAL SLOPE STABILITY ASSESSMENT OF TAWANGMANGU DISTRICT, CENTRAL JAVA

(INDONESIA)
D. Sarah, K. Sugianti and H. Lestiana N3-1

ix
OVERVIEW OF LANDSLIDE EXPERIENCE IN WEST SUMATRA IN 2012-2014
A. Hakam, B. Istijono and Sarbaini N4-1

MAP OF SUSCEPTIBILITY ZONE OF LANDSLIDE IN BALIKPAPAN EAST KALIMANTAN

PROVINCE AS ASPECTS OF DISASTERS IN DEVELOPING AREA
Herry Purnomo Suranta, Kristianto, Gede Suantika, Nana Rukmana and Gasit N5-1

O. CAPACITY BUILDING AND LANDSLIDE EDUCATION FOR COMMUNITY RESILIENCE

ARATOZAWA MASSIVE LANDSLIDE, KURIHARA. MIYAGI PREF, JAPAN – AN IDEA TO THE

LANDSLIDE GEO-PARK
Toyohiko Miyagi, Hidekazu Sato, Misao Sato and Rie Nakagawa O1-1

x
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERFRONT LANDSLIDES

INDUCED BY EARTHQUAKES

Kenji Ishihara 1

ABSTRACT: The earthquake-induced landslide near the shore takes a form of massive
lateral flow of soil mass into the sea or a form of general landslide. It has also been
known that, no matter which form it may take, the land movement is more or less
associated with occurrence of liquefaction in sandy deposits. Apart from this, there are
several topographical and depositional features inherent to the waterfront landsliding. In
order to address issues of geotechnical importance, four cases of coastal slides are
introduced herein, which took place in recent earthquakes since 1964. The features
common to all of these events will be highlighted and summarized in this paper.

Keywords: Landslide, case studies, coastal slide, liquefaction, earthquake, lateral flow, sand deposit, settlement

INTRODUCTION b. Many of the slides in the waterfront are known

The landslide could take place on land under
terrestrial conditions and also under water in
submarine environments. The features and conditions
under which the terrestrial landslide could occur have
been addressed and studied extensively by many re-
searchers in various disciplines. The submarine
landslide has recently become a target of urgent
investigations in conjunction with installation of
submarine pipelines or cables. It has been known that
the submarine landsliding is characterized by the
huge mass of soils tending to run a long distance
perhaps in a form of slurry and its deleterious effects
are feared once it is triggered.
On the other hands, little attention has been paid
to geotechnical issues arising from what might be
termed “Waterfront landslide”, “Coastal landslide”,
or “Seashore landslide” which is a phenomenon in
between the terrestrial slide and submarine slide. The
features of the waterfront slide may be envisioned, as
follows, in terms of sedimentary and topographical
characteristics.
a. A majority of landslides in coastal lands and in
the area of port and harbour take place during
earthquakes. Seldom has the waterfront
landsliding been induced by causes other than
earthquake. Thus, the generic cause of the
sliding can be cited as the earthquake, whether
it exerts direct impact due to inertia force or it
generates indirect effects via liquefaction.
to have taken place in the area of Holocene fan
deposits. The deposits have been formed at the
mouth of canyons or at the edge of the flood
plains as a result of transfer of earth materials
by flooding of river channels. The ground is
comprised of alternate layers of loosely
deposited silt, sand and gravel and thus
vulnerable to liquefaction in the event an
earthquake hits these areas.
c. The submerged portion at the edge of the
deposits is generally more susceptible to
liquefaction and easily leads to landslide or
lateral spreading. The runout distance of the
sliding mass in the submerged portions is
generally known as becoming large in
resemblance to that in the submarine landslide.
Hence, the land portion behind the waterfront is
easily trapped in the slide due to the loss of
support at the toe and flows into water.
d. When the area of fan deposits is large in
expanse, the slide initiated in the submerged toe
could propagate backwards inland in which
numerous blocks of ruptured soil mass move in
sequence.
e. In some cases, small fan deposits in front of
steeply incised valley are involved in the
waterfront landslide. The slide does not
propagate largely into the backland, but patches
of coastal land are lost into the sea.

1
Professor Emiritus, Department of Civil Engineering, Chuo University, JAPAN

1-1
 In view of the importance of this type of landslide
giving rise to tremendous disaster to port and
industrial facilities, it is thought necessary to look
into this phenomenon more in depth and address
issues of engineering significance. It is the intention
of this paper to consider features and problems
common to the entire waterfront landslide and to
highlight its characteristics. It is hoped that this
aspect of the ground hazards will be investigated
more thoroughly from proper prospective and the
state-of-the-art established in its own context.
Figure 1. Area of Alaska Inflicted by the 1964
GROUND DISRUPTION AT SEWARD IN Earthquake
ALASKA EARTHQUAKE OF MARCH 27, 1964
The Alaska earthquake of March 27, 1964
occurred at 5:36 p.m. with its magnitude of
approximately 8.3 – 8.4. The location of the inflicted
region is indicated in Figure 1. Its epicenter was in
the northern part of the Prince William Sound area
and the focal depth was 20 – 50 km. The location of
the epicenter and areas of aftershocks are shown in
Figure 2. Seward, in south-central Alaska, was one of
the towns most devastated by earthquake and its
location is shown in an enlarged map in Figure 3.
The most part of Seward is built on an alluvial fan-
delta near the head of Resurrection Bay on the
southeast coast of the Kenai Peninsula. It is one of
the few ports in south-central Alaska that is ice free
all over the year, and the town’s economy was almost
entirely dependent upon its port facilities. Figure 2. Regions of Epicenters (Lemke, 1966)

Figure 3. Area of the Prince William Sound

1-2
 Strong ground motion at Seward lasted 3 – 4
minutes. During the shaking, a strip of land 30 –
150 m wide along the Seward waterfront slid into
Resurrection Bay, as a result of large-scale
submarine landsliding. Ruptures of the ground
propagated 2 – 3 hundred meters back from the
waterfront. Fountains and sand boils accompanied
by the ground fracturing were observed over the
area of the ground rupture. Slide-generated waves,
possibly seiche waves, and seismic sea wave were
seen crashing onto shore. Wave run-up over the
ground was as much as 10 m above the mean low
water and brought about tremendous damage to
docks and harbour facilities. Oil tanks, factories and
marshalling yards of the railroads were totally
destroyed as shown in Figure 4 and became a
tangled mass of wreckage. Fire from burning oil
tanks added to the destruction. Damage from strong
motion itself was comparatively minor. The
subsidence of about 1.0 m, occurred in low land
areas being inundated at high tide.
An oblique view of the southern part of Seward
before the quake is shown in Figure 5(a) where it
can be seen that the city had been developed on the
alluvial fan at the month of Lowell Creek Canyon
projecting into the Resurrection Bay on the east.
The fan-delta was formed by torrential-type
deposition from the canon on the west. Figure 5(b)
shows the city of Seward after the quake viewed
from the south where it can be seen that the water-
front area had been severely devastated by the
liquefaction and landslide. In fact, the breakwaters
in the north and in the south are seen disappearing
into the sea together with many other harbour
(a) View from the north before the quake (Seed, 1967)
Figure 5. Oblique view of Seward before and after the 1994 earthquake (Lemke, 1966)
facilities destroyed. The feature of the ground
disruption is shown more precisely in Figure 6 in
comparison to the map of the city prior to the 1964
earthquake. The city is approximately 2 km long in
the north-south direction and 0.8 km wide and rises
from the sea level to an altitude of 40 m at the
mouth of the can-yon. The southern part of the city
is composed mainly of the alluvial deltaic deposit
whereas the northern position consists of lagoon-
type soft soil deposit. It may be seen in Figure 5
that the distal end of the fan had slid seaward and a
strip of land 50 – 200 m wide disappeared into the
bay. The shoreline had receded more widely in the
lagoon area in the north. Fans and fan-deltas at the
valley mouths are purported to be composed chiefly
of loosely compacted and poorly sorted silt, sand,
and gravel. Layers of these deposits form broad
aprons having low gradients. The fan deposit is said
to have a thickness ranging from about 30 m to
possibly a hundred meter.
Figure 4. Damage in the area of railroad marshalling
yard in Seward (Lemke, 1966)
(b) View from the south after the quake (Seed, 1967)
1-3
 Figure 6. Maps of Seward before and after the 1964 earthquake

Sliding along the Seaward waterfront markedly COASTAL LANDSLIDE IN ADRIATIC SEA
deepened the water along the former shoreline. Post DURING 1979 MONTE NEGRO EARTHQUAKE
earthquake slopes of the bay floor immediately
A disastrous earthquake of magnitude 7.2 took
offshore also were steeper than those before the
place in Monte Negro, ex-Yugoslavia, at 7.20 a. m.
earthquake. The strong ground motion of the
April 15, 1979, affecting the widespread area along
earthquake triggered the landsliding, due probably
the coast of the Adriatic Sea from Croatia to the
to liquefaction of fine-grained materials. Sudden
northern part of Albania (see Figure 7). Its
drawdown of water, followed by the weight of
epicenter was located in the Adriatic Sea about 20
returning waves may have also added to severity of
km off the coast of Ulcinj and the focal depth was
destruction.
25 km, as indicated in Figure 8, where an
Submarine sliding at the northwest corner of the
isoseismic map of the intensity of shaking is also
bay occurred in fine-grained deltaic deposits whose
displayed (Petrovski and Paskalov, 1981). The
frontal slopes probably had been in metastable
maximum ground accelerations in three
equilibrium under static conditions. The materials
components recorded at several stations located
appear to have flow into the bay as heavy slurry.
along the Adriatic coast are indicated in Figure 9
Uplift pressures from aquifers under hydrostatic
(Ishihara, 1985).
head, combined with the probable liquefaction of
the sediments are likely to be the main causes of the
destruction (Lemke 1966).

1-4
 by liquefaction of layers of very fine grained sands
occurred at many locations along the banks as well
as over the delta of the Bojana River on the
Yugoslavia – Albania border. The town of Skadar
in Albania is reported to have been severely
damage due to the extensive development of
liquefaction (Anicic et al. 1980).

Figure 7. Map of Adriatic Sea

Among various type of damage to buildings and

infrastructures, the damage to the ground due to
liquefaction, slides in slopes and rockfalls in the
limestone mountains were notable. Indicated in
Figure 9 is the approximate boundary showing the
area of heaviest damage to the ground and slopes. It
may be seen that hardest hit was the littoral belt
zone about 15 km wide inland extending from
Ulcinj north to Herceg Novi, where the intensity of
shaking was 8 to 9 in the MCS scale with the
maximum horizontal ground acceleration greater
than approximately 220 gal. Figure 9. Area affected by the Monte Negro
Earthquake of April 15, 1979

Figure 10. Area of the ground damage in the

Figure 8. Isoseismic map of the intensity of
shaking at the time of the 1979 earthquake
The overall geological regime of the affected
zone is de-scribed as talus and fluvial deposits
underlaid by a kind of clay-stone called flysh and
by limestone constituting the bedrock in this region.
In the central area such as Budva, Petrovac and Bar
where the mountains rise sheer from the sea, the
soft soil deposit is absent and the flysh or limestone
formation outcrops directly on the ground surface.
In such regions, the ground damage occurred in a
limited area in proximity to the waterfront where
man-made landfills existed. In the southern most
region near Ulcinj, the damage to the ground and
mountain slopes was extensive. As indicated in
Figure 10, subsidence and lateral spreading caused
southern part
In the northern part around the inlet, the damage
was more or less associated with liquefaction of the
alluvial sand deposit along the coastline. The
locations of the ground damage are indicated more
in detail in Figure 11. In Kotor, the liquefaction
occurred extensively in the area of fan delta where
the quay-walls, hotels and parks were located.
Lateral displacement and settlements in the parking
lots between tiebacks and the quay-wall where of
the order of 50 cm in the quay area in Kotor.

1-5
 Figure 11. Area of coastal landsliding in Herceg-
Novi
An oblique view of Kotor inlet from the east is
shown in Figure 12. The center of the town had
developed on the alluvial fan delta composed of
layers of silt, sand and gravel. As shown in the
sketch of Kotor from the west in Figure 13, the
town was build at the mouth of steeply incised
canyon. The picture viewed from the west but at a
lower elevation is shown in Figure 14. The sinking
of the distal end portion of the land in Kotor is
apparently seen in Figure 14. Almost entire stretch
of beach in this area subsided about 50 cm into the
bay due to the coastal land-slides. Near the tip of
the fan deposit in Kotor, a monument in the park
tilted noticeably as shown in Figure 15.
Figure 12. An oblique view of Kotor town from the
east
Figure 13. A sketch of Kotor in 1571 viewed from
the west
1-6
Figure 14. Town of Kotor devastated by sinking
of the fan area after the earthquake; a view from
the same direction as that in Figure 13
In Kamerani a section of the coastal road slid
into the bay, as shown in Figure 16, due probably to
the liquefaction of the sand deposit. A peninsula
reportedly extended several tens of meters into the
bay at this location before the earthquake. The
feature of the slumping is roughly described in
Figure 17. A surveillance of part of the exposed
surface indicated that a man-made fill composed of
mixture of silt, sand and stone existed near the
ground surface. A sand-rich deposit reportedly
underlying this surface fill appears to have liquefied
and triggered the slide.
Figure 15. Tilting of a moment in Kotor
In Zelenica (see Figure 11), a quaywall
constructed of sand and gravel fills within a
masonry retaining wall failed, involving a
subsidence of an old two-story warehouse on a slab
foundation as shown in Figure 17. The retaining
wall in the area of soil failure was displaced about 2
m horizontally and a lesser amount vertically as
illustrated in Figure 18 and Figure 19. The most
seaward portion of the quay had reportedly slid into
the sea for a stretch of more than 100 m as
indicated in Figure 18.

Figure 16. Coastal slide at Kamerani
About 300 m inland from the warehouse
location, there was a primary school building which
also suffered a differential settlement of the order
of 10 cm. A boring made at the playground of the
school disclosed the existence of a sand deposit
down to a depth of 20 m having a SPT blow count
value of 5 to 10. Since the warehouse is located in
the area with the same depositional condition, it is
most likely that the liquefaction of the sand
underlying the quay had triggered the slide toward
the sea.
Figure 17. Landslide into the bay at Kamerani
In the town of Baosic further in the east (see
Figure 11), the alluvial fan deposit suffered the
landslide toward the sea and the land about 500 m
long and 50 m wide disappeared into the sea as
shown in Figure 20 and Figure 21 where trees are
seen perching on the debris under the sea. The
overall geological regime in the region of Herceg
Novi, Zelenica, Bijela, Kamemari, Kotor and Tivat
can be desribed as consisting of talus and fan
deposits underlaid by the base-rock, flysh and
limestone. This feature is schematically illustrated
in Figure 22.
The colluvial talus is composed of a gravel-rich
deposit near the foot of the limestone cliff, but its
composition changes coastward to sand-rich
sediment. Near the beach of the bay, actions of
small rivers and waves or currents of the seawater
had disturbed a clear pattern of the colluvial deposit.
Shown in Figure 22 is a schematic illustration for
the formation of the talus and fluvial deposits.
Figure 23 and Figure 24 show soil profile data
obtained from borings at two locations along the
coast of the bay. It may be recognized generally
that a loose sand deposit exists near the surface
down to a maximum depth of about 18 m. The
lower portion of the sand deposit contains fine-
grained materials such as clay and silt which had
probably been derived from weathering of the
outcrop of the claystone on land and deposited later
under the sea. The blow count values of the
standard penetration test obtained for the deposit at
Baosic and Bijela are also shown in Figure 23 and
Figure 24, where it may be seen that the sand is
deposited in a loose condition with N-values
ranging between 5 and 10. The sand around the bay
area was derived from the limestone and as such
has a reddish color. The grain size distribution
curves of the sand indicate the 0.45 that the
gradation is relatively uniform particle size ranging
from D50 = 0.15 to 0.45 mm.
Figure 18. Lateral movement and slumping of the
fills in the harbour at Zelenica
1-7
 The coastal landsliding in the area of Adriatic
Sea Coast during the Monte Negro Earthquake may
be characterized by the occurrence of landslides at
the waterfront in the areas of alluvial fan delta
deposits which had been developed at the mouth of
small rivers. The topographic feature of this
characteristic is illustrated schematically in Figure
25 and Figure 26.

Figure 19. A sketch of the cross section A-A’

showing the feature of damage behind the masonry
quaywall at Zelenica

Figure 20. Submergence of the land at Baosic

Figure 23. A typical soil profile at Baosic

Figure 21. Submergence of the land in Baosic

Figure 24. A typical soil profile at Bjela

Figure 22. Talus and fluvial deposits in the region

along the Adriatic coast affected by the 1979
Monte Negro Earthquake

1-8

Figure 25. Topography of deltaic deposits having
sustained the coastal landslides
Figure 26. Costal landslide in the fan-delta
deposits
Figure 27. Location of Flores Island in Indonesian Archipelago
COASTAL LANDSLIDE IN ADRIATIC SEA
DURING 1979 MONTE NEGRO EARTHQUAKE
Flores Island is a narrow and long-stretched
island 20 – 70 km wide and 360 km in length which
is located in the Indonesian Archipelago, where the
Indo-Australian plate subsides, as indicated in
Figure 27, towards the north underneath the Asian
plate. The Island was stricken by an earthquake
registering a magnitude of 7.5 (Ms) on December
12, 1992. The epicenter was located about 40 km
northwest of Maumere, Flores Island as indicated in
the map of Figure 28. Following the earthquake, a
Japanese team of reconnaissance was sent to the
inflicted area. The following is an excerpt from the
report by the Japan International Cooperation
Agency (JICA). The northern coast of the island
was devastated by the tsunami with a maximum
inundation height of 3.7 m, leading to the total
number of causalities of 2080, and destruction of
buildings and public facilities due to the ground
rupture caused by liquefaction.
1-9
 Among several cities inflicted, Maumere was widespread occurrence of the lateral spreading of
the one worst hit by the strong shaking and the ground.
consequent invasion by the Tsunami. Location of
the city is shown in Figure 28. Liquefaction has
also developed extensively in the flat coastal areas,
bringing about serious damage to port facilities,
houses and roads. Shown in Figure 29 is an
enlarged map of the Maumere city. The buildings
constructed of brick masonry with the timber roofs
covered by clay tiles or tines were severally
damaged in the central area of the city. The
buildings along the coastal area were tilted and
destroyed by the ground ruptures due to
liquefaction and lateral spreading of the foundation
soils. Figure 28. Location of the epicenter of the 1992
earthquake and city of Maumere
Of particular importance was the overall
movement of the ground towards the sea in the
alluvial fan area which is situated near the mouth of
the river in the city of Maumere. It is purported that
as a result of the widespread ground fractures, the
settlement as much as 1 – 2 m have taken place in
the coastal zone about 200 m wide and 1 km long,
accompanied by the lateral spreading on the order
of a few meters. The bird-eye-view over the area of
the ground rupture is shown in Figure 30. On the
ground, destruction of houses near the port are
shown in Figure 31 indicating the subsidence and
consequent inundation of the seawater. Many
echelons of cracks were observed developing on
pavements of the roads along the shore and over the
residential area, as shown in Figure 32, witnessing Figure 29. City of Maumere

Figure 30. Bird-eye view of Maumere city (Kawashima)

1-10

Figure 31. Destruction of houses near the port and
inundation of water in the waterfront area of
Maumere city
Figure 32. Ruptures of pavements near the beach at
Maumere city (Kawashima)
Following the earthquake, in-situ soil
investigation were conducted by the Japan
International Cooperation Agency. Exact locations
of the boring in the city of Maumere are shown in
Figure 33. Some of the soil profiles obtained in this
investigation are shown in Figure 34. Looking over
Figure 33. Locations of boring in the city of Maumere (Kawashima)
the whole data, one can recognize that the ground
consists predominantly of sand containing some
amount of silts and gravels. The soil profile at the
place B-11 indicated that the sandy deposit near the
mouth of the river is loose to a depth of about 20 as
exemplified by small blow count values of the
Standard Penetration Test (SPT) on the order of 2
to 10. At other locations along the coast such as
point B-5, B-6, B-7, B-15, all the soil profiles are
identified to be similar having the ground water
table located at a depth of about1.5 m. This
situation indicates that the silty sands developed
liquefaction at the time of the 1992 earthquake and
consequently the ground moved towards the sea in
the belt zone along the coast as accordingly
indicated in Figure 30. The ground conditions in the
area about 1 km inland from the coast is
represented by the soil profile at point B-12, where
it can be seen that, while the silty sand deposits are
still loose with the SPT N-value of the order of 10,
the ground water table is located at a depth of 12.5
m, precluding the possibility of developing
liquefaction in this area. In fact, as known from the
contour lines in Figure 35, the area at B-12 has an
altitude of 15 m above the sea level and hence the
ground water level is sufficiently low.
It is likely that the lateral flow of the deposits
upon liquefaction took place in the belt zone near
the coast where the altitude is less than about 5 m
with the ground water table located
correspondingly at shallow depths near the ground
surface.
1-11

In order to visualize the feature of the lateral
spreading, an approximate soil profile is drawn and
displayed in Figure 35, based on the boring data
obtained at two locations, B-11 and B-12, which
are located along the alignment perpendicular to the
coastal line. At the location B-11 near the
waterfront, sandy soils are identified to be prone to
liquefaction to a depth of about 20 m as seen in
Figure 34 and consequently, the lateral flow might
have taken place through the soil deposit down to
this depth. At the location, B-12, about 800 m
inland from the coast, the loose deposits of sandy
soils exist in the stratum above the ground water
table but the sediment underneath is shown to have
a relatively high SPT N-value precluding the
possibility of liquefaction. Therefore, the
liquefaction is considered not to have occurred at
this location. Looking at the profiles of the soil
Figure 34. Soil profiles at locations in the city of Maumere
1-12
sediment in Figure 34, with the soil strata at points
B-5, B-6, B-7, B-11 and B-15, one may recognize
that the alluvial fan deposit formed by the river
flow at its mouth consists of loose sediments of
sand and silt which are generally susceptible to
liquefaction due to the seismic shaking of the order
of 250 gal purported to have occurred at Maumere
at the time of the 1992 earthquake.
This ground condition is a feature common to
the cases of Seward and Adriatic coasts where
waterfront landslides took place as illustrated in the
preceding sections. Thus, once again the areas of
alluvial fan deposits with such geomorphological
characterizations are deemed to be possessed of a
potential to induce liquefaction and activate ground
movement towards the sea, bringing about
considerable devastation to structures and facilities
constructed on or in such deposits.
 Figure 35. Soil profile across the coastal line in the center of Maumere city

GROUND LOSS IN IZMIT BAY, TURKEY, 200 to 300 m from the coast is considered to be
DURING 1999 KOCAELI EARTHQUAKE coincident with the westward extension of the fault
line manifested on lands in the area east of Izmit as
On August 17, 1999, an earthquake of a
indicated in Figure 37.
magnitude 7.4 rocked the long-stretched area
Most of the loss of the coastal land took place in
between Izmit and Duce in Turkey along the North
the fan deposits at the mouth of small rivers
Anatolian Fault Line. The epicenter of the quake
streaming out of canyons between mountains
named Kocaeli Earthquake was located about 60
behind the bay shore. In the fan deposit illustrated
km east of Istanbul as shown in Figure 36. This
in Figure 38, loose sediments of sand, silt and
earthquake brought about catastrophic damage to
gravel exist in alternative layers whereby forming
buildings and public facilities particularly in the
relatively steeps slopes under the sea. The
area of cities such as Izmit, Adapazari and Duzce.
topographic and depositional characteristics in the
One of the features to be noticed was the loss of
fan deposit as above appears to contribute to the
land into the sea along the southern shore of the
formation of unstable structures of the soil strata
Izmit Bay as shown in Figure 37. This was caused
which are prone to liquefaction and consequent
by movement and sinking of huge amount of near
flow slide during earthquakes.
surface soil mass into the sea. It would appear that
At the time of the Kocaeli Earthquake, patches
the submergence of the land was caused by
of land at the mouth of small rivers were chopped
landslide to-wards the sea which was triggered by
off and disappeared into the sea. Figure 38 shows a
distortion of seabed deposits due probably to the
series of small towns along the coast where such
fault movement. In fact, the off-shore line about
loss of land had taken place.

Figure 36. The area affected by the Kocaeli Earthquake of August 17, 1999
(The number indicated the peak acceleration recorded.)

1-13
 Figure 37. Area of coastal landslides in the southern shore of Izmit Bay

In the city of Degirmendere west of Golcuk, the

coastal land about 300 m long and 75 m wide was
chopped away into the sea as displayed in Figure 39.
There had been a coffee house and a hotel and
bathing beach in the area of the land loss before the
earthquake, and several people were swallowed in
Figure 38. Alluvial fan deposit projecting into the
sea the coastal landslide. The oblique view of
Degirmendere from the bay side is shown in Figure
40.

Figure 39. Submerged area in the fan deposit at Degirmendere

1-14

Figure 40. The oblique view of Degirmendere from
the north
Figure 41. Locations of fault line and land submergence in Degirmendere
Figure 42. Configuration of the seabed before and
after the quake (Degirmendere)
It can be seen in figure that the configuration of
the sea-bed after the quake had changed drastically
as compared to that prior to the quake. This appears
to indicate that a landslide must have taken place
under the sea thereby taking away a huge mass of
soils from the coastal land area. It may be seen that
the sliding along the waterfront markedly deepens
the water near the shoreline. As inferred from the
fault line extension indicated in Figure 41, the fault
Following the earthquake, depth of water was
measured by means of an ultrasonic device along a
cross section perpendicular to the coastal line
(Towhata et. al., 2001). Location of measurement is
shown in Figure 41. Exact distance from the shore
was monitored by means of GPS. The outcome of
the measurement is demonstrated in Figure 42,
together with depth measured prior to the
earthquake. The depth of water before the quake
was obtained from the published map showing
contour lines of equal water depths. The beach line
in Figure 42 along the coast before the quake was
identified with reference to accounts of local
eyewitnesses.
is considered to run east to west at the location
about 350 m off the coast. This distance is
coincident with the distance shown in Figure 42
where the water depth after the quake becomes
approximately equal to that before the event. The
bayshore at Degirmendere had been formed by the
fluvial action of the small river discharging into the
Izmit Bay from the steep mountain about 200 m
behind the city. As inferred from the map in Figure
43, this is the topography typical of that in fan
deposits. Thus, it may be mentioned that the fan
deposit formed near the month of a river is
potentially possessed of the risk to fail during
earthquakes due to liquefaction and consequent
flow side toward the sea.
Similar waterfront slide took place in the fan
deposit at Halidere about 5 km west of
Degirmendere (see Figure 37). The area of
submergence about 150 m long and 40 m wide is
1-15
displayed in Figure 43. The bird-eye view from the
north is shown in Figure 44. Similar measurements
of water depth were carried out in two cross section
in Halidere shown in Figure 43. The Section 1
passes through the mouth of a small river across the
city, and Section 2 is located east of the city where
there was no loss of coastal land. The results of
water depth measurement are displayed in Figure
46.
Figure 43. Location of land submergence in
Halidere
Figure 44. The bird-eye view over Halidere from
the north
It may be seen that the end point of the
submarine slide is located farther than 150 m from
the shore, connoting that the fault line may be
located in the seabed more than 150 m offshore. It
is seen in the cross section Halidere 2 that the
seafloor deepen steeply immediately offshore as
compared to the slope before the quake. This would
indicate that the underwater landslide had taken
place during the earthquake although there was no
visible land loss at this location. In the cross section
Halidere 2, the depth of submarine slide in the
seafloor is inferred to be about 10 m on the average,
whereas the slide in the Section 1 involved the soil
movement to a depth about 20 m. From the above
observation, it may be noted that the removal of a
huge mass of soils from the coastal land was caused
1-16
by a large-scale submarine slide where the sliding
plane was as deep as 20 m beneath the original sea
bottom.
Figure 45. Configuration of the seabed before and
after the quake at Halidere
Figure 46. Configuration of the seabed before and
after the quake at Halidere
CONCLUSIONS
Four cases of waterfront landslides induced by
earthquakes were introduced in the preceding
section in order to address issues of geotechnical
importance in conjunction with maintaining safety
and integrality of facilities in ports, roads and
buildings. The features common to all the cases
cited may be summarized as follows.
1) The alluvial fan delta projecting into the sea
in generally composed of strata of loosely
deposited silt, sand and gravel and has a
potential to generate liquefaction and
consequent lateral flow. Sometimes, the
phenomenon takes a form of massive
movement of soil mass towards the sea or
coastal landslide. The slide in Seward is a
typical example of such disaster.
2) Even though the fan delta is not projecting
into the sea, the land movement could take
place due to liquefaction of the deposits, as is
the case with Maumere in Flores Island. In
such a situation, no clear-cut loss of coastal
land is observed near the distal edge of the
deposit but because of the lateral movement
and concurrent subsidence of the land, a large
portion of the coastal area becomes
submerged.
 3) Even if fan delta is small in scale, the slopes
of the bay floor immediately offshore are
generally steep and, therefore, the submarine
slopes near the shoreline are susceptible to
sliding in the event an agitation is given by an
earthquake. The delta fans along the Izmit
Bay in Turkey and Kotor or Baosic in Monte
Negro were all small with many streamlets
discharging from the hills behind. Small
towns have developed recently in such fan
delta with additional land space created by
reclamation. This situation appears to
endanger the safety of land conservation
against earthquakes.
4) The land loss in Turkey appears to be
associated more with the fault triggered near-
shore submarine landslide rather than with the
shaking-induced liquefaction occurring in the
fan deposit itself. Thus, wherever there is a
potential for developing fault rupture offshore,
there would be a risk to sustain the land loss
due to the submarine landslide.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
In preparing the manuscript, the boring data and
the report on Flores Island, Indonesia, earthquake in
1992 were offered by Professor K. Kawashima of
Tokyo Institute of Technology on behalf of the
Japan International Cooperation Agency. The
report on Alaska Earthquake in 1964 was provided
by Professor T. Kokusho, Chuo University. The
author wishes to express his deep thanks to them.
Lemke, R.W. (1966). “Effects of the Earthquake of
March 27, 1964 at Seward, Alaska,” Geological
Survey Professional Paper 542-E.
Petrovski, J. and Paskalov, T. (1981). “The Monte
Negro, Yugoslavia Earthquake of April 15,
1979,” Institute of Earthquake Engineering and
Engineering Seismology, University of Kiril and
Methodij, Stopje, Yugoslavia.
Seed, H.B. (1967). “Soil Stability Problems Caused
by Earthquakes,” Report of Soil Mechanics and
Bituminous Materials Rearch Laboratory,
Department of Civil Engineering, University of
California.
Takaganov, K. and Aleksovski (1984). “Soil
Stability and Urban Design Case Study,” Proc.
8th World Conference on Earthquake
Engineering, San Francisco, Vol. 3, pp 453-460.
Towhata, I., Ishihara, K. Kiku, H., Shimizu, Y.,
Horie, Y. and Irisawa, T. (2001). “Submarine
Slides and Land Settlements in Coastal Areas
during Kocaeli Earthquake, Lessons Learned
from Recent Strong Earthquakes,” Proc.
Satellite Conference on Earthquake
Geotechnical Engineering, pp. 71-76.
Wood, F.J. (1966). “The Prince William Sound,
Alaska, Earthquake of 1964 and Aftershocks,”
U.S. Department of Commerce, Vol. 1.

REFERENCES
Berg, G.V. and Stratta, J.L. (1966). “Anchorage
and the Alaska Earthquake of March 27, 1964,”
American Iron and Steel Institute, pp 60.
Berz, D., Boore, G., Bouwkamp, D., Hakenbeck, J.,
McGuire, U., Sims, R. and Wieczorek, G.
(1980). “Reconnaissance Report, Monte Negro,
Yugoslavia Earhquake April 15, 1979,”
Earthquake Engineering Research Institute
Berkeley, California.
Ishihara, K. (1985). “Stability of Natural Deposits
during Earthquakes,” Proc, 11th International
Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering, San Francisco, Vol. 2, pp 321-376.
Ishihara, K., Erken A. and Kiku, J. (2000).
“Geotechnical Aspects of the Ground Damage
Induced by the Fault,” Proc. 3rd Japan-Turkey
Workshop on Earthquake Engineering, Istanbul
Technical University, pp 1-8.

1-17
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

THE EARLY WARNING TECHNOLOGY OF LANDSLIDE DISASTER

MITIGATION; IMPLICATIONS OF RAIN-INDUCED SLOPE FAILURE IN A
VOLCANIC ISLAND OF IZU OSHIMA
I. Towhata 1, S. Goto 2, G. Wang 3 and T. Akima 4

ABSTRACT: A heavy rainfall of 800 mm in one night triggered a significant slope

failure in a volcanic island of Izu Oshima, south of Tokyo, on October 16, 2013. This
disaster induced a debris flow and claimed 39 lives in midnight. The authors have been
engaged in a comprehensive study on the damage mechanism and have made several
important findings as well as further difficulties to achieve more safety. In addition to
the vulnerability to the extraordinary magnitude of rainfall, the affected slope was
characterized by interbedding layers of both highly and less permeable materials as
formed by repeated eruptions in the past. The interbedding allowed ground water to
flow through and the water was ejected to the surface, thereby triggering failure of the
surface deposits. This mechanism deserves more attention because the current slope-instability analysis does not
consider such a mechanism of failure. Another point of concern is that the lava layer is not so water-tight as
often imagined. It seems that, for hundreds of years in the past, rain water has been seeping into underlying
media and did not inundate the slope, thus allowing no slope failure for a long time. The precipitation in 2013
was too strong for the entire rain water to flow through the lava and therefore a huge slope failure occurred.
After the disaster, the biggest concern was the possibility of further slope failure during the next heavy rain
because many parts of the slope still remained at the top of the mountain slope. Borehole data was analyzed to
shed light on this and it was concluded that the failure in 2013 occurred in the part of the slope where the lava
layer was deep and there was a thick deposit of soft surface soil. Because the remaining slope is of shallow lava
depth, further slope failure is considered to be unlikely. From the viewpoint of people’s safety, on the other hand,
early warning and evacuation are certainly one of the best ideas. However, the present case demonstrated the
difficulty and associating danger in evacuation during midnight heavy rain. Thus, very early evacuation or
vertical evacuation have to be considered more seriously.

Keywords: Volcano, slope failure, heavy rain, early warning

INTRODUCTION is hence a discussion on the risk of locally

The problem of slope instability has been one of the
most important topics to be studied in the history of
geotechnical engineering and applied geology. The
achievements in the past decades consist of field
investigation technologies, assessment of failure
mechanism and extent of risk, such stabilization
technologies as drainage and anchorage, and
numerical methods. Nevertheless, the types of slope
hazards are increasing as well.
In the recent times, climate change or global
warming are attracting the universal concern. There
concentrated heavy rainfall and one of the
consequences of possible local heavy rain is the
slope failure that occurs suddenly in an unprepared
area. Another problem is the uncontrolled
sprawling of urban area which is a consequence of
growth of mega cities. Residential development in
most mega cities is driven by people’s desire for
comfortable living conditions and convenience for
their occupation. What is missing there is not only
the insufficient provision of public transportation
and sanitary condition, which is often the case in
many countries, but also the lack of preparedness

1
Visiting Professor, Kanto Gakuin University, towhata.ikuo.ikuo@gmail.com, JAPAN
2
Associate Professor, Yamanashi University, goto@yamanashi.ac.jp, JAPAN
3
Research Associate, DPRI (Kyoto University), wanggh@landslide.dpri.kyoto-u.ac.jp, JAPAN
4
Senior Engineer, Fudo-Tetra Corporation, takeshi.akima@fudotetra.co.jp, JAPAN

2-1
for natural disasters. The insufficient preparedness (L3) Warnings are issued with a regional scale,
is causing more and more problems universally due stating that the probability of slope disaster
to the growth of residential area, whether or not the is high in a region of tens of kilometers in
problem of global warming has already been size.
significant enough to increase rains and affect slope
Because of these limitations, the authors
stability.
recognize that a different kind of early warning is
A common problem in disaster mitigation for
needed to address safety of individual houses. Note
residential areas is the shortage of funding. Because
that the present paper does not blame the current
the residential land is owned by individuals, it is
practice of rainfall-based warning for the safety of
difficult for the public sectors to spend money for
regions. It is thought that a different approach has
private safety. Because the residential land is not so
to be developed for the safety of individual families.
important in national economy as major railways
This idea is particularly important nowadays
and bridges, the incentive for the public sectors to
because early warning is required to be issued to
spend money is low. As a consequence, “hard”
smaller regions.
slope stabilization measures such as retaining walls
and ground anchors are not implemented SLOPE DISASTER IN IZU OSHIMA ISLAND
sufficiently in residential areas and this situation
will not be improved in near future. Izu Oshima is an active volcanic island that has
been erupting many times in the recent centuries.
IMPORTANCE OF SOFT SAFETY MEASURES Its central mountain is called Mihara Yama. In
October, 2013, a strong typhoon caused heavy
The shortage of “hard” measures should be
rainfall in this island and the total precipitation
supported by “soft” measures that do not require
from the afternoon of October 15th to the morning
much funding. Then a question arises what soft
of 16th exceeded 820 mm. Consequently, a
measure is relevant. To protect life and property of
significant slope failure occurred in the western
residents from slope disasters during heavy rain, the
slope of the Mihara Mountain during midnight of
best solution seems to be relocation to safer places.
October 16th. The total number of victims was 39
However, local people do not generally accept this
with one missing.
idea because they may thereby lose income to
maintain their present life. This issue is understood
by supposing farmers who have to move to places
far from their agricultural land. A similar example
is fishermen who have to avoid future tsunami
disasters by moving to a high land. The first author
encountered a brick baker who wished to keep
living next to a flood-prone river channel because
his factory had to collect raw materials of brick
from the river bed. Thus, safety measure has to take
care of the future life of residents so that the
proposed measures are understood and practiced by
them. This is certainly a difficult task.
A common practice of soft measure employs
early warning that is based on rain fall record and
Figure 1. Location of Izu Oshima volcanic island
weather forecast. Efforts are being made to improve in Japan
the accuracy of weather forecast and to develop a
better correlation between rain fall time history and Figure 2 illustrates the failed slope as seen from
probability of slope failure in a concerned region. the bottom. Its upper part consists of many smaller
Despite them, there are several limitation in this failures that occurred basically in the surface 50 cm
rain-fall approach as what follows: or so (Figure 3). Those minor failures merged with
(L1) Effects of local geology and topography one another in the middle part of the slope, formed
(slope gradient) are out of scope. a huge debris flow, overtopped one ridge and hit a
(L2) Often rain fall intensity is predicted with a human habitation at the bottom. Although such a
scale of km or more, which is much longer debris flow had been expected and attempted to
than the size of topographical units such as stop by many dams, the overtopping flow in 2013
valleys and ridges. came into an adjacent channel and attacked an

2-2
unprepared village. Even worse was that this middle part of the slope. The eroded soil increased
particular slope had not failed since volcanic ash the total volume of the mass movement and
deposited during the eruption in 1777, except a destroyed the residential area at the bottom (Figure
minor failure in an adjacent slope during a previous 6).
strong typhoon in 1958. Therefore, the local
community in 2013 was not prepared for a disaster
in this “stable” slope. It is interesting that the
typhoon in 1958 caused 400 mm of precipitation,
while, in 2013, the slope failed at around 2 PM
when the accumulated rainfall exceeded this past
maximum (Figure 3).

Figure 4. Situation at the top of the failed soil mass

Figure 2. Failed slope in Izu Oshima Island

Figure 5. Soil erosion in the middle of failed slope

Figure 3. Rainfall record during the 2013 disaster

Figure 4 reveals the situation at the top of the

failed slope. Evidently the thickness of the failed
soil is thin, being less than one meter. This small
thickness may imply a small scale of slope failure.
However, the real scale of the failure was much
Figure 6. Destroyed village at the bottom
greater (Figure 2) probably because the high
moisture content of the failed soil mass. Arrows in
DISCUSSION ON STRATIFICATION AND
Figure 4 indicates holes that were produced by
TOPOGRAPHY OF THE FAILED SLOPE
boiling of ground water. They may imply that the
ground water pressure was significantly high at the The surface stratification in the failed slope of
time of failure, leading to unexpectedly low factor the Mihara Yama Mountain is schematically
of safety as well as high water content of the failed illustrated in Figure 7. The slope consists of
soil mass. Consequently, the soil mass movement different kinds of material that were erupted during
was able to travel a long distance and exacerbated past activities of the volcano. The concerned
the disaster. Figure 5 indicates one of the materials are Aeolian deposits of ash, which is
consequences of the earth flow; soil erosion in the locally called loess and is less permeable than

2-3
others, scoria that is more pervious, and lava. It is
likely that more pervious layers formed water
channels in the slope through which rain water
flowed and was ejected out in the failed slope
(piping in Figure 4). This kind of failure
mechanism is different from what conventional
slope stability analysis assumes. The knick point in
Figure 7 is the place where a gentle slope in the
upper part is transformed to a steeper gradient in
the lower part and is considered to be the head of
the ongoing geomorphological process. It seems
Figure 8. Slip plane above the less pervious loess
therefore that the event in 2013 was a continuation
of this process in which the knick point proceeds
towards the top of the mountain.
Figure 8 illustrates that a layer of less
permeable soil is exposed after the surface material
was lost. Therefore, discussion has been made of
the effects of less pervious layer on slope instability
and a particular attention was paid on the role
played by the uppermost lava layer. Often, a lava
layer is intact and considered impervious. Figure 9
illustrates a simple slope instability analysis in
which the mass density of soil prior to water
submergence is 15 Mg/m3 and the friction angle of Figure 9. One-dimensional stability analysis on soil
the surface soil is 37.5 degrees according to the layer resting on impervious soil
conducted triaxial shear tests on remoulded
specimens. In the first attempt, the stable base layer BOREHOLES NEAR THE TOP OF THE FAILED
is assumed impervious. The slope angle was on SLOPE
average 30 degrees. Calculation on H = 1m
Two boreholes were drilled to study the
thickness of surface soil revealed that the factor of
stratification of surface soils and lava in both failed
safety, FOS, decreased with the rise of ground
and intact parts of the slope. Figure 10
water table and became less than unity when the
demonstrates the appearance of the collected cores.
water table exceeded the height (= depth of water)
Near the top of a slope failure (Figure 10a), the top
of 50 cm. This may suggest that the slope failure is
4 meters consists of granular (gravelly) materials
easy to occur if the total rainfall is sufficient to
which appear very pervious. From 4 m, there is a
saturate the lower half of the soil profile in this
one-meter layer of lave and then another gravelly
figure. Then a question arises why this slope did
layer and lava are found. In an intact part (Figure
not fail for more than 200 years in the past.
10b), the top 5.3 meters consists of gravelly
materials as well. Its significant difference from a
failed slope is the thickness of lava which continues
more than 3 meters. This difference may account
for the different behavior of failed and intact slopes.
Note that the “failed” site was located on the uphill
side of the head scarp and, strictly speaking, was
not situated inside the slope failure. No borehole
drilling was possible inside a slope failure.
Therefore, the present study assumes that the
subsurface stratification is very similar across the
head scarp. Another interesting feature is that lava
Figure 7. Stratification of a volcanic slope has many cracks (Figure 10). This does not mean
that the original lava was fractured like this. Most
of the breakage occurred during the drilling. There
was an opinion as a consequence that the
“impervious” lava layer held the infiltrated rain

2-4
water in the surface soil and that the shear failure in
the surface soil was made easy. To examine this
opinion, permeability tests were conducted at
several depths in one of the boreholes. It was found
then that the permeability coefficient, k, was more
or less 10-5 m/sec. Thus, lava was as pervious as
silty sand during the disastrous heavy rain.
(a) Immediately above the failed part
(b) In intact slope beside failed part
Figure 10. Appearance of borehole cores
collected from failed and intact parts of the slope
Figure 11. Model for seepage analysis on initiation
of submergence of surface soil
DISCUSSION ON LIMITED PERMEABILITY
OF UNDERLYING LAYER
Attention is focused on the fact that the
particular slope had not failed since the surface
volcanic soils deposited in the 18th Century. This
implies that this slope is more stable than the
discussion in the previous section hypothesized
(Figure 9). To shed more lights on the subsurface
condition, brief analyses were carried out by
referring to Figure 10.
Figure 11 illustrates a modeled situation. The
aim of the analysis is to show the condition that is
required to cause water submergence in the surface
soil that rests on a less pervious layer underneath.
As Figure 10 suggested, the surface soil is made of
gravelly materials that is highly pervious, while the
less pervious layer consists of lava whose
permeability coefficient is k = 10-5 m/s. It is
assumed that the surface soil and another pervious
layer under lava were relatively dry prior to the
heavy rain. Then rain water started to enter from
the surface and arrived at the bottom of the surface
layer. For the submergence to start thereinafter, the
flow of infiltrating water has to exceed the flow
through the less pervious lava layer. The amount of
flow through lava is approximately assessed by the
Darcy’s law of ki in which “k” is known and the
hydraulic gradient “i” is equal to unity. “i=1” is
approximately reasonable because the water surface
at the top of lava when submergence starts is
located at the lava surface as well, while there is no
water pressure at the bottom of lava. Thus, the
water flow through lava is given by
ki = 10-5 m3/s/m2 = 36 mm/h (1)
Submergence starts when water more than this
amount is provided from the surface. It is
interesting that the real failure occurred at 2AM
when the rainfall intensity exceeded 40 mm/h
(Figure 3), which is consistent with Eq. 1.
The stability analysis in Figure 9 suggested that
the factor of safety becomes less than unity when
the depth water (h) reached 0.5m. Then the total
amount water that filled the void among grains in
the bottom 0.5m of the surface soil is assessed by
h*e/(1+e) in which h = 500 mm and the void ratio
“e” is assumed to be in the range of 0.6 to 0.8.
Accordingly, the amount of water is 190 to 220mm.
If we can assume that 50% of rain water can enter
the surface soil, while another 50% will be surface
run-off, the needed rain water to trigger the slope
failure is 380 to 440 mm. This value is nearly equal
to the accumulated rainfall at around 2AM (Figure
3) when failure occurred. It is concluded therefore
that the failure of this slope was made possible by
such a rare rainfall as in 2013 in which both rainfall
intensity and its accumulation were as significant as
presented in Figure 3.
2-5
 A second analysis is made of the effects of mechanism of piping (Figure 7) can trigger the
piping (Figure 4) on the stability of surface soil. instability of surface soil within the recorded
Figure 7 suggests two kinds of situation. The first duration time of rainfall in Figure 3. The problem
idea is that the high pore pressure in the underlying in the present analysis is that time to achieve the
layer pushed water through an impervious layer specified he in the underlying soil is difficult to
into the surface soil and that slope failure was assess.
triggered. The second possibility is that the surface
soil disappeared due to the failure mechanism as
discussed above and that the disappearance of the
surface soil allowed ground water to come out. In
this section, therefore, the rate of upward water
flow through the impervious “lava” layer is studied.
Lava is focused on because drilled cores indicate
that the intact site had much thicker lava layer than
the failed part (Figure 10), suggesting a reinforcing
mechanism of the thick lava layer.
Figure 12 illustrate the model for analysis. High
water head, he, is provided externally by local Figure 12. Analysis on upward seepage through
impervious layer
hydrology (Figure 7). This he is assumed constant
with time, t, in the present analysis. The water
CROSS SECTION OF THE FAILED SLOPE
surface in the impervious layer rises as time passes,
and its elevation is designated by z. By assuming a Because the authors’ borehole data is limited,
linear variation of water head within the impervious more data was borrowed from the Tokyo
layer, the hydraulic gradient is given by i = he/z. Metropolitan Government who carried out a plenty
Hence, the water flux through this layer is obtained of borehole drilling and standard penetration tests
by after the disaster in order to reconstruct the
destroyed road in the slope. The locations of
he
Q = ki = k drilling are indicated in Figure 13. The red color
z (2) (shaded) indicates the failed slope. Note, however,
This water flux induces the rising of ground that herein both the source area (shear failure) and
water level, z. Hence, the eroded area are not discriminated. In reality,
most of the red-color area was just eroded without
dz 1  e 1  e khe
 Q shear failure as verified by the intact pavement of
dt e ez (3) the road (Figure 14).

1 dz 2 1  e khe

2 dt e (4)
21  e khe
z2  t
e (5)
For the water surface to reach the top of the
impervious layer, the elapsed time is obtained by t
at z = H. Hence,

eH 2
Time 
21  e khe
(6)
Apparently the time becomes longer for a
greater thickness of the impervious layer, H, which
means more safety for thicker lava. By substituting
H = 1m, e = 0.15 (the void ratio of lava is not Figure 13. Location of failed slope and boreholes
precisely known and this value is highly by the Tokyo Metropolitan Government (written on
approximate), k = 10-5 m/s in lava, and he = 1m to a map by Geospatial Information Authority of
10m, the time for water to reach the lava surface is Japan)
obtained as 6500 to 650 seconds. Thus, the

2-6

Figure 14. Only erosion in the middle of the
damaged slope without shear failure of subsoil
Figure 15. Ridges that remained after the disaster
Figure 16. Vertical cross section across the
damaged slope
After the disaster, an important question was
asked whether or not the remaining ridges in the
failed slope (Figure 15) would be safe or unstable
during future heavy rains. To answer this question,
borehole profiles at sites in Figure 13 were put
together in Fig. 16 and the risk of future slope
failure was assessed. In this figure, the soil profiles
where shear failure occurred in 2013 are designated
by “Shear failure” or “S.H.” while those with
erosion only is indicated by “Erosion” or “E”.
Moreover, the top of the lava layer is indicated by
the dashed lines. It is important that the profiles of
shear failure is associated with deeper lava above
which such soils as loess and scoria deposited. In
other words, the original lava flow formed
undulating topography and later eruptions deposited
soil-like materials. As a consequence, rain water
infiltrated into the surface soil was collected in the
buried valleys and affected more significantly the
stability of the surface soil in 2013. Accordingly,
the S.H. parts failed in 2013 and the E parts are
much less likely to fail in near future. Furthermore,
because the lava layer is pervious to a certain extent,
only rarely heavy rainfall was able to submerge
subsoil and reduced safety factor, while the
infiltrated water during more common rainfalls
flowed through the lava into deeper parts of the
slope, as previous calculation showed. By referring
to the buried topography and the rareness of the
rainfall in 2013, the authors concluded that the
remaining ridges in the slope would not fail soon
unless more extremely rare precipitation would
occur.
ON “SOFT” SAFETY MEASURE
This section addresses early warning as a “soft”
safety measures. The advantage of early warning is
its low cost, while its disadvantage is that it cannot
protect people’s properties from a disaster. In
contrast, relocation can help both life and property,
but changes the life style of people and is likely to
affect their income. Relocation certainly affects the
human relationship in a local community. Hazard
map is also a favorite measure. The problem is that
people unfortunately do not take the hazard map
seriously in spite of repeated efforts of experts. This
is probably related with the fundamental nature of
mankind who do not learn lessons until they
experience serious situations.
The authors believe that early warning is a good
“soft” measure for mitigation of slope failure
during heavy rains. The traditional early warning
makes use of rainfall records and can be classified
into two groups. The first one employs the observed
records of accumulated rainfall and current
intensity of rainfall (for the past 1 hour or 3 hours,
for example). If the record approaches the
empirically determined range of danger (Figure
17a), a warning is issued. The second group is more
developed as practiced by JMA and forecasts the
rainfall intensity during the upcoming hours on the
basis of the observed weather data. Based on
rainfall forecast, the moisture content in the surface
soil is assessed and, if the moisture content exceeds
the past maximum, warning is issued (Okada 2009).
This idea is supported by an empirical knowledge
that slopes become unstable when the moisture
content exceeds the past maximum (Figure 17b).
Because soil profile is not known everywhere, the
2-7
current practice of moisture prediction employs
what is called “standard” soil profile. Further note
that both groups of rainfall-based warning does not
consider the local topography and soil properties.
They address the general risk of slope failure on a
regional scale.
(a) Solely based on rainfall record
(b) Procedure of JMA method based on rainfall
forecast
Figure 17. Principles of early warnings based on
rainfall criterion
Figure 18. Tiltometer for monitoring slope behavior
during heavy rainfall
It is obvious that the rainfall criterion in Figure
17 for early warning is useful and helps reduce the
fatalities during rain-induced slope failures. A
shortcoming in the abovementioned practice in
recent times is that it has nothing to do with the
2-8
instability of any particular slope. Therefore, people
who worry about the possible failure of a slope
behind their house cannot get necessary
information except regional warning. To
supplement this situation, another early warning
technology that is based on
deformation/displacement has been developed
(Uchimura et al. 2015). This technology is
characterized by the field precise monitoring of
slope deformation that is a precursor of incipient
slope failure. For more details, Figure 18 illustrates
that a MEMS sensor of tilting angle (tiltometer) is
installed at the top of a metal rod that is pushed by
percussion into the weathered surface soil of a
slope. The instability in the surface soil applies
lateral pressure on the rod. Because the rod is
penetrated until hitting the stable base layer, its tip
is fixed while the upper part is subject to lateral
pressure, resulting in rotation and tilting. This
tilting angle is monitored and the data is transferred
to a central office through internet. This technology
is characterized by its simple installation and low
cost (a few hundred US $ per piece or less) and has
been validated at tens of sites in addition to an
artificial rain test (Uchimura et al. 2015). Because
several sites failed during monitoring, time histories
of tilting angle were recorded and a warning
criterion of 0.1 degree/hour has been proposed.
Note that this technology addresses a slope failure
of a smaller scale that is many in numbers, is of
major concern of people, but less dramatic than
bigger (deep-seated) but less frequent ones.
One of the basic philosophies of the developed
tiltometer is that the number of installed sensors is
more important than the accuracy of monitoring.
Being different from the behavior of landslides that
occur slowly and continuously, the rainfall-induced
slope failure occurs suddenly and its location is
difficult to predict. It is therefore more advisable to
install as many sensors as possible in a potentially
unstable slope of cliff than to install a few precise
but expensive transducers. To reduce the cost, the
use of MEMS sensor was a good idea. The sensor is
operated by batteries that are far less expensive
than a solar battery, although the latter is more
convenient for a long-term operation. It is
noteworthy that four batteries operate for more than
one year.
The developed sensors were installed in several
slopes/cliffs in Izu Oshima Island prior to the rainy
season of 2014 (Figure 19). An example of the
collected data is illustrated in Figure 20. As per
August of 2015, no failure has happened, which is
fortunate but surprising to the authors.
 During the monitoring practice, it was discussed
how the early warning is used. First, the issued
early warning addresses personal safety and should
not affect the local government’s safety actions that
include a regional early warning based on weather
forecast. Second, the recent trend is that heavy rain
occurs in midnight because of the temperature
difference near the surface and the high altitude.
Hence, the displacement-based early warning may
be issued in midnight. Obviously midnight
evacuation in heavy rain is dangerous. However,
evacuation to the second floor (vertical evacuation)
or to a room that does not face the mountain side of
a house can still reduce the risk. Third, the very
early day-time evacuation cannot promote many
people because rain has not yet started. To solve the
problem, preparation of some entertainment in a
shelter is a good idea.
Figure 19. Installation of tiltometers in a potentially
unstable cliff in Izu Oshima
Figure 20. Example of transmitted records
from Izu Oshima
CONCLUSIONS
The authors have been enrolled in engineering
investigation on causative mechanism and future
scope of the rainfall-induced slope disaster and its
mitigation in a volcanic island of Izu Oshima. Field
reconnaissance, borehole drilling, simple analyses
and field monitoring led to the following
concluding remarks.
(1) The disastrous slope failure in Izu Oshima in
2013 was caused an extreme event of precipitation
induced by typhoon.
(2) The size of the slope failure was small at the
beginning but increased during downward
movement by eroding surface soil en route.
(3) During heavy rain, ground water flow
through pervious layers and its ejection (piping)
affect the stability of the surface layer.
(4) Borehole permeability tests revealed that
lava layer is pervious, allowing ground flow from
the surface layer into deeper layers.
(5) The slope failure was made possible only by
the extreme rainfall event as occurred in 2013.
(6) Slope failure was concentrated where the
lava was deep and surface soil was thick. The
remaining ridges are stable because the surface soil
is thin.
(7) Early warning based on deformation
monitoring was installed in the disaster area but no
failure happened.
(8) For successful warning and evacuation,
more "soft" measures have to be developed.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The present study was supported by the
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and
Technology upon the occasion of significant natural
disaster in Izu Oshima. The field activities were
assisted by the Ministry of Environment, Tokyo
Metropolitan Government (Oshima Branch),
Oshima Municipal Government and Geo Park
Office of Izu Oshima Island. Borehole investigation
by Mr. T. Ebine and Chisui Kaihatsu Corporation
was very important. These helps and collaborations
are deeply appreciated by the authors.
REFERENCES
Okada, K. (2009) Soil Moisture Index, Monthly
Magazine of JGS. 57(8): 56-57.
Uchimura, T., Towhata, I., Wang, L., Nishie, S.,
Yamaguchi, H., Seko, S. and Qiao, J.-P. (2015)
Precaution and early warning of surface failure of
slopes by using tilt sensors, Soils and
Foundations, 55(5), in Press
2-9
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

TOOLS, TECHNIQUES AND TECHNOLOGIES FOR CAPACITY ENHANCEMENT

TO REDUCE LANDSLIDE RISKS AND PROMOTE COMMUNITY RESILIENCE
Surya Parkash 1

ABSTRACT: Landslides are a major widely spread hazard that frequently strike the hilly
terrains, often suddenly and speedily, thereby causing massive loss of lives, economy and
environment. The cumulative losses, including both direct and indirect impacts, from the
landslides have been sometimes found to be higher over a period as compared to the rare
catastrophic events like major earthquakes and volcanoes. This is also attributed to the fact that
even during major earthquakes, floods and volcanic activities, several damages and losses in
the hills are caused by landslides as secondary hazards during or after these events. Globally,
on an average, annual landslide damages / losses are approximately >10 billion USD, besides
heavy death toll of about a thousand human lives and injuries to several thousand people who lose their living places
and livelihood too. Landslides, being geographically localized, do not receive adequate attention and relevant data are
not well reported at national and international levels. The worst affected people belong to the communities with low
capacities to assess and manage landslides risks due to ignorance or lack of information, unawareness and
unpreparedness. Thus, there is a dire need to enhance the capacity of the communities, professionals, practitioners and
other stakeholders to reduce the landslides risks and promote their resilience.
The local communities do have some inherent capacity for assessment and management of hazards risks / disasters
by virtue of their living experiences in the locality, traditional knowledge and the information about indigenous
resources, skills and technology. However, these local capacities must be enhanced for efficient management or
reduction of risks so that state-of-art technology, innovative tools and techniques can also be utilized to promote the
culture of disaster resilience. The paper discusses about these tools, techniques and technologies for the training /
teaching and operational / practicing purposes with a focus mainly on capacity enhancement for different stakeholders.
It would help in an efficient strategy for landslide risk reduction through capacity enhancement and community
resilience.

Keywords: Landslides, risk, capacity, community, resilience, disaster, technology

INTRODUCTION human lives and injuries to several thousand people

who lose their living places and livelihood too.
Mountains and hills are the landforms that rise
Geographically, the incidences and impacts of
above the surrounding terrain. Generally mountains
landslides have been found to be worst in Asia
are higher than 600m (>2000ft) and hills are <600m
among all the continents and the countries in the
high. Due to their elevations and gradients, the slopes
south and south-east Asia have been reported as most
are bound to be unstable with varying degrees under
severely affected by the landslides. There have been
the force of gravity, thereby resulting in landslides
frequent reports on landslides from India (Parkash
that are often triggered by intense or continuous
Surya, 2015a), China, Nepal, Bhutan, Pakistan,
precipitation, seismic vibrations, toe erosion by
Afghanistan, Indonesia, Philippines, and Thailand.
scouring rivers, anthropogenic activities like
The International Consortium on Landslides
undercutting / explosion / loading / unloading /
(ICL) has taken an initiative for development of tools,
drainage modifications / geometrical changes in
techniques and technologies for landslide risk
slopes etc. Globally it is estimated that average
reduction covering all aspects including scientific,
annual damages / losses due to landslides and related
engineering, social, administrative, economic, legal,
ground / structural failures is approximately >10
policy, planning perspectives in the Asia-Pacific
billion USD, besides heavy death toll of about 1000
region. A publication was made with inputs from

1
Knowledge Management and Communication Division, National Institute of Disaster Management, 5B, I.P. Estate, New
Delhi – 110 002, suryanidm@gmail.com

3-1
experts of the different countries during the year
2013 (ICL Landslide Teaching Tools, 2013). The
present paper primarily focuses on the scientific,
social and regulatory tools, techniques and
technologies that must form part of an efficient
strategy for enhancing human capacity on landslide
risk reduction and promoting community resilience.
The consortium has reiterated its interest in this field
through the recent Sendai Declaration (2015-2025)
signed during 3rd World Conference on Disaster Risk
Reduction (14-18 March 2015) at Sendai, Japan. The
international community has also adopted Sendai
Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015-2030)
with 4 priority actions: understanding disaster risk,
strengthening disaster risk governance to manage
disaster risk, investing in disaster risk reduction for
resilience, enhancing disaster preparedness for
effective response and to “Build back Better” in
recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction. It has
emphasized on role of different stakeholders and
need for international cooperation and global
partnership in this initiative.
Thus, it would be worthwhile to clearly define the
words ‘capacity’ and ‘resilience’. Capacity in this
paper means the ability to avert, prevent, mitigate
and manage landslide risks. It includes trained human
resources, well established efficient disaster
management system, procedures, mechanisms,
manuals, machineries, financial, legal and
administrative provisions, social, technical and
environmental considerations for an efficient risk
reduction and recovery against landslides. While
resilience means the ability / inherent strength in the
affected community to readily recover or quickly
revert to a situation as it was before the disaster
happened, i.e. ability of the society and the systems
to bounce back and rebuild future better. It depends
on efficient restoration, rehabilitation, reconstruction,
and recovery mechanisms through prior planning,
policy and decision making. The affected
communities are well informed, aware and prepared
to avoid, prevent, resist and respond to disasters in a
resilient society. The ability to live in harmony with
the nature is also sometimes termed as agility in the
society.
TOOLS FOR LANDSLIDE RISK REDUCTIONS
Tools are the aids or accessories (devices or
implements) that are used to facilitate actions for
specific functions or performance of a particular task.
Broadly a tool is any physical item that can be used
to achieve a goal, especially if the item is not
consumed in the process. The paper discusses
broadly about the two types of tools, i.e. the delivery
3-2
/ artistic tools for the process of teaching / training
including the analytical tools and the operational /
technical / practice / implementation tools for
performing the functions / tasks related to landslide
risk reduction in the field.
Delivery Tools for Teaching / Training
Delivery tools for teaching and training include
text (word or pdf), presentation (power point or
adobe flash), illustration (coral draw, illustrator,
adobe photoshop), demonstration, exhibition,
simulation, animation, audio and video clips,
multimedia aids, exercises, and drills. The analytical
/ assessment tools include statistical, mathematical,
empirical, and software tools for analysis and
assessment of landslide risks.
The author has used these tools in imparting
trainings to officials working in the government in
different sectors as well as the community in the
affected areas with the help of a training module on
comprehensive landslide risk management (Parkash
Surya, 2012a). It has been found that audio-visual
tools, hands on practice and field demonstrations are
the most effective tools in training as it focuses the
attention of trainees.
Operational Tools for Practice
Operational tools include handbooks, manual,
guidelines, standard operational procedures, codal
provisions, administrative and technical regulations,
financial and legal provisions, policy, plans and other
decision making instruments like assessment,
planning and implementation tools including
empowerment for enactment and enforcement.
The important operational tools during disaster
situations are communication, evacuation, search,
rescue, first aid and other vital emergency tools. The
author has observed that the directory of resource
persons and institution / organizations related to
landslides (Parkash Surya and Saha Roy T.K., 2015)
is very useful in quickly accessing, communicating
and coordinating with concerned experts and officials
(Parkash Surya, 2014).
TECHNIQUES FOR CAPACITY
ENHANCEMENT
A technique is a method / process or a skilful /
efficient way of carrying out a particular task,
especially the execution or performance of any social
work or a scientific procedure. The paper discusses
about the training techniques and the operational
techniques for landslide risk reduction.
Training Techniques
 The training techniques include Interactions /
Interviews, Structured or Open Questionnaires,
Formats for Field Survey or Household Surveys,
Lecturing, Presentation (Power Point / Adobe Flash),
Mentoring, Facilitation, Group Exercises, Table Top
Exercise, Simulation Exercise, Mock Drills, Gaming
(for example, snake and ladder game to teach about
landslide risk reduction), Animations, Skits, Plays /
Drama, Audio-Visuals, Video-Documentaries,
Transect Survey, Venn Diagram, Seasonal Mapping,
Charts through Formal and Informal Education /
Training.
Operational Techniques
The operational techniques in social works related
to disaster risk reduction include Rapid Rural
Appraisal (RRA), Participatory Rural Appraisal
(PRA), Participatory Learning and Action (PLA) and
Participatory Monitoring, Implementation and Action
(PMIA). These techniques have been found to very
useful in generating reliable accurate data and
information about any locality or community on a
large scale. The techniques also help in capturing the
geography, environment and resources in the form of
community maps. However, the author recommends
a partnership approach with the community rather
than participatory approach (Parkash Surya, 2013a).
Partnership will bring better sense of owning and
belongingness to the development plans integrating
disaster risk reduction issues.
Similarly in the scientific and engineering
perspectives, operational trainings can be provided
through hands on practice on the use of maps / cross
sections, equipment and interpretation of data /
results. For example, a good expert can interpret and
infer landslides simply by studying the large scale
topographic maps or through the examination of
cross sections of slopes using morphometric analysis
or using drainage parameters for watershed analysis
and instability assessment. Even in the absence of
maps, a good expert may have the ability to make
decipherable observations of field features that can
be used for reconnaissance or preliminary study of
landslides. For example, bulging slopes, overhangs or
negative slopes with unfavorable discontinuities can
be potential indicators of slope instability or possible
landslides. Presence of massive loose boulders and
rock pieces in the drainage channels with gentle to
moderate slopes may also indicate the possibility of
debris flows. Such methods are termed as field
observation techniques. Observation techniques are
highly useful for quick assessment for landslides in
the field. A simple kinematic analysis of the
relationship between slope mass and discontinuities
can also help in estimating the potential degree of
instability and potential direction of movement.
Other kinds of observations may be based on aerial
photographs or satellite imageries. This is termed as
remote sensing technique and helps in deciphering
field characteristics and carrying out mapping with
limited field checks, particularly for inaccessible
areas.
Besides the observation techniques which are
economical and faster but need validation, field and
laboratory testing techniques can be used for
determining physical characteristics and analytical or
numerical simulation techniques can be used for
understanding the dynamic nature and behavior of
slopes. A visit to the laboratory for training on off-
site testing techniques and visit to a field site for
training on in-situ testing techniques will help
improve the technical know-how and skills. Most of
the equipment are digitally controlled through
computer softwares and the interpretation of the data
obtained, requires filtering, processing and plotting
using computer softwares. Thus, it is important to
have information and training on various related
computer packages / softwares, along with their
limitations, advantages and scope of application.
TECHNOLOGIES FOR CAPACITY
ENHANCEMENT ON LANDSLIDE RISK
REDUCTION
Technology means the application of scientific
knowledge for practical purposes. It can be
embedded in devices, machines, equipment or
computers that can be operated by individuals for
performing specific tasks or achieving a goal. The
paper discusses about the training technologies and
the operational technologies for professionals and
practitioners.
Training Technologies
The training technologies include face to face
trainings in smart class rooms with projectors, laser
pointer, digital controls and smart screens used for
lecturing, presentation, illustration and exercises;
virtual classrooms for distant or remote online
trainings using web-media, video-conferencing
through virtual private networks (NICNET, POLNET,
SPACENET), satellite communication for audio-
visual conferences, Web Technologies for Online
Courses (Virtual Learning Environment (VLE) -
supports the Shareable Content Object Reference
Model (SCORM) as a standard, Learning
Management System (LMS) - a software application
for the administration, documentation, tracking,
reporting and delivery of electronic educational
3-3
technology, education courses or training programs;
Modular Object Oriented Dynamic Learning
Environment (Moodle) – a free and open-source
software learning management system written in
PHP and distributed under the GNU General Public
License, Study Webs of Active-Learning for Young
Aspiring Minds (SWAYAM) - a Web portal for
Massive Open On-line Courses (MOOCs) etc.),
Video-conferencing (Skype / Viber / Google
Hangout), Webinars, Networking Technologies
include Social and Thematic Networks (Twitter,
Facebook, ICL Thematic and Regional Networks
related to Landslides)
The offline trainings can also be imparted with
the use of CDs, DVDs and USBs containing Self
Study Courses, audio-visual presentations / clips /
documentaries, animations, video-games etc.
Besides these delivery technologies for imparting
trainings, capacity requires operational and
interpretation skills for using equipment and
technology for detection, diagnosis and dealing
landslides.
Operational Technologies based on Skill and
Expertise in different sectors
The paper has discussed about the learning and
teaching / training delivery technologies for
enhancing capacities to reduce the landslide risks.
However, it is equally important to emphasize on
development and enhancement of skills and expertise
in different operational sectors including collection
and compilation of systematic structured scientific
and socio-economic data base on landslides and their
impacts; field, laboratory and computational
technologies for landslide investigations to
understand nature and behavior of potential / existing
landslides; technologies for avoidance, prevention,
mitigation and control of landslides or their
consequences; enhancing capacities for use of
technology for landslide monitoring, modeling,
prediction, warning and alert for inevitable
impending landslides; and finally in the event of any
landslide disaster, application of technologies for
evacuation, search, rescue, first aid, rehabilitation
and reconstruction are necessary for minimizing the
risk, damages and losses from landslides. The
following paragraphs briefly discuss about these
technologies.
Technologies for Compilation of Landslide Database
and Risk assessment
Any landslide risk reduction study begins with
compilation and analysis of landslide data from the
study area. Lack of adequate amount of reliable data
3-4
hinders the hazard assessment process. However, the
minimal information about landslide incidents can be
recorded by any layman as pertains basically to the
broadly visible (observational) and easily measurable
or describable parameters like place of occurrence,
time and duration of occurrence, dimensions,
geometry, socio-economic and environmental
impacts of landslides. This does not necessarily
require a scientific background or expertise. After
getting this preliminary information,
experts/professionals can visit the site or use other
means for studying and understanding the landslide
for devising appropriate effective environment
friendly sustainable solutions. Thus, if the
community is made aware, informed and prepared to
systematically record, study, monitor and manage
landslides, this enhanced capacity would help them
to reduce the landslide risks to a great extent.
Mapping landslide hazards, vulnerability and
risks using different mapping and monitoring
technologies like Remote Sensing or Satellite based
technologies - Terrestrial Synthetic Aperure Radar
Interferometry, Terrestrial Radar Interferometry,
Terrestrial Laser Scanner, Infra-Red Thermography,
Digital Photogrammetry, Digital Image Correlation,
Topographic Surveys, Geodetic Surveys, GPS,
DGPS survey etc., would help in generating relevant
landslide data.
United Nations International Strategy for Disaster
Reduction (UN ISDR) has established DesInventar
Project as a conceptual and methodological tool for
the construction of databases of loss, damage, or
effects caused by emergencies or disasters. Different
countries have customized this database according to
suit to their needs. Government of India is also
working on InDisData portal (India Disaster
Database) on the similar pattern. Past data or records
can also be obtained from official records or
bibliographic resources related to the area. The
author has found that a digital bibliographic database
on landslides (Parkash Surya and Kathait Anil,
2014b) helped the academicians, researchers and
practitioners a lot in accessing relevant literature
quickly.
Technologies for Landslide Investigations
The investigation of landslides requires
information about history and distribution of
landslides in the study area, nature and characteristics
of slope mass, hydrological conditions, slope
morphology, relations between slope and
discontinuities in slope mass, landuse and land-cover
conditions, seismo-tectonic and climatic
characteristics, anthropogenic activities including
developmental changes etc. The landslide
investigations may involve (i) review of the existing
data on landslides, (ii) Topographic investigations for
geometrical and dimensional features, (iii) in-situ site
characterization in the field, for example, rock mass
rating and slope mass rating; in-situ testing of the
slope mass, for example, in-situ density test,
determination uniaxial compressive strength using
Schmidt hammer, bore hole logging for sub-surface
information, measurement of pore water pressure
using piezometers, recording of seismic vibrations
using accelerographs, measurement of rainfall
intensity using automatic weather stations or rain
gauges; exploratory borings, core logs and
geophysical surveys including Ground Penetrating
Radar (GPR) for sub-surface mapping (iv)
Measurement of the nature and characteristics of
materials through laboratory testing, for example, use
of sieve apparatus and laser particle size analyzer for
grain size analysis, liquid and plastic limit tests using
Atterberg apparatus, determination of cohesion and
friction using direct shear test, permeability test,
uniaxial compressive strength test, dynamic behavior
of materials under different seismic and pore pressure
conditions in a cyclic triaxial test apparatus (v)
Computer based Analytical Softwares for
interpretation and inferences using both the field as
well as laboratory data for characterizing the nature
and behavior of slopes.
The professional competence and capacity can be
enhanced to a great extent if the professionals and
practitioners in this field are well trained on the
technologies for obtaining data / information from
the site / field and laboratory as well as in using these
data for appropriate interpretation and inferences
about the nature and behavior of slopes.
Technologies for Avoidance, Prevention, Mitigation
and Control Measures
The technologies for avoidance, prevention,
mitigation and control measures for landslides are
highly variable and depend on the nature and
dynamic behavior of landslide. For example, the site
selection plans using GIS based landslide hazard
zonation maps can avoid encounters with landslides
and would help in selecting an optimum route with
least threats from the landslides. Active landslides
can also be avoided by construction of cut and cover
tunnels, rock-shed and transport galleries. However,
it is not always possible to avoid landslide
susceptible / prone areas and hence, there would be a
need to prevent landslides.
The preventive technologies try to eliminate the
causes of landslides. For example, if a landslide is
likely to get triggered if pore water pressure in the
slope mass goes beyond a given threshold, then the
preventive technologies help in reducing the pore
water pressure below the said threshold, thereby,
preventing the landslide to happen. Such
technologies include drainage filters and pipes that
collect water from the slope mass and release it
through some channels, drainage tunnels or wells. In
another case, if rock-falls are likely to happen due
fractured and jointed slope mass, shotcreting can be
used to prevent dislodging.
However, it may not be possible to prevent all
landslides and in that case, mitigation is the next
option. Mitigation attempts to reduce the incidences,
extents and impacts of landslides. This can be
achieved by using technologies like nets and meshes,
that do not prevent the slope failures but tries to
reduce its consequences by reducing the volume of
material involved in the movement, reducing its rate
of movement and delaying its impact, controlling its
path and extent of movement. Technologies like
construction of rock trap ditches and diversion walls
are kind of mitigation measures.
After a landslide has actually occurred, treatment
or control measures are needed. For example,
construction of retaining, drainage provision,
vegetative turfing, anchoring / nailing / bolting etc.
are used as options for treatment or control of
landslides. However, specific types of control
measures are suggested for particular types of
landslides, i.e. rock fall and topples will have
different control measures as compared to rotational
slides or debris flows. For examples nets, meshes,
chains and cables, shotcreting, anchoring / bolting /
nailing may be good for controlling rock falls but
will not be much useful in case of debris flow while
rock trap ditches, check dams, channelization,
deflection walls, impact spreading walls, vegetation
barriers etc. work better in controlling debris flows
than in case of rock falls.
Technologies for Landslide Monitoring, Modeling
and Prediction
Impending landslide threats at critical or vital
locations can be monitored, modeled and /or
predicted for their nature and behavior using different
technologies. Landslides can be studied periodically
or in real-time using online as well as offline
monitoring technologies. The data, thus, obtained is
used in different landslide modeling softwares that
help in deciphering the area involved in slope
movement, path of movement, velocity, volume and
run-out distances. Presently the credibility and
reliability such models are confined for practical
3-5
purposes. Thus, temporal predictions for landslides
are limited. However, the spatial prediction in terms
of landslide susceptibility zonation at large scales, is
very much in practice for landuse controls and
developmental regulations.
Technologies for Early Warning and Alerts on
Impending Landslides
Early warning requires instrumentation and
monitoring of critical parameters that initiate, trigger
and/or control the movement of slope mass in a
landslide. It may include continuous or periodic
measurement of pore water pressure in the slope
mass, rain amount and intensity, seismic
accelerations, development of stresses and strains in
the slopes, slope displacement over time etc. in real-
time or periodic basis using reliable accurate sensors
and instruments. The landslide precursors must be
well considered for deciphering probable place, time
and magnitude (Volume, Velocity and Run-out
distance) of the potentially impending landslide. The
local communities and trespassers must be made
aware about this early warning system so that they
can act appropriately when a warning is issued to
them.
Proper instrumentation, monitoring and early
warning would require adequate knowledge of
instruments to be used, location for their installation
to collect data, minimum requisite frequency of data,
processing and interpretation of data for practical
purposes to issue a warning; procedure, format and
mode of communication of the warning. Important
instruments for monitoring surficial displacements
are extensometers, tiltmeter, crackmeter, differential
settlement gauge, Handheld Global Positioning
System (GPS), Differential GPS (DGPS), survey
equipment using laser beams, geodetic equipment
and for the sub-surface movement, instruments like
inclinometers, pipe strain gauge, multi-layer
movement meter are used. Geophysical surveys are
also done to find changes in ground water table,
detection of slip surface, changes in slope mass and
discontinuities. Remote monitoring using optical
reflectors / persistent scatterers for slope
displacements, High Resolution Satellite Imagery,
Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR), Synthetic
Aperture Radar (SAR), differential interferometry.
Technologies for Evacuation, Search, Rescue, First
Aid and Rehabilitation
Once an early warning for a landslide is received
and an alert is issued to the public in a threatened
location, the evacuation process for saving human
lives and livestock begins. But due to difficulties in
3-6
access and communications in hilly terrains,
sometimes delay occurs in evacuation operations.
Therefore, evacuation technologies like rope ways
and tunnels are used for ground evacuation while
helicopters and air-planes are used for air evacuation
in inaccessible areas.
After the occurrence of landslides, search and
rescue equipment are used to find and take out people
from the dangerous locations. Life sensors, bore hole
cameras, canine search, sound detectors / geophones,
temperature sensors etc. are used for locating the
buried victims and rescuing him/her from that place.
However, safety of rescuers during such
operation is also a priority during these operations.
Protection technologies like helmets, specially
designed cloths, whistle, torch, drinking water and
first aid kit, are always provided to the rescuers. It
would be worthwhile to mention here that very little
training on search and rescue in post-landslide
situations have been imparted and hence, the success
rate for rescue of landslide victims is very low. The
author assisted the search and rescue operation
during Malin Landslide, Pune, India during the year
2014. During the interactions with rescue personnels,
the author informed about the possible recurrence of
the landslide due to continuous rains during the
rescue operations and provided the spots from where
a vigil can be kept on its recurrence using certain
features or precursors of mass movement. It helped
ensure the safety of rescuers while after some days,
in a similar rescue operation on a landslide in Japan,
one of rescuers died during the operation.
First aid and rehabilitation are immediate actions
that are required to be undertaken after a victim is
rescued. Hence, training on first aid, victim
management, psycho-social counseling and
rehabilitation is necessary for safety of the victims.
Sometimes even the rescuers also need psycho-social
counseling after an exposure to extreme
consequences of a disaster.
PROMOTING COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT,
AWARENESS, PREPAREDNESS AND
RESILIENCE
The applications of the above mentioned tools,
techniques and technologies will not be possible until
and unless these are integrated with policies, plans,
strategies, programmes and projects for development
and disaster risk reduction.
The implementation of these activities would also
entail empowerment of the concerned stakeholders
for practicing these tools, techniques and
technologies in the affected areas.
 Involvement of the affected communities and
enhancing their level of awareness, preparedness and
resilience against landslide risks, is a pre-requisite in
ensuring successful implementation of disaster risk
reduction activities (Parkash Surya, 2013a). The
public can be made better aware and prepared not
only through different training and capacity
enhancement initiatives but also by demonstrations
through disaster museums, geoparks, landslide
experience centres and exhibitions. Adequate
administrative, financial and legal measures may be
taken to discourage unfavorable activities /
conditions for slopes and promote prevention,
mitigation and preparedness against landslide risks
among the affected communities.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
The paper concludes that there is a good scope for
reducing the landslide risks in the hilly terrains if
adequate timely application of relevant tools,
techniques and technologies is made among the
affected communities (Parkash Surya, 2013b). The
success would depend not only on the scientific and
engineering capacities but also the social, economic
and environmental capacities. Thus, an integrated
and holistic approach towards landslide risk
reduction through capacity enhancement among
stakeholders, would pave the way for timely
identification and assessment of potential landslide
threats / risks and devising reliable sustainable
solutions for avoidance, prevention, mitigation,
preparedness and efficient response.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Sincere thanks are due to Prof. Paulus Rahardjo,
Catholic University, Bali, Indonesia, for his kind
encouragement and support during the work. The
author is also thankful to the Executive Director,
National Institute of Disaster Management, New
Delhi for his encouragement and support in
publishing this work.
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http://www.epathshala.co.in/
https://www.mooc-list.com/
https://moodle.org/
http://www.desinventar.org/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SWAYAM
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_learning_en
vironment

3-8
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

CONTROLLING FACTORS OF RAINFALL-INDUCED SLOPE FAILURES

IN RESIDUAL SOILS

H. Rahardjo 1 and A. Rahimi 2

ABSTRACT: Rainfall-induced slope failures are common geotechnical problems in

many tropical regions of the world. The rapid urbanization and regional economic
growths have resulted in tremendous demand for construction in mountainous areas,
resulting in many slope instability problems. Slope failures would result in human and
economic loss. Therefore, it is important to ensure stability of slopes in these regions. In
order to provide preventive measures for stability of slopes against rainfall, it is essential
to fully understand the failure mechanism and factors that control rainfall-induced slope
failures. It is well established that rainfall is the main triggering factor causing rainfall-
induced slope failures. However, parameters such as slope properties, soil hydraulic
properties and rainfall characteristics are several factors that control rainfall-induced slope failures and changes
in these factors can potentially cause the soil slope to be in critical condition. The presentation highlights the
effect of each controlling parameter: slope properties (i.e., slope geometry, initial depth of water table), soil
properties (i.e., soil-water characteristic curve, permeability), and rainfall characteristics (i.e., intensity and
pattern) on rainfall-induced slope failures in residual soils, through parametric studies. It was found that soil
properties and rainfall characteristic are the primary controlling factors affecting the stability of slopes due to
rainfall, while the slope properties secondary controlling factors. The stability of poor drainage soil slopes were
significantly affected by variation of soil-water characteristic parameters as compared to the good drainage soil
slopes. The saturated permeability, ks, of soil affected the stability of both good and poor drainage soil slopes.
The results indicated that the pattern and duration of rainfalls affected the stability of both good drainage and
poor drainage soil slopes.

Keywords: Rainfall, slopes, failure, controlling factor, soil properties, antecedent rainfall

INTRODUCTION and factors that control rainfall-induced slope

Rainfall-induced slope failures are common
geotechnical problems in many tropical regions of
the world. These areas are usually covered by
residual soils which are the product of hot and
humid climatic conditions along with heavy
rainfalls associated with tropical regions (Rahardjo
et al., 2002). The rapid urbanization and regional
economic growths have resulted in tremendous
demand for construction in mountainous areas,
resulting in many slope instability problems
(Rahardjo et al., 2008). Slope failures would result
in human and economic loss. In order to provide
preventive measures for stability of slopes, it is
essential to fully understand the failure mechanism
failures. It is well established that rainfall is the
main triggering factor in many residual slope
failures or rainfall-induced slope failures (Brand,
1984, Anderson and Sitar, 1995, Rahardjo et al.,
1995; Fourie, 1996; Au, 1998; Ng and Shi, 1998;
Rahardjo et al., 2000; Toll, 2001; Chen et al., 2004;
Zhang et al., 2005; Lee et al., 2009; Rahardjo et al.,
2009). In addition, parameters such as slope
properties, soil hydraulic properties and rainfall
characteristics are the factors that control rainfall-
induced slope failures (Tsaparas et al., 2002;
Rahardjo et al., 2007; Rahimi et al., 2010) and
changes in these factors can potentially cause the
soil slope to be in critical condition.

1
Professor, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Block N1, 01b-36, Nanyang
Avenue, Singapore 639798 (corresponding author). E-mail: chrahardjo@ntu.edu.sg, SINGAPORE
2
Research Associate, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Block N1, B1a-
01A, Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798 (corresponding author). E-mail: arahimi@ntu.edu.sg, SINGAPORE

4-1
 The objective of this study is to highlight the residual soil slopes (see Figure 2) and investigating
effect of each controlling parameter: slope their effects on slope stability is essential.
properties (i.e., slope geometry, initial depth of
water table), soil properties (i.e., soil-water
characteristic curve, permeability), and rainfall
characteristics (i.e., intensity and pattern) on
rainfall-induced slope failures in residual soils,
through parametric studies.

Mechanism of rainfall-induced slope failure

Residual soils commonly exist in unsaturated
condition where pore-water pressures are negative
(i.e., matric suction). The matric suction which Legend:
contributes to the shear strength of residual soil can Sedimentary Jurong
increase significantly during dry periods. During Formation
Bukit Timah Granite
wet period when there is sufficient infiltrated
Old Alluvium
rainfall into the slope, the negative pore-water
pressures increases towards positive values and Figure 1. Rock formations in Singapore
matric suction will decrease. The reduction in
matric suction may cause the shear strength of the
residual soil to decrease to the point where a slope Transpiration
Rainfall Rainfall
failure can be triggered (Fredlund and Rahardjo,
1993; Rahardjo et al., 1995). Potential evaporation = f (air Slip surface
Infiltration
temperature, relative humidity,
solar radiation, wind speed) Wetting
Residual soils front
Actual evaporation =
Tension cracks
Residual soil is formed by in-situ mechanical f(potential evaporation, soil
temperature, soil suction)
Unsaturated zone
and chemical weathering of underlying rocks,
which have lost their original rock fabrics (Wesley,
1990). The residual soils can be found in many Rise in water table

parts of the world especially in tropical regions

Saturated zone
with warm to hot climate. Two thirds of Singapore Ground water table

lands are covered by residual soils from Figure 2. Rainfall-induced landslide in residual soil
Sedimentary Jurong Formation and Bukit Timah slope
Formation. Figure 1 shows the simplified
geological map of Singapore which consists METHODOLOGY
essentially of three formations: (i) igneous rocks of
An extensive parametric study through
granite (Bukit Timah Granite) in the center and
numerical modelling was performed to study the
northwest, (ii) sedimentary rocks (Jurong
factors controlling rainfall-induced slope failure.
Formation) in the west, and (iii) a semi-hardened
These controlling factors are: slope properties (i.e.,
alluvium (Old Alluvium) which covers older
slope geometry, initial depth of water table), soil
underlying rocks in the east of Singapore (PWD,
properties (i.e., soil-water characteristic curve,
1976).
permeability), and rainfall characteristics (i.e.,
The properties of residual soils vary with depths
intensity and pattern). The effect of each
due to the different degrees of weathering
controlling parameter was studied by varying this
(Rahardjo et al., 2012; Faisal, 2000), as reflected in
particular parameter while other parameters were
Figure 3 – Figure 5, by large band of the grain-size
kept constant. First, seepage analysis was
distribution curve. Therefore, it is important to
performed to compute the pore-water pressures and
study the effect of different soil properties on
it was followed by slope stability analysis to
rainfall-induced slope failures. As explained earlier,
compute the factor of safety, Fs of the slope using
the residual soils usually exist in unsaturated
the computed pore-water pressures within the slope.
condition above the ground water table with
negative pore water pressures (Rahardjo et al.,
1995). Climatic conditions, such as rainfall
characteristics strongly influence the stability of

4-2
 Sand
Gravel Medium
Silt Clay
Coarse Fine
100
BM1
BM2
Upper bound
JK1
80 agr=0.006
ngr=1.06 JK2
HR1

Percent passing(%)
mgr=1.13
dr=0.00001 QCC1
60 dm=0.001 QCC2
JRT1
Typical DR1
40 agr=1.23 DR2
ngr=1.13 TB1
Lower bound
mgr=0.35
agr=1.25 TB2
dr=5.00
20 dm=0.0004
ngr=1.38 TB3
mgr=0.70
dr=0.010
dm=0.0005
0
100 10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001
Particle diameter (mm)
Figure 3. Typical grain-size distribution of residual soil from Sedimentary Jurong Formation in Singapore
(after Rahardjo et al., 2012)

Sand
Gravel Medium
Silt Clay
Coarse Fine
100
AMK1
AMK2
Upper bound
TR1
80 agr=0.0001
ngr=0.58 TR2
mgr=5.85 MR1
Percent pasing (%)

dr=9.57 MR2
60 dm=0.0001 BBT1
BB1
Typical BB2
40 agr=2.56
BBR1
ngr=1.94
Lower bound MS1
mgr=0.28
dr=20
agr=1.68 MS2
ngr=1.66
20 dm=0.0005 AMA1
mgr=0.98
AMA2
dr=20
dm=0.002
0
100 10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001
Particle diameter (mm)
Figure 4. Typical grain-size distribution of residual soil from Bukit Timah Granite in Singapore
(after Rahardjo et al., 2012)

Sand
Gravel Coarse Medium
Silt Clay
Fine
100
JS1
JS2
Upper bound
JS3
80 agr=0.007
ngr=0.91 BNS1
BNS2
Percent passing(%)

mgr=0.62
dr=1.58 BNS3
60 dm=0.0001
Tam1
Tam2
Typical BN1
40 agr=3.51 BN2
ngr=4.26
Lower bound Tam3
mgr=0.18
agr=2.98
dr=47.9
ngr=3.16
20 dm=0.0003
mgr=0.60
dr=54.5
dm=0.0004
0
100 10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001
Particle diameter (mm)
Figure 5. Typical grain-size distribution of residual soil from Old Alluvium in Singapore
(after Rahardjo et al., 2012)

4-3
Numerical modelling
The commercially available software SEEP/W
(Geo-slope International, 2004a) was used for the
seepage analysis. Equation (1) was used in the
software for solving a transient and two-
dimensional seepage analysis.
hw   h    h 
m 
2
   k wx w     k wy w   q
t x  x  y  y 
w w
where mw2 = slope of soil-water characteristic curve;
 w = unit weight of water; hw = hydraulic head or
total head; t = time; k wx = coefficient of
permeability with respect to water as a function of
matric suction in x-direction; k wy = coefficient of
permeability with respect to water as a function of
matric suction in y-direction; and q = applied flux
at the boundary.
The commercially available software Slope/W
(Geo-slope International, 2004b) was used for the
slope stability analyses. Equation (2) was used as
the shear strength equation for unsaturated soil
(Fredlund et al., 1978) in the slope stability
analyses. Equation (2) incorporated shear strength
contribution from negative pore-water pressure or
matric suction of unsaturated soil.
  c   n  u w  tan   u a  u w  tan b
where  = shear strength of unsaturated soil; c' =
effective cohesion;  n  u w  = net normal stress;
 n = total normal stress; ua = pore-air pressure;  
= effective angle of internal friction; u a  u w  =
matric suction; u w = pore-water pressure; and  b =
angle indicating the rate of increase in shear
strength relative to the matric suction. Bishop's
simplified method was used to compute the factor
of safety, Fs, of soil slopes. The time and
computational efforts required for computation of
factor of safety, Fs, using this method are less than
those associated with more rigorous methods.
Studies by Ching and Fredlund (1984) and
Fredlund and Krahn (1977) showed that Bishop's
simplified method is capable of calculating Fs with
accuracy near to the more rigorous methods.
Theoretical consideration
Soil–water characteristic curve and unsaturated
permeability function are the essential data required
for transient seepage analyses as indicated by
Equation (1). The Fredlund and Xing (1994)
SWCC equation with a correction factor, C   as
recommended by Leong and Rahardjo (1997a) was
used in this study as follows:
4-4
 
 
  (3)
 w   S C  
1 
  m

 ln e   u a  u w    
n
 
    a   
  

where,  w = volumetric water content;  S =
(1) saturated volumetric water content; a = a fitting
parameter related to the air-entry value of the soil
(kPa); n = a fitting parameter related to the slope of
the SWCC; m = a fitting parameter related to the
residual water content of the soil; e = natural
number, 2.71828; u a  u w  = matric suction (kPa);
(kPa); ua = pore-air pressure (kPa); u w = pore-water
pressure (kPa).
Unsaturated permeability function, kw, was
estimated by indirect method from SWCC based on
FCM, C ( )  1 estimation model (Rahimi et al.,
2015). The FCM, C ( )  1 estimation model was
developed by combination of Fredlund and Xing
with C ( )  1 , SWCC equation with Childs and
Collis-George (1950) relative permeability function.
The detailed procedure used to derive the
unsaturated permeability function, kw, can be found
in Rahimi et al. (2015).
Parametric study
(2)
The stability of a slope was assessed by
computing the factor of safety, Fs, as a dependent
variable with respect to the independent variables
such as slope properties (i.e., slope geometry, initial
depth of water table), soil properties (i.e., soil-water
characteristic curve, permeability), and rainfall
characteristics (i.e., intensity, duration and pattern).
Different parametric studies were conducted on the
typical homogeneous soil slope as shown in Figure
6 to investigate the effect of each parameter on the
variation of factor of safety, Fs, as the dependent
variable.
Shear strength properties of the soil used in the
study were based on typical shear strength
properties of soil in Singapore (Rahardjo, 2000).
Effective cohesion, c' = 10 kPa, effective angle of
internal friction,   =26 degrees, rate of increase in
shear strength caused by matric suction,  b = 26
degrees, and unit weight of soil, γ = 20 kN/m3, were
used in the slope stability analyses. Shear strength
parameters of soil were kept constant for all cases.
This was to ensure that changes in stability of the
slope were only due to pore-water pressure (or
matric suction) changes in the soil.
 Figure 6. Slope geometry and boundary conditions for homogeneous soil slope used in parametric study

SLOPE PROPERTIES 5, 7.5, 10 and 15 m with an inclination of 7° from

the horizon (i.e., β = 7°) were considered. Three
Slope geometry (i.e., slope height, slope angle)
different soil types were selected to represent the
and position of ground water table, GWT, were
different residual soils of Singapore: 1) A-a = 10
considered as slope properties in this study. Slope
kPa, m = 1, n = 1 and ks = 10-4 m/s, 2) B-a = 50 kPa,
height, Hs, and slope angle, α were varied based on
m = 1, n = 1 and ks = 10-5 m/s and 3) C-a = 100 kPa,
suggestion by Rahardjo et al. (2007) for slope
m = 1, n = 1 and ks = 10-6 m/s. Table 1 provides a
geometry in Singapore. Four slope heights, Hs, 5,
summary of all the parameters that were varied and
10, 20, and 40 m, four slope angles, 26.6°, 33.7°,
parameters that were kept constant for parametric
45.0° and 63.4° and five initial depths of
study of slope properties.
groundwater table, GWT at the toe of slope, Hw, 2.5,

Table 1. Parameters involved in the parametric study of the slope properties

Slope
Soil type Slope angle Rainfall intensity Slope height GWT depth
Properties
 (°) Ir (mm/h) Hs (m) Hw (m)
5
9 10 
36  
Slope height B 45.0   5
20
80  
40
26.6
 A 33.7  9
B    80 
Slope angle
  45.0   10 5
C    1k s 
63.4
 2 .5 
 5 .0 
9   
36  7 .5 
GWT depth C 45.0   10
 
80 10.0
15.0

Slope geometry soil type B-a = 50 kPa, m = 1, n = 1 and ks = 10-5

m/s, slope angle of α = 45o and ground water table
Figure 7 shows the variation of factor of safety
of Hw = 5 m was subjected to three different rainfall
of a homogenous soil slope due to the change of
intensities of 9, 36, and 80 mm/h for a duration of
slope height, Hs. These results were obtained from
24h.
the parametric studies where a slope with a constant

4-5
 3.0

Minimum factor of safety, Fs(min)

As shown in Figure 7, initial factor of safety, -4
a Soil type A-a=10 kPa, m=1, n=1, ks=10 m/s
Fs(ini), decreases exponentially as the slope height, 2.5 Trend line
Hs, increases. The low initial factor of safety, Fs(ini) Fs(cri)
2.0
of high slopes as compared to the high initial factor
of safety, Fs(ini) of low slopes suggests that high 1.5
slopes are more susceptible to failure. The factor of
1.0
safety, Fs, decreases due to the occurrence of
rainfall at a slower rate for a high slope as 0.5 Fs(ini) Ir = 9 mm/h
compared to that for a low slope. However, the high Ir = 80 mm/h Ir = 360 mm/h = 1ks
0.0
slope is more likely to fail due to the low safety
20 30 40 50 60 70
margin (i.e., low initial factor of safety, Fs(ini)). Slope angle,  (°)
3.0

Minimum factor of safety, Fs(min)

3.5 -5
Minimum factor of safety, Fs(min)

o
b Soil type B-a=50 kPa, m=1, n=1, ks=10 m/s
Soil type B;  = 45 2.5 Trend line
3.0
Fs(ini) Fs(cri)
2.5 Ir = 9 mm/h 2.0
Ir = 36 mm/h
2.0 1.5
Ir = 80 mm/h
1.5 Fs(cri) 1.0

1.0 0.5 Fs(ini) Ir = 9 mm/h

Ir = 36 mm/h = 1ks Ir = 80 mm/h
0.5 0.0
0 10 20 30 40 20 30 40 50 60 70
Slope height, H s (m) Slope angle,  (°)
3.0
Minimum factor of safety, Fs(min)

Figure 7. Relationship between slope height and -6

cSoil type C-a=100 kPa, m=1, n=1, ks=10 m/s
minimum factor of safety for homogeneous soil 2.5
slope of soil type B, Hw = 5m, α = 45° subjected to Trend line
Fs(cri)
rainfall for 24 h with three rainfall intensities of 9, 2.0
36, and 80 mm/h (after Rahardjo et al., 2007)
1.5

Figure 8 shows the variation of factor of safety, 1.0

FS, of a homogenous soil slope due to the change of
0.5 Fs(ini) Ir = 3.6 mm/h = 1ks
slope angle, α. These results were obtained from
Ir = 9 mm/h Ir = 80 mm/h
parametric studies using three different soil types of 0.0
A, B and C for a homogeneous soil slope of 20 30 40 50 60 70
constant Hs = 10 m, Hw = 5 m that was subjected to Slope angle,  (°)
three different rainfall intensities of Ir = ks, 9 and 80 Figure 8. Relationship between slope angle and
and mm/h for duration of 24h. minimum factor of safety for homogeneous soil
As shown in Figure 8, Fs(ini) and Fs(min) has a slope of constant Hs = 10 m, Hw = 5 m subjected to
negative linear relationship with α. In general, the rainfall for 24 h with three rainfall intensities of 9,
higher the slope angle, , the lower is the initial 80, and 1 ks mm/h of respective soil: a) Soil type A,
b) Soil type B and c) Soil type C
factor of safety, Fs(ini), and the minimum factor of
(after Rahardjo et al., 2007)
safety, Fs(min). Figure 8 shows that under a rainfall
duration of 24h, for a soil slope with a small , if Ground water table location
the saturated permeability, ks, of the soil was high
(ks  10−5 m/s) and the rainfall intensity, Ir, applied Figure 9 shows the variation of factor of safety
to the slope was extremely high, the soil slope of a homogenous soil slope due to the change of
could fail. Many residual soil slopes in Singapore initial ground water table location, Hw. These
usually have low ks (ks  10−6 m/s) and seldom results were obtained from parametric studies
experience extremely high intensity rainfalls. Toll where a slope with a constant soil type B, slope
et al. (1999) concluded that residual soil slopes angle of α = 45o was subjected to three different
formed in the Bukit Timah and Jurong formations rainfall intensities of 9, 36, and 80 mm/h for a
in Singapore at angles below 27° are unlikely to fail. duration of 24h.

4-6
 3.0
Minimum factor of safety Fs(min)
Possible linear relationship
between Hw and Fs(ini) if the
2.5 limiting pore-water
pressure of 75kPa is
not imposed in
2.0 the analyses
1.5
Fs(cri)
1.0
0.5
0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5
Initial depth of ground water table, H w (m)
Figure 9. Relationship between initial factor of
safety and minimum factor of safety with initial
depth of groundwater table for homogeneous soil
slope of constant soil type B, Hs=10 m, α=45°
subjected to rainfall for 24 h with three rainfall
intensities of 9, 36, and 80 mm/h
(after Rahardjo et al., 2007)
As shown in Figure 9, Fs(ini) and Hw has a
linear relationship up to a depth of 7.5 m beyond
which Fs(ini) remains constant. This is due to the
limiting pore-water pressure of −75 kPa adopted in
the analyses. The limiting pore-water pressure
corresponds to the limit that is commonly observed
in the field. As a result, the initial pore-water
pressure profiles generated for the slope with
Hw > 7.5m are the same with those generated for
Hw = 7.5m. If the limit was not imposed in the
analyses, the linear relationship between Hw and
Fs(ini) is expected to continue even when Hw is
greater than 7.5 m (see Figure 9). It appears that the
deeper the Hw of a slope, the higher the Fs(ini) will
be. Therefore, a slope with a deep ground water
table and is subjected to rainfall will be less
susceptible to failure due to the high safety margin.
As shown in Figure 9, the reduction in factor of
safety, Fs, due to a rainfall is mainly a function of
the rainfall intensity, Ir, whereas the initial depth of
water table, Hw, determines the value of the initial
Figure 10. Relationship between groundwater table position and factor of safety for Sedimentary Jurong
Formation in Singapore for Hs = 15 m and α = 27° a) typical groundwater table position b) variation of factor of
safety for different groundwater table positions (after Rahardjo et al., 2010)
factor of safety, Fs(ini). A slope with a shallower
Hw, has a smaller Fs(ini) which means that the
safety margin is lower.
Fs(ini)
Ir = 9 mm/h Example from residual soils of Singapore
Ir = 36 mm/h
Ir = 80 mm/h Rahardjo et al. (2010) performed a parametric
study on the effect of ground water table position
Soil type B;  = 45o during the driest and wettest periods, of two main
Tr = 24h; Hs =10m
residual soils from the Bukit Timah Granite (BTG)
10.0 12.5 15.0
and the Sedimentary Jurong Formation (JF) in
Singapore, on rainfall-induced slope failure. Figure
10 and Figure 11 show the typical variations of
groundwater table positions for the driest and
wettest periods in the residual soil slopes from JF
and BTG, respectively, as obtained from field
measurements in several slopes. The computed
variation of factor of safety, Fs, due to a rainfall
loading of 22 mm/h for a duration of 24h is also
shown in the respective figures. Both Figure 10 and
Figure 11 show that the position of ground water
table affected the value of the initial factor of safety.
The closer the groundwater table position to the
ground surface, the lower the initial factor of safety
would be. In the driest period, the factor of safety
decreased rapidly due to the applied rainfall, while
it decreased at a lower rate in the wettest period for
both BTG and JF. The minimum factor of safety
was observed to be at the end of the rainfall for
BTG. However, JF reached the minimum factor of
safety after the rainfall had stopped. This could be
due to the effects of SWCC and kw on the JF
residual soil. In general, the JF residual soil had a
gentler permeability function as compared to that of
the BTG soil, resulting in a slower infiltration rate
of rainwater than that in the BTG slope. Although
rainfall already stopped, the rainwater continued to
percolate down into greater depths. As a result, the
most critical slip surface might be observed several
hours after the rainfall had stopped (Rahardjo et al.,
2010).
4-7
 Figure 11. Relationship between groundwater table position and factor of safety for Bukit Timah Granite in
Singapore for Hs = 15 m and α = 27° a) typical groundwater table position b) variation of factor of safety for
different groundwater table (after Rahardjo et al., 2010)

SOIL PROPERTIES to assess the stability of unsaturated soil slope

(Rahimi et al., 2010). Series of parametric analyses
Hydraulic properties of soils (i.e., soil–water
were performed in order to investigate the effect of
characteristic curve, saturated permeability and
hydraulic properties of soils on the slope stability as
unsaturated permeability function) are the essential
summarized in Table 2.
data required for transient seepage analyses in order

Table 2. Parameters involved in the parametric study of the soil properties

Soil type
Good drainage soil Poor drainage soil
Study Sets
a m n ks a m n ks
(kPa) (m/s) (kPa) (m/s)
5  100 
10   500 
A   1 1 10-4   1 1 10-6
 20  1000 
 0 .5   0 .5 
1  1 
B 10   1 10-4 100   1 10-6
 2   2 
1  1 
2 -4 2
C 10 1   10 100 1   10-6
 3   3 
 104   106 
 5   7 
D 10 1 1 510  100 1 1 510 
1105  1107 
   

As it was mentioned earlier, the Fredlund and
Xing (1994) SWCC equation with a correction
factor, C ( )  1 as recommended by Leong and
Rahardjo (1997a) was used to describe the soil-
water characteristic curve of the soil slopes
subjected to rainfall loading. In order to vary the
SWCC of soil, the fitting parameters “a”, “m”, “n”
were varied to represent good drainage (GD) and
poor drainage (PD) residual soils of Singapore. For
each soil type (i.e., GD and PD), three sets of
parametric analyses were performed. In each set of
parametric study, three different values were
considered for one fitting parameter while other
parameters were kept constant. Parameter “a” was
set to be 5, 10 and 20 kPa for GD soil and 100, 500
and 1000 kPa for PD soil. Parameter “m” was set to
be 0.5, 1 and 2 for both GD and PD soils and
parameter “n” was set to be 1, 2 and 3 for both GD
and PD soils. The saturated permeability, ks, of the
GD and PD soils were considered to be 10-4 m/s
and 10-6 m/s, respectively, based on Singapore
residual soil properties (Rahardjo et al., 2000).
The unsaturated permeability of soil was
computed based on FCM, C ( )  1 estimation
model (Rahimi et al., 2015). The saturated
permeability, ks, was also varied for both GD and

4-8
PD soils to investigate the effect of saturated
permeability on the stability of soil slope subjected
to rainfall loading. The ks was set to be 10-4, 5×10-5
and 10-5 m/s for GD soil and 10-6, 5×10-7 and 10-7
m/s for PD soil. Table 2 provides a summary of all
the parameters that were varied and parameters that
were kept constant for the parametric study of soil
properties. The resulting SWCC and unsaturated
permeability functions for all the different cases of
GD and PD soils are shown in Figure 12 and Figure
13, respectively. The geometry of the soil slope was
kept constant with slope height of Hs = 15 m, slope
angle of α = 30o and ground water table of Hw = 2 m.

Figure 12. SWCC and unsaturated permeability function, kw, of GD soil: (a.1) SWCC of different parameters
“a”; (b.1) kw of different parameters “a”; (a.2) SWCC of different parameters “m”; (b.2) kw of different
parameters “m”; (a.3) SWCC of different parameters “n”; (b.3) kw of different parameters “n”; (c) unsaturated
permeability function with different ks (after Rahimi et al., 2010)

4-9
Figure 13. SWCC and unsaturated permeability function, kw, of PD soil: (a.1) SWCC of different parameters “a”;
(b.1) kw of different parameters “a”; (a.2) SWCC of different parameters “m”; (b.2) kw of different parameters
“m”; (a.3) SWCC of different parameters “n”; (b.3) kw of different parameters “n”; (c) unsaturated permeability
function with different ks (after Rahimi et al., 2010)

Soil-water characteristic curve a higher rate of decrease in the normalized factor of

safety, Fsn, and a higher rate of recovery in Fsn,
The effect of parameter “a” in terms of
after rainfall stopped, in both GD and PD soils. The
normalized factor of safety, Fsn, versus time is
soil with a higher value of parameter “a” had the
shown in Figure 14a and Figure 14b for GD and PD
lower minimum normalized factor of safety,
soils, respectively. The rainfall intensity applied
Fsn(min).The variation of parameter “a” resulted in a
was 0.25 ks for a duration of 24 hours. As shown in
small variation between the values of Fsn(min) for all
Figure 14, the soil with a higher parameter “a” had
GD soils at all rainfall intensities (see Figure 15a).

4-10
On the other hand, the variation of parameter “a”
caused a large variation between the values of
Fsn(min) for all PD soils at all rainfall intensities (see
Figure 15b).
The effect of parameter “n” in terms of
normalized factor of safety, Fsn, versus time is
shown in Figure 16a and Figure 16b for GD and PD
soils, respectively. The rainfall intensity applied
was 0.25 ks for a duration of 24 hours. As shown in
Figure 16a for GD soils, variation of parameter “n”
did not significantly affect the rate of decrease in
the normalized factor of safety, Fsn, and the rate of
recovery in Fsn. However for PD soils, higher
values of parameter “n” resulted in the higher rate
of decrease in the normalized factor of safety, Fsn,
and rate of recovery in Fsn. In addition, a higher
value of parameter “n” resulted in the lower Fsn(min)
for PD soils. The variation of parameter “n”
resulted in a marginal variation between the values
of Fsn(min) for all GD soils at all rainfall intensities
(see Figure 17a). On the other hand, the variation of
parameter “n” resulted in a large variation between
the values of Fsn(min) for all PD soils at all rainfall
intensities (see Figure 17b).
The effect of parameter “m” in terms of
normalized factor of safety, Fsn, versus time is
shown in Figure 18a and Figure 18b for GD and PD
soils, respectively. The rainfall intensity applied
was 0.25 ks for a duration of 24 hours. As shown in
Figure 18, the soil with lower parameter “m” had a
higher rate of decrease in the normalized factor of
safety, Fsn, and a higher rate of recovery in Fsn,
after rainfall stopped, in both GD and PD soils. The
soil with a lower value of parameter “m” had the
lower minimum normalized factor of safety, Fsn(min).
The variation of parameter “m” resulted in a small
variation between the values of Fsn(min) for all GD
soils at all rainfall intensities (see Figure 19a). On
the other hand, the variation of parameter “m”
caused a large variation between the values of
Fsn(min) for all PD soils at all rainfall intensities (see
Figure 19b).

Figure 14. Comparison of normalized factor of safety, Fsn, versus time for different values of constant parameter
“a”: (a) good drainage soil, rainfall intensity, Ir = 90 mm/h = 0.25 ks; (b) poor drainage soil, rainfall intensity,
Ir = 0.9 mm/h = 0.25 ks (after Rahimi et al., 2010)

Figure 15. Minimum normalized factor of safety, Fsn(min) versus rainfall intensity, Ir for variation of the parameter
“a”: (a) GD soil; (b) PD soil (after Rahimi et al., 2010)

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Figure 16. Comparison of normalized factor of safety, Fsn, versus time for different values of parameter “n”: (a)
good drainage soil rainfall intensity, Ir = 90 mm/h = 0.25 ks; (b) poor drainage soil rainfall intensity,
Ir = 0.9 mm/h = 0.25 ks (after Rahimi et al., 2010)

Figure 17. Minimum normalized factor of safety versus rainfall intensity for different parameter “n”: (a) GD soil;
(b) PD soil (after Rahimi et al., 2010)

Figure 18. Comparison of normalized factor of safety, Fsn, versus time for different values of parameter
“m”: (a) good drainage soil rainfall intensity, Ir = 90 mm/h = 0.25 ks; (b) poor drainage soil rainfall intensity,
Ir = 0.9 mm/h = 0.25 ks (after Rahimi et al., 2010)

4-12
Figure 19. Minimum normalized factor of safety versus rainfall intensity for variation of the parameter “m”: (a)
GD soil; (b) PD soil (after Rahimi et al., 2010)

Saturated permeability the same, while the rainfall intensities higher than
Ir(thr) would not have any more effect on Fsn(min) of
The effect of saturated permeability, ks in terms
the soil slope due to the fact that the soil can no
of minimum normalized factor of safety, Fsn(min)
longer take in rainwater and the excess rainwater
versus time is shown in Figure 20a and Figure 20b
becomes runoff. This characteristic shows that for
for GD and PD soils, respectively. As shown in the
the short duration rainfall (24 hours), the magnitude
figure, a threshold rainfall intensity, Ir(thr), was
of rainfall intensity is important in assessing the
observed for both GD and PD soils. Ir(thr) caused the
stability of slopes with different saturated
the lowest normalized minimum factor of safety of
permeabilities.
the soil slope. For the rainfall intensities lower than
Ir(thr), the Fsn(min) of all soil types were more or less

1.0 1.0
ks=10-7 m/s Ir(thr)=6.3 mm/h
Minimum normalized factor of safety,

Ir(thr)=30.9 mm/h
Minimum normalized factor of safety,

ks=10-5 m/s a ks=5x10-7 m/s

0.9 ks=10-5 m/s 0.9 Ir(thr)=14.1 mm/h

-6
ks=10 m/s

-7
Ir(thr)=1.5 mm/h ks=5x10 m/s
Fsn(min)

Ir(thr)=119 mm/h 0.8

Fsn(min)

0.8 ks=10-7 m/s

ks=10-4 m/s ks=5x10-5 m/s

Ir(thr)=137.9 mm/h 0.7 -6

0.7 ks=10 m/s
ks=5x10-5 m/s ks=10-4 m/s

0.6 a=10 kPa, m=1, n=1, ks=10-4 m/s 0.6 a=100 kPa, m=1, n=1, k s=10-6 m/s
a=10 kPa, m=1, n=1, ks=5x10-5 m/s a=100 kPa, m=1, n=2, k s=5x10-7 m/s
b
a=10 kPa, m=1, n=1, ks=10-5 m/s a=100 kPa, m=1, n=3, k s=10-7 m/s
0.5 0.5
0.1 1 10 100 1000 0.1 1 10 100
Rainfall intensity, Ir (mm/h) Rainfall intensity, I r (mm/h)

Figure 20. Minimum normalized factor of safety versus rainfall intensity for different saturated
coefficients of permeability, ks: (a) good drainage soil; (b) poor drainage soil (after Rahimi et al., 2010)

Unsaturated permeability 12b.1 and Figure 13b.1 which caused a higher

infiltration rate of rainwater into the soil. Therefore,
As it was explained earlier, the unsaturated
the rate of reduction in factor of safety was faster
permeability function, kw was estimated based on
for a soil with a higher value of parameter “a”.
FCM, C ( )  1 estimation model (Rahimi et al.,
2015). Therefore, variation of SWCC resulted in
RAINFALL CHARACTERISTICS
variation of kw (see Figure 12 and Figure 13). As a
result, the same conclusion can be made regarding Rainfall characteristics can be considered to
the effect of unsaturated permeability function on comprise the following variables as rainfall
stability of GD and PD soil slopes. For instance, the intensity, Ir, rainfall duration and rainfall pattern. In
soil with a higher value of parameter “a” had a this study, rainfalls with a duration less than or
higher permeability function as shown in Figure equal to 24 hours were considered as short duration

4-13
rainfalls which were applied to the soil slope with a 2.5
a Soil type A;  =45o Rainfall ceases at
uniform distribution. The effect of short duration t = 24h
2.0

Factor of safety, Fs
(t=24 h) rainfall on the stability of soil slopes was
investigated for various rainfall intensities. The
1.5
rainfall intensities were selected to be a fraction or
multiplication of the saturated permeability of the 1.0
soil. Three different soil types: 1) soil type A-a = 10 Ir = 1/4ks = 90
kPa, m = 1, n = 1 and ks = 10-4 m/s 2) soil type 0.5 Ir = 1/40ks = 9mm/h Ir = 1/2ks = 180
B-a = 50 kPa, m = 1, n = 1 and ks = 10-5 m/s 3) soil Ir = 1/20ks = 18 Ir = 1ks = 360
Ir = 1/10ks = 36 Ir = 2.5 ks = 900
type C-a = 100 kPa, m = 1, n = 1 and ks = 10-6 m/s 0.0
were selected and the slope geometry was kept 0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48
constant. Elapsed time, t (h)
Rainfalls with a duration longer than 24 hours 2.5
were considered as long duration or antecedent b Soil type B;  =45o Rainfall ceases at
t = 24h
rainfalls. According to the comprehensive 2.0

Factor of safety, Fs
instrumentation of four slopes in Singapore by
Rahardjo et al. (2008), it was found that a 5-day 1.5

antecedent rainfall could affect stability of slopes in

1.0
Singapore. The effect of antecedent rainfall on Ir = 1ks = 36
stability of soils slopes was investigated for a 5-day Ir = 1/10ks = 3.6mm/h Ir = 1.5ks = 54
0.5
antecedent rainfall on two different soil types: 1) Ir = 1/4ks = 9 Ir = 2.5ks = 90
GD soil with a = 10 kPa, m = 0.5, n = 1 and ks = Ir = 1/2ks =18 Ir = 5ks = 180
0.0
10-4 m/s 2) PD soil with a = 300 kPa, m = 1, n = 1 0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48
and ks = 10-6 m/s. The geometry of the soil slope
Elapsed time, t (h)
was kept constant with slope height of Hs = 15 m, 2.5
slope angle of α = 30o and ground water table of c Soil type C;  =45o Rainfall ceases at
t = 24h
Hw = 2 m. Three different patterns of delayed, 2.0
Factor of safety, Fs

advanced and normal antecedent rainfalls, designed

by analyses of the measured rainfall characteristics 1.5
of Singapore (Rahimi et al., 2010) were used in the
analyses. 1.0
Ir = 1.5ks = 5.4
Ir = 1/4ks = 0.9mm/h Ir = 2.5ks = 9
Rainfall intensity 0.5
Ir = 1/2ks = 1.8 Ir = 5ks = 18
Ir = 1ks = 3.6 Ir = 10ks = 36
The variation of factor of safety, Fs, versus time 0.0
for a homogeneous soil slope under different 0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48
rainfall intensities is shown in Figure 21. As shown Elapsed time, t (h)
in the figure, for all the three soil types, the Fs
decreased as the rainfall occurred and it recovered Figure 21. Effect of rainfall intensity on variation of
when the rainfall stopped. The rate of reduction in factor of safety with time for homogeneous soil
Fs was higher for the higher rainfall intensities. slope of constant Hs = 10 m, Hw = 5 m, and  = 45°
subjected to rainfall for 24 h with: (a) soil type A,
However, it appears that there was a threshold (b) soil type B, and (c) soil type C
rainfall, Ir(thr) which caused the maximum reduction (after Rahardjo et al., 2007)
in Fs and rainfall intensities higher than the
threshold rainfall did not cause further reduction in
Fs. This characteristic can clearly be seen in Figure
22 which shows the minimum factor of safety,
Fs(min) versus logarithm of rainfall intensity, Ir, for
the three soils types. As shown in Figure 22, a
sigmoid shape was observed between Fs(min) and Ir
for all the types of soil considered in these analyses.
It appears that Ir(thr) is larger for soils with a higher
saturated permeability, ks.

4-14
 2.5 appears that a homogeneous soil slope with a
Minimum factor of safety, Fs(min)
Ir(ini) = 11 mm/h = 0.03k s
a Soil type A Vr = 264 mm higher saturated permeability, ks would have a
2.0 higher value of Ir(thr) that resulted in the Fs(min).
Ir(thr) = 140 mm/h =0.39k s
Vr = 3360 mm However, if the Ir(thr) was expressed in terms of
1.5
saturated permeability ks, the higher ks would have
1.0 the lowest Ir(thr) as a function of ks (e.g., 0.39 ks for
ks = 10-4 m/s). Therefore, it seems that for PD soils
(ks  10−6 m/s), Ir >1ks is required to bring the Fs(min)
2
Fs(min) =A+B/[1+exp{(IrC)/d}] r = 0.999
0.5
A = 0.81; B = 13.54; C = 118; D = 52
Fs(min) data to the lowest value, while for GD soils with a high
0.0 ks, Ir < 1ks is sufficient to bring the Fs(min) to the
10-1 100 101 102 103 104 lowest value. It should be noted that a higher
Rainfall intensity, Ir (mm/h)
volume of rainfall, Vr was required to destabilize a
2.5
Minimum factor of safety, Fs(min)

b Soil type B Ir(ini) = 8.5 mm/h = 0.24k s soil slope with high ks as compared to those with
Vr = 204 mm
2.0 low ks. Rahardjo et al. (2007) suggested that slopes
Ir(thr) = 51 mm/h = 1.42k s
with high ks will usually fail due to the mounding of
Vr = 1224 mm
1.5 water table, while slopes with low ks will
destabilize due to rainwater infiltration that causes
1.0 the reduction in matric suction of the soils in the
2
unsaturated zone above the water table.
0.5 Fs(min) =A+B/{1+exp[(IrC)/d}] r =0.997
A = 0.82; B = 1.83; C = 10.7; D = 13.13
Fs(min) data Rainfall pattern
0.0
-1 0 1 2 3 4
10 10 10 10 10 10 As mentioned earlier, three different patterns of
Rainfall intensity, Ir (mm/h)
2.5
delayed, advanced and normal antecedent rainfalls,
Minimum factor of safety, Fs(min)

Ir(ini) = 2.8 mm/h = 0.778k s

c Soil type C
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
10-1
Figure 22. Relationship between rainfall intensity
and minimum factor of safety for a homogeneous
soil slope of constant Hs = 10 m, Hw = 5 m, 45o
subjected to rainfall for 24h with (a)Soil type A;
(b)Soil type B; (c) Soil type C
(after Rahardjo et al., 2007)
Equation (4) was used to describe the
relationship between Fs(min) and Ir shown in Figure
22 (Rahardjo et al., 2007).
Fs (min)  A 
1 e  D 
where, Fs(min) is the minimum factor of safety; Ir is
the rainfall intensity; e is a natural number (i.e.,
2.718…); and A, B, C, D are fitting parameters.
As shown in Figure 22, the values of Ir(thr) were
140 mm/h (i.e., 0.39 ks), 51 mm/h (i.e., 1.42 ks) and
11 mm/h (i.e., 3 ks) for soils with ks of
10-4 m/s, 10-5 m/s and 10-6 m/s, respectively. It
designed by analyses of the measured rainfall
Vr = 67.2 mm
characteristics of Singapore (Rahimi et al., 2010)
Ir(thr) = 11 mm/h = 3k s
Vr = 264 mm were used in the analyses. Figure 23 shows the
different patterns of the actual rainfall data of
Singapore. For instance, in Figure 23a, rainfall
started at low intensity and gradually increased at
2
the end. Figure 23b shows rainfall started at low
Fs(min) = A+B/[1+exp{(IrC)/d}] r =0.998
A = 1.45; B = 0.70; C = 4.75; D = 2.35 intensity at the beginning of rainfall duration. It
Fs(min) data f100,6
increased gradually in the mid duration and then
100 101 102 103 104 decreased again at the end of rainfall. Figure 23c
Rainfall intensity, Ir (mm/h) shows rainfall started at high intensity at the
beginning and then decreased gradually at the end
of rainfall duration. These three patterns were
idealized and characterized for a maximum,
continuous 5-day rainfall of 450 mm. Figure 24
shows the finalized antecedent rainfall patterns
used in this study that were named as delayed
rainfall pattern (Figure 24a), normal distribution
was named normal pattern (Figure 24b) and
advanced rainfall pattern (Figure 24c). A major
rainfall of 8 hour duration with the intensity of 22.5
B (4) mm/h (PUB, 2000) was also applied to the GD and
 I C 
 r  PD soils slopes right after the antecedent rainfall.
Figure 25 shows the factor of safety, Fs, versus
time for the GD and PD soil types subjected to
three different rainfall patterns of delayed, normal
and advanced. As shown in the figure, the rate of
reduction in Fs was faster for the advanced pattern
followed by the normal and delayed patterns for
both of the GD and PD soil types. In GD soil, the
factor of safety decreased from its initial value of

4-15
1.70 to the minimum factor of safety, Fs(min) = 1.48 safety at the start of a major rainfall. As shown in
at 56 h, Fs(min) = 1.51 at 88 h and, Fs(min) = 1.53 at Figure 27a, the delayed rainfall pattern caused the
120 h for the advanced, normal and delayed lowest factor of safety for the GD soil slope.
patterns, respectively. The Fs was recovered faster However, the reduction in factor of safety due to
for the delayed rainfall pattern and followed by the the major rainfall was the same for all the rainfall
normal and advanced patterns. In PD soil, the factor patterns. Figure 27b shows that both normal and
of safety decreased from its initial value of 1.82 to advanced rainfall patterns resulted in the same
the minimum factor of safety, Fs(min) = 1.001 at 96 h, factor of safety at the start of the major rainfall and
Fs(min) = 1.004 at 112 h and Fs(min) = 1.083 at 120 h the major rainfall decreased the factor of safety of
for the advanced, normal and delayed patterns, the PD soil slope to a value less than one (i.e.,
respectively. The Fs was recovered at a slower rate 0.904) which reflected the unstable condition or
for the delayed rainfall pattern compared to the failure of the slope.
normal and advanced patterns. It should be noted Therefore, the antecedent rainfall patterns
that for both of the GD and PD soils, the value of changed the initial condition in the slope prior to
Fs(min) was more or less the same for all the rainfall the major rainfall and can potentially cause the soil
patterns; however, they occurred at different times. slope to be in critical condition.
This characteristic indicated that the rainfall
patterns affected the rate of reduction in Fs and the
time corresponding to Fs(min) for both of the GD and
PD soils, as shown in Figure 25c. The decrease in
Fs of GD and PD soils was 10-13 percents and
40-45 percents of their initial values, respectively,
illustrating the more significant effect of rainfall
pattern such as antecedent rainfall on PD soils as
compared to GD soils.
Rahimi et al. (2010) showed that the decrease in
factor of safety for the GD soil was due to the
reduction of matric suction rather than rising of
water table for all the rainfall patterns whereas
reduction in matric suction along with the rising of
water table was the cause for reduction of factor of
safety in PD soils.
Figure 26 shows the applied rainfall on the soil
slope along with the infiltrated rainwater into the
soil slope for all the rainfall patterns for GD and PD
soil slopes. As shown in the figure, all the rainwater
infiltrated into the GD soil slope and the lowest
Fs(min) corresponded to the highest amount of
infiltrated rainwater (i.e., 440 mm) for the delayed
rainfall pattern. This was due to the fact that the
rainfall intensity was much smaller than the
saturated permeability, ks of the GD soil at all the
times. On the other hand, the lowest Fs(min)
corresponded to the highest amount of infiltrated
rainfall (i.e., 404.5 mm) for the advanced rainfall
pattern for PD soils. However, not all the rainwater
infiltrated into the PD soil slope because of the low
ks of the PD soil.
Figure 27 shows the factor of safety, Fs due to
the applied major rainfall to the slopes with and
Figure 23. Actual and idealized rainfall patterns for
without antecedent rainfall. Figure 27 shows that Fs rainfall data of December 2006: (a) increasing
decreased regardless the existence of antecedent intensity toward the end of rainfall;(b) maximum
rainfall for GD and PD soil slopes. However, all the intensity at the middle of rainfall; (c) decreasing
antecedent rainfall patterns changed the factor of intensity toward the end of rainfall
(after Rahimi et al., 2010)

4-16
 (c)
Normalized factor of safety, Fsn

1.0

0.8

0.6
Delayed rainfall pattern-GD
Normal rainfall Pattern-GD
Advanced rainfall pattern-GD
0.4 Rainfall stops at t=120 h Delayed rainfall pattern-PD
Figure 24. Designed rainfall patterns: (a) delayed Normal rainfall Pattern-PD
Advanced rainfall pattern-PD
rainfall pattern; (b) normal rainfall pattern;
(c) advanced rainfall pattern 0 24 48 72 96 120 144 168 192 216 240
(after Rahimi et al., 2010) Elapsed time, t, (h)

Figure 25. Normalized factor of safety, Fsn, versus

time, t, for various rainfall patterns: (a) GD soil;
(b) PD soil; (c) comparison of GD and PD
(after Rahimi et al., 2010)

4-17
 Figure 26. Rainfall and infiltration rate for antecedent rainfall patterns at crest of the slope a) GD soil slope
b) PD soil slope (after Rahimi et al., 2010)

4-18
Figure 27. Factor of safety, Fs, versus time, t, for major rainfall with various initial conditions: (a) GD soil type;
(b) PD soil type (after Rahimi et al., 2010)

CONCLUSIONS The saturated coefficient of permeability, ks, of

soil affects the stability of both good and poor
The slope properties (i.e., slope height, slope
drainage soil slopes. As long as the applied rainfall
angle and initial water table location) determine the
intensity is lower than the threshold rainfall
initial factor of safety, Fs(ini), of the slope and have
intensity, soil slopes with different ks but same
secondary effects on stability of slopes. Although
SWCC parameters will have the same level of
combination of a higher slope angle (), a higher
stability.
slope height (Hs) and a shallower initial depth of
Short duration rainfalls (i.e., ≤ 24 h) affect the
water table (Hw) would result in the lowest initial
stability of good drainage soil slopes (ks ≥ 10-4 m/s)
safety margin of a slope, the failure condition of the
more than they affect the stability of poor drainage
slope would be controlled by the rainfall applied to
soil slopes (ks ≤ 10-6 m/s). The high rainfall
the slope and the properties of the soil in the slope.
intensities which are normally only a fraction of the
The stability of poor drainage soil slopes (i.e.,
saturated permeability of the good drainage soil
ks ≤ 10-6 m/s) is significantly sensitive to the
slopes, ks could cause the factor of safety of the
variation of soil-water characteristic curve fitting
good drainage soil slopes to drop to the lowest
parameters (i.e., a, m, n). On the other hand, the
minimum factor of safety. On the other hand, the
stability of good drainage soil slopes (ks ≥ 10-4 m/s)
low rainfall intensities which are normally higher
is not sensitive to the variation of soil-water
than the saturated permeability of the poor drainage
characteristic curve (SWCC) fitting parameters.
soil slopes, ks could affect the stability of the poor
drainage soil slopes (i.e., ks ≤ 10-6 m/s). In addition,

4-19
the factor of safety of the good drainage soil slope
drops to a lower value than that of the poor
drainage soil slope under the same short duration
rainfall (rainfall duration of 24 hours).
Antecedent rainfall affects stability of both good
drainage and poor drainage soil slopes and cause a
reduction in the factor of safety of the slope prior to
the occurrence of a major rainfall. The stability of
poor drainage soil slope is affected more
significantly by antecedent rainfalls than the
stability of good drainage soil slope. Antecedent
rainfalls could cause up to 45 percent reduction in
the factor of safety of poor drainage soil slope and
up to 13 percent reduction in the factor of safety of
good drainage soil slope prior to the occurrence of
major rainfall.
The rate of decrease in the factor of safety, the
time corresponding to the minimum factor of safety,
Fs(min) and the value of Fs(min) are controlled by the
patterns of the antecedent rainfall. The advanced
rainfall pattern has the highest rate of reduction in
the factor of safety and it is followed by the normal
and delayed rainfall patterns. The amount of
infiltrated rainwater into the unsaturated zone of the
soil slope controls the value of Fs(min). The higher
the amount of infiltrated rainwater, the lower the
Fs(min) of the slope. The delayed rainfall pattern
results in the lowest minimum factor of safety,
Fs(min), for the good drainage soil slope and the
advanced rainfall pattern results in the lowest Fs(min),
for the poor drainage soil slope
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study is part of the collaborative research
between NTU and HDB on Slope Repair and
Technology in Singapore.
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 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

SUSCEPTIBILITY ASSESMENT OF RAINFALL INDUCED LANDSLIDES:

A CASE STUDY OF A LANDSLIDE IN UMYEONSAN (MT.), KOREA

Sangseom Jeong 1, Joon Kyu Lee 2 and Junghwan Kim 3

ABSTRACT: A record heavy rainfall hits the whole land area, Korea in June and July of
2011. Early in the morning of July 27, about 150 small and large landslides occurred in
13 villages all over Umyeonsan (Mt.) which is located in downtown of Seoul metropolis
with the height of 312.6 m above the sea level. Because the mountain is located at the
center of a dense residential area, this geo-disaster had a great impact on the society. A
comprehensive field and laboratory investigation was performed to study the cause and
mechanism of the landslides. This paper provides a description of the landslides with the
main aims being 1) to outline the morphological, hydrological, and geotechnical features
of the landslide watershed, 2) to confirm the mechanism of slope instability by using various numerical
modellings, and 3) to propose the remedial measures to protect inhabitants and the infrastructure against
disasters.

Keywords: Rainfall, landslide, debris flow, numerical model, Umyeonsan (Mt.)

INTRODUCTION topography, hydro-mechanical properties, and

Shallow landslides are common mass-
movement processes in mountainous areas and
cause geo-disasters in many parts of the world,
particularly on the Korean peninsula, which is
covered by residual soils overlying extensively
weathered granite (Kim et al., 2004; Jeong et al.,
2008). Landslides represent a significant threat to
human life and infrastructure in most mountainous
areas. For example, South Korea experienced heavy
record rainfall in June and July 2011. Consequently,
150 small and large landslides occurred in 13
villages near Mt. Umyeonsan. These landslides
significantly impacted on the society because the
mountain is located in the central part of Seoul,
Korea. Landslides and debris flows are expected to
occur more frequently due to an increasing number
of extreme weather events.
In the geotechnical engineering field, the main
reason for slope failure is the loss of matric suction
due to rainfall infiltration. The relevant triggering
mechanisms of natural slopes frequently comprise
complex hydro-geotechnical-mechanical coupled
processes, which depends on the irregular
boundary conditions (Sorbino and Nicotera, 2013).
This paper presents the result of a
comprehensive investigation to find out the cause
of the activation of the Umyeonsan (Mt.) landslides.
The study includes field and laboratory
investigations and numerical simulations (i.e., using
physically-based GIS model, and coupled hydro-
mechanical finite element model), and necessary
protective measures.
THE 27 JULY 2011 LANDSLIDES AT
UMYEON-SAN, SEOUL, KOREA
Overview
The study area, Umyeonsan (Mt.) is located in
downtown of Seoul metropolis with the height of
312.6 m above the sea level (Figure 1). A record
heavy rainfall hits the whole land area, Korea on
June and July of 2011. Early in the morning of July
27, about 151 small and large landslides occurred in
13 villages all over Umyeonsan (Mt.) (Korean
Geotechnical Society, 2012). Because the mountain
is located at the center of a dense residential area,
the hazard had a great impact on the society

1
Professor, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Yonsei University, Korea, Email: soj9081@yonsei.ac.kr
2
Research Professor, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Yonsei University, Korea
3
Research Associate, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Yonsei University, Korea

5-1
compared to debris flows that occur in rural areas, the mountain, attributable to the high slope angle.
and it led to careful scrutiny of the hazard area. The slope material has low density and low strength.
Severe rainfall-induced landslides with slope failure The debris flows with different origins and features
and debris flow occurred in four villages of are found, which are broadly incised by gullies.
Raemian, Shindonga, Jeonwon, and Hyeongchon at
Umyeonsan (Mt.). Some of the landslides hit the
villages near the lower part of Umyeonsan (Mt.),
causing the most casualties. Some landslides
evolved from debris flows, flowing into the roads,
victimizing the people passing the streets. The
landslides rapidly expanded into a fast debris flow
spreading throughout the narrow and sloping roads,
invading many villages and roads. In many cases
the debris flow overflowed into the outer part of
Umyeonsan (Mt.).

Figure 2. Satellite image showing 33 debris flow

gullies (marked in blue), watersheds (outlined by
white lines), and 151 landslides (modified from
Korean Geotechnical Society, 2012)

Table 1. Morphological characteristics of 33 debris

flows in 20 watersheds (Korean Geotechnical
Figure 1. Location of the Umyeonsan (Mt.) Society, 2012)
landslides in Seoul, Korea
Number Channel Runout Landslides
Basin area
ID Watershed of debris Gradient distance
The topography is characterized by steep hills, (×103 m 2) Volume Slope
flows (0) (m) Number (m3) (0)
gullies and valleys (side slopes are normally less W1 Raemian 1 75.6 19.0 606.7 4 1,827.0 44
than 500) with an elevation ranging from about 50 W2 Limkwang 2 54.1 16.2 267.3 2 45.7 29
to 312.6 m above sea level. The bedrock is heavily W3 Sindonga 2 214.4 17.5 663.6 3 105.0 26
fractured and intensely decomposed, which is W4 Bodeoksa 1 421.4 17.8 900.0 12 153.6 36
covered with a layer of colluvium varying from a W5 Apwit 2 233.4 12.0 307.1 2 19.8 16
few centimeters (normally 2 m) up to 14 m, thicker W6 Jeonwon 3 271.8 15.6 4,554.4 22 62.9 27
at the lower elevation. The colluvial deposit W7 Dwitgol 2 786.4 15.8 1,365.1 15 34.2 35
consists of very poorly graded mixture of sands and W8 Angol 1 178.2 15.0 632.0 1 125.2 26
gravels in a silty matrix. The vegetation cover is
W9 Songdong 1 678.9 19.7 941.3 18 182.0 36
dense, which comprises coniferous and deciduous W10 Utunnel 1 64.2 17.6 229.7 2 129.3 29
forests, mixed forests of soft and hardwood, and
W11 Hyoungchon 2 444.8 21.7 823.3 31 75.4 34
understory vegetation. The colluvium and
W12 EBS 3 41.4 16.9 201.5 3 70.2 29
vegetation are directly linked to the origin and
W13 Gwanmunsa 2 324.0 17.6 385.4 4 73.2 30
development of mass movement in this area. The
W14 Amsan 1 17.7 15.0 176.3 1 108.6 33
Umyeonsan is situated in temperate monsoon zone:
W15 Gangnam 2 48.9 15.6 246.8 6 55.4 34
in summer, it is generally hot and humid with many
W16 Yangjae 2 90.9 13.3 435.7 5 134.3 40
rainfall events whereas it is cold and dry in winter.
W17 Daeseongsa 1 57.0 15.9 130.6 2 8.1 37
The average annual precipitation ranges between
W18 Arthall 2 183.6 19.4 562.9 8 112.3 40
1,100 and 1,500 mm with 70% of annual average
W19 Gugakwon 1 76.2 20.9 495.2 5 86.9 35
amount in June to September.
W20 Deokuam 1 90.8 20.1 625.3 5 98.7 35
Figure 2 shows the catastrophic events that hit
Total - 33 4,353.7 - 10,450.2 151 3,507.8 -
the Umyeonsan (Mt.), identifying 33 debris flows
with 151 landslides in 20 watersheds (Korean
Geotechnical Society, 2012). The majority of the Table 1 summarizes the morphological
landslides are concentrated along the ridgeline of characteristics of the Umyeonsan (Mt.) landslides
(Korean Geotechnical Society, 2012). The surface

5-2
area of each watershed ranges from 17,700 to
786,400 m2 with an average of 217,685 m2 and
approximately 50% smaller than 105 m2. The
channel gradient and runout distance of all debris
flows are less than 21.7° and 1,365.1 m,
respectively. Individual watershed contains the
landslides of 1 to 30, which serve as the main
source of the debris flow development: the
mobilized volume ranges from 8.1 to 1,827.0 m3. In
particular, the Raemian watershed has the largest
debris storage with a volume of 1,827 m3, being
52% of the total landslide volume. The slope angle
at the landslides varies from 16 to 44°. More
importantly, 60% of the landslides occurred at the
slope angle higher than 30°, indicating that the
debris flow is preferentially initiated on slope
steepness of > 30°. This fact is supported by
previous observation of other debris flow sites
(Fuchu et al. 1999; Tiranti et al. 2008).
Field survey revealed that the debris flows in
the Umyeonsan are developed by two main
processes: 1) in the vicinity of the crest, initial
failure produces a shallow landslide scar caused by
the transitional sliding of the loose colluvium
overlying gneiss bedrock (Figure 3(a)). With the
incorporation of surface water runoff resulting from
intensive rainfall, the soil slides mobilize
completely to form debris flows; 2) the overland
flow in rills on the valley slope is gradually
concentrated in the gully, which easily erodes the
loose deposits and ran rapidly downhill in relatively
narrow channels. The latter process is described as
fire hose effect (Godt and Coe, 2007). Meanwhile,
the depth of erosion varied from 0.1 to 1.5 m,
which was located within the colluvial layer or
along the interface between the colluvium and
bedrock (Figure 3(b)). The gneiss bedrock was
often exposed, which was deeply fractured and
highly weathered (Figure 3(c)). Transported debris
was deposited at the confluence of the gullies and
the toe of the mountain. The debris flow material
typically comprised soils and rocks of various sizes,
shape and gradation as well as woody blocks and
man-made material (Figure 3(d)).
Field and laboratory program
A comprehensive field and laboratory study was
conducted to investigate the spatial distribution and
geomorphological features of the landslides and to
determine the hydrogeological, geotechnical and
vegetation characteristics of the near-surface
deposits. These included visual inspection,
interpretation of aerial photographs, build of digital
elevation model (DEM), analysis of rainfall records,
in-situ and laboratory tests, and plant community
survey.
Aerial photography was used to examine the
location, number and characteristics of landslides. A
combination of 1:5,000 scale topographic maps and
global positioning system (GPS) was applied to
establish the topography of the landslides. The
geodetic data were used to construct a digital
elevation model (DEM) with an accuracy of 1 m in
elevation, which was then analyzed to obtain the
morphological information of landslide watersheds,
such as the length and gradient of channels and the
features of debris flow initiation areas (landslides
area). The relevant geographic information was
provided by the National Geographic Information
Institute of Korea.
Figure 3. Photographs taken at the initiation,
transportation and deposition areas of debris flows
The rainfall data recorded by two automatic rain
gauges in the vicinity of the Umyeonsan were used
to assess triggering rainfall conditions associated
with the debris flow event. As shown in Figure 1,
both rain gauges are located at the distance of 2 km
to the highest peak of the Umyeonsan (Mt.). The
Namhyun and Seocho stations represent the
southwest and northeast sides of the study area,
respectively. The return periods of rainfall intensities
of this rainstorm for different durations were
determined by applying the Gumbel distribution to
the historical rainfall records of the Seoul
observatory, where records begun in 1961. The
Seoul observatory is located at the distance of 11.7
km from the Umyeonsan peak. Among twenty
watersheds that experienced landslides (included
debris flow) activity during the 27th of July 2011
rainfall, two catastrophic landslide watersheds, i.e.,
the Raemian, Hyoungchon, and Deokuam (W1, W11
and W20 in Figure 2), were selected for field
investigation and measurement.
Ground investigation was performed to
determine the geotechnical and hydrogeological
5-3
properties of the initiation and transportation areas of registered at the Namhyun station was very severe,
the debris flows. Five boreholes were drilled to with a corresponding return period of more than
confirm the stratigraphy previously described and to 120 years. Interestingly, the peak hourly rainfall
undertake the in-situ tests, such as the standard temporally coincided well with the occurrence time
penetration test (SPT), saturated permeability test of the debris flow at the Raemian watershed
and borehole shear test. Six trial pits were also (starting at 8:30 pm).
conducted to characterize the surficial materials that
remained along the debris flow gullies: the disturbed
and undisturbed soil samples were obtained for
laboratory tests.
The laboratory program to characterize the
colluvial soil included the tests for the following:
(1) soil classification; (2) water content; (3)
Atterberg limits; (4) grain size distribution; (5) soil-
water characteristic curves; and (6) shear strength
parameters from direct shear test. All laboratory
tests were performed in accordance with the
procedures specified by American Standard of
Testing Materials (ASTM). Figure 4 shows the
locations of boreholes and seismic prospecting
Figure 5. Hourly and cumulative rainfall of 26-27
carried out within the landslides watersheds. To July 2011 at Namhyun station
explore the species distribution and structural
diversity of vegetation communities, a field survey Based on the rainfall analyses, the July 26 - 27,
was carried out at the Raemian watershed, where a 2011 rainfall is characterized by high intensity and
sampling plot of 400 m2, orientating parallel to the a long duration, which plays a critical role in the
debris flow gully, was established. A total of 149 landslides occurrence. Rainfall intensity-duration
woody species were recorded: all living trees (the thresholds (ID-curve method) are commonly used
diameter of breast height, DBH > 6 cm) were to predict the temporal occurrence of debris flows.
counted, and the characteristics of vegetation The thresholds represent the lower limit of peak
communities that include species, DBH, height and rainfall intensities that induce debris flows.
root depth were measured. Empirical ID thresholds are usually in the form of a
power law equation (Guzzetti et al. 2008):
I  D  (1)
where I is the rainfall intensity (mm/h), D is the
duration (hour), and α and β are the empirical
constants. Considering the duration of rainfall (16
h) prior to the Raemian debris flow and the
corresponding cumulative rainfall of 306.5 mm for
the Namhyun station, the average rainfall intensity
is 19.2 mm/h. For the Seocho station, the average
rainfall intensity for the same duration is 16.0 mm/h.
Figure 6 highlights the higher ID thresholds of this
Figure 4. Location plan of ground investigations
(Korean Geotechnical Society, 2012) rainstorm compared to the threshold curves
proposed by researchers. This suggests that the
Rainfall features intensive rainfall causes higher moisture condition
and build-up of pore water pressure in the
Figure 5 shows the hourly and cumulative colluvium, resulting in the debris flow event.
rainfall for July 26 - 27, 2011 recorded at the rain
gauges installed on the Namhyun station. The
cumulative 24-h rainfall ending at 12:40 pm on 27
July 2011 were 425.5, which was very heavy
rainfall. The maximum hourly rainfall for the
station was 112.5, which occurred between 7:40
and 8:40 am on 27 July 2011. The 1-h rainfall

5-4
 25 %. According to the Unified Soil Classification
System (USCS), the colluvial soils are classified as
SM and SC-CL. The direct shear test of the
undisturbed soil samples indicates that the average
strength parameters correspond to cohesion of 9.2
kPa and friction angle of 24.8°, which is similar to
those from the in-situ tests in boreholes.

Figure 6. Comparison of measured rainfall

intensity-duration data and existing intensity-
duration threshold curves

Geotechnical features
The geology from the borehole survey consists
of distinct three layers, including a 1.5 - 4.5 m layer
(a) Typical soil profile of Umyeonsan (Mt.)
of colluvium, followed by a 0.5 - 9.9 m layer of
highly weathered rock, and a fresh rock (Figure 7).
The colluvial soils are made up of a wide range of
particle sizes, characterized as silty sand. The
gravels, cobbles and pebbles of various sizes are
identified in colluvial deposits. Their shapes appear
to be sub-angular to angular. The standard
penetration number (N-value) of the colluvium is
approximately 4/30 - 5/30. In general, N-values less
than 10 means that the soil is very soft and loose
(Bowles 1996). Therefore, it is inferred that the
colluvial deposit provides the source material
available for the debris flows. The N-value of
weathered rock widely varies from 12/30 to 50/10,
depending on a degree of weathering. Based on the
results of the constant head permeability and shear (b) Representative soil profiles of three watersheds
tests in boreholes, the permeability of the colluvium
Figure 7. Soil profile of the study area
is about 10-4 m/s and the permeability of the
weathered rock is of the order of 10-5 m/s.
Vegetation features
The physical properties of the soil samples
obtained from the depths of 0.15 - 0.5 m in Vegetation, especially trees with root system,
colluvium are summarized as follows: The water plays a decisive role in slope stability, particularly
contents ranges from 14.1 to 32.1 %, indicating that on steep forested slopes liable to shallow rapid
the superficial layer is wet, with the soils having a failures. The effect of vegetation on slope stability
high degree of saturation. The plastic and liquid includes 1) mechanical stabilization of soil by roots,
limits of the soils are in the range of 20.9 to 23.8% 2) soil water modification via evapotranspiration,
and 30.2 to 42.1%, respectively. The colluvial and 3) surcharge from the self-weight of trees
deposits contain fines (i.e., silty and clay) of 28.8 - (Nilaweera and Nutalaya 1999). In sallow slopes,
55.7 %, which help sustain high pore water the tree roots may penetrate the entire soil mass,
pressure in the debris flow promoting travel which act as tensile elements within the soil matrix
(Iverson 2003). Ellen and Fleming (1987) analyzed as well as anchors connecting weak soil into
the clay content of soil samples from colluvial adjacent more stable soil. The root fiber
slopes and demonstrated that the slope failure is reinforcement is highly variable, depending on the
significantly associated with the clay content of 8 to type and depth of soils and root characteristics

5-5
controlled by species, edaphic and hydrological
conditions (Wu and Sidle, 1995). The Umyeonsan
(Mt.) is rich in flora. Species composition is
dominated by Quercus mongolica (43%), known as
Mongolian Oak. Since the Mongolian Oak grows
fast, it has been widely used in the region for
combating soil erosion as well as shallow landslides
and debris flows. In the Umyeonsan (Mt.), dense
understory vegetation (shrubs, bushes and herbs)
with many well-branched stems within 2 m of the
ground surface was sparsely distributed. Field
survey also revealed that the root depths appear to
be restricted to the surface layer of < 1 m, although
the majority of colluvium depths in debris flow lie
in the range of 1 to 2 m (Figure 8).
Figure 8. Relationship between root length and
colluvium depth
AVAILABLE METHODS FOR LANDSLIDES
A large number of empirical and analytical
models have been proposed for susceptibility
assessment of landslide. However, due to their
complexity, knowledge of the causes and processes
of landslides is still imperfect, and further research
on the topics of landslides is still a must, such as
rainfall-induced landslides, earthquake-induced
landslides, field monitoring, numerical simulation
and hazard analysis (Kim et al., 2014; Xue et al.,
2014; Sun et al., 2014; Jiao et al., 2014).
Fundamentally landslides have internal causes
(geology and groundwater) but can have natural
triggers such as rainfall, erosion, and earthquakes,
or can be triggered by human actions such as
agriculture and construction. In particularly, global
climate change could trigger more landslides
because of changes in the rainfall intensity,
frequency, and rainfall depth (Borga et al., 2002;
Liao et al., 2011; Kim et al. 2012). In Korea, these
changes could trigger deformation of soil slopes
resulting in slope instability within many
5-6
mountainous areas of South region (Jeong et al.,
2008; 2014). Landslides in Korea are also occur
during the rainy season (June to September), which
are characterized by a relatively shallow failure of
surfaces that develop parallel to the original slope.
For example, On July 2011, 33 debris flows
combined with 151 landslides were triggered by an
extreme rainfall in Umyeonsan (Mt.), Seoul, Korea.
Many researchers have studied the rainfall-
induced landslide through laboratory and field tests,
and numerical analysis. They present a mechanism
for rainfall-induced landslides which commonly
occur when the wetting band is increased while soil
suction is lost, and the effective vertical stress is
reduced (Lu and Likos, 2004; Jeong et al., 2008, Lu
and Godt, 2008). According to related studies by
Rahardjo et al. (1998), Ng et al. (2003, 2008), and
Jeong et al. (2008), landslides are triggered by
external stimulus that modifies the slope stability
conditions, increasing the material stress or
reducing its strength by hydro-mechanical coupled
processes.
Traditionally, the susceptibility analysis of
rainfall-induced landslide on large scale is usually
performed using deterministic methods, such as
Limited Equilibrium Method (LEM) and Finite
Element Method (FEM). They are still significant
to find the cause and mechanism for slope failure,
such as slope geometry, the mechanical properties,
permeability, and equilibrium condition.
Commercial software such as GEO-SLOPE (2012),
PLAXIS (2012), SOIL-WORKS (2014), are widely
used for simulating the seepage problem and slope
stability.
Recently, regional scaled methods have been
proposed to predict landslide susceptibility depends
on topographic, geologic, hydrologic variables and
changes in land use (Pardeshi et al., 2013).
Landslide susceptibility assessment on regional
scale, the problem is recognized before the
landslide event, is useful for avoiding landslide
losses (Brabb, 1993). There are several methods of
landslide susceptibility assessment, in general,
these methods can be classified into four
approaches: inventory, heuristic, statistic, and
deterministic (Soeters and van Westen, 1996; van
Westen et al., 1997; Dai et al., 2002; Zhou et al.,
2003). Implementing data for landslide factors,
such as topography, weather condition and
vegetation, in Geographic Information System
(GIS) may be starting point for a regional landslide
susceptibility assessment (Westen et al., 1997).
These regional scaled models consider a relation
between rainfall and landslide. In particular,
deterministic analysis models (or physically based
model) usually combine a hydrological model and a
geotechnical model for analysis of rainfall-induced
landslide, and they determine both the timing and
localization of landslides in response to rainfall on
a regional scale using GIS. This paper presents a
physically-based GIS model and hydro-
mechanically coupled finite element (FE) model to
describe rainfall-induced shallow landslide under
extreme rainfall events. The main features of two
models are presented and comprehensive case study
on the 2011 Umyeonsan landslide is given to
illustrate its application and usefulness. Moreover,
an experimental study is performed to investigate
the cause and mechanism of landslide/debris flow.
A number of technical finding are of interests,
including the effect of groundwater flow, the
downward velocity of wetting front, the upward Figure 9. Flow chart of the proposed conceptual
velocity of groundwater level, and progressive methodology
slope failure.
(1) Geotechnical model
Physically based GIS model
Landslide analysis considers the infiltration by
The proposed model, YonSei-slope model (YS- rainfall, which can be classified into three
slope model), is to simulate the potential mechanisms: 1) a mechanism that considers the
occurrences of shallow landslides on unsaturated downward velocity of the wetting front, 2) a
soil by rainfall-infiltration, storage, recharge and mechanism that considers the upward velocity of
groundwater flow processes. This physically-based the groundwater level, and 3) a mechanism that
prediction model was based on geographic considers both of these factors. This model
information system (GIS) (Soller et.al; 1999, 2005), improves infinite slope model for the first or second
all of data sets, topographic, soil depth, case to interpret the landslide susceptibility for the
precipitation and geotechnical parameters were third of the mechanisms (Figure 10). The safety
built to raster data of matrix structure. Data factor (FS) for the infinite slope is calculated from
structure of YS-Slope model bases on raster data of the ratio of the resisting stress on a slip surface to
GIS, and it would not perform any data conversion the gravitationally induced downward slope driving
excepting for initial data setting up in contrast with stress:
previous methods using hydrological model.
(cs'  cr' )  ( t  Ds  q0  ( sat   w )  Dw )  cos2   tan ' (2)
We propose a conceptual methodology (Figure FS 
( t  Ds   sat  Dw  q0 )  sin  cos
9) for the typical susceptibility assessment of shallow
landslide based on hydrological and geotechnical
method. A computer program, YS-Slope has been
developed using this methodology. The YS-Slope
uses unsaturated soil parameters such as field matric
suction and SWCC. Various types of rainfall events
like real-time rainfall and probability rainfall are
used. They were built to raster data of matrix
structure. Using these data and DEM, the rainfall
infiltration depth and recharge into the groundwater
considering storage time were calculated for
different times and locations of watershed. It was
used for calculating factor of safety in second level. Figure 10. Typical soil profile and hydrologic
Finally, it can assess a rainfall-induced landslide model concept
depending on time varying by using groundwater
table and wetting band depth.

5-7
 ' '
where c s is the cohesion of the soil, c r is the
constant value related to additional shear strengths
from the roots of trees, q0 is the uniform load by
trees, Dw is the depth of the wetting band (=Dwm +
Dwn), Ds is the depth of the unsaturated soil (=Dmn),
γt is the total unit weight of the soil, γsat is the
saturated unit weight of the soil, γw is the unit
weight of water, and β is the angle of the slope.
(2) Hydrological model
The hydrologic model is improved by
incorporating the combined effects of groundwater
flow and rain-fall infiltration to the raster model.
This model was developed by considering the
unsaturated soil behaviour to estimate the rainfall-
infiltration (IR) and the recharge (R). The soil
profile is ideally subdivided into three zones, i.e.,
the wetting band zone, partially saturated zone, and
fully saturated zone, as shown in Figure 11. The
vertical infiltration of water from the surface into
the ground is modelled in the wetting band and
partially saturated zones.
(Qx) in a cell can convert to the change in height
(  H ) using the deficit water content (Δθ), and be
expressed by
ks sin βij Hijk
ΔHijk = dt (3)
s Δθ
where s is the distance between each cell, Hw is the
height of groundwater in a cell (= dz), and θs is the
volumetric water content. k is the permeability, i is
hydraulic gradient, s is the distance through the soil,
the subscript x (or y, z) denotes the x (or y, z)-
direction, and sin(  i  dh / ds ) is the hydraulic
gradient resulting from a difference in the
groundwater potential across an element of the
medium. The total volume of flow leaving the
element and its flow direction were estimated using
the eight-flow method (Jenson and Domingue,
1988). The flow of groundwater was calculated
using the slope and slope direction of the bedrock.
Based on the assumption that the kinetic energy is
negligible, the total volume of flow leaving a cell
can only be affected by the neighbourhood cells. It
noted that a vector analysis including the watershed
and drainage network is not required. Therefore, the
flow of groundwater can be calculated from a cell
to a neighbourhood by shifting the change of
groundwater height based on equation (3).

Figure 11. Typical soil profile and hydrologic

model concept

The proposed model assumed that the

volumetric water content and deficit the water
content remain constant above or below the wetting
front. The groundwater flow was derived for a
small elemental volume, where the properties of the
soil were assumed to be effectively constant (Figure
12). A mass balance was done on the water flowing
in and out of this small volume, and the flux was
calculated in terms of the head using constitutive
equation of Darcy’s law, which requires that the
flow is slow.
The kinetic energy is neglected as described by Figure 12. Fluid flow of an elementary volume of
Cedergren (1977). The total volume of the flow fluid in YS-Slope
leaving the element (Qx) in the x-direction for a unit
time (  t ) can be expressed by assuming that the
pore water pressure is constant over a small
elementary volume of space. To apply the raster
model, the total volume of flow leaving the element

5-8
Coupled hydro-mechanical FE model
(1) Governing equations
A coupled hydro-mechanical FE model is based
on a mixed FE formulation relating the degree of
freedom for solid displacement and pore water
pressure and quantifying the stresses and pore water
pressures. In general, unsaturated soils consist of a
three-phase mixture that is composed of solid
skeleton, pore water, and pore air. Based on the
small strain theory and assuming near-
homogeneous local conditions, the balance of linear
momentum and the balance of mass of the mixture
are expressed as follows (Kim et al., 2012):
divσ  g  0 (4)
S
n p w  Sdiv v  div v~ w (5)
s
where, σ is the total (Cauchy) stress tensor,
 (   sR   wR   aR ) is the mass density of the
mixture, g is the gravitational acceleration vector,
S is the degree of saturation, s   pw is the matric
suction, pw is the pore water pressure, v is the
velocity of the solid skeleton, v~ w  n w (v w  v ) is
the superficial Darcy velocity vector of water, and
v w is the true velocity vector of water. The
deformation of the solid is represented by the
velocity v in this equation.
The constitutive equation for unsaturated flow is
expressed by the generalized Darcy’s law, relating
the relative velocity of the seepage v~ w with the
hydraulic gradient as follows:
 p  pressure pw (Bishop, 1954).
v~ w  k w ( n, S )   w   wR g  (6)
 x  σ  σ ' pa 1   ( pa  pw )1  σ ' pw1
where k w is the unsaturated permeability and  wR
is the real mass density of water.
The permeability function depends on the
degree of saturation or matric suction in unsaturated
soils. A number of empirical and semi-empirical
functions have been proposed. Here, the
permeability of water is assumed to vary with the
degree of saturation and porosity according to the
following relationships:
  (n) 
k w ( n, S )    k rw ( S )
 w 
(7)
n3
 ( n)  l  ( n),
2
 (n) 
1  n2
 
k rw ( S )  S 1  1  S m  
m 2
(8)
where  is the intrinsic permeability of the porous
skeleton that varies with porosity, k rw is the
relative permeability of the pore water, l is the
pore geometry parameter for length, and  w is the
dynamic water velocity. The  (n) function is
referred to as the Kozeny-Carman formula (Coussy,
2011). For the permeability function described in
Eq. (8), the porosity n is a function of the solid
skeleton volumetric strain  v .
n n   vh
n ,  vh  tr ( h ) (9)
1   vh
where  h is the solid skeleton strain vector. In
addition, the soil-water characteristics curve
(SWCC) must be defined. The SWCC relating the
dimensionless volumetric water content  to
matric suction s provides an important constitutive
relationship that is used to the balance of mass and
linear momentum of the unsaturated soil mixture.
Thus, the following equation as defined by van
Genuchten (1980) is employed:

   s  ( s   r ) 1   s 
n m
 (10)
where the subscript s and r indicate the saturated
and residual values, respectively, of the volumetric
soil water content  ; s is the matric suction; and
 (1/ kPa) , n , and m ( 1  1 / n) are the curve
fitting parameters for SWCC.
The behavior of the solid mixture is
significantly related to the stress state of the soil.
An important step in theoretical development is the
decomposition of the total stress σ into the
effective stress tensor σ  and the pore water
(11)
where  is the effective stress parameter, which
varies from 0 for dry soils to 1 for saturated soils.
In this study, the effective degree of saturation is
assumed to be the effective stress parameter (Lu et
al., 2010).
(2) Coupled FE formulation and implementation
The strong form of the coupled governing
equations can be expressed by coupling the
nonlinear weak form of the unsaturated biphasic
mixture after integration by parts and the
application of the Divergence theorem (Hughes,
1987). In this case, the weighting functions of w
and  are considered as variations of the
displacement and pore water pressure, respectively.
5-9
 w : σ  S
B
e pw1dV   w  g dV   w  t σ d  0
B t
(12) (3) Calculation of factor of safety
To determine the minimum factor of safety at
S
  n p w dV    S divv dV     v~ w dV each gauss point for all elements, the global factor
s
B B B
of safety Fs is defined as follows (Cho and Lee,
    S w d  0
s
2001):
(13)
σ
where t is the total traction on the solid traction  f d
w
boundary and S is the positive inward water Fs  

seepage at the fluid flux boundary.   d

The FE domain is discretized with the mixed
quadrilateral finite elements Q9P4, which employs
continuous biquadratic displacement and bilinear
pore water pressure. After discretization in space
with the Galerkin weighted residual method, a set
of coupled nonlinear parabolic partial differential
equations can be obtained in matrix form as
follows:
C ( D) D  F INT ( D)  F EXT ( D)
where C is a combination of the damping and
stiffness matrix of the degree of freedom for the
vector time derivative; F INT is the stiffness matrix;
F EXT is the forcing vector; D represents the
primary variables, including the displacement and
the pore water pressure; and D is the time
derivative of D .
d 
D 
  ,
  d 
 critical slip surface that can be predicted as a
D

  ,

i (21)
f
where  is the length of the slip surface, and
 i are, respectively, the shear strength and the
mobilized shear stress at the corresponding points
of the slip surface.
 f  c    n tan    ( pa  p w ) tan  b
(22)
(14)  i  0.5( y   x ) sin 2   xy cos 2
(23)
 n   x sin 2    y cos 2    xy sin 2
(24)
where  n is the net normal effective stress on the
slip surface;  b is an angle that defines the increase
in shear strength for an increase in matric suction;
 is the angle of the slip surface to the horizontal
plane; and  x ,  y , and  xy are the stresses on the
slope mesh. These stresses are computed using the
(15) elasto-plastic modified Drucker-Prager model. The
minimum local factor of safety determines the
(16) noncircular curve along the potential failure surface.

LANDSLIDE SIMULATION AND RESULTS

 0 0 
C ( D)   d , INT  1, INT 
 K ( )  K ( d ,  )  , (17)
Experimental test
To obtain the SWCC of top soil on the Raemian
 F d , INT (d , )  F d , INT ( )
F INT
( D)   
watershed of Umyeonsan (Mt.), pressure plate
  F  2, INT (d , )  , (18) extractor and filter paper tests were performed. The
results of these tests are given in Figure 13.
 F d , EXT (d , ) According to the Unified Soil Classification System
F EXT ( D)    , EXT  (19)
 F  (USCS), the top soil can be classified as SM (silty
sand). The test results show a higher air-entry value,
Numerical time integration is conducted by the saturated- and residual volumetric water contents.
backward Euler method (which is a member of the
generalised trapezoidal family) to solve the
transient by using a FE coupled balance of mass
and linear momentum equations at time t n 1 .

C ( Dn1)Vn1  F INT Dn1  F EXT ( Dn1 ) 20)

where Vn1 is D (t n1 ) .

5-10
 converted from the 2009 LiDAR data, soil data
obtained from detailed investigations and field
measurements, and precipitation gauged by the auto
weather station (AWS) of KMA (2011) were used
as the input data. The soil investigation was
performed to obtain the detailed information of soil
properties, and summarized in Table 2. Some soil
properties (Cr’, qo) were adopted from the literature
(Clausnitzer et al., 1998; Norris, 2008). To obtain a
soil depth, a Krigging method was performed by
using data from 14 bore-holes, 2 km seismic
prospecting, and a DEM (Figure 15).

Table 2. Geotechnical and hydraulic properties of the

Figure 13. Soil-water characteristic curve soil used in this study

Field matric suction was measured at the Parameters Values

Raemian watershed from June 29 to July 19 in 2012.
8×10-4 cm/s
Three tensiometers depending on shallow- and Hydraulic conductivity, ks
(28.8 mm/h)
middle- and deep-depths were installed and then
measured matric suctions at the six different Initial water contents, θ i 28.0~32.0 (30.0) %
locations (T1-T6). Typically monitored results at T2 Water-content deficit, θ 0.20
and T5 have been selected and are shown in Figure
Soil cohesion, C s' 10.2~12.8 (11.0) kPa
14. The initial matric suction measured at the site on
June 29 before the rainy season was approximately Soil friction angle, φ' 22.4~26.6 (26.5) ˚
75 - 85 kPa. After the rainfall began the matric
suctions of 0.2-0.6 m depths rapidly decreased to 0 Additional shear strength
by roots of tree, C r' 1.0 kPa
- 16 kPa and the matric suctions of 0.6 - 1.3 m
gradually decreased to 20 kPa. At the depth of 1.4 Uniform load by tree, q 0 0.253 kPa
m, the matric suction did not change during the six
days, since the infiltrated rainwater did not reach to Figure 16 shows the result of the landslide
this depth, whereas, it tends to decrease after the analysis using the proposed model in the Raemian
6th day. Since then, all tensiometers were watershed. At the point of L3, L4 and L6 in the
maintained approximately at 10 - 20 kPa without landslide inventory, it was assessed that the
further additional rainfall. landslides were occurred under the ground water
table, and L1, L2 and L5 on wetting front. Thus,
two types of landslide were occurred in this site,
and a series of landslides were triggered by
subsurface infiltration and rising groundwater-table.

Figure 14. Measurement results and rainfall data

(T2, T5)
Figure 15. Map of the soil layer depth
Physically based GIS model
A GIS-based landslide analysis was performed
to find out causing and failure mechanism by using
the proposed model. A 5×5 m gridded DEM

5-11

Figure 16. Type of slope failure in the Raemian
watershed
Figure 17 shows the result of the analysis using
the predictive models in the Dukwooam watershed.
In this test site, the results of analysis for the both
mechanisms reasonably agree with all of landslide
observations. Because this site has generally a
shallow soil depth of 2.0-3.0 m, it is sufficiently
shallow with relation to wetting band depth of 2.0
m in the test site. Thus, this area was exposed to the
same level of risk of landslide, which was triggered
by subsurface infiltration and rising groundwater-
table. The results show the primary triggering
factors causing landslides, i.e., soil depth, and
spatial and temporal distributions of groundwater
variations.
failure locations were confirmed by performing a
preliminary study (Jeong and Kim, 2013). Due to
uncertainty in the boundary conditions, the
geometry problem, and the time consuming
problem, the typical FE mesh was simplified and
concentrated on the upper portion of Mt.
Umyeonsan. Figure 18 shows the FE mesh for the
selected slope and the nine-node quadrilateral
mixed finite elements were adopted to capture the
coupled water flow and soil deformation in the
unsaturated soil. In the FE analysis, the model
assumes that the soil consists of homogeneous
colluvium, that the majority of slope failures occur
at shallow depths, and that the underlying bedrock
consists of homogeneous impermeable soft rock.
The initial groundwater table was assumed to be
located at the bottom of the bedrock. The initial
slope conditions were taken as hydrostatic with
initial matric suction of 80 kPa obtained from field
monitoring.
Colluvium A B
Pore pressure
Displacement
Bedrock
Figure 18. Typical soil profile and hydrologic
model concept

Table 3. Model parameters used in coupled FE analysis

Type Value
Elastic and Shear modulus
29 x 106 Pa, 7 x 106 Pa
(, )
Shear strength parameters 22.8°, 15°, 10°,
(  ,  , , c )
b
10.7 x 103 Pa
Plastic parameters ( hc ,  ) 10 x 106 Pa, -1
Solid real density ( 
sR
) 1850 kg/m3

Water real density ( 

wR
) 1000 kg/m3
Viscosity of water (  w ) 10-3 Pa·s
Initial porosity
0.41 (=0.2+0.21)
(nn n )
w a
Figure 17. Slope failure in the case of Dukwooam
watershed
For the coupled FE simulation, the colluvial
Coupled hydro-mechanical FE model soils were modelled as elasto-plastic modified
A two-dimensional (2D) plane strain condition Drucker-Prager model. Several soil properties
was created on the cross-section of the slope, which related to unsaturated soil, such as the mechanical
passed through the centre of the watershed. As and hydraulic parameters, are summarized in Table
previously mentioned, the landslides in the areas 3.
were initiated in the top of the mountain. The

5-12
 The rainfall data recorded at the Seocho station
were used as the flux boundary conditions q ,
which is controlled at the surface of the slope. The
total duration of rainfall from June 22 to July 27
was 850 hours (35.4 days) and was divided into
several stages to simulate a realistic rainfall event.
In addition, a non-ponding boundary condition was
adopted to prevent excessive accumulation of
rainfall on the slope surface. The nodal flux Q of
zero was applied along the sides and the bottom of
the slope to simulate the no flow zone.
Regarding the infiltration characteristics of the
soil slope, a critical slip surface was evaluated to
investigate slope instabilities and failure zones.
Figure 19 shows noncircular critical slip surfaces in
the Raemian and Dukwooam slopes. The critical
slip surface gradually deepens towards the bedrock
with time during rainfall events. This result indicate
that coupled hydro-mechanical FE analysis can
simulate the progressive failure of the slope within
the colluvium layer as rainwater infiltrates from the
slope surface into deeper soil layers. The critical
slip surface is consistently developed on the
colluvium-bedrock interface at the end of the
rainfall events, which shows good agreement with
the actual failure zone.
(a) Raemian watershed
(b) Dukwooam watershed
Figure 19. Critical slip surface from coupled FE
analysis
For comparison purpose seepage and slope
stability analyses were performed using SEEP/W
and SLOPE/W. Figure 20 shows the failure surface
of the slope, which has the same material properties
and boundary conditions with coupled hydro-
mechanical FE model. The limit equilibrium
analysis could predict the considerably different
failure shape and overestimate the failure zone
compared with those obtained from the coupled
hydro-mechanical FE analysis. This is due to the
fact that the limit equilibrium solution provides
only one critical failure surface and does not
consider stress history regarding the distribution of
stress-strain in the slope due to rainfall event,
whereas the coupled FE analysis repeatedly
identified inflection points as a failure initiation.
Korean Geotechnical Society (2011) performed the
field investigation immediately after the landslides
and reported that the landside size in Raemian
watershed was approximately 50 m long and 30 m
wide. In addition, an erosional response of the
Raemian slope in Figure 21 indicates that a
weakened zone was formed in the colluvium,
causing a noncircular-shaped sliding mass, mainly
in the upper portion of slopes. Debris flows is
initiated at the toe of sliding mass where multiple
debris flows meet at the point of 50-55 m away
from the top of the slope.
(a) Raemian watershed
(b) Dukwooam watershed
Figure 20. Critical slip surface from limit equilibrium
analysis
5-13
 The landslide length of 35 m and width of 20 m MITIGATION MEASURES
in Dukwooam watershed was also investigated
To reduce the impact of further debris flow
using the same technique as applied in Raemian
disasters, mitigation measures have been designed
slope. Based on these results, the predicted failure
and constructed in the Umyeonsan area. The
surface obtained from coupled hydro-mechanical
engineering solution combines elements such as
FE analysis show a better agreement with those
ecological planting, stone channels, soil nailing and
obtained from field investigations and LiDAR
concrete barriers, as shown in Figure 23. Soil
survey as compared with the results of limit
nailing is a ground reinforcement technique that is
equilibrium analysis.
effective for weak soil slopes and involves
Figure 22 shows the variations in the factor of
installing steel bars and shotcrete. These mitigation
safeties in the Raemian and Dukwooam slopes. The
structures were installed not only in steep and long
factor of safety for both slopes decreased with time,
gullies but also in short gullies from small
reaching their minimum values at the end of the
watersheds with problematic geological zones. In
rainfall events. The initial factor of safety for the
addition, the administration department installed
Raemian slope is 1.78 during the driest period,
warning systems to alert civilians in case of
which is larger than that of the Dukwooam slope
potentially severe meteorological events.
(1.61) due to the different slope angles and soil
depths. The factor of safety decreased significantly
at the beginning of the rainfall events due to the
effect of a reduction in matric suction. When
rainwater infiltrated the soil layer, the matric
suction decreased rapidly and factor of safety
coincidentally decreased. The magnitude and the
rate of decrease in factor of safety is also related to
the rainfall intensity.

Figure 23. Conceptual design of mitigation

measures to be applied in the Raemian watershed

Figure 21. Longitudinal profile of debris flow gully CONCLUSIONS

from LiDAR survey in Raemian watershed
1) A catastrophic debris flow watershed in the
study area were chosen for a forensic
investigation to analyze the geomorphological
features of the debris flow gullies as well as to
study several factors controlling the debris
flows. It is found that the debris flows activity
is related primarily to rainfall, but also soil
type and properties, the slope angle at the
hillslope, and vegetation.
2) The physically-based GIS model is improved
by incorporating the combined effects of
groundwater flow and rainfall infiltration into
the raster model. The special attention is given
to the consideration of groundwater flow,
Figure 22. Variation in factor of safety for study
areas with time

5-14
 rainfall water infiltration into ground, and
groundwater rising in ground.
3) This model has clearly demonstrated two
types of rainfall induced landslide, which
means that the series of landslide were
triggered by rainfall water infiltration into
ground and groundwater rising in ground.
Moreover, two types of landslide mechanism
show good agreement with landslide
observation.
4) The hydro-mechanically coupled finite
element model using Drucker-Prager elasto-
plastic model describes the poromechanical
behaviour of the rainfall-induced landslide by
linking seepage and stress-deformation
problems simultaneously.
5) The failure behaviour of shallow landslide is
well predicted by the coupled hydro-
mechanical finite element model. Moreover,
the critical slip surface tends to expand and
the factor of safety decrease due to prolonged
rainfall.
6) A series of numerical simulations of this paper
provide an initial understanding of the actual
mechanism of soil slope instability for
transient condition leading to shallow surface
failure caused by rainfall infiltration.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by the National
Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded
by the Korea government (MSIP) (No. 2011-
0030842).
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Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

THEORY TO REALITY OF FAILURES OF SOIL SLOPES INCLUDING FORENSIC

ANALYSIS OF AN INDIAN LANDSLIDE DISASTER

Deepankar Choudhury 1, Ashutosh Kumar 2 and Milind Patil 2

ABSTRACT: Failure of slopes due to earthquakes and intense rainfall occur frequently in
many parts of the world and severe effects of these major factors for slope instability
were observed in various parts of India also. Instability assessment of soil slope due to
these events is a major concern to geotechnical practitioners and has been broadly studied
by several researchers. In the present paper, the effect of seismic force and seepage on
soil slope stability has been presented. It is observed that the seismic force has severe
effect on the top of the slope with negligible displacement occurring at the slope bottom.
This depends largely on the characteristics of input ground motion and geotechnical
characteristics of the soil media present at the site. Forensic study on a real landslide failure in western India
which occurred on 30th July, 2014 near Pune, India has been presented in detail. The forensic analysis after the
landslide disaster has been critically examined through ground reality and evidences collected from the disaster
affected site. Also debris flow of this disaster shows the adverse effects of heavy rainfall intensity, stepped
vegetation scheme, deforestation, unplanned construction and re-channelizing of flow path of natural stream etc.
Theoretical study based on limit equilibrium method and numerical modeling through PLAXIS2D also certifies
the root causes of this landslide disaster. From the geotechnical field and laboratory test results by using both
undisturbed as well as disturbed soil specimen of silty sand and clay sample collected at the slip surfaces and
from the debris of the landslide, it is postulated that the shear strength is reduced due to sudden increase in pore
water pressure and continuous seepage due to heavy rain. This study provides a complete picture of typical soil
slope failures under natural disasters.

Keywords: Landslide, forensic, India, shear strength, rainfall, PLAXIS2D, earthquake

INTRODUCTION ensure stability of the slope evaluated under both

Landslide is defined as downslope movement of
rock, debris flow occur under any external agents
viz. earthquake, seepage, blast etc. and is
considered as most common geologic hazard in
hilly areas all over the world. The detached material
poses a major threat to the people living along the
movement path, thereby inflicting a heavy loss on
life and property. The damage due to a slope failure
varies from insignificant to catastrophic and is
influenced by the geological, hydrological,
topographical, geometrical and material properties
of the particular slope. An important consideration
for the safe, economic analysis, design and
construction of embankments, dams, excavations,
trenches and other geotechnical structures is to
short long and term conditions.
The fatalities occurred due to landslide is
around 17% with approximately 66 million people
living around landslide vulnerable areas (Sassa and
Canuti, 2008). The report of International Landslide
center of University Durham (2007) states that
China was most seriously affected country with 695
landslide induced deaths, followed by Indonesia
with 465, India with 352, Nepal with 168,
Bangladesh with 150 deaths (Petely, 2010). Recent
earthquake in Nepal on 25 April, 2015 (Mw= 7.8)
also induced several shallow landslide in many
areas of Nepal and northern India leading to
blockage of roads as well as loss of life and
property. Therefore, proper understanding of
landslide mechanism may help to prevent this

1
Professor, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, IIT Bombay, Powai, Mumbai 400076, INDIA. Also Adjunct Professor,
Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research, AcSIR, New Delhi, INDIA
2
Ph.D. Student, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, IIT Bombay, Powai, Mumbai
400076, INDIA

6-1
hazard into disaster and also prevent them from
future occurrence are considered as an important
task to geoscientist that may help government and
decision makers in slope management and land use
planning. In the present study, the influences of
seismic event and seepage forces on the typical soil
slopes have been investigated. Thereafter, a
forensic study of landslide occurred nearby Pune
region, in western part of India is presented and
plausible causes of the failure are discussed in
detail.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Terzaghi (1950) employed pseudo-static
approach for analyzing the seismic slope stability
problems where earthquake shaking were
represented by constant horizontal and vertical
accelerations, named as pseudo-static acceleration
in the present study. Newmark (1965) proposed the
displacement based approach by using sliding block
for calculating the displacement generated during
seismic shaking. Seismic studies on reinforced soil
slopes were carried out by dividing slope into
horizontal slices [Nouri et al. (2006), Choudhury
and Modi (2008)] with various failure surfaces like
non-circular [Nimbalkar et al. (2006)] while
method of vertical slices for obtaining the dynamic
factor of safety of a sliding soil mass of generalized
soil slope was conducted by Choudhury et al.
(2007). Analytical methods for slope stability
analysis under both static and seismic conditions
were carried out by Zhu et al. (2003), Kim and Sitar
(2004), Bray and Travasarou (2007), Choudhury
(2008) while numerical analysis of the same were
conducted by Choudhury et al (2013), Choudhury
and Chatterjee (2014). Effect of landslides on slope
stability in Himalayas and the Indian landslide
scenario along with various strategic plans were
studied in details by Bhandari (1986, 2007).
INFLUENCE OF SEISMIC FORCES ON SOIL
SLOPE STABILITY
In the present study, stability of a soil slope
comprising of an embankment with two canal
Figure 1. Typical displacement contours of the model soil slope subjected to 2001 Bhuj ground motion
(Chatterjee and Choudhury 2014)
6-2
bunds at the top filled with water is analyzed using
finite difference based computer program FLAC2D.
The analysis is carried out at three stages of
construction of the model i.e. only an embankment,
embankments with empty canal bunds and
embankments with canal bunds filled with water
and subjected to earthquake motions, as mentioned
by Chatterjee and Choudhury (2014). The
foundation soil is varied from stiff clay to soft clay
and dense sand to loose sand without altering the
embankment soil. Four different seismic zones, as
per IS 1893 Part 1 (2002), were considered in the
study with three different combinations of
horizontal (kh) and vertical (kv) seismic acceleration
coefficients, i.e. kv/kh= 0.0, 0.5 and 1.0. Dynamic
analysis was implemented after plotting the
response spectrum curve and selecting 1995 Kobe
and 2001 Bhuj motions as the input ground motions.
The analysis results shows that factor of safety
decreased from only embankment stage to full
canal bund stage and the decrease was more for
loose sand and soft clay due to its low shear
strength. An increase in zone factor and with kv/kh =
1.0, the magnitude of seismic force increases leads
to further decrease in factor of safety, as expected.
The dynamic analysis results showed that
maximum ground acceleration and vertical
displacement of the soil slope is more for 1995
Kobe motion than that for Bhuj motion due to a
higher peak ground acceleration of the former
motion. The numerical analysis results were
validated with modified Newmark’s method, where
the influence of both cohesion (c) and friction (ϕ)
and presence of water were considered. Various
expressions of factor of safety for different stages
of construction of the model were obtained
analytically by Chatterjee and Choudhury (2014),
and it was observed that FLAC2D gave
conservative results. The typical model soil slope
considered by Chatterjee and Choudhury (2014)
with vertical displacement contours is shown in
Figure 1.
FIELD CASE STUDY OF A LANDSLIDE
FAILURE IN INDIA
A Shallow landslide occurred on 30th July, 2014
in Malin (Lat. 190 9’ 40’’ N and Long. 80 41’ 18’’
E) lying along foothills of Sahyadri mountain range
and 110 km away from Pune City of India. The
village had population of about 250 people living
close to the catchment area of Dimbhe Dam. The
catastrophe occurred in the early morning when
most of the people were still asleep, causing death
of more than 150 people. The devastation was
noticed at 7:30 IST when bus driver met with dead
end of the road. Figure 2(a,b) illustrates the
panoramic view of Malin village before and after
the landslide which shows the complete wash out of
nearly all the houses along the downslope path.
Figure 3 illustrates the debris along the downslope
path which contains washed out houses, detached
soil mass and fallen trees lying along the slope
movement.
Figure 2. View of (a) pre and (b) post landslide
failure
FORENSIC STUDY ON AN INDIAN
LANDSLIDE
An expert technical team with geotechnical,
structural and geological subject experts appointed
by Indian National Academy of Engineering
(INAE), New Delhi had rushed to the landslide
affected site for reconnaissance survey to know the
possible technical causes of this devastating failure.
A reconnaissance survey along with geotechnical
field testing was conducted at the site. It was
observed that a natural stream was present along
left part of mud scar originating from crown of the
slope. The free movement of water along the slope
might have been stopped due to the construction of
Figure 3. View of debris flow along the downslope
houses and terrace farming along the slope. It is to path
be noted that Malin area received heavy rainfall
intensity of 60mm to 169mm from 29-30 July, 2014 SLOPE STABLITY ANALYSIS USING SITE-
as per the data recorded at Dimbhe Dam nearby the SPECIFIC DATA
affected area. This may lead to the buildup of water
pressure on the top part of slope due to the The detailed field and geotechnical studies
blockage of free stream movement by the showed that the top soil layer was underlain by the
constructed houses on the slope which might have basalt rock. Transitional failure occurred due to
induced seepage flow. The seepage flow resulted slipping of soil mass from the basalt rock surface,
into reduction in the strength of soil mass leading to view of exposed basalt rock after the landslide as
sliding. Hence, heavy rain in the area is one of the shown in Figure 4 confirms its validity. Soil
plausible causes of failure. However, several samples were collected at the different levels of the
investigating agencies had varied opinions. slope. Both undisturbed and disturbed soil samples
Environmentalist stated the cutting of slope and were taken. Geotechnical testing revealed that soil
tress for vegetation and construction of houses was at the site was having about 88% of silt and clay
one of the probable reasons. with intermediate plasticity. Volume and areal
extent of soil slope was calculated after performing
total station at the site, as shown in Figure 5.
Reconnaissance survey also revealed the rock out

6-3
crop at very shallow depth. The estimated volume
of the slid mass is approximately over the slope
area which gives the approximate depth of the soil
mass over the basalt rock as 1.23m.
Figure 4. Exposed basalt rock surface after the
landslide
The limit equilibrium analysis is performed
assuming an infinite slope of depth 1.23m. The
assumed slope and its alignment of soil cover over
the rock are shown in the Figure 6, where, d is the
total thickness of the soil slope cover, z is the depth
of water table and i is the slope angle,  and w is
the unit weight of soil sample andwater,
respectively. Factor of safety (F.S.) against failure
is expressed with Equation 1.
c'  z w  tan  '
F .S . 
d  sin i cos i  d   tan i
1- (1)
It is observed that factor of safety decreased
with rise in water table depth. The factor of safety
becomes less than 1.0 when water table rises at the
top of soil cover which leads to failure of the slope
as shown in Table 1.
Figure 5. Total station fixed to get the position of
solid mass of soil
6-4
Figure 6. Slope considered for limit equilibrium
analysis
SIMULATION OF THE ACTUAL LANDSLIDE
IN INDIA USING PLAXIS2D
The present study uses the specialized
geotechnical finite element software PLAXIS2D to
investigate the landslide phenomenon. Soil strata at
the site mainly consist of soft soil layer underlain
by the basalt rock. Basalt rock and soil mass were
modelled with linear elastic model and elastoplastic
Mohr-Coulomb model, respectively. Figure 7
shows the contour of the area having soil slope
representation and mudflow which provided the
basis for the numerical modelling of the slope. The
generalized slope considered for numerical analysis
is shown in Figure 8 having slope width as 500m
and height as 170m. Safety analysis has been
carried out by using strength reduction approach in
both dry and fully submerged conditions. The
factor of safety in dry and fully submerged
condition is obtained as 1.65 and 0.77, respectively.
Table 1 shows the factor of safety obtained through
numerical modelling and limit equilibrium analysis.
The obtained results from both the analyses are
nearly matching which validates the numerical
model quantitatively.
Table 1. Factor of safety for slope from limit
equilibrium analysis and numerical analysis using
PLAXIS2D
Factor of safety
Dry Saturated
Analysis type
condition condition
Limit equilibrium analysis 1.76 0.82
Numerical analysis 1.65 0.77
 Figure 7. Contour represntation of the area and mud flow

Figure 8. Generalized slope model used in PLAXIS2D

Figure 9. Plastic point history in the slope as obtained in PLAXIS2D analysis

6-5
 Figure 9 indicates the potential risk zone with
the help of plastic points in case of fully saturated
condition. Numerical analysis also indicates the
failure of top portion of slope due to reduction in
the effective stress with increase in water table
depth. The deformed slope when water table
Figure 10. View of the deformed slope in PLAXIS2D
Factor of safety
0 0.5 1 1.5
0 Institute of Lowland Technology, Saga Univ.
-0.2
-0.4
Water table depth (m)
-0.6
-0.8
Depth of rock outcrop-1.23m
-1 Limit State Analysis
Finite element analysis
-1.2
-1.4
Figure 11. Factor of safety along depth of soil slope
CONCLUSIONS
 Stability of soil slope is significantly affected
by the presence of earthquake motions and
maximum displacement occurs at the top of the
slope with negligible displacement at the slope
bottom.
 Role of seepage through soil slope plays vital
role in the landslide phenomenon. Limit
equilibrium and numerical analysis results
show that complete submergence of slope has
adverse effect on the slope which leads to a
recent actual landslide in India.
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 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

INSTABILITY OF A HIGH CUT SLOPE OF VOLCANIC BRECCIA LAID ON

CLAY SHALE AT KM 31_875 IN CENTRAL JAVA, INDONESIA
Alatas I. M. 1, Irsyam M. 2, Himawan A. 3, Nawir H. 4 and Wiriodinoto I. D. 5

ABSTRACT: Clay shale often found in Indonesia. The main engineering behavior of
shale is that it shows remarkable time dependent shear strength and volume behavior,
due to weathering and/or pressure relief such as excavation, it can lose almost
immediately its strength. The reduction of shear strength of clay shale has caused many
slopes failure in Indonesia. This paper discuss shear strength parameters of clay shale,
causes of landside, laboratory soil investigation and proposed solution for a high cut
slope failure at KM 31+875 to Km 31+925 of the Semarang-Bawen Toll Road that is
located in Central Java. The slope consists of volcanic breccia laid on a clay shale layer.
The failure surface located at the interface between the layer of volcanic breccia and the
layer of clay shale and it was preexisting shear surface from ancient landslide.
Laboratory soil investigation was then performed to measure the effect of different degree of weathering process
on shear strength. Triaxial tests were conducted to obtain peak and residual strength of clay shale to simulate the
condition the soil mass and the effect of preexisting shear surface. Selection of counter measure for slope
instability was conducted by utilizing a double group of bored piles with 1.5 meter of diameter on the clay shale
layer in order to retain the rest of excavation to the final grade level. To increase the safety factor, ground
anchors were added in the volcanic breccia layer above the bored pile structure.

Keywords: Cut slope failure, clay shale, residual strength, weathering process, triaxial testing, counter measure

INTRODUCTION seen in Figure 1, clay shale changed due to

Clay shale often found in Indonesia, it can be
found from Sumatera, Java, Kalimantan, to Papua
islands. The main engineering behavior of shale is
that it shows remarkable time dependent shear
strength and volume behavior. It originally behave
as a stratified rock, due to weathering and/or
pressure relief such as excavation, it can lose
almost immediately its strength. The initially non
visible intrinsic fissures are opened slightly. Water
can be sucked in by capillary forces and results in
quick weathering, complete destruction and
significant volume increase of the shale. Clay shale
that is originally very stiff is transformed into clay
with very bad shear strength properties. In this way
a propagation sip surface is formed which leads to a
general slope failure (Preiswerk, 1995). As can be
weathering over time.
Stark and Duncan (1991) obtain that the shear
strength of cay shale decreases very rapidly to fully
softened to its residual value. Skempton (1977)
obtaines that in its original condition clay shale that
is usually heavily overconsolidated is firm and
stable and exhibits a relatively high shear strength.
Chemical changes along exposed fissured cause a
reduction of the shear strength. Depending upon the
weathering progress, weak zones are developed in a
slope that is potentially unstable. In the most
stressed area small movement begin to develop
which leads to further shear strength reduction and
slope instability.
The reduction of shear strength of clay shale has
caused many slopes failure in Indonesia. Irsyam et
al. (1999) reported landslide in shale cut slope

1
Doctoral Student, Razak School of Engineering and Advanced Technology, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, MALAYSIA
2
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Bandung Institute of Technology, INDONESIA
3
Geotechnical Engineer, LAPI ITB, INDONESIA
4
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Bandung Institute of Technology, INDONESIA
5
Project Manager, PT. Trans Marga Jawa Tengah, INDONESIA

7-1
during the construction of valve chamber of Tulis
hydroelectric power in Central Java. Major rock fall
occurred in 1994 at the excavation of valve
chamber that was reinforced using ground anchor
(Figure 2). Due to excavation and weathering, shale
looses its strength rapidly and swells significantly.
This swelling has resulted in failure of connection
between ground anchor and shotcrete.
Irsyam et al (2007) reported slope failure of an
embankment on clay shale at Cipularang toll road
in West Java (Figure 3). Back calculation by slope
stability analysis concluded that the failure of slope
occurred on the weathered soft clay shale. Shear
strength and volume stability of the shale is highly
time dependent(Irsyam et al, 2007) Due to soil
stripping/excavation and weathering, clay shale
looses its shear strength. Similar slope instability at
Figure 1. Changes in physical form of clay shale overtime
Figure 2. Slope failure at the valve chamber
excavation of the Tulis hydroelectric power in
Central Java (Irsyam et al., 1999)
7-2
clay shale has also been reported by Alatas et al
(2012) during the construction of the Sport
Education Center in Hambalang, Sentul in West
Java, as shown in Figure 4.
Slope failure is also observed at KM 31+825 to
Km 31+925 of the Semarang-Bawen Toll Road in
Central Java. According to the design drawing, the
total depth of excavation was approximately 50 m.
Slope failure occurred in November 2013 when
the depth of excavation was 30 m, additional
excavation of approximately 20 m was still required
to reach the final grade level. The slope consisted
of volcanic breccia laid on a clay shale layer. It was
obtained that the failure surface located at the
interface between the layer of volcanic breccia and
the layer of clay shale (Figure 5).
Figure 3. Landslide of an embankment on clay
shale at the Cipularang toll road in West Java
(Irsyam et al., 2007)

Figure 4. Clay shale landslide at the Sport Training
Center project in HambalangSentul, West Java
(Alatas, 2012)
(a)
(b)
Figure 5. Landslide at the Km 31+875 of the
Semarang-Bawen toll road (Himawan, 2013)
TYPICAL SHEAR STRENGTH OF CLAY
SHALE
In its original condition, clay shale is dry and
hard. Due to unloading process, it absorb water that
can quickly turn to stiff or even to very soft clay.
Gartung (1986) observes that the state of
weathering does not only vary locally, but after
opening the cut, it will also vary with time.
As shown in Figure 6, Gartung (1986) divides
clay shale according to the degree of weathering.
Zone I represents unweathered clay stone, while
Zone IV shows the final stage in the weathering
process. He also measured residual friction angle
based on samples of all zones of weathering with
pre-cut failure plane. It indicates that the average
residual friction angle, r’, is approximately 9o. For
design purpose, for long term condition he
proposed to use the following shear strength
parameter that has been reduced; ’ = 20o and c’ =
20 kN/m2. Skempton (1977) investigated the peak
strength parameters of brown London Clay using
6.0 cm shear box test or 38.0 mm diameter triaxial
tests. He observed that due a very slow rate of pore
pressure equilibration, landslide commonly occurs
sometime after excavation. Skempton proposed to
use the following parameters for clay shale; ’ =
14o and c’ = 20 kN/m2.
Figure 6. Shear strength of clay shale proposed by
Gartung (1986)
Irsyam et al. (1999) in solving rock failure at the
south face of the Tulis hydroelectric power, utilized
concrete portal supported by bored piles. The
length of the portal is 22.4 m and it is supported by
bored piles with a diameter of 55.0 cm and a pile
spacing of 70.0 cm. For designing the portal
structures, for heavily weathered clay shale at
surface layer, they selected the following shear
strength parameters; ’ = 24o and c’ = 7.0 kN/m2.
Irsyam et al. (2007 and 2011) has conducted
back analysis for embankment failure of Cipularang
toll road at KM 97+500. They obtained that the
slope failure zone located at weathered cay shale.
Result of back calculation using a finite element
software showed that the actual shear strength
parameters of the degraded soil layer at failure zone
are ’ = 13o and c’ = 5.0 kN/m2.
Himawan and Irsyam have also investigated
slope failure at sta5+500 to sta 6+200 of Semarang-
7-3
Ungaran toll road that occurred in 2010 as shown
Figure 7. Construction of toll road embankment on
clay shale has reactivated ancient landslide and
resulted in large slope instablity. Shear strength
parameters for existing failure surface then must be
derived from residual shear strength. Result of back
calculation using a finite element software for this
location indicates that the residual parameters of the
existing failure zone are 'res = 9 – 12o and c’res =
5.0 – 10.0 kN/m2 (Irsyam et al., 2011).

Figure 7. Soil profile and failure surface at sta 5+500 to sta 6+200 of Semarang-Ungaran toll

LABORATORY INVESTIGATION OF SHEAR pressure of 157 kN/m2.Similar procedure have been

STRENGTHDEGRADATION OF SEMARANG performed for the second and third samples. The
BAWEN CLAY SHALE initial confining stresses for the second and third
samples were CP-2 of 78 kN/m2 and CP-3 of
Laboratory tests of shear strength degradation of
118 kN/m2, respectively. After this stage, all
clay shale, especially for Semarang-Bawen area,
confining pressures were then returned to zero (i.e.,
have been initiated. Process of weathering in nature
stress release) and the test was continued using
was simulated by several procedures, including
gradually increase confining pressure at CP-A of
drying of soil samples in room temperature for
98 kN/m2, CP-B of 196 kN/m2 and CP-C of
different interval of time. The drying of clay shale
294 kN/m2 to obtain residual shear strength after
was carried out on 0 day, 4 days, 8 days, 16 days,
unloading. The schematic stress-strain curves for
24 days, 32 days, 40 days, 48 days, 64 days and 80
this test method are illustrated in Figure 8.
to measure the effect of degree of weathering.
Degradation of shear strength can be
Selection of the interval such as to allow process of
represented by the values of peak and residual
saturation for clay shale sample that usually require
strength as a function of degree of weathering.
4days.Drying process was carried out in a room
Relationship between effective peak strength and
with transparent roof and walls exposed directly to
normal stress for Semarang-Bawen clay shale on 0
sunlight but protected from rain. Each sample of
day up to 80 days of drying process for saturated
unsaturated and saturated clay shale was given
sample that is saturated in triaxial cell is presented
different confining pressure and then sheared to
in Figure 9. The residual strength that is obtained
obtain the peak and residual strengths.
after peak stress is divided into two conditions,
When the residual state was reached, the test
condition without cell pressure release (curP and
was continued by using a multistage system by
ΦurP) and condition after of cell pressure release to
gradually increase the confining pressure. As
zero (curF and ΦurF). Relationship between effective
shown in Figure 8, for the first sample, the
residual shear strength versus normal stress on 0
confining stress was increased from CP-1 of
day up to 80 days of drying process for condition
39 kN/m2 to CP-2 of 78 kN/m2 until the stress
without stress release and for condition after stress
condition was stable. Then, the test was continued
release are presented in Figure 10 and Figure 11,
by increasing CP-2 to CP-3 with confining pressure
respectively.
of 118 kN/m2 and lasted to CP-4 with confining

7-4
 Drying process changes the shear strength
properties of clay shale. Significant changes of
shear strength degradation is observed when the
clay shale is exposed to atmosphere in which
oxygen and hydrogen caused the clay shale to
weathered (Sadisun I. A 2006). Weathering of clay
shale should be more rapid by considering wetting
and drying processes. Frequent wetting and drying
phenomena could create rapid weathering process.
Degradation of effective cohesion and internal
angle degradation up to 80 days of drying process
are shown in Figure 12 and Figure 13.

Figure 8. A continuous saturated triaxial UU test was conducted by multistage system to obtain residual shear
strength without stress release and with stress release (Alatas et al., 2015)

Figure 10. Relationship between effective residual

Figure 9. Relationship between effective peak strength without stress release and normal stress for
strength and normal stress for Semarang-Bawen Semarang-Bawen clay shale at 0 day up to 80 days
clay shale at 0 day up to 80 days of drying process of drying process

7-5
 Clay shale Semarang-Bawen indicates high
value of bulk density (21.16 kN/m3) compared to
other clay in general, as well as the small value of
void ratio (0.416), hence a longer duration for
saturation in triaxial cell is needed. It required
4days to get the B Value close to 1.0 prior to
loading, while other clay generally take only12 to
24 hours to be fully saturated. Therefore, the pore
water pressure underloading is very small, so that
the value shear strength that total stress close to the
value of shear strength that effective stress.

Figure 11. Relationship between effective residual

strength with stress release and normal stress of
Semarang-Bawen clay shale at 0 day up to 80 days
of drying process

Figure 12. Degradation of effective cohesion due to drying process from 0 day up to 80 days for peak and
residual conditions

Figure 13. Degradation of effective internal friction angle due to drying process from 0 day up to 80 days for
peak and residual conditions

7-6
CASE STUDY
Slope failure has occurred at a high cut steep
slope of the volcanic breccia laid on the clayshale
layer at KM 31+825 - KM 31+925 of the Semarang
10%

Bawen Toll Road. The cut steep slope (2V:1H 10%

Breksi tuf lapuk sedang

gradient) is designed with height of approximately

10%

+37.993
10%

Silty clay
50 m on hilly area with 45o of natural slope
10%

10%

2780 CL
1 +14.0362
400 285 44 75 75 300 360 360 360 150 80 150 360 360 300 75 75 44 285 400 °
2
538 95 25 25 55
LAJUR BAWEN BAWEN SEMARANG SEM ARANG
PENDAKIAN

Clayshale
gradient. The large failure occurred during
4% 3%
10% 3% 4%
30 10%
30 30
30
DS-5
DS-5

DL = 465.00M

472.115

480.001 472.197

471.837

471.799
471.799

471.762

471.522

471.424
ELEVASI RENCANA
14.32 14.42

518.685

525.760

540.367

545.257
533.956
473.680

474.245

476.524

477.532
477.833

479.352
479.741

480.534

483.050

483.178

485.340

486.730

489.583

493.671

495.532

500.519

502.342

503.756

505.629

507.601

510.045

510.942

511.681
ELEVASI EXISTING

construction in November 2013, after excavation JARAK

JARAK MENERUS

STA. 19+250
50.45
4.18
46.27
13.35
32.92
7.73
25.19
0.79
24.40
5.46
18.94
0.68
18.25
4.80
13.45
2.47
10.98
6.99
3.99
3.99
0.00
3.67
3.67
2.71
6.38
4.20
10.58
7.27
17.85
2.80
20.65
8.44
29.08
2.79
31.87
2.25
34.12
3.37
37.49
2.48
39.97
3.39
43.36
3.51
46.87
6.16
53.03
9.48
62.51 77.57 91.89 106.31 119.73

work have exposed the clayshale surface at toe of Figure 16. The approximation of soil profile based
slope approximately at 30 m of depth from original on visual inspection after the slope failure
soil surface (Figure 14). Based on visual inspection,
The back calculation was performed by a
the old vertical cracks found on the excavated
parametric study through finite element slope
volcanic breccia slope surface and clay shale
stability analysis, by using PLAXIS, to examine the
underlay (Figure15). Unfortunately, the existence
residual shear strength parameters of clay shale. In
of the cracks, not been informed clearly from the
order to model the cracks and the preexisting shear
previous soil investigation data. The approximation
surface, the interface element is utilized while the
of soil profile based on visual inspection after the
elastic plastic constitutive model and the Mohr-
slope failure could be seen in Figure 16.
Coulomb failure criteria were selected to model
Based on the above findings, it could be
soils. The result of the back calculation could be
hypothesized that the shear surface has been
seen in the following figures.
established from ancient landslide and it is mostly
located at the interface of the volcanic breccia layer
and clay shale layer.

No Layer c' (kPa) ' (o)

1. Silty clay 15 20
2. Weathered tuff breccia 50 30
3. Tuff breccia 100 38
Cracks on tuff breccia
24 11
Rinter = 0.24
4 Clayshale 50 40
Figure 14. Cut slope failure during construction Preexisting shear surface at
10 18
(Himawan, 2013) clayshale, Rinter = 0.24
Figure 17. The effective shear strength parameters
resulted from the back calculation

Figure 15. The old vertical cracks on the excavated

volcanic breccia and clay shale underlay Figure 18. The result of back calculation, SF = 1.0
(Himawan, 2013)

7-7
 The length of bored piles has to be able to cut The bored piles have been finished in March
failure plane and the passive resistance of soil to 2014, while the ground anchors were installed in
bored piles below the failure plane has to be large early of January 2015 after the toll road was open
enough to resist the vertical cut slope with 18m of for traffic. Figure 21 illustrates site condition after
height. construction of bored piles. Records of slope
Selection of counter measure for slope monitoring with inclinometer showed that there
instability was conducted by utilizing a double was no significant soil movement.
group of bored piles with 1.5 meter of diameter on
the clay shale layer in order to retain the rest of
excavation to the final grade level. The bored piles
was selected to overcome the slope failure due to
time and space constrains and topographic
condition at the site while the cost was still
considered effective (Irsyam, et al., 2006). Figure
19 presents the bored piles arrangement that was
consisted of 2 layers of 35 m length of bored piles
with a diameter of 1.5 m and pile spacing (center to
center) of 3.0 m, arranged in a zigzag pattern.

Figure 21. Slope condition after construction of

bored piles

Figure 19. The cross section and bored piles
arrangement
Slope stability analysis showed that the bored
piles was effective to retain the rest of excavation
on the clay shale layer to the final grade with 13.5
m of maximum cantilever height (Figure 20). The
ground anchor is applied on the above cut steep
slope of the volcanic breccia with old cracks, to
increase the safety factor higher than 1.3 with
anticipating of ground water level rising during
rainy season.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Process of weathering in nature was simulated
in the laboratory by several procedures,
including drying of soil samples in room
temperature for different interval of time. The
drying of clay shale was carried out from 0 day
to 80 days to measure the effect of degree of
weathering.
2. Drying clay shale to 80 days has created
successful weathering effect. The weathering
effect reduced the shear strength parameter in
peak condition and in residual condition.
3. The most suitable solution to overcome the
slope failure at KM 31+875 to Km 31+925 of
the Semarang-Bawen Toll Road was obtained
by utilizing a double group of bored piles with
1.5 meter of diameter. To increase the safety
factor, ground anchors were added in the
volcanic breccia layer above the bored pile
structure.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Figure 20. Result of slope stability analysis after
installation of bored piles (SF > 1.3) The authors wish to thank to PT Trans Marga
Jateng for its continuous support. Prof. R Nazir,

7-8
Prof. A. Samira and Ir. Dede Lukito are also
contributed to the contents of this paper.

REFERENCES
Alatas I. M. 2012. "Geotechnical Engineering
Aspect in infrastructure building on difficulties
soil." C-Line Civil Eng Departement of ISTN.
Alatas I. M, Samira A. K., Ramli N., Irsyam M,
Himawan A. 2015. "Shear Strength Degradation
of Semarang-Bawen Clayshale Due To
Weathering Process." Jurnal Teknologi (Special
Edition)
Gartung E. 1986. "Excavation Hard Clays of The
Keuper Formation." Symposium of Geotechnical
Engineering Divission, Seatle, Washington.
Himawan, Agus. 2013. Alternatif Mitigasi
Kelongsoran dan Perkuatan Lereng Galian
Tower SUTT STA 19+255 Pembangunan Jalan
Tol Semarang - Solo Tahap I Ruas Ungaran -
Bawen Paket V Tinalun - Lemah Ireng STA
18+000 - 21+825 LAPI ITB.
Irsyam M, Denny Tammi, Imam D Sadisun, Suyud
R Karyasuparta, Abdul H Tatang. 1999.
"Solving Landslide Problem in Shale Cut Slope
in The Construction of The Valve Chamber of
The TULIS Hydro Electric Power Power."
Proceeding of the '99 Japan Korean Joint
Symposium on Rock Mechanics.
Irsyam M, Endra S, Himawan A. 2007. "Slope
Failure of an Embankment on Clay Shale KM
97+500 Of The Ciplarang Toll Road and The
Selected Solution : A Case Of Slope Failure
Due To Strength Degradation Of Clay Shale."
Proceeding of The Geotechnical International
Symposium in Bangkok 6-7 Decemebr 2007.
Irsyam M, Jayaputra A. A, Himawan A, Kartawiria
A. 2011. "Kasus-Kasus Kelongsoran Pada
Tanah Clay Shale dan Alternatif
Penanggulangannya." Proceeding of the 9th
Indonesian Society for Geotechnical Engineers
Conference and 15th Yearly Scientific Meeting,
Jakarta .December 2011.
Sadisun I. A, Andri S. Subandrio , Asep Nurjamil ,
Prihananto Setiadji 2006. "Weathering Of Some
Selected Rock Types And Their Strength
Degradation Obtained From Schmidt Hammer."
Proceeding PIT IAGI Riau, The 35th IAGI
Annual Convention and Exhibition ,Pekanbaru
– Riau, 21 – 22 November 2006.
Wikipedia. 2007. The Free Encyclopedia. Florida,
USA.

This paper has been presented in 16th Conference Current Researches in Geotehnical Engineering 2-4 September 2015,
Kaohsiung, Taiwan

7-9
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

BEHAVIOR OF PILES IN LANDSLIDES AND SLOPE PROTECTION

Paulus P. Rahardjo 1, Aris Handoko 2, Adityaputera Wirawan 3 and Petrus C. S. Santoso 3

ABSTRACT: Piles have been used to stabilize slopes in landslides occurance and for
slope protection during construction of an embankment or an excavation or to increase
the stability of a slope in the critical condition that has caused the slopes to move, to
avoid further failures. A number of theories have been proposed (Poulos 2012) and
efforts have been made to analyse pile behavior by 2D and 3D finite element method
(Rahardjo, 2012), however the real behavior of the piles seldom measured. The main
concern is generally on the increase of safety factor of a slope due to pile installation.
This paper discuss the pile behavior in terms of pile deflections and shear forces or
moments calculated from the measured pile movements. Six case histories are used for
illustration, (1) piles used for protection of excavation, (2) piles used for foundation of bridge abutment, (3) piles
used to increase slope stability in landslides area, (4) piles used for protection of embankment near failure due to
reactivaed landslides, (5) Piles used for foundation of pipes in landslides area and (6) piles used for protection
and substitute of bridge foundation in landslides area.
In a number of slope stabilization projects, Rahardjo et al (2011, 2012) have shown how piles behaved using
embedded inclinometers inside the piles from time to time due to subsequent movement of pile stabilised slopes.
Also, in deep excavation, piles have been used and instrumented. Piles behavior were then can be observed and
the forces acting in the piles can be calculated as excavation progresses. Another interesting subjects are the
observations of piles in bridge abutment. Quite often the piles fail due to backfilling behind the abutments where
the foundation soils are soft. In a recent landslides in west Java, the author has used large boredpiles to support
foundation of steam pipes, where 9 bored piles are instrumented and being abserved. In most cases the design
and analysis are conducted using 3D finite element method to model the effect of ground movement to the piles.
In summary the use of piles for slope stabilisations is effective as long as there is sufficient fixity at the lower
soils layer and based on many observation from case histories, piles being used in unstable slopes or for slope
protection need to be monitored as part of warning system. Most effective observation is by using inclinometers
embedded in the piles. They can serve as indication of slope safety. Piles used to restraint debris flow shall be
sufficiently stiff to avoid significant movement. The study shows that the debris will flow surrounding the piles
and the piles movement should be limited.

Keywords: Slope stability, Finite Element Analysis, piles in landslides area

INTRODUCTION behavior are seldom verified by real measurements.

The use of piles for counter measures of
landslides and protection of slopes have been very
common and well acknowledged. The prediction of
the piles’ behavior by analytical and numerical
methods are normally conducted based on
assumption or charts such as developed by Poulos
and Davis (1980). However, in reality these
This paper discusses case histories of the
observation of piles in moving ground through real
projects from the results of measurement of pile
behavior mainly by use of inclinometers embedded
in the pile and the numerical method used in piles
for landslides control as well as in slope protection.

1
Professor, Civil Engineering Department, Parahyangan Catholic University, Bandung, INDONESIA,
rahardjo.paulus@gmail.com
2
Geotechnical Engineer, PT. Geotechnical Engineering Consultant, Bandung, INDONESIA
3
Engineer PT. Geotechnical Engineering Consultant, Graduate Student Parahyangan Catholic University, Bandung,
INDONESIA

8-1
 These piles have been installed after the
landslides or previously designed to increase slope
safety in a construction phase. Landslides and man
made slopes failures are not identical. However,
they have similarity in the sense that both correlate
to the shear stress mobilised by geometry or change
in geometry of the land and the shear strength of
the soils. The first one being the driving force and
the second one is the resisting force. Landslides or
slope failures are caused by the fact that the driving
force has exceeded the resisting force. Safety factor
is commonly used to describe the ratio between the
resisting force and the driving force. Piles have
been used both in landslides and slope protection,
where the purpose of the piles is directly related to
the additional resisting force.
In most cases, the analysis of piles to stabilize
slope is related to the increasing safety factors. But,
the meaning of calculated safety factor may not be
realistic because failure in the model is not always
in the same mode as failure in the actual cases.
Frequently the piles could have failed due to large
lateral movement. In 2D finite element analysis
this situation is not accurate such as shown by
Santoso et al (2015) because the piles are actually
modelled as a plate. Although the safety factor may
be calculated, the main mechanism can not be well
modelled since there are significant differences in
pile stiffness and soil stiffness. In condition where
piles are used in debris flow, the soil debris might
flow surrounding the piles. In such cases, 3D finite
element analysis is required where the behavior of
the piles can be more realistically modelled if the
debris are allowed to move around the piles. The
debris will move larger than the piles.
Assuming certain movement of the soils at
certain distance behind the piles as those modelled
by Poulos may not be realistic either for modelling
piles in landslides. The reason is, the movement
may not be identical as those in reality. In fact the
soil movement is a function of the slope inclination,
the stiffness of the moving soils, the relative
rigidity of the piles against the soils, size of piles
and the distance betwen piles. Other factor that
must be considered is the degree of fixity of the
piles into the ground. To verify such assumption,
there must be measurement of the ground and the
piles at the same time, i.e., at least the inclinometers
must be installed in the piles and in the ground
nearby.
There are five cases where piles behavior have
been predicted and or measured for illustration in
this paper, all of them are based on experience of
8-2
the authors in some projects where the authors have
been involved.
The five cases include the uses of piles (1) for
protection of excavation, (2) for foundations of
bridge abutment where soil under the abutment
might move during backfilling of the embankment,
(3) for landslides counter measures, (4) for control
of ground movement and increasing stability of
embankment on sliding ground and (5) for the
protection and substitute of bridge foundation or
pipe support in landslides area. Although these are
not the only cases of the use of piles in landslides
and slope protection, the five cases are the most
common found in civil engineering infrastructure
projects.
MEASUREMENT OF PILE BEHAVIOR USING
INCLINOMETER EMBEDED INTO THE PILES
A simple method of pile behavior in stabilizing
slope is measuring the pile top movement using
theodolite. However this measurement is lack of
accuracy due to the fact that it can not be used to
observed movement below the ground.
Pile behavior may be better measured using
inclinometers embedded into the piles during pile
installation. Basically it is assumed that the
deflection of the piles will be automatically
represented by the deviation of the inclinometers.
The measurement can be done from time to time
during construction or during the course of the
slope movement.
In bored piles, the inclinometer is attached at
the rebars when the rebars are lowered into the
drilling hole. Figure 1 shows this application where
in inclinometer is being installed and attached with
the rebar. For spun piles or steel pipe piles, the
inclinometer is inserted after the piles are driven
and then the space between the piles and the
inclinometer shall be backfilled with bentonite
cement or concrete of low quality such as lean
concrete. When using solid piles like precast square
driven piles, such technology is not applicable.
Figure 2 shows typical data of inclinometer
embeded in soldier piles. Where the lateral
movement measured by inclinometer is practically
interpreted as movement of the bored pile.
The first step is to read the initial reading of the
inclinometers. The initial reading means the
position of the inclinometers prior to any changes
or movement. The movement of the inclinometers
then can be measured using inclinometers’ probe
inserted into the inclinometer tube. Based on the
deflection of the inclinometers, the shear forces and
bending moments can be estimated using simple
formula based on finite difference method.
Figure 3 shows how deflection is defined in a
beam. Similarly this can also be used for piles.
Figure 1. Inclinometer being installed in soldier
piles to protect neigbour building during excavation
Figure 2. Inclinometer data embedded into
boredpile (Sovereign Tower Project – South
Jakarta)
Figure 3. Example of deformation of a beam and
the magnitude of slope and forces in differential
form
The derivatives can be approximated in the
form of finite difference method as shown on the
following expression :
dy  y i 1  y i 1 

dx 2x
d y  y i 1  2 y i  y i 1 
2

dx 2 x 2
d 3 y  y i 1  2 y i 1 2 y i 1  y i  2 

dx 3 2x 3
Using the above finite difference approach, the
shear force and the moments can be calculated
based on the pile deflection. Although the
calculation might not be accurate, the authors have
found that this simple formula is very useful when
used for single pile not connected to other piles
such as contiguous bored pile or other structures.
Normally the displacement of the piles are
measured at intervals of 50 cm. In many cases the
reading might not be so smooth and averaging the
deflection is a useful method prior to the
calculation of the forces.
It has to be noted the the validity for the
calculation of the forces is applicable for single
piles, hence for contiguous borepiles such as shown
on Figure 4, the measurement can be done but the
forces does not represent the real forces due to
constraint by adjacent piles. In Diaphgram wall, the
forces are linear to the length perpendicular the
excavated side. Contiguous bored pile might also
adopt the calculation in the diapghragm wall by
using the equivalent stiffness (EA and EI) of the
piles, where EA is the longitudinal stiffess and EI is
the flexural stiffness. I (inertia of cross section) is
known as the power of 4, hence the values are
significant in restraining deformaton.
These calculated shear forces and moments are
important values which can be used for assessment
of the pile capacity whether the shear force or
moment capacity values might have been exceeded.
Sometimes it is also a good tool with regards to the
safety as well as for comparison within the pile
cross section capacity confirming the percentage to
those that has been achieved compared the original
shear or moment capacity in the design stage.
Another use of the data is for comparison between
the designed shear and moment compared to the
actual condition.
8-3

Figure 4. Example of contiguous bored piles for
protection of excavation (Pondok Indah phase II
project, south Jakarta), where inclinometers can be
used to measure pile behavior but estimation of
forces are subject to the assumption of the
equivalent stiffness
(photograph courtecy from Davy Sukamta)
CASE 1 : PILE USED FOR PROTECTION OF
EXCAVATION (SOLDIER PILES)
Common application of soldier piles are in the
protection of excavation for basement mainly in
urban areas. Open cut slopes may not be applicable
due to the existence of the neighbour buildings. The
use of bored piles or soldier piles for this situation
is familiar specially where the water table is low or
the soils are practically impermeable such as clay.
Excavation creates a slope of particular
geometry with tend to cause movement of the
ground due to the increase of shear stresses. The
use of piles as soldier piles are mainly to limit the
movement of the surrounding to protect neigbour
buildings or infrastructures. Where large empty
ground are available, one will choose to make open
cut and backfilled later on, except if the soils are
very soft.
The use of piles to protect excavation could be
in some variety of method depending on the ground
condition and the site conditions, using either one
of bored piles or driven piles. Where the ground are
penetrable and sufficient stiff soils exist below the
ground, the use of driven piles are preferable.
Sometime the piles are installed in combination
with the sheetpiles. Driven piles are commonly
installed with certain distance as soldier piles.
Bored piles are used due to its possibility of
penetrating hardground and the larger size. The
stiffness is significant in terms of its inertia. Bored
piles can be used with certain distance interval (as
soldier piles), or contiguous (with no gap between
piles) or as secant piles (with bentonite cement as
primary piles). When the use of piles is not possible
then the excavation can be protected using
Diagphragm wall or other method.
8-4
Behavior of Boredpiles in Excavation of Medium
to Stiff Soils or Partially Cemented Soils
This kind of soils are generally strong and
excavation can be done in open slope, however
when the excavation is very close to the
neighbouring building, soldier pile shall be used to
limit the movement. Two examples are used for
illustration in the measurement of deflection of free
standing bored piles, both excavation are not
supported by ground anchor, nor by struts. In other
words, the piles was left in free standing and yet
survived with relatively small deflection.
Soldier Piles for Protection of Excavation in South
Jakarta Area
Commonly the soil condition at south Jakarta is
medium to stiff clay at the upper level, only some
situation where the upper layer is soft. In many
situation, when the building is constructed with no
neighbouring building, the excavation can be done
as open cut without protection except surface
protection using shortcrete.
Figure 5 shows exposure of excavation for a
high rise building (Sovereign Tower) at south
Jakarta. Behind excavation is three storey high-
school buiding.The typical soil condition along
Jalan Simatupang is the upper part soft to medium
clay with NSPT 3 – 9 at depth of 5 – 10m. The lower
layer is dense sand or cemented sands and silts.
Depth of excavation is 11 – 12 m and it was
originally designed using soldier piles of 800 mm
diameter and center to center spacing of 1.6 m. The
length of boredpile is 18 – 21 m, hence about 6 – 9
m depth of embedment, supported by 2 layers of
strut. However, upon excavation inside the area, it
was shown that vertical cut of 12 m without
protection could stand firmly. Hence it was decided
that strut will be installed when movement
exceeded 20 mm. In reality the movement was only
6.0 – 10 mm maximum (Figure 2), hence it was left
free standing.
Other project (GKM tower) with similar soil
condition was also conducted at jalan Simatupang,
south Jakarta, with the same depth of excavation
and the same boredpile size. From the drilling holes
conducted at the site, typical soil condition at South
Jakarta was found in the project site. Water table is
located 8 – 10 m below ground surface, hence the
use of soldier piles at certain distance is possible.
The depth of excavation is 12 m. Soldier piles of
diameter 800 mm and spacing from center to center
of 1.6 m hence allowing a gap of 80 cm between
each pile. This time the reinforcement is using soil
nailing at depth of 4.0 m.
 Figure 5. Excavation with soldier piles protection at Souvereign tower, south of Jakarta

There were also inclinometers installed, two

inclinometers in the soils behind the soldier pile
and one embedded in the boredpiles. The deflection
of the inclinometers are shown on Figure 6.
Maximum deflection is about 10 mm in the piles
however in soil, the movement is less (in the order
of 6 mm) due to the confinement by the soldier pile.
Deflection and forces are calculated and subsequent
analysis using Plaxis 2D was conducted. Both the
measurement and the results of back analysis are
shown on the figure.
Figure 6. Instalation of inclinometers inside bored
pile at Souvereign Tower Project

BT 97 Deflection (mm) Shear Force (kN) Moment (kNm)

-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150 -200 -100 0 100 200
0 0 0

5 5 5

10 10 10
Depth (m)

Depth (m)
Depth (m)

15 15 15

20 20 20

Plaxis 2D
Plaxis 2D Plaxis 2D
Inclinometer Inclinometer
Inclinometer 25 25
25

Figure 7. Plot of boredpile deflection, interpreted forces and results of back analysis using FEM

It is interesting to discuss on the comparison and moment) there is differences. At depth of 4 m

between the results of back analysis and the actual where soil nailings were installed, there is an abrupt
measurement. Even though the calculated change in shear due to the reaction at the level of
deflection is similar to the results of measurement, soil nailing. The magnitude of shear at that
however if we look carefully on the forces (shear elevation is 100 kN which is excatly the magnitute

8-5
of reaction calculated by plaxis 2D. However in the
real measurement, this abrupt change does not
exists. The results of calculation show higher
bending moment but the actual measurement is
much less.
Excavation at Central Jakarta
Other projcet similar to the one at south Jakarta
is the use of boredpiles for protection of excavation
in Central Jakarta (Ciputra Stage II project). This is
also freestanding soldier piles to protect 12.5 m
excavation. Boredpiles with 800 mm diameter and
23 m long. The neighbourhood is crowded with
buildings or installation of infrastructure. Seven
inclinometers were installed and monitored from
time to time. Due to the large areas, the excavation
was conducted in stages. Figure 8 shows the
boredpile configuration, Figure 9 shows general
view of the excavation and Figure 10 shows the
geotechnical profile at the project. Figure 11 and
Figure 12 are the inclinometer readings and
interpretation.

Figure 8. Boredpile configuration for Ciputra Stage II project

Figure 9. Soldier pile used for protection of basement excavation in Central Jakarta (Ciputra Stage II project)

8-6
 Figure 10. Soil profile at Ciputra Stage II project

SC 77 Deflection (mm) Increment (mm) Shear Force (kN) Moment (kNm)

-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 -1.00 0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 -600 -400 -200 0 200 400 600 -1500 -1000 -500 0 500 1000 1500
0 0 0 0

5 5 5 5

10 10 10 10
Depth (m)

Depth (m)
Depth (m)

Depth (m)

15 15 15 15

20 20 20 20

25 25 25 25

Figure 11. Inclinometer reading and interpreted shear forces and bending moment for Ciputra Tower Phase II
project

SC 141 Deflection (mm) Shear Force (kN) Moment (kNm)

-20 -10 0 10 20 -200 -100 0 100 200 -600 -300 0 300 600
0 0 0

5 5 5

10 10 10
Depth (m)

Depth (m)
Depth (m)

15 15 15

20 20 20

25 25 25

Figure 12. Inclinometer reading where the bottom soldier pile were not fixed

8-7
 Some interesting comments and discussion for
the above project is as follows:
There are two different response measured at
the boredpiles. The first one is where the boredpiles
are sufficiently long and the soils firm at the bottom
to offer a perfect fixity of the piles. Such as this can
be seen where the deflection is practically zero.
Figure 11 is good example of this type. The second
response is where the piles at the bottom are not
really fixed as shown on Figure 12.
Figure 11 (SC 77) gives a perfect indication of
the location of sliding even though it is very small.
One can see it from the plot of the slope or
increment of inclinometeer. At this particular
example, the depth of ground slip is about 9 m
which is the boundary where the soil stiffness
change drastically. Similarly soldier pile no SC 141,
there is no such sharp sign. Based on observation of
the 7 inclinometers, the maximum bending
moments interpreted from the deflection. Looking
carefully at the increment (the difference between
displacement of upper and lower points) the
potential sliding plane is indicated as the highest
values (depth 9 m). At this point the value of shear
force is also the highest at the point. However the
bending moment at this point is not maximum,
instead the maximum bending moment is found as
shear is zero.
Excavation with soldier piles protection North
Jakarta area
On the contrary, the soil condition at north
Jakarta is very soft to soft at the upper level. In
most cases the soils are even underconsolidated.
Pore pressure still exist and has caused tilting of a
building in the past (1991).
Figure 13. Excavation with soldier piles protection
at Harco Glodok, north Jakarta
In many situation, the excavation in soft soils
can not be done as open cut without protection. The
following figure shows exposure of excavation for
2 level basement at north Jakarta with very soft to
soft soils. The lower layer is stiff clay and dense
sand at far greater depth about 15 – 17 m below
ground surface. In some places, the very soft soils
are found still consolidating meaning that excess
pore pressure is still there. In general the critical
depth of excavation at North Jakarta is about 2.5 m.
The following figure shows typical soil
condition at the project site.
Water table is very high about 0 – 2 m below
ground surface. The depth of excavation is 5 – 7 m.
Soldier piles of diameter 800 m and spacing from
center to center of about 1.2 m hence allowing a
gap of 40 cm between each pile. Four inclinometers
were installed, and typical movement is shown on
Figure 13 where the movement at the top is about is
65 mm.

Figure 14. Soil profile at projecy site, north Jakarta

8-8
 INCLINOMETER IN_HG-03 behind the embankment. These types of failures
A-A
Cummulative Displacement ( mm ) have been found to be typical in many areas due to
-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100
0
excessive pore water pressures developed under the
2
backfill and lateral movement of the soft ground
beneath the fill causing significant force to the
4
foundation which has almost no lateral resistance.
6
An example of soil condition that may cause bridge
Depth ( m )

8
collapse was constructed in East Kalimantan. The
10 abutment was designed to be constructed first and
12 the backfill to be placed later. Movement started to
14 occur when the back fill was 2 m high. The
16
movement continued until heave was detected on
the other side of the wall and pile joints failed
18
causing tilting and collapse of the abutment.
Figure 15. Typical soil profile north Jakarta Subsequent investigation was conducted to find
causes and mechanism of failure. The soil condition
HG-3
-150 -100
Deflection (mm)
-50 0 50 100 150 -300 -200
Shear Force (kN)
-100 0 100 200 300 -1000 -500
Moment (kNm)
0 500 1000 1500
is shown on Figure 17 and additional CPTu (Figure
0 0 0
18) reveals that the soil is very soft with general
trend that it is still consolidating (OCR < 1.0)
5 5 5 based on the Bq value).
The following figures show the failure of the
Depth (m)

Depth (m)

bridge abutment during the backfilling behind

Depth (m)

10 10 10

abutment with thicknes of about 2m. The soft soils

15 15 15
underneath the foundation of the abutment move
laterally causing excessive displacement of piles.
This situation has been frequently found in
HG-3 20 HG-3 20 HG-3
20
Indonesia which is generally due to lack of
Figure 16. Bored pile movement, shear force and knowledge and experience on soft soils
bending moment at Harco Glodok,
characteristics. The foundation are seldom designed
soft soil excavation at North Jakarta
for possible lateral displacement due to soil
CASE 2 : BEHAVIOR OF PILES USED FOR squeezing. Most designers focus on the axial
FOUNDATIONS OF BRIDGE ABUTMENT capacity and lateral load by the upper structure.
While the soil lateral pressure beneath the pile top
Many bridges in Indonesia are constructed on may be more significant.
soft layers. Many of them failed during backfilling
N-SPT
0 2 4 6
N-SPT
0 10 020 30 40 50 60 0 2 4 6
1 0 10 0 20 30 40 50 60
0 2 1
3
0 2
4 3
5 4
6 5
5 7 5 6
7
8
9 8
10 9
10
10 11
10 11
12
12
13
14 13
14
15
15 16
15
15
16
17
17
18
18
19
19
20
20
D ep th (m )

20
20
D ep th (m )

21
21
22
22
23
23
24
24
25
25 26 25 25
26
27 27
28 28
29 29
30 30
30 30

35 35

40 40

Figure 17. Soil stratification on site (Wirawan et al., 2014)

8-9
 Soil Behaviour Type Cone resistance,qc(MPa) Sleeve resistance,fs(MPa) Pore pressure,u2(MPa) Friction ratio,FR(%) Pore pressure ratio,Bq
after Robertson,1986

0 2 4 6 0 0.05 0.1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 2 4 6 8 10 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1
2 (3) Clays 2 2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3 3 3
(3) Clays
<- Depth in m to reference level

4 4 4 4 4 4
5 5 5 5 5 5
6 6 6 6 6 6
7 7 7 7 7 7
8 8 8 8 8 8
9 9 9 9 9 9
10 10 10 10 10 10
11 11 11 11 11 11
12 12 12 12 12 12
13 13 13 13 13 13
14 14
15
14
15
Underconsolidated Layer
14
15
14
15
14
15
15
16 16 16 16 16 16
17 17 17 17 17 17
18 (3) Clays 18 18 18 18 18
19 19 19 19 19 19
20 20 20 20 20 20
21 21 21 21 21 21
22 (3) Clays
22 22 22 22 22
23 23 23 23 23 23
(6) Sandy silt to clayey silt
24 (6) Sandy silt to clayey silt 24 24 24 24 24
25 25 25 25 25 25
(6) Sandy silt to clayey silt
26 26 26 26 26 26
(6) Sandy silt to clayey silt
27 27 27 27 27 27
28 28 28 28 28 28
29 29 29 29 29 29
30 30 30 30 30 30

Figure 18. Soil stratification by CPTu (Wirawan et al., 2014)

2) Reduce the load behind the abutment by

limiting the height of fill, in this sense
additional pilars may be required.
3) Improvement of soil below abutment back fill
by use of vertical drains and preloading, then
removed and backfilling in stages. In this case
it becomes necessary to change the sequence
of construction by first backfilling the soft
layers and let them consolidate prior to
construction of the abutment.
4) Strengthen the soft layer below abutment with
Figure 19. Example collapse of bridge abutment minipiles and mattress. This method was
during backfilling (after Rahardjo, 2013) selected when there is not sufficient time to
wait for the consolidation of the foundation
soils.

The following two cases reflect method (3) and

(4) to be used in construction of abutment on soft
soils.

Use of minipiles and modification of abutment

system (Ciheurang Bridge)
Out of four alternatives previously discussed,
option 3 was selected for Ciheurang bridge which is
the first bridge of Cikopali highway connecting
Figure 20. Lateral displacement and failures of
Cikopo to Subang in West Java. In the first phase,
bridge foundation due to placement of fill behind
abutment (after Rahardjo, 2013) the design consist of 3 spans with 30 m each span.
However, during construction, it was found that the
To overcome this situation, practically there are slope of the river bank is not stable. The landslides
some methods available : was caused by the soft soil condition and triggered
1) Use of light weight material behind the by river flood which eroded the river bank and
abutment such as geofoam. This method is might have caused suddendrawdown. The pile
regarded highly cost because the cost of the driven moved laterally as shown on Figure 21.
geofoam is still regarded very high.

8-10
 bending moment. It can be seen that the design
force is less than the actual measured forces. This
steps was taken to avoid the pile capacity exceeded,
hence to ascertain the safety of the foundation.
Maximum deflection measured by
inclinometers is 16 mm at the position of pile top.
Pile fixity was found at 25 m (where deflection is
negligible and shear and bending moment also nil.
Measured maximum shear force is slightly higher
than 200 kN and maximum bending moment is 500
kN-m, which are much less than the designed
values.
Figure 21. The old piles moved laterally due to
landslides at the river bank

Following the failures, additional soil

investigation was conducted to assess this problem.
Ten boreholes and a number of CPT were
conducted to redesign the new foundation
system.After careful thought the design was
changed into single span of 70 m wide. And the
design of abutment was modified with opening at
each side.
Due to the condition of slope instability, the
new design of Ciheurang Bridge foundation was Figure 22. Installation of inclinometers embedded
changed into bored piles with 800 mm diameter and in boredpile for Ciheurang Bridge in west Java
28 m long. The selection of this piles is considering
that bigger diameter of bored pile enables higher
intertia to resist lateral forces caused by soil
movement.
To avoid the risk of failure, the bridge
foundation was intrumented with inclinometers.
Figure 22 shows installation of the inclinometers
and Figure 23 shows the position of inclinometer
before concreting of the pile cap.
During the construction of the bridge, the
foundation then could be monitored from time to
time until the bridge was completed. The shear
force and the bending moment were calculated to
find the actual forces. These forces were then
compared with the design. Figure 24 shows typical
soil stratification, and Figure 25 shows pile Figure 23. Installation of Inclinometers embedded
movement and the interpreted shear forces and in the bored piles for Ciheurang River Bridge

Figure 24. Soil profiles at Ciheurang River site

8-11
 Deflection (cm) Shear Force (kN) Moment (kN)
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 -400 -200 0 200 400 -2000 -1000 0 1000 2000
0 0 0

5 5 5

10 10 10

Depth (m)

Depth (m)
Depth (m)

15 15 15

20 20 20

25 25 25

Midas 3D Midas 3D Midas 3D

Inclinometer Inclinometer Inclinometer
30 30 30

Figure 25. Comparison of measured and calculated pile movement (using 3D FEM) and forces at Ciheurang
River Bridge Foundation (Santoso, et al, 2015)

Ground Improvement Prior to Construction of Bridge The foundation system consists of pipe piles of
Abutment (Lembak River Bridge, East Kalimantan) diameter 600 m and 27 m long. Four piles at the edge
of the pile cap of the abutment were instrumented
This research was conducted at Lembak River
using 4 inclinometers and the piles were backfilled
Bridge in East Kalimantan (Astriani D., and Rahardjo,
with mortar concrete of low grade.
P.P., 2014). The bridge has three spans using steel
Method of construction follows type 4 where the
girders for the purpose of hauling road and heavy
foundation ground were improved using preload and
vehicles with maximum load of 250 tons. The height of
vertical drain. Then the preload was excavated before
embankment behind the abutment is 8 m which will
piling and the construction of the abutment. Astriani,
cause the soft foundation soils to move laterally during
D., and Rahardjo PP (2014) conducted 2D finite
fill placement. The soil condition may be represented
element analysis with and without soil improvement
by a series of CPT data as shown on Figure 26. The
stage. For comparison, the results of the pile movement
soft soil layer is as deep as 20 m with three loose sand
were plotted as shown on Figure 28. As demonstrated
lenses alternating with the clay with thickness of 2 – 3
the real movement of the piles are much less than
m.
computed in the design stage.

Figure 27. Installation of inclinometer insite pile

through pile cap (Astriani, D. And Rahardjo, PP, 2014)
Figure 26. Soil condition at Lembak River Bridge
(Astriani, D. and Rahardjo, PP, 2014)

8-12
 Figure 29. View of high cut slope in Semarang
Ungaran Bawen highway project

Figure 28. Comparison of measured pile movement to

results of analysis (Astriani, D. And Rahardjo, PP,
2014)

CASE 3 : PILES USED TO INCREASE SLOPE

STABILITY IN LANDSLIDES AREA
Figure 30. Crack is observed on Nov 2014 and slope
This particular case is common in Indonesia, where failures in Dec 2014
the existence of clayshale is under the volcanic breccia.
The clayshale formation is tertiary while volcanic The decision was to protect the the slope by use of
breccia was formed much later during quartenary 1200 mm diameter boredpiles for the lower part of the
geologic period. The main things is once the clayshalle slope and the use of ground anchor in the upper part.
formation is open to air and water, it is degrading so Some boredpiles were instrumented with the
fast creating a continuous area of sliding plane. This inclinometers. The construction of boredpiles faced
site is a steep cut slope of 40 m high and most material challenges due to the slope already failed, hence
excavated was laharic breccia. The original design was counterweight was placed at the toe with compacted
to put long anchor to stabilise the exposed slope. local soil as a platform for the heavy equipment to
At this study area, the existence of the clayshale is work on.
not continuous and detected later when the excavation
almost reached the final level. It was started with a lot
of vertical cracks. Some efforts were conducted
including a trial grout to go into the crack, however
even though the grout materials have been subtantials
reaching more than 10 tons of cement, there is still
unforeseen when the gap will be fully closed.
It is interesting the phenomena of vertical cracking.
There is no satisfactory geological explanation so far
on the possible cause. The first author has thought
about combination of stress release due to excavation Figure 31. Slope failures at high cut in Ungaran-Bawen
and movement or sliding of breccia on clayshale layer toll road project
which might be related to the divergency thus the crack
is propagated along with the progress of work. Other
factor that might be of possible cause of the crack is
the relative movement (creep) of the brecia along with
the swelling and shrinking of the underneath clayshale.

8-13
Figure 32. Prepartion of the construction of boredpiles
to protect the slope

CASE 4 : PILES USED FOR PROTECTION OF Figure 33. Geological condition of the site (Rahardjo,
EMBANKMENT NEAR FAILURE DUE TO RE- 2012)
ACTIVATED LANDSLIDES

Construction of Semarang-Solo highway has been

completed in February 2011 and a number of
landslides occured just before opening of the highway
at STA 3+525 – STA 8+475. In general, the
infrastructures consist of cuts and fills with high
embankment, Overpass, Underpass, Box culverts and 2
bridges, Susukan Bridge and Penggaron Bridge.
The author was involved to investigate the causes
and the consequences of the landslide for assessment of
the safety of the highway and to recommend action for
the safety of the embankment.
This section discusses embankment at sta 5+500 –
sta 5+800 which experience substantial mass
movement just prior to the opening of the highway. At
the start of the construction, clay shales were found Figure 34. Satelite image of the landslide area (2012)
with varying depth below ground surface. Information
on old landslide was also a concern. During fill Chronology of Landslides
placement and subsequent pavement installation, there
Right after the highway was nearly completed, due
were cracks on the embankment resulted from the
to long duration or rains in March 2011 severe
movement of the soil mass. A number of works were
movement on slopes identified as landslides occured
conducted including the installation of bored piles and
toward east. Monitoring of the slopes were
instrumentation for detection of the failure planes.
subsequently conducted due to possibility of impacts of
the landslides to the damages of the pavement,
Geological Condition
however it was too late. Beside measuring and
The geological map of Magelang and Semarang levelling of the pavement, monitoring slope movement
shows that the route of the new road is through Kerek were conducted by a number of inclinometers. The
Formation Tmk) consisting of clay stone, sandy tuff, results showed that land movement still continues
conglomerate and volcanic breccia and in some area, which might endanger the embankment. The
lime stones are also found (Figure 33). This units are subsequent significant movement occured on noted by
recognised as mid mioceen. Area with Kerek the broken inclinometers and further movement
formation is believed to be significant land-slide occured subsequently The slides were known as two
phrone areas. It can be explained from the degradation different movement, the upper part with average of
changes of the engineering propertes of the materials, 15 – 25 m thickness are engineered fill, and the second
specifically the alteration of clayshale as rock material part are weathered clayshale with thickness of 2 – 5 m.
into soft mud when exposed to water and air.

8-14
 What has actually occurred was that the
embankment has been constructed on the debris of old
landslides and the additional load of embankment has
triggered reactivation of the old landslides. However
the main reason is due to the existence of clayshale
below embankment. This material degraded very
quickly when in touch with water. Due to clearing of
top soil in the preliminary work of the embankment,
the rainwater easily penetrate into the breccia debris
Figure 35. Pavement cracks developed due to
landslides (Rahardjo, 2012) and once the water was on top of clayshale layer, the
infiltration is terminated and water start to flow in the
Emergency actions were carried out to save the boundary between the embankment soil and the
embankment including, removal of landslides debris, weathered clayshale.
installation of gabions, installation of horizontal drains
and construction of boredpiles.
After sufficient investigation, it was decided that a
significant effort to stabilize the embankment was
regarded a necessity. Additional boredpiles and
lowering the embankment by 7.5 m were completed in
March 2011. The cut of the embankment was intended
to reduce the driving force. The first phase of
excavation was only at the crown of landslide and the
second phase was leveling by elevation down to about
7.5 m below original. The main purpose is to reduce
the amount of sliding force since it is a function of
weight of moving material, slope of the clayshale
Figure 36. Old scarp of landslides in 1974 and previous
below groundsurface and the residual strength of the
one (Rahardjo 2012)
interface between soil and weathered clayshale.
During remedial actions geotechnical
instrumentation (mainly inclinometers) were installed
and geotechnical drilling were conducted at the
position of onclinometers with coring, soil and rock
sampling and Standard Penetration Test (SPT).

Mechanism of Landslides
Several landslides accidents occurred in the past
and recently, mainly after long rain duration. The
breccia is porous material, hence infiltration is possible,
while the clayshale is practically impermeable.
It was found from the local information and Figure 37. Positions of inclinometers for monitoring of
convinced by the results of inclinometers that the slope movement in the area of landslides
breccia hill on the east side of the embankment is
actually moving along and on the clayshale formation Figure 39 shows the plan view of the highway
below it. Such an experience was explained by section with approximate length of 300 m and it is
Rahardjo (2003) in the nearby area in Semarang as shown with boredpiles that have been used for the
reactivation of the breccia re-sliding over clayshale. protection of the slope. And yet it is not stable.
Such a mechanism was known as creep.
Information on the ground movement was
acknowledged by people living in the surrounding area
where the escarpment could still be seen. Based on
their knowledge, the area is active landslides with thick
debris. Slope failures were noted in 1974 and
previously unknown dates.

8-15
 Figure 38. Slope Movement as indicated by IN-11

Figure 39. Plan View of embankment of Sta 5+500 – Sta 5+800

Figure 40. Interpreted soil condition from boreholes

8-16
 Figure 41. Interpretation of the plane of failure in landslides of Sta 5+500 – Sta 5+800

Back Analysis of Landslides assuming there is no cohesion and by trial and error
For safety assessment, 2D and 3D finite element to obtain a safety factor of 1.0. The analysis has
analysis were carried out to back analyze and used Plaxis computer program using phi-c
simulate the effects of soil movements on the reduction. The results give the residual friction
performance of highway. The main tasks of the angle of 10 – 16. This value is typical for clay-
geotechnical analysis are to ensure (1) whether shale in this location, however a number of
ground movement would still occur, (2) location, researchers recommended a value of less than those,
direction and rate of movement (3) additional loads and hence for being conservative, the following
on existing borede-piles due to landslides and (4) analysis have used the lowest value of residual
decision for strengthening the slope. The results of shear strength. Figure 42 shows the mechanism of
both geotechnical and structural studies are to be slope failures used for back analysis of to estimate
used for decision before commissioning of the the residual shear strength.
highway.
The first step toward the assessment is back
analysis of the mechanism based on geometry and
interpreted sliding plane from the inclinometers and
drilling results. The drillings were conducted one
borehole at inclinometers locations. Figure 42. Back analysis of slope failures
Depth of failure planes are importance
The action for decelerating embankment
information for understanding the mechanism of
movement was by reducing the height of the
landslides and evaluation for the analysis of soil
embankment by 7.5 m, which caused redesign of
parameters. After landslides occurred, the soil shear
geometry in the longitudinal alignment. However,
strength is governed by residual shear strength of
that is more on the highway engineer concern. The
the soils. The failure plane is estimated using
value of residual shear strength was used for
inclinometers data IN-1A, IN-2A, and IN-11 and
analysis and the resulting safety factor was SF = 1.1,
also through the position of crack on the surface of
which is regarded insufficient for safety reason.
embankment.
Unfortunately the installation of previous
Figure 38 shows results of inclinometer IN-11
boredpiles were not long enough since the
where the depth of failure plane is between 20-22
movement is below the bored piles, as shown by
from the top of inclinometer, and this is verified by
the inclinometers and verified by the back analysis
inclinometer reading IN-1A and IN-IB. Both
hence the frst few hundereds boredpiles have not
inclinometers broke down and readings can not be
been effective. Movement still occurred.
continued. The depth of sliding plane was then
decided at 21 m, and this is used for subsequent
analysis to model the existing condition and the
slope repair.
Evaluation of slope condition is by assessment
of existing condition (including the existing
boredpiles, the geometry etc.). Then back analysis Figure 43. Cut to reduce embankment height
is attempted to find the residual shear strength (r)

8-17
Use of Bored Piles to Increase the Stability of
Embankment
Conceptual action for stabilizing the
embankment has been decided by installation of
larger and deeper bored piles. Provisional action (if
movement still occurred is by use of ground
anchor). The bored piles of 1000mm and
1500mm diameter and length of 45 m has been
design with spacing of 2.5D. At this stage, the
resulting safety factor is SF = 1.33 (Figure 44), and
to achieve a SF = 1.51, ground anchors must be
installed. Figure 46. Preparing pile cap, Inclinometer is
For installation of bored piles, a further shown
excavation of 12.000 cubic meters is required to
obtain a flat surface. Figure 46 shows progress of
bored piles construction.

Figure 44. Recommendation for slope stabilization

using bored piles and ground anchor

Figure 47. Progress of bored piles construction

Figure 48 shows the inclinometer movement

and interpretation of the boredpile displacement
and forces. It is found that movement is relatively
small (less than 10 mm). Potential sliding planes
are found at 12 m, 19 m and 30 m.

Figure 45. Use of large and long bored piles for

slope stabilization of sta 5+500 – sta 5+800

M-24 Deflection (mm) Increment (mm) Shear Force (kN) Moment (kNm)
-10 -5 0 5 10 -0.50 -0.25 0.00 0.25 0.50 -400 -200 0 200 400 -1500 -1000 -500 0 500 1000 1500
0 0 0 0

5 5 5 5

10 10 10 10

15 15 15 15

20 20 20 20
Depth (m)

Depth (m)

Depth (m)

Depth (m)

25 25 25 25

30 30 30 30

35 35 35 35

40 40 40 40
18-Dec-13 18-Dec-13
24-May-14 24-May-14
18 Dec 13 3m 24 May 14 3m 18 Dec 13 3m 24 May 14 3m
45 45 45 45

Figure 48. Movement of boredpiles and the calculated shear force and bending moment

8-18
CASE 5 : PILES USED FOR FOUNDATION OF
PIPES IN LANDSLIDES AREA

Landslide occurred at certain slope of Gunung

Bedil in form of debris flow material. This
landslide cut the pipe line between WWQ and
WWS. Total area of landslide and debris are
approximately 12 Ha with length about 600 m and
wide of 200 m. This landslide has caused extensive
damage to about 300 m of the multiple pipes and
foundation along the two-phase services corridor as
well as extensive damage to parts of the village.
Prior to landslides, some cracks and soil Figure 49. Landslide at Pengalengan
movement was identified at surrounding area. Any
reinforcement for the critical area had been already
recommended, such as make a deeper pipe
foundation, construct a drainage system beside pipe
line, and install monitoring system for soil
movement.
The pipe lines needs to be repaired immediately
to recover productivity. Evaluation and discussions
have been conducted on alternatives of new pipe
line. Elevated pipe line on bored piles across debris
area is selected as pipe support. However,
additional soil investigations have been conducted Figure 50. Condition of soil debris
for this new pipe line area to collect more soil data
which is needed for foundation design and also Total numbers of the soil investigations taken
slope stability analysis. are 15 boreholes and 30 CPTs. There are some
inclinometers and piezometers that are installed for
future monitoring.

Figure 51. Soil investigation program

8-19
 Based on boring logs and CPT data, soil
condition is dominated by debris material defined
as soft clayey silt to the depth of 5 – 10 m. Second
layer consist of tuff material until depth of 17 –
25 m. Third layer is dominated by very stiff to hard
clay as bearing layer.
From the soil investigations, the debris
materials at the surface are dominated by relatively
light weight soil of tuffaceous clayey silt, defined
as colluvium material formed by volcanic activity
and chemical process. Light cementation can be
found at certain depth and this material has a very
high porosity. Tuff is a sediment material from
Figure 52. Soil condition on site
volcanic eruption. Although tuff is cemented in
natural condition but it is very dispersive when
Based on soil investigation data and
disturbed. Fill work using this material will loosen
topographic study, it is predicted that landslide is
its strength when encountered with water.
triggered by heavy rain fall at the past time which
Design for new pipe line foundation will use
cause top layer consist of soft clay (colluvium
soil profiles and interpreted parameters from soil
material) and tuffaceous sliding on stiff material
investigation data.
defined as weathered andesite.

Figure 53. Longitudinal section with soil investigations

Considering the huge forces by the pipe
pressure, seismic condition, and also from
additional debris load, the type of foundation is
selected using bored piles as a deep foundation. Pile
foundation is needed to penetrate through weak
layer defined as debris and soft layer. However the
tuff material has medium to stiff consistency, but
when it encounter with the water become loose and
reduce the shear strength. This foundation type
provides larger diameter of piles in order to resist
any movement of debris material. Using larger
diameter will result in smaller number of piles to be
installed, and shorter time for construction.
However, elevated frame is needed to be
constructed as base support of the pipes to mobilize
the debris flow under the pipes. In principal, higher
elevation of pipes is more safe than normally pipes
elevation of 75 cm. Pipe support foundation
concept is not retain the debris, otherwise to let the
debris and soft layer flow under the pipes. With this
concept, it will much reduce additional forces to
foundation from debris flow or creep. Ground
clearance of frame is limited to 3m from the finish
ground level considering to ease pipes maintenance.
Typical concept of pipe line frame support is shown
in the following figures.

8-20
 Figure 54. Design concept of pipe line support
using frame

Foundation of pipe support at this location shall

be designed to support loads from soil movement.
Figure 55. Simulation of debris flow through pipe
Considering the soft layer approximately 7m-10m
support foundation
and potentially move under debris flow, pipe
foundation must be designed the additional load Figure 56 shows model when the foundation is
under debris flow and creep. To determine debris placed perpendicular to the direction of debris flow
flow load is quietly difficult. 3D modeling is or the landslide, the higher deformation and internal
conducted to simplify the case of debris flow. forces will occur at the front pile which is directly
Debris flow is assumed to move with soft soil along facing with the debris. The rear pile foundation will
weak layer, however the soil movement profile resist a smaller forces and deformation due to its
which is recommended by Poulos (1980) position.
When piles are situated in a soft soil layer that
is subjected to horizontal movement, horizontal
pressures are developed between the pile and the
soil, with a consequent development of bending
moments and deflections in the piles. This become
a major problem when the frame foundations are
1 2
constructed perpendicular with the flow of debris or
estimated future landslide. Foundations are
recommended to constructed parallel or one line
with the landslide flow.
Debris material will be spread out when contact
with bored pile. Shear forces and bending moment
of bored pile for each pile will be different depend
on the first bored pile contacted with the debris Figure 56. 3D Model of deep foundation subjected
to mud movement

Displacem ent (m ) Bending Moment (kNm) Shear Forces (kN)

0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 -3000.00 -2000.00 -1000.00 0.00 1000.00 2000.00 3000.00 4000.00 -1000.00 -500.00 0.00 500.00 1000.00 1500.00 2000.00
0.00 0.00 0.00

5.00 5.00 5.00

10.00 10.00 10.00

Length of Pile (m)

15.00 15.00 15.00

Length of Pile (m)
Length of Pile (m)

20.00 20.00 20.00

25.00 25.00 25.00

30.00 30.00 30.00

35.00 35.00 35.00

Figure 57(a). 3D analysis result (front pile)

8-21
 Displacement (m) Shear Forces (kN)
Bending Moment (kNm)
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 -2000.00 -1000.00 0.00 1000.00 2000.00 3000.00 4000.00 -300.00 -200.00 -100.00 0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00 400.00 500.00 600.00 700.00
0.00 0.00 0.00

5.00 5.00 5.00

10.00 10.00 10.00

L en g th o f Pile (m )

15.00 15.00 15.00

L eng th o f Pile (m )

L en g t h o f Pile ( m )
20.00 20.00 20.00

25.00 25.00 25.00

30.00 30.00 30.00

35.00 35.00 35.00

Figure 58(b). 3D analysis result (rear pile)

Inclinometers are being installed inside bored Creep is the common type of land movement
piles and also at the ground between pipe supports causing progressive damages to buildings and
to verify the design and also acting as warning infrastructures, however in some cases, sudden
system. Displacement of inclometers inside the landslides may be triggered due to infiltration of
bored piles are considered as bored pile deflection rain water into the breccia layer due to its high
which shows actual internal forces, which can be permeability (Rahardjo, 2003). On the other hand,
compared to bored pile capacity. Any the thick deep layer of clay-shale is practically
countermeasure can be taken after displacement impermeable. Clayshale is thin laminated claystone
reach certain value. At the time this paper is being or mudstone which can slake or degrade due to
written the bored piles installation have been exposure to air and water.
completed and being monitored. The Penggaron Bridge is located in this area,
and just after completion of the bridge landslides
occurred which caused delay of the commissioning
of the bridge due to safety reason. The authors were
involved to investigate the causes and the
consequences of the landslide for assessment of the
safety of the bridge and to recommend action for
the safety of the bridge. The main task of the
geotechnical analysis are to ensure (1) whether the
ground movement would still occur, (2) location,
direction and rate of movement (3) the magnitude
of additional loads on piles caused by the ground
movement and (4) decision for strengthening of the
bridge foundation. Foundation monitoring and 2D
Figure 59. Construction of bored piles and and 3D finite element analysis were conducted. The
installation of inclinometers results of study concluded that even though the
ground are still moving, no damages were found in
CASE 6 : PILES USED FOR PROTECTION AND the foundation except due to workmanship,
SUBSITUTE OF BRIDGE FOUNDATION IN additional forces causing by the ground movement
LANDSLIDE AREA are so far still under pile cross section capacity,
Breccia Re-sliding over Clayshale has become however new piles were constructed to prevent the
the most responsible causes of landslides foundation from further damage including the
phenomena in the Semarang (Central Java) Area. installation of additional geotechnical
instrumentation.

8-22
 Penggaron bridge is Prestressed Concrete
Girder Bridge 421.5 m long consisting of 10 spans,
each of about 40 m length including 9 Piers. Figure
59 shows the longitudinal section of the bridge, the
SPT values on each pier and abutment and the
length of bored piles. Bored pile foundation of
diameter 1.2 m and depth ranging from 12 – 25 m
below pile cap are used as the foundation system to
support the upper structures. Simple I girders have
been installed including the bridge decks.
During construction and the excavation of pile
cap at 10 m depth, no problems were detected and
excavation was successfully conducted vertically
without any protection. It has to be noted that the
Figure 60. Longitudinal section of Penggaron Bridge
Figure 61. Site condition during excavation of pile
cap
Chronology of Landslides
Right after the bridge was nearly completed,
due to long duration or rains in March 2011 severe
erosions on slopes adjacent to the bridge open up
vegetation and landslides occured at the east part of
piers P-4, P-5 dan P-6. Monitoring ot the bridge
were subsequently conducted due to possibility of
impacts of the landslides to the stability of the
bridge. Aside from measuring and levelling of the
bridge decks, and piers verticality, two
inclinometers were installed at pier 4 and pier 6.
The results showed that land movement still
continues which might endanger the bridge. The
excavation works were conducted during dry
season. Figure 60 shows typical overview during
excavation.
This paper contains description of the occurence
of the landslides, evaluation of the possible
mechanism and impact to the bridge foundation and
an attempt of analysis in 2D and 3D finite element
model of the foundation in moving ground and
assessment on the method of foundation protection
against landslides. Of particular interest is the
investigation of the safety of the foundation due to
ground movement. Assessment using 2D and 3D
finite element analysis were conducted to estimate
the additional lateral load working on the piles.
slides were known as two different movement, the
upper part with average of 6.5 m thickness are
colluvial or debris, and the second part are either
volcanic breccia or weathered clayshale.
The subsequent significant movement occured
on May 14 2011 at pier 5 and pier 6 as noted by the
broken inclinometers and further movement
occured on May 17 2011 as recorded on the deck of
the bridge on top of pier 4 with movement of 6.6
cm and on top of Pier-6 recorded as 8.2 cm. An
important notes were the movement of abutment 2
on the south side. A long crack detected as the
begining of landslide was recorded. Upon grouting,
the soil gap requires 14 m3 of grouted material.
After sufficient investigation, it was decided
that strengthening the foundation was regarded a
necessity. Additional boredpiles surrounding
pilecap and construction of dewatering wells were
inisiated and completed in September 2011.
However, two subsequent landslides were repeated
in November and December 2011 after the
additional boredpiles were completed. The main
land movement is the upper soil layer which caused
different elevation at east of the landslide crown
about 3.5 – 5.0 m. At the time of writing this paper,
remedial works are still on going mainly to finish
the pile caps of new bored pile and stabilizing the
landslides by construction of deep subdrains.
8-23
Emergency Actions below groundsurface and the residual strength of
the interface between soil and weathered clayshale.
Emergency actions were carried out to save the
Three drain wells were constructed to monitor
bridge including excavation of nearby hills,
the water level as well as to dewater the
removal of landslides debris, installation of gabions,
groundwater level. The position of drain wells were
installation of horizontal drains and construction of
at the east side of the bridge. They showed that
drainage ditches. A temporary retention of
water tables are generally high due to infiltration of
landslides debris with bamboo piles was done
rain water into the soils. However, it is well known
mainly to reduce the amount of sliding material,
that the water is not real ground water, but water
however it was not intended as permanent
trapped above clayshale which cause the upper
stabilization. Commonly the bamboo piles were
more permeable layer to slide laterally due to
installed at or near the abutments.
softening as well as water flow in this layer.
It is also of interest the Pile Integrity Testing
(PIT) was also attempeted with accelerometers
mounted on the top side of bored piles as well as on
top of pile caps, although such position of pile
testing is uncommon and interpretations were
slightly complicated.
During emergency actions geotechnical
instrumentation (mainly inclinometers) were
installed and geotechnical drilling were conducted
at every pier with coring, soil and rock sampling
and StandardPenetration Test (SPT). Table 1 shows
the emergency action and their respective volume
of works.
Figure 62. Cross section showing first phase of
Table 1. Emergency actions between March-June excavation of the hill and inclinometer reading in
2011 May 2011
Type of action
Construction Description
nos depth/length
Surface Ditches 1 60 m
Horizontal Drains 8 6 - 12 m

Cuts for leveling 1 12,000 m3 Excavation of hills

Gabions 3 500 m3 *)
Well drains 3 6 m depth Diameter 800mm
Inclinometers 16 30 m 2 nos at each piers
Geotechnical Driling
18 30 m with SPT and UDS
UDS
Structure Monitoring Verticallity and deck movement
* Gabions were constructed to resist movement of soil below pile cap but it failed because sliding
plane was deeper

Figure 63. Installation of horizontal drains at pier 7

It was found from the local information and
convinced by the results of inclinometers that the Results of Geotechnical Monitoring
breccia hill on the west side of the bridge is actually
In the first stage, only two inclinometers and the
moving along and on the clayshale formation below
drain wells were used to monitor the movement of
it. Such an experience was explained by Rahardjo
the ground and the water level. It is of interest that
(2003) to exist in the nearby area in Semarang as
the results of lateral movement were detected very
reactivation of the breccia re-sliding over clayshale.
soon after the installation of the geotechnical
Such a mechanism was known as creep.
instrumentation. Although the inclinometers were
The cut of the hill was intended to reduce the
there only for less than one month, since the slope
driving force acting below the hill. The first phase
are still actively moved, two layers with different
of excavation was only on slope and the second
direction of movements were interpreted by the
phase was leveling by elevation down to about 6 m
author as colluvial with thickness of 6.5 m and
below original. The main purpose is to reduce the
weathered clayshale underneath the colluvial with
amount of sliding force since it is a function of
8.5 m. Figure 63 is the results of subsurface ground
weight of moving material, slope of the clayshale
movement by inclinometer at pier 4.

8-24
 additional loads on piles due to landslides and (4)
decision for strengthening the bridge foundation.
The results of both geotechnical and structural
6.5 m
studies are to be used for decision before
commissioning of the bridge.
The first step toward the assessment is back
14.5 m
analysis of the mechanism based on geometry and
PASANG 11 APRIL interpreted sliding plane from the inclinometers and
PATAH 11 MEI = 9.2 cm
drilling results. The drillings were conducted one
borehole under each abutment and pillar.
Sliding plane is assumed based on inclinometer
Figure 64. Results of daily inclinometer readings at PG-1 where two potential sliding plane are known
pier 4 at depth 6.5 m and 14.5 m below ground level or at
elevation of +277.807 from sea level. The
Similar results were found for inclinometer inclinometer reading from April 11 2011 to May
readings at pier 6, however the direction is slightly 8th 2011 shows that soil movement is 9.2 cm and
different although both towards the Penggaron river. hereafter, the readings can not be continued.
The inclinometer readings were terminated, due to Based on the soil condition, finite element
breakage of inclinometer casing. model is used to back calculate the sliding
mechanism with the approximately sliding plane to
ARAH obtained a safety factor of 1.0 or very close to 1.0.
PERGERAKAN
INCLINO P4 ki Figure 65 shows the model.
INCLINO P6 ki

A1 P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 A2

Figure 65. Direction of upper ground movement

Mechanism of Reactivation of Old Landslides

Reactivation of breccia re-sliding over clay
shale has become common phenomena in the
Figure 66. Finite element model for back analysis
Semarang Area. Rahardjo (2003) has explained the
mechanism as follows: volcanic breccia was
Based on back analysis, shears and moments
deposited on top of clayshale very long time ago
may be calculated to estimate the working load due
due to lahar flows after volcano eruption. Clayshale
to land movement. it is concluded that the working
is material that is degrading fast due to exposure in
load did not exceed the section capacity of the piles.
water or air. In the long run after consolidation, the
Effort were extended with pile integrity testing to
material might be stable, however, the inclination
ascertain the safety of the foundation.
of clayshale enable creep or even sliding of the
Although theoretically the working load acting
breccia over the clayshale.
on the bored piles are still within the limits of the
Several landslides accidents occurred in the past
section capacity, there is no guarantee that the
and recently, mainly after long rain duration. The
bored piles are safe, hence taking into consideration
breccia is porous material, hence infiltration is
of the possible further movement, some actions
possible, while the clayshale is practically
were conducted including : (1) Pile integrity testing
impermeable. Creep or sudden landslides could
(PIT) to ascertain the pile safety (2) Cutting of
occur along the boundary of clayshale.
upper part of the hill to increase the global safety
factor and (3) Construction of additional bored piles
Finite Element Analysis for Stability Evaluation of
surrounding the existing foundation to resist further
Bridge Foundation
possible movement of the ground. The additional
2D and 3D finite element analysis were carried piles have dimension of 1.2 m diameter and 35 m
out to back analyze and simulate the effects of soil long which is beyond the sliding plane.
movements on the bridge foundation. The main
tasks of the geotechnical analysis are to ensure (1)
whether ground movement would still occur, (2)
location, direction and rate of movement (3)

8-25

Figure 67. Model showing the final foundation and
slope protection to obtain a SF = 1.45
Installation of Boredpiles for Protection of Bridge
Foundation and Embedded Inclinometers
It was decided to install bored piles surrounding
each pile cap of Pier 2 to pier 8. Each pile cap was
strengthened by 1.5 m diameter 16 bored piles, 35
m deep. The pile caps of the new bored piles were
connected to the existing pile cap. For each pier,
two inclinometers were installed inside the bored
piles. Figure 67 shows the installation of
inclinometer.
Figure 68. Installation of inclinometer inside
boredpile
Ten inclinometers were installed inside
protection bored piles, however only 8
inclinometers were valid for interpretation. It is of
interest for interpretation to use the results of
embedded inclinometers to assess the performance
of the bored piles in resisting the soil movement
and for calculation of internal forces in the bored
piles.
Installation of bored piles were completed in
mid November and inclinometer monitoring have
been started in early December 2011. Figure 68
shows development of inclinometer top movement
since December 2011 until March 2012. It is
detected that the protection bored piles started to
move in the first week of January 2012 and
relatively slowed down about the third week of
February 2012. Data of rain intensity shown in
same week is very high and it is regarded to cause
the ground movement.
8-26
The bored piles have been apparently moved to
mobilize the passive resistance. If the results are
compared to the rain intensity, the movements
areclosely related to it. In January 2012, rain
intensity measured near the project site is almost
double then predicted.
Figure 69. Bored piles top movement measured by
embedded inclinometers
800
700
600
500
CH (mm)
400
300
200
100
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Bulan
Figure 70. Predicted and actual rain intensities
The movement of the bored piles as measured
by the inclinometers can be used to estimate the
forces (shear and moments) in the bored piles using
finite difference approach. It is concluded that the
maximum bending moments occurred in the bored
piles were about 50% of the moment capacity of the
section.
Summary of Penggaron Bridge
The finite element analysis is capable of
simulating back analysis of the landslides
mechanism and shows the additional (primarily
lateral) load on the piles were still within the safe
range of pile capacity. However, further movement
might cause subsequent damages and hence
additional piles have been proposed and
constructed. At present the protection piles are
being monitored with inclinometers embedded in
the piles. The movement occurred in the months of
January – February 2012 was regarded due to
ground movement as a result of higher rain
intensity and the protection bored piles have been
effective to avoid further movement of the
foundation.
 Resultant of Cummulative Slope Moment (kNm) Geser (kN)
Displacement (m)
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010 -1.E+04 0.E+00 1.E+04 2.E+04 -5.E+03 0.E+00 5.E+03 1.E+04
0 0 0 0

5 5 5 5

10 10 10 10

15 15 15 15

20 20 20 20

Depth (m)

Depth (m)

Depth (m)
Depth (m)

25 25 25 25

30 30 30 30

35 35 35 35

40 40 40 40

Figure 71. Movement of bored piles and calculated forces at Penggaron Bridge

CONCLUSION SUMMARY REFERENCES

 Geological condition is an important key Astriani, D., Rahardjo, P. P., 2014, “Study on the
element in the case of slope and landslides. Effect of Method of Construction on the
Many cases of landslides in Java were due to Stability of Bridge Abutment on Soft
the existence of clayshale which is easily Soils,“ proceeding, “Southeast Asia Conference
weathered. The project locations described in on Soft Soils Engineering and Groud
the paper is geologically in the area of Subang Improvement,” Bandung – Indonesia.
Formation (west java) and Kerek Formation Geotechnical Engineering Consultant, PT, 2011,
(Tmb) central java which is convinced to be “Final Report of Landslides Evaluation of
area where ground movement is significant. Semarang _Bawen toll Road Section 1, Packet
 The use of bored piles to control slope II” submitted to PT Trans Marga Jateng.
movement is effective, however there should Handoko, A., Rahardjo, P. P., Wirawan, A.,
be sufficient depth where the piles are fixed. Sugiarto, S., 2014, “Evaluation of Abutment
 Based on inclinometers and other data, the Failure due to Embankment Backfill,
failure plane can be detected, furthermore if the “proceeding, “Southeast Asia Conference on
inclinometers are embedded into the boredpile, Soft Soils Engineering and Groud
valuable information can be obtained, not only Improvement,” Bandung – Indonesia.
the safety and the plane of failure, but also the Poulus, H. G. And Davis, E, 1980, “Design and
estimated forces acting in the boredpiles. This Contruction of Pile Foundation”.
information has been used to assess the safety Rahardjo, P. P., 2003, “Reactivation of Breccia
and performance of the bored piles and Resliding over Clayshale” Proceeding Pan
condition for further stabilization work. American Conference, Soil and Rock, Boston.
 During construction or following the remedial Santoso, P. C. S., 2015, “2D and 3D Finite Element
action, inclinometers can be installed inside the Analysis and Geotechnical Monitoring for
bored-piles to be monitored for long term. This Slope Stability Assessment of Ciherang Bridge
will help the understanding of further Abutment” Proceeding SLOPE 2015, Bandung.
movement and to ascertain the stability and
safety of the slope and embankment.
 The finite element analysis is capable of
simulating back analysis of the landslides
mechanism and shows the additional (primarily
lateral) load on the piles were still within the
safe range of pile lateral capacity. However,
further movement might cause subsequent
damages and hence additional action shall be
proposed. At present many new piles have
been constructed with inclinometers embedded
in the piles to monitor possible further
movement, and many more projects are now
using inclinometers inside boredpile.

8-27
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT FOR THE LANDSLIDE MITIGATION

Dwikorita Karnawati 1

ABSTRACT: Couple of critical challenges in capacity development program for landslide

mitigation is in defining the most appropriate approach and method for executing the
program, as well as in maintaining the sustainability of the program and the respective
impact.
Universitas Gadjah Mada has been developing and implementing a community-based
approach for landslide mitigation through the risk assessment and early warning project
over the last several years, which is also a part of the capacity development program. Such
program are conducted in collaboration with International Consortium on Landslides
(ICL), DPRI Kyoto University, National Board for Disaster Management (BNPB),
Ministry for the Rural, Transmigration and Disadvantaged Regions, local governments and several private
companies and NGOs. This effort has been sustained by the local government, university, the community and the
related stakeholders for years, and it has resulted in both increased capability and capacity at the local/village
level to reduce disaster risk and increase community resilience. This landslide early warning system has been
implemented at 12 provinces in Indonesia and also being installed in Geothermal Area across Indonesia, as well
as in a mining area in Myanmar. Furthermore, socio-entrepreneurial approach has also been developingto ensure
the sustainability of the mitigation program.

1
Vice President of International Consortium on Landslides, Rector of Universitas Gadjah Mada

9-1
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Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

LANDSLIDES HAZARD MITIGATION IN INDONESIA

Surono 1

ABSTRACT: Rain-induced landslides are one of the most common types of natural
disasters, and they frequently occur in Indonesia as well as in the Asia-Pacific Region.
During the period 1990 — 2007, 1,215 landslides occurred in Indonesia. Because of
those landslides, 2,886 people lost their lives, 1,215 people were injured, and 14,849
people lost their homes. Normally, landslides occur during the rainy season, bringing a
sudden flow of debris that leaves many victims in its wake. The majority of landslides
during this period occurred in January (197 events).
Coordination of Landslide Mitigation Efforts: Basic disaster management concepts
and basic knowledge of landslide phenomena were introduced in Indonesia to improve
the understanding and awareness of its citizens, and to motivate and empower them to
develop effective disaster management measures and public education programs. The development of a
mitigation system is therefore a crucial step towards the marshaling of human resources to guarantee the
sustainability of life and the environment in areas susceptible to landslides.
The Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, the Geological Agency, and the Department
of Energy and Mineral Resources have devised the following mitigation strategies for reducing the number of
fatalities and the socio-economic impact caused by landslides.
Landslide Susceptibility Mapping
Early Warning System
Monitoring Landslides
Socialization
Quick Response Team
.

1
Directorate General of Geologi, Indonesia

10-1
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Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

IMPORTANCE OF LOWER-BOUND SHEAR STRENGTH IN THE RELIABILITY

OF SPATIALLY RANDOM CLAYEY SLOPES
Z. Farah 1, S. Najjar 2 and S. Sadek 3

ABSTRACT: The stability of a soil slope is traditionally evaluated by adopting a deterministic approach that is
based on a target global factor of safety that is calculated either through limit equilibrium methods or through
finite element analyses. Due to the uncertainties that affect the risk of slope failures, recent studies have
attempted to solve slope stability problems using reliability theory. Recently, probabilistic geotechnical analyses
in which nonlinear finite-element methods are combined with random field generation techniques have been
adopted to quantify the effect of spatial variability in soil properties on the risk of failure of slopes. This
approach is currently referred to in the literature as the Random Finite Element Method (RFEM). In this paper, a
robust probabilistic slope stability analysis using the RFEM is conducted to investigate the effect of including a
lower-bound shear strength in the probabilistic model describing the uncertainty in the undrained shear strength
of clayey slopes. A lower bound of the undrained shear strength of clays could be represented by the remolded
undrained shear strength, which could be determined using information about the sensitivity of the clay. This
lower-bound strength is used to truncate the left-hand tail of the undrained strength probability distribution, thus
reducing the likelihood of obtaining unrealistically small shear strength values. Results indicate that for clayey
slopes with different factors of safety, coefficients of variation of the undrained shear strength, and different
scales of fluctuation, the probability of failure of the slope is reduced when the lower-bound undrained strength
is incorporated in the random field. The effect of incorporating the lower-bound is highest for cases with large
spatial variability in shear strength properties. In these cases, the probability of failure of undrained slopes could
be reduced by an order of magnitude compared to the case where the lower-bound is not included in the analysis.

Keywords: RFEM, slopes, probability of failure, clay, reliability, monte carlo, undrained, lower bound and
sensitivity

INTRODUCTION Malkawi et al. 2000, El- Ramly et al. 2002, Low

Even though slope stability analysis is an
established discipline in geotechnical engineering,
it is still attracting interest in both academia and
practice (Griffiths and Marquez 2007). The
stability of a soil slope is traditionally evaluated by
adopting a deterministic approach that is based on
a target global factor of safety that is calculated
either through limit equilibrium methods or
through finite element analyses. Due to the
uncertainties that affect the risk of slope failures,
recent studies have attempted to solve slope
stability problems using reliability theory.
Important steps were taken by several researchers
(ex. Li and Lumb 1987, Christian et al. 1994,
2003, Babu and Mukesh 2004, and Cho 2007) to
investigate the effects of spatial variability in soil
properties on the stability of slopes using random
field theory and the limit equilibrium method
(LEM). A major drawback of LEM is that it
requires a priori assumption of the shape and
location of the failure surface which may not be a
good representation of the realistic failure case.
Recently, the Random Finite Element Method
(RFEM) has been adopted to quantify the effect of
spatial variability in soil properties on the risk of
failure of slopes (Griffiths and Fenton 2000,
Griffiths and Fenton 2004, Griffiths et al. 2007,
Griffiths et al. 2010 and Jha and Ching 2013). The
Random Finite Element Method (RFEM)

1
Graduate Student, American University of Beirut, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, PO.Box 11-0236
Riad El-Solh 1107-2020; LEBANON
2
Associate Professor, American University of Beirut, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, PO.Box 11-0236
Riad El-Solh 1107-2020; LEBANON
3
Professor, American University of Beirut, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, PO.Box 11-0236 Riad El-
Solh 1107-2020; LEBANON

A1-1
combines nonlinear finite-element methods with
random field generation techniques to quantify the
effect of spatial variability in soil properties on the
risk of failure of slopes. RFEM does not
predetermine the shape or the location of the
failure plane and is capable of accounting for the
soil spatial variability effect by taking into account
the spatial correlation and averaging.
In slope stability problems involving clayey
slopes, the uncertainty in the undrained shear
strength of the clay generally governs the
probability of failure of the slope. In most of the
published work where reliability analyses were
conducted for undrained slopes, the uncertainty in
the undrained shear strength was modeled using
conventional lognormal distributions. The left
hand tail of a lognormal distribution (which
governs the probability of failure of the slope) is
mathematically bounded by a minimum shear
strength value of zero. It could be argued that for
clays with relatively low sensitivities, the
undrained shear strength will always have a
minimum non-zero value that is represented by the
fully remolded undrained shear strength of the
same clay. For deposits of clay with typical high
spatial variabilities (typical coefficients of
variation between 0.3 and 0.5), the left hand tail of
a conventional lognormal distribution is incapable
of incorporating the presence of a non-zero lower-
bound shear strength and may not constitute a
realistic model of the uncertainty in the undrained
shear strength. A more realistic probability
distribution with the capability of incorporating a
physical lower-bound value of shear strength may
result in more reliable estimates of the risk of
failure of an undrained slope.
Gilbert et al. (2005) and Najjar and Gilbert
(2009) adopted a lognormal distribution that is
truncated at a lower-bound value to model the
uncertainties in the factor of safety of a drained
clayey slope and in the capacity of deep
foundations in sands and clays, respectively. A
truncated lognormal distribution is convenient
because the parameters describing the distribution
are the same as those of the non-truncated
distribution with the addition of one extra
parameter, the lower-bound value. Valle et al.
(2012) and (2014) incorporated the concept of a
lower-bound capacity in modeling the reliability of
an offshore pipeline that is subject to upheaval
buckling. In all of the above studies, it was found
that the incorporation of a realistic, physical lower
bound in the probabilistic model of a geotechnical
capacity or a factor of safety could result in
A1-2
significant reductions in the probability of failure
of a geotechnical structure and would thus increase
the reliability of the design.
The major objective of this paper is to
investigate the effectiveness of introducing a lower
bound in the probabilistic model describing the
uncertainty in the undrained shear strength of clay
in slope stability analyses. The lower bound will
be represented by the remolded undrained shear
strength of the clay, which is a well-known
property that could be determined using
information about the sensitivity of the clay. The
random finite element method will be utilized to
quantify the probability of failure of undrained
slopes that are designed with different
deterministic factors of safety with and without a
lower-bound undrained shear strength. The RFEM
will be conducted for the case of a “homogeneous”
slope (very large correlation length) and the case
of a spatially random slope with a horizontal
correlation distance of 40m and a vertical
correlation distance of 2m. For each case, the
analysis is repeated for a coefficient of variation
(COV) of 0.3 and 0.5 in the undrained shear
strength and deterministic factors of safety ranging
from 1.15 to 2.0.
PROBABILISTIC MODEL FOR UNDRAINED
SHEAR STRENGTH
The probabilistic model adopted in this study
assumes that the undrained shear strength Su of the
clay is the main source of uncertainty in the slope
stability analysis. For the conventional case where
the lower-bound shear strength is assumed to be
zero, a lognormal distribution that is in line with
the model adopted by Griffiths and Fenton (2004)
is utilized in the RFEM to describe the random
field. The probability density function of the
lognormal distribution is given by:
2
1  ln Su  ln Su 
1  
2   ln Su 
f ( Su )  e 
Su ln Su 2
(1)
In equation 1, the standard deviation and mean
of the equivalent normal distribution are defined as
follows:
   2 
 ln Su  ln1   ln Su  
  ln Su  
(2)
ln Su  ln  Su 
 
ln Su
2
2
(3)
 The lower bound undrained shear strength was
introduced to the statistics of the problem by
truncating the left-hand tail of the undrained shear
strength probability distribution for the spatially
variable soil. This concept aims at reducing the
likelihood of obtaining unrealistically small
undrained shear strength values in the random
finite element analysis. The lower bound
undrained shear strength was represented by the
remolded undrained strength and assumed to be
equal to the mean of the undrained shear strength
(undisturbed clay) divided by the sensitivity of the
clay, taken in this study to be between 1.5 and 3.0
(typical for clays of relatively low sensitivity).
Conventional and truncated lognormal
distributions for the case with a mean Su of 100
kPa, a COV of 0.5, and a sensitivity of 2.0
(remolded Su = 50 kPa) is presented in Figure 1.
To produce a random field of the undrained
shear strength, knowledge about the scale of
fluctuation (correlation distance) in both the lateral
and vertical directions should be incorporated. In
this preliminary study, the case of a more-or-less
homogeneous slope (high correlation in lateral and
vertical directions within the slope) and the case of
a more realistic random field with a lateral
correlation distance of 40m and a vertical
correlation distance of 2m was also analyzed.
RANDOM FINITE ELEMENT METHOD
The software used to calculate the probability
of failure of undrained slopes is Rslope 2D that is
written by Griffiths and Fenton in 2011 and
updated to version 1.1.2 in 2012. The software is
capable of computing the probability of failure of
slopes using the RFEM. The probability of slope
failure is computed as a function of the soil
properties’ statistics using Monte Carlo
Simulations. At each simulation, each of the mesh
elements is assigned a property from the
probability distribution selected at the input phase
(Griffiths and Fenton 2004). The probabilistic
input includes the mathematical parameters of the
probability distribution of the soil parameters (Su
in this paper) in addition to the spatial correlation
length of the undrained strength. All parameters
are assumed to be defined at the point level. While
statistics at this resolution are obviously
impossible to measure in practice, they represent a
fundamental baseline of the inherent soil
variability which can be corrected through local
averaging to take into account the sample size.
Detailed information regarding the RFEM as
implemented in Rslope 2D is reported in Griffiths
and Fenton (2004).
For the two spatial correlation conditions
studied in this paper, the parameter that controls
the random field is the spatial correlation length θln
Su. The selected correlation function in RFEM
software is the Markovian correlation function
which is exponentially decaying (Griffiths and
Fenton 2004) as indicated in Equation 4:
  e 2 /ln Su (4)
Where  is the correlation coefficient and  is
the distance between two points in a random field.
Rslope 2D has three built-in probability
distribution types that could be assigned to the
different soil properties. These include the
conventional normal and lognormal probability
distributions in addition to a more general four-
parameter distribution that is bounded in an
interval [a b] (see Griffiths and Fenton 2008). The
distribution is based on a transformation (Equation
5) from a standard normally distributed random
variable G, into a random variable X that is
bounded in the interval a to b such that:
X a
1
b  a1  tanh m  sG  (5)
2   2 
Where m, s, a and b are the location, scale,
lower bound and upper bound parameters,
respectively. The probability density function of
the bounded distribution of X is:
1   
2
 x a
 2  ln  m  
 (b  a) 2s   b x  
f X ( x)  e  (6)
2s ( x  a)(b  x)
Since Rslope 2D does not incorporate a
truncated lognormal distribution in its formulation,
the 4-parameter bounded distribution presented in
equations 5 and 6 was used to model the
uncertainty represented by the truncated
distribution. This was achieved by calibrating the
4-parameters of the bounded distribution to
produce a PDF that matches that of the
corresponding truncated lognormal distribution.
The calibration was conducted in Excel through
the Solver tool that allows for solving the
optimization problem in which the 4 parameters of
the bounded distribution were obtained. Figure 2
shows a comparison between the truncated
lognormal CDF and the CDF of the matching 4-
parameter bounded distribution. The example
pertains to a case where the mean Su is 90 kN/m2,
the COV of Su is 0.3, and the clay has a sensitivity
A1-3
of 3 (lower bound is equal to 30 kPa). The
comparison indicates that very accurate
representations of the truncated lognormal
distribution could be obtained using the 4-
parameter bounded distribution in Rslope 2D.
0.008
0.007 Conventional Lognormal
0.006
Truncated Lognormal
0.005
PDF
0.004
0.003
0.002
0.001
0 were assumed to be equal to 40m and 2m,
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Undrained Shear Strength, Su (kPa)
Figure 1. Conventional and Truncated Lognormal
Probability Distributions for Su
Figure 2. Comparison between a Truncated
Lognormal CDF and the Best-Fit 4-Parameter
Bounded CDF
SLOPE GEOMETRY AND PARAMETERS
The problem studied in this paper is a clayey
slope having a 20 m slope height and a run/rise
ratio of 2 which is equivalent to 26.6o. Figure 3
shows the dimensions of the slope labeled on the
mesh generated by the RFEM Software. It should
be noted that this slope was based on the slope
problem studied by Griffiths and Fenton (2004).
The parameters that were varied in the analysis
are: (1) the mean of the undrained shear strength
(to control the factor of safety of the slope), (2) the
coefficient of variation of the undrained shear
strength, (3) the sensitivity of the clay (to control
the lower-bound Su), and (4) the correlation
structure representing the spatial variability in the
undrained shear strength (homogenous slope vs
spatially variable slope).
A1-4
Figure 3. Geometry of Slope Used in the RFEM
Analysis in this Paper
For the “homogeneous” slope, a correlation
length of 1000m was used in both the lateral and
the vertical directions. For the spatially random
slope, the lateral and vertical correlation lengths
respectively. The sensitivity of the clay was varied
from infinity (base case with no lower bound shear
strength) to 3.0, 2.5, 2.25, 2.0, 1.75, and 1.5. The
coefficient of variation of Su was taken as either
0.5 or 0.3 to represent cases of large and average
variability levels, respectively. Finally, the mean
undrained shear strength of the slope was varied to
represent slope factors of safety ranging from 1.15
to 2.0 in the deterministic analysis.
The number of Monte Carlo simulations used
in the reliability analysis was varied based on the
combination of slope and soil properties. For cases
where the calculated probability of failure was
large (generally small factors of safety, large
COVs, no or small lower-bound shear strength,
and homogeneous slopes), the required number of
simulations was relatively small (around 1000
simulations). The required number of simulations
increased for cases involving larger factors of
safety, larger lower-bound shear strength values
(low clay sensitivities), and smaller COVs. In
some extreme cases, more than 2,000,000
simulations were conducted to ensure an adequate
level of confidence in the results of the simulations.
RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
The main objective of this study is to
investigate the effect of incorporating a lower-
bound shear strength on the reliability of an
undrained clayey slope. The probabilities of failure
that were calculated from the RFEM analyses for
the case with homogeneous and spatially variable
slopes are presented in Figs. 4 and 5, respectively
for the cases with COVs of 0.3 and 0.5.
Probabilities of failure are presented for different
factors of safety and for different clay sensitivities.
Case with “Homogeneous” Slopes 1.15 to 1.30. A similar significant reduction in the
probability of failure (from 70% to 3.7%) is
A cursory analysis of the results on Figure 4
witnessed for the case of a COV = 0.5 as the factor
indicates that (1) for the conventional case where
of safety increases from 1.15 to 1.45. The
no lower-bound shear strength is included in the
significant reductions in the probability of failure
analysis (shown as Sensitivity = INF in Figure 4),
for the case of a spatially random field with
as the factor of safety increases from 1.15 to 2.0,
relatively small correlation distances is attributed
the probability of failure of the slope decreases (as
to variance reduction that occurs due to spatial
expected) from 38.2% to 1.4% for COV = 0.3 and
averaging along the failure plane and which is not
from 59.4% to 10% for COV = 0.5, (2) for the
present in the case of a “homogenous” slope. This
cases were lower-bound shear strengths that are a
variance reduction reduces the uncertainty in the
function of the sensitivity of the clay are
undrained shear strength resulting in significant
incorporated in the analysis, the probability of
reductions in the number of failure cases in the
failure decreases as the sensitivity of the soil
Monte Carlo simulations, especially for cases with
decreases, and (3) the effect of incorporating the
larger factors of safety.
lower-bound Su on the probability of failure
With the incorporation of a lower-bound shear
becomes more significant as the factor of safety
strength in the spatially random field, results on
increases and as the COV of Su increases.
Figure 5 indicate that the probability of failure is
A more detailed analysis of the reliability
highly sensitive to the presence of the lower bound.
analysis conducted for the homogenous slopes
This is reflected in the sharp reductions that are
shows that for the relatively smaller safety factors
observed in the probability of failure for all factors
(less than 1.5), no effect of the lower-bound shear
of safety even at high values of sensitivity. For
strength was evident except for cases with
illustration, consider the case with a factor of
sensitivities that are less than 2.0. For the cases
safety of 1.3. Results on Figure 5a with a COV of
with higher factors of safety (greater than 1.5), the
0.3 reflect a 4.5 fold reduction in the probability of
lower-bound shear strength started to have an
failure for clay with a sensitivity of 2.25 and two
impact on the probability of failure at sensitivities
orders of magnitude reduction in the probability of
as high as 3.0. As an example, consider the case
failure for the case with a lower-bound shear
where the factor of safety is equal to 1.75 and the
strength that is given by a sensitivity of 1.75.
COV = 0.3. The curves on Figure 4a indicate that
Similar observations are made in Fig 5.b for a
the probability of failure decreases from 4.2% (no
COV of 0.5 in the undrained shear strength
lower bound) to 2% for the case with a lower
whereby the probability of failure for the case with
bound defined by a sensitivity of 2.5. The
an FS of 1.3 exhibits a 5 fold reduction in the
probability of failure decreases further to 0.74%
probability of failure (from 24.6% for the case
for the case with a sensitivity of 2. Similar
with no lower bound to 4.6%) for clay with a
reductions are observed for the case of a COV of
sensitivity of 2.25, and more than two orders of
0.5 whereby the probability of failure decreases
magnitude reduction in the probability of failure
from 17.4% for the case with no lower bound to
(from 24.6% to 0.04%) for the case with a lower-
12.4% and 4.0% for cases with sensitivities of 2.5
bound shear strength that is given by a sensitivity
and 2.0, respectively.
of 1.75.
The above results are important since they
Case with “Spatially Variable Slopes”
indicate that the incorporation of a physical lower-
The results of the reliability analysis conducted bound shear strength that is based on the remolded
for the case with spatially variable slopes are undrained shear strength of a clay could have a
presented in Figure 5. As with the case of significant impact on the reliability of a slope,
homogeneous slopes, the probability of failure for particularly for spatially variable slopes with
the case with no lower-bound shear strength was realistic correlation lengths in the lateral and
found to decrease as the factor of safety increases. vertical directions (see Figure 5). The truncation of
However, results show a major difference in the the probability distribution of the undrained shear
magnitude of this decrease whereby the probability strength by the lower-bound strength reduces the
of failure in the case of spatially variable slopes uncertainty in the Monte Carlo simulations by
decreases dramatically with small increases in the eliminating unrealistically low shear strength
factor of safety. As an example, the probability of values that are theoretically lower than the lower-
failure for a COV of 0.3 decreases from 15.9% to bound shear strength. This reduces the number of
0.2% as the factor of safety increases slightly from

A1-5
cases that fail in the Monte Carlo simulations thus level of reliability (or probability of failure) is
reducing the probability of failure of the slope. It affected by the lower bound and COV of the
could thus be concluded that incorporating a undrained shear strength. In addition, different
lower-bound shear strength in the reliability factors of safety will be obtained for the cases of
analysis of an undrained slope by truncating the “homogeneous” slopes (which are not physically
distribution of Su at the lower tail is analogous (in realistic) and spatially random slopes (more
its effect) to reducing the total uncertainty in the realistic). In fact, the results presented in Figure 4
undrained shear strength via spatial averaging. and Figure 5 could be used to relate the required
factor of safety to the sensitivity of the clay and the
Effect of Lower-Bound Strength on Slope Design COV in the undrained strength for a given target
probability of failure of the slope.
Results on Figure 4 and Figure 5 indicate that
the factor of safety that is required to yield a target

Sensitivity of Clay Sensitivity of Clay

1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 Inf 4 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 Inf4
1.E+00
FS=1.15
FS=1.15 FS=1.45
FS=1.75
FS=1.45
Probability of Failure

1.E-01 FS=2.0

FS=1.75

1.E-02 FS=2.0

1.E-03

(a) Homogeneous (b) Homogeneous

COV(Su) = 0.3 COV(Su) = 0.5
1.E-04

Figure 4. Effect of Sensitivity of Clay on the Probability of Failure of “Homogeneous” Clayey Slopes (a) COV
(Su) = 0.3 and (b) COV (Su) = 0.5

Sensitivity of Clay Sensitivity of Clay

1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 Inf 4 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 Inf4
1.E+00
FS=1.15
FS=1.15
FS=1.30
1.E-01
Probability of Failure

FS=1.25
FS=1.45
1.E-02

FS=1.30

1.E-03

1.E-04
(a) Spatially Variable (b) Spatially Variable
COV(Su) = 0.3 COV(Su) = 0.5
1.E-05
Figure 5. Effect of Sensitivity of Clay on the Probability of Failure of “Spatially Variable” Clayey Slopes (a)
COV (Su) = 0.3 and (b) COV (Su) = 0.5

To illustrate this concept, the required factors of 0.5. Required factors of safety are presented for
of safety for target probabilities of slope failures of the cases of “Homogeneous” and “Spatially
1% and 5% are plotted in Figure 6 as a function of Variable” slopes. As expected, results on Figure 6
the sensitivity of the clay for the case with a COV indicate that the required factor of safety decreases

A1-6
as the sensitivity of the clay decreases from 3 to
1.5. For example, for a spatially random slope, the
required factor of safety could be reduced from
1.36 (clay sensitivity of 3) to 1.15 (clay sensitivity
of 1.75) while maintaining a target probability of
failure of 5%. If the target Pf is reduced to 1%, the
required factors of safety increase to 1.48
(sensitivity of 3) and 1.20 (sensitivity of 1.75).
Similarly, reductions in the required factors of
safety are observed as the clay sensitivity
decreases for the cases with homogeneous slopes.
2.0
1.9
Required Factor of Safety
2. The incorporation of a lower-bound shear
strength in the reliability analysis could
have a significant effect on the risk of
failure of the slope. The effect is confined to
reducing the probability of failure and is
more significant in cases involving spatially
random soils with relatively higher factors
of safety and higher COVs of Su. The
reduction in the probability of failure
increases as the sensitivity of the clay
decreases and could reach orders of
magnitude for sensitivities in the order of
Target Pf = 1% 1.75. This reduction in the probability of

1.8 Target Pf = 5%
1.7
1.6
1.5 Target Pf = 1%
1.4
1.3
Target Pf = 5%
1.2
1.1 Homogeneous
Spatially Variable
1.0
3.00 2.75 2.50 2.25 2.00
Sensitivity of Clay
Figure 6. Required Factor of Safety for Target
Probabilities of Failure of 1% and 5%
CONCLUSIONS
The RFEM was utilized in this paper to
investigate the effectiveness of incorporating a
physical lower-bound shear strength in the
probability model describing the uncertainty in the
undrained shear strength of a clayey slope. The
basis for the existence of the lower bound shear
strength is the fact that the remolded undrained
shear strength of a clay constitutes the minimum
possible value of strength for that particular clay.
The remolded strength is reflected in the
sensitivity of the clay which generally varies from
1.5 to 3 in clays of low to average sensitivity.
Results of the reliability analysis in which the
mean and COV of the undrained shear strength in
addition to the sensitivity of the clay were varied
lead to the following major conclusions:
1. For the example undrained slope problem
that was utilized in this paper, slopes that
are spatially variable have a smaller
probability of failure compared to slopes
that are homogeneous, assuming a given
design factor of safety. This result is
expected given the spatial averaging and
variance reduction that are expected to
occur in the spatially variable slope.
failure in the presence of a lower-bound
shear strength is attributed to eliminating
unrealistically low shear strength values that
are theoretically lower than the lower-bound
shear strength. This reduces the number of
cases that fail in the Monte Carlo
simulations thus reducing the probability of
failure of the slope.
3. Finally, it could be concluded based on the
reliability analyses conducted in this paper
1.75 1.50 that for a given target reliability level, the
required factor of safety of a slope could be
decreased if the lower-bound shear strength
is included in the reliability analysis.
It should be noted that in all the analyses
conducted in this paper, the only source of
uncertainty that was incorporated in the analysis
was the uncertainty in the undrained shear strength
Su. In addition, no effort was made to incorporate
the effect of the model uncertainty in the reliability
analysis. The model uncertainty is always present
in geotechnical engineering problems and is
expected to add to the total uncertainty in the slope
stability predictions. Combining model uncertainty
and uncertainty due to spatial variability in soil
properties is the subject of another research study
that is currently being implemented by the authors.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge
Professors Griffiths and Fenton for granting them
(and all the Public) access to their valuable
Software that includes the formulation of the
RFEM. Without this access to the Software, the
authors will not have ventured into the topic
addressed in this paper. The authors also
acknowledge the support of the University
Research Board (URB) at the American University
of Beirut for funding this work.

A1-7
REFERENCES Low, B.K. (2003). Practical probabilistic slope
stability analysis, Proc., Soil and Rock
Babu, G.L.S., and Mukesh, M.D. (2004). Effect of
America 2003. 12th Panamerican Conf. on Soil
soil variability on reliability of soil slopes.
Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, and
Geotechnique. 54(5): 335–337.
39th U.S. Rock Mechanics Symp., MIT,
Cho, S.E. (2007). Effects of spatial variability of
Cambridge, Mass., 2, Verlag Glückauf GmbH,
soil properties on slope stability. Eng. Geol.
Essen, Germany: 2777–2784.
923(4): 97–109.
Malkawi, A.I., Hassan, W.F., and Abdulla, F.A.
Christian, J.T., Ladd, C.C., and Baecher, G.B.
(2000). Uncertainty and reliability analysis
(1994). Reliability applied to slope stability
applied to slope stability. Structural Safety. 22:
analysis. J. Geotech. Eng. 120(12): 2180–2207.
161-187.
El-Ramly, H., Morgenstern, N.R., and Cruden,
Najjar, S.S., and Gilbert, R.B. (2009). Importance
D.M. (2002). Probabilistic slope stability
of lower-bound capacities in the design of deep
analysis for practice. Can. Geotech. J. 39: 665–
foundations. Journal of Geotechnical and
683.
Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE. 135(7):
Gilbert, R.B., Najjar, S.S, and Shields, M.K.
890-900.
(2005). Importance of residual strengths in
Valle, C.M., Lopez, J.A., Moreno, J.S., Najjar, S.S.,
factors of safety and reliability. Proceedings,
and Lopez, N.P. (2014). Reliability functions
Geo-Frontiers 2005, 18th GRI Conference on
for buried submarine pipelines in clay
Geosynthetics Research and Development in
subjected to upheaval buckling. Journal of
Progress. ASCE. Reston, Virginia.
Applied Ocean Research. 40: 308-321.
Griffiths, D. and Fenton, G. (2000). Influence of
Valle, C.M., Lopez, J.A., Najjar, S.S., and
soil strength spatial variability on the stability
Gonzales, F.L. (2012). Reliability analysis of
of an undrained clay slope by finite elements.
clay-embedded offshore pipelines under
Slope Stability 2000: 184-193.
vertical buckling considering lower-bound soil-
Griffiths, D., Huang, J., and Fenton, G. (2009).
pipe capacity. Proceedings of the 31st
Influence of spatial variability on slope
International Conference on Offshore
reliability using 2-D random fields. J. Geotech.
Mechanics and Arctic Engineering - OMAE, 4,
Geoenviron. Eng. 135(10): 1367–1378.
Rio De Janeiro, Brazil, June 12-15: 181-186.
Griffiths, D.V., and Fenton, G.A. (2004).
Probabilistic slope stability analysis by finite
elements. J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 130(5):
507–518.
Griffiths, D.V., and Marquez, R.M., (2007). Three-
dimensional slope stability analysis by elasto-
plastic finite elements. Géotechnique. 57: 537-
546.
Griffiths, D.V., Fenton, G.A., (2008). Risk
Assessment in Geotechnical Engineering. New
Jersey: John Wiley & Sons: 60-62.
Griffiths, D.V., Fenton, G.A., and Denavit, M.D.
(2007). Traditional and advanced probabilistic
slope stability analysis. Proc., GeoDenver
Symp., K. K. Phoon, G. A. Fenton, E. F. Glynn,
C. H. Juang, D. V. Griffiths, T. F. Wolff, and L.
Zhang, eds., ASCE, Reston, Va.: 1–10.
Griffiths, D.V., Huang, J., and Fenton, G. (2010).
Comparison of slope reliability methods of
analysis. GeoFlorida: 1952-1961.
Jha, S., and Ching, J. (2013). Simplified reliability
method for spatially variable undrained
engineered slopes. Soils and Foundations.
53(5): 708-719.
Li, K.S., and Lumb, P. (1987). Probabilistic design
of slopes. Can. Geotech. J. 24: 520–531.

A1-8
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SHEAR STRENGTH AND SUCTION OF GRANITIC

RESIDUAL SOIL

A. Nurul Huda 1, M. J. Md. Noor 2 and I. B. Mohamed Jais 3

ABSTRACT: Rainfall is very important elements in slope failure. Rainfall infiltrating into the slope is the main
factor that triggers slope failure. The infiltration of the surface water affects both resisting and disturbing
components of the slope which in turn decrease the slope stability factor. Shear strength parameters are very
important for design slope and foundation. In this study, Consolidated Drained (CD) triaxial test were conducted
on granitic residual soil specimens, both under saturated and unsaturated conditions with different moisture
content at 16%, 17% and 18%. While, the Soil Water Characteristic Curve were developed using the pressure
plate extractor apparatus and gives a result of residual suction, 148 kPa which equivalent to maximum apparent
cohesion, 17 kPa. Therefore the shear strength variation with respect to suction was found to be non-linear for
the entire test in accordance to the curved surface envelope soil shear strength model (CSESSM) of Md Noor
and Anderson, 2006.

Keywords: Soil water characteristic curve, slope stability, granitic residual soil, suction

INTRODUCTION shear strength with relate to suction of saturated

and unsaturated specimen of granitic residual soil.
The formation of rocks is constantly subjected
to weathering and erosion processes, which results Granitic Residual Soil
in the formation of residual soils. The main
Residual soil is a material formed in situ by
difficulties of the residual soils are associated with
weathering of rocks and remained at the place
the rainfall distribution and the effect of infiltration
where it was formed. The amount and extent of
of the surface runoff on the earth. The slope failure
weathering and the balance between physical,
cases on residual soil in the tropics are triggered by
chemical and biological processes depends
the infiltration of the surface runoff that occurs
primarily on the climate and the material of the
during heavy rainstorms. Rainfall is very important
parent rock as well as local influenced such as
elements in slope failure (Rahardjo et al., 2008)
drainage, topography and vegetation. However,
quoted that “rainfall-induced slope failure occur in
granitic residual soils are generally sandy (high
response to climatic changes in many parts of the
sand content) have a lower water content and lower
worlds. The infiltration changes the distribution of
liquid limit compared to basaltic or gabbroic soils.
the matrix suction and in turn affects the apparent
The mineralogy of granitic is quartz (30%),
shear strength of the soil (Fredlund and Rahardjo,
feldspar (60-65%) and biotite and hornblende
1993).
(Zhao, 1994). Generally, in Malaysia, the type of
Shear strength envelope at failure was known to
residual granite soil is reddish in colour, which is
be plane envelope as introduced by Fredlund, 1978.
from a laterite type of soil (Fookes, 1986).
However there are many published data that shows
that envelop is curved surface. Shear strength SOIL PROPERTIES
variation with suction is known with maximum
value of csmax at residual suction. It shows that the The soil samples taken from Putrajaya area
shear strength respects to suction of granitic were granitic residual soil Grade VI. Table 1 shows
residual soil is also non-linear. Thence, this study the basic properties of the soil sample. The residual
was primarly concerned with the study the variation soils obtained from site were reddish-brownish in

1
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, MALAYSIA
2
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, MALAYSIA
3
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, MALAYSIA

A2-1
colour which according to its particle size In geotechnical engineering, Fredlund and Xing
distribution the soil can be classified as very clayey (1994) suggested the following SWCC equation:
gravelly SAND as shown in Figure 1.
s
w  m
(1)
   a 
lne    
   a  
where,
θw = volumetric water
θs = saturated volumetric water content
ψ = matric suction
a, n and m are constants

To obtain the SWCC’s data, a common method

that has been used was taken from the pressure
plate extractor test (Agus et al., 2001). The SWCC
of the soil samples were shown in Figure 2. The
curve indicates that the residual suction of the test
Figure 1. Location of sample area
material is about 148 kPa according to the
Table 1. Basic physical properties of soil sample definition by Fredlund and Xing (1994). Based on
the graph SWCC, several steps had follow in
Putrajaya Granitic process to determine residual suction. Furthermore,
Property Name
Residual Soil
the graph SWCC was to identify maximum
Particle Size Distribution apparent cohesion. In the first step, tangent line
Gravel (%) 19 from point suction 580 kPa to left of graph has been
Sand (%) 42.17 draw. Then, same procedure was repeating from 25
Silt (%) 15.18 kPa which is draw a tangent line downward. Lastly,
Clay (%) 23.65 mark one intersection point from the tangent line.
Moisture content (%) 24 Thence, the point representing the moisture content
Specific gravity, (Mg/m3) 2.56
at 17% and the residual suction at 148 kPa as is
acceptable and justify.
Liquid limit (%) 41
Plastic limit (%) 27.45
Plasticity index (%) 11

SOIL WATER CHARACTERISTIC CURVE

(SWCC)
The SWCC for a soil is defined as the
relationship between water content and suction for
the soil (Williams, 1982). This is an important
relationship for the unsaturated soil mechanics. The
water content can be gravimetric, volumetric or a Figure 2. Soil Water Characteristic Curve of
Putrajaya granitic residual soil
degree of saturation. Also, the SWCC essentially
shows the ability of an unsaturated soil to retain
CURVED-SURFACE ENVELOPE SOIL SHEAR
water under various matric suctions. It has a similar
STRENGTH MODEL (CSESSM)
role as the consolidation curve, of a saturated soil,
that relates void ratio or water content to effective Md. Noor and Anderson (2006), stated through
stress. In addition, the SWCC of a soil dictates the a curved surface shear strength model that shear
manner by which the permeability, shear strength strength with respect to net stress. This model was
and a volume change of the soil will behave at developed to overcome limitation of the previous
different matric suctions upon drying and wetting two models. The steep drop in shear strength near
(Fredlund and Rahardjo, 1993). saturation is responsible for the steep drop in the
stability factor when surface water infiltrates into
the slope (Md. Noor and Anderson, 2006). Whereas

A2-2
the actual behaviour of shear strength and suction is
curved (not linear) and steep drop in both
dimensions, when approaching minimum strength
and suction equally becomes zero. (Md. Noor and
Anderson, 2006). Perhaps, when applied in slope
stability analysis, it is expected to make a better
prediction on the risk of rain induced slope failures.
Therefore, the shear strength parameter according
to the non-linear type of envelope has to be
determined especially for Malaysian Grade IV type
of soil. This new slope stability equation applies the
latest and most accurate soil shear strength model
in order to produce a good estimate on the resisting
components. This model encompasses shear
strength behaviour under both saturated and
unsaturated conditions. It will give a result of shear
strength prediction with respect to the change in
effective stress and suction (Md. Noor and
Anderson, 2006). There are seven shear strength
parameters to choose are shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3. Curved-surface envelope shear strength
model (Md. Noor and Anderson, 2006)
A series of CD triaxial tests were performed on
fully saturated and unsaturated samples. The
amounts of moisture content were 16%, 17% and
18% of the each sample. This test was carried out
by size of specimen with 50 mm x 100 mm. The
results obtained from the triaxial tests were used to
analyze the shear strength behaviours due to the
shear strength parameters according to the
CSESSM of Md. Noor and Anderson (2006). The
shear strength parameters according to the model
are as follows;
a) Transition effective stress, (σ – uw)t
b) Transition shear-strength, t
c) Minimum friction angle at failure, (ø’min)f
d) Apparent cohesion, csmax
Besides, combination the mohr circles and the
mohr-coulomb envelope on saturated and
unsaturated specimens are plotted in Figure 4.
Figure 4. Curvilinear shear strength envelope of
saturated and unsaturated specimens of Putrajaya
SUCTION WITH RESPECT TO SHEAR
STRENGTH
The effect of wetness on shear strength is
characterized based on a stress state variable known
as suction. The suction effect is derived from the
surface tension force on the water meniscus, which
clings between soil particles (Kaye and Laby, 1973)
and generally its magnitude increases as moisture
decreases. However, shear strength does not
indefinitely increase with suction since it started to
decrease beyond residual suction (Escario and Juca,
1989; Gan and Fredlund, 1996; Toll et al., 2000;
Md. Noor and Anderson, 2006).
Referring to Equation 2, the graph shear
strength versus suction was established shown in
Figure 5. Putrajaya granitic residual soil has the
value of moisture content at 17% is maximum
apparent cohesion and the shear strength envelope
of this soil specimen on saturated and unsaturated
cohesion is curvilinear i.e., in accordance to the
curved surface envelope soil shear-strength model
(CSESSM) of Md. Noor and Anderson (2006).
Therefore, the application of this curve surface
envelope shear strength model, which represents
realistic soil shear strength behaviour especially at
low stress levels, was very important since in
shallow slope failure, most of the time, was
confined within 2 to 3 metres from the surface
(Brand, 1989). The stress level within this depth
range must be less than 80 kPa which is essentially
low.
 
    ua  tan min
'
f
  t    u w t tan min
'
f 
u a  u w   u a  u w r  u a  u w   max
1  cs
u a  u w r  u a  u w r 
(2)
A2-3

Figure 5. Shear strength respect to suction of
Putrajaya granitic residual soil
CONCLUSION
Based on result and observation obtained, the
conclusions that can be drawn are:
a) The graph shear strength versus suction is non-
linear whereby the saturated condition is zero
cohesion and maximum apparent cohesion is a
peak of non-linear.
b) Pressure plate extractor test is suitable to
determine SWCC of Putrajaya granitic residual
soil and gives a result of residual suction, 148
kPa which is equivalent to csmax, 17 kPa.
c) Putrajaya granitic residual soil has the value of
moisture content at 17% is the maximum
apparent cohesion and the shear strength
envelope of this soil specimen on saturated and
unsaturated cohesion is non-linear, in
accordance to the CSESSM of Md. Noor and
Anderson (2006).
d) Soil suction does play role towards increasing
the shear strength of saturated and an
unsaturated soil.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It is always a good idea, if not compulsory, to
acknowledge the source of funding for your
research.
REFERENCES
Agus, S.S., Leong, E.C. and Rahardjo, H. (2001).
“Soil Water Characteristic Curves of Singapore
Residual Soils.” Geotechnical and Geological
Engineering 19: 285-309.
Brand, E.W. (1989). “Landslides: Extent and
Economic Significance.” Proceedings of the
28th International Geological Congress:
Symposium on landslides, Washington D.C.,
303-322.
Escario, V., and Juca, J. (1989). "Strength and
Deformation of Partly Saturated Soils."
Proceedings of the 12th International
A2-4
Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering., Rio de Janeiro: 3. 43-46.
Fookes, P.G. (1986). “An Introduction to
Weathered Rock and Residual Soils for
Engineers.” Warta Geologi, Vol. 12, No. 1-6.
60-71.
Fredlund, D.G. and Rahardjo, H. (1993). “Soil
Mechanics for Unsaturated Soils.” John Wiley
and Sons, Canada.
Fredlund, D.G. and Xing, A. (1994), “Equation for
the Soil Water Characteristic Curve.” Canadian
Geotechnical Journal 31. 521-532.
Gan, J.K.M., and Fredlund, D.G. (1996). “Shear
Strength Characteristics of Two Saprolitic
Soils.” Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 33. 595-
609.
Kaye, G.W.C. and Laby, T.H. (1973). “Tables of
chemical constants.” Longman 14th Edition.
Md. Noor, M.J. and Anderson, W.F. (2006). “A
Comprehensive Shear Strength Model for
Unsaturated Soils.” Procceeding of the 4th
International Conference on Unsaturated Soils,
Arizona, U.S.A, Vol.(2), 1992-2003.
Rahardjo, H., Satyanaga, A. and Leong, E.C.,
(2008) “Slope of Real Time-Monitoring in
Slope Stability.” International Seminar on Civil
and Infrastructure Engineering, Proceeding,
Keynote Paper, Faculty of Civil Engineering,
UiTM Malaysia.
Toll, D.G., Ong, B.H., and Raharjo, H. (2000).
"Triaxial Testing of Unsaturated Samples of
Undisturbed Residual Soil from Singapore."
Proceedings of the Conference on Unsaturated
Soils for Asia, Singapore, Balkeema. 581-586.
Williams, P.J. (1982). “The Surface of the Earth in
an Introduction to Geotechnical Science.”
Longman Inc., New York.
Zhao, J. (1994). “Engineering Properties of the
Weathered Bukit Timah Granite and Residual
Soils.” Regional Conference in Geotechnical
Engineering 94. Melaka, Malaysia.
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

THE EFFECT OF SATURATION ON THE STRENGTH PARAMETERS OF

COMPACTED RESIDUAL COHESIVE SOILS

Cindarto Lie 1, Yosep Purnama 2 and Sucipto 3

ABSTRACT: Slope stability failure occurs at soil embankment not only due to the foundation failure at the end
of construction, but also due to the saturation of the embankment during its operation.
In order to examine the effect of saturation of residual cohesive soils which usually used to build earth
structures a series of unconfined compressive strength test have been carried out on re-compacted residual
cohesive soil sample taken from a borrow material which has been used to construct an earth embankment for a
tailing dam project in Pongkor, West Java, Indonesia.
The study revealed that the compressive strength of re-compacted samples are higher when re-compacted at
the “dry” side (low saturation) compare to those of re-compacted at the “wet” side (high saturation). However
when saturation take place ie. after the dike is saturated with water impounding in the reservoir, the re-
compacted samples from “dry” side have shown significant strength drop due to saturation. While the re-
compacted sample from “wet” side have shown less effect of saturation. This study explain why it is very
important to compact embankment on the “wet” side for earth dike which may get saturated during its operation.

Keywords: Residual soil, Soil compaction, optimum moisture content, dry of optimum, wet of optimum,
unconfined compressive strength

INTRODUCTION SOIL PROPERTIES AND EXPERIMENTAL

In order to increase the capacity of the existing
tailing dam belong to PT. ANTAM Tbk. at Cikaret,
Pongkor, Indonesia, additional soil embankment
was made on top the dam crest to increase its
elevation. The embankment activity was done at
dry season so that the moisture content of the fill
material brought from the borrow pit was rather at
dry of optimum. The fill with dry of optimum
conditions although have been compacted properly
and meet the specified compaction requirement
(95% MDD) would have higher porosity and
suspected will lost its strength after saturation
during the dam inundation and finally promoting
slope stability problem in the future. In order to
study the effect of moisture content of the fill
material placed, series of unconfined compressive
strength and permeability tests were carried out on
the re-compacted samples before and after
saturation. The water content of the fill material
chosen for the study are at three different values,
first at Dry of optimum condition (D), Optimum
condition (O) and Wet of optimum condition (W).
PROCEDURE
The fill material for the construction of the
tailing dam was brought from the nearby borrow
area at Gunung Dahu site. The fill material can be
categorized as residual soil. Residual soil formation
is attributed to the mechanical and chemical
weathering or disintegration of the parent’s rock.
These types of soils are used commonly in the
construction of both geotechnical structures such as
embankments for dam and pavements.
Soil Properties
The residual soil sample collected from the
borrow area was homogeneous in nature. Table 1
summarizes some of the soil properties and Figure
1 shows the representative grain size distribution.
The soil has 47% of clay, 29% of silt and 3% of
sand sized particles.

1
Phd. Student, Parahyangan Catholic University, Bandung, Indonesia
2
Engineering Department, PT. ANTAM (Persero) Tbk. UBPE Pongkor, Indonesia
3
Geotechnical Engineer, PT. CND Geoteknika, Bandung, Indonesia

A3-1
Table 1. Index properties of compacted residual soil 13.00

Natural Moisture Content Wn 52.68%

Liquid Limit WL 75 %
12.00
Plastic Limit Wp 53 %
Plasticity Index Ip 22 % ZAVC Line

Dry Density, kN/m3

Specific Gravity Gs 2.64
Soil Classification USCS MH 11.00 Optimum

Wet

Dry
100

10.00
90

80

70
9.00
60 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55
P e r c e n t a g e p a s s in g

Moisture Content (%)

50
Figure 2. Standard Proctor energy compaction
40
curve of residual soil sample
30

20 Preparation of the Compacted Specimens

10
0
0.001 0.010
Figure 1. Grain size distribution of the residual soil
samples
The water content and density conditions
chosen for the study are shown as three points on
the compaction curve as point Dry, Optimum and
Wet respectively (see Table 2).
Table 2. Properties of the soil at the compaction
conditions tested before soaking
Point w%
Dry 45.30
Optimum 49.15
Wet 53.25
The compaction curve presented in Figure 2
was determined using standard proctor energy. The
soil has a maximum dry density,dmax = 10.92
kN/m3 and the optimum moisture content is
49.00%. In the present study, the shear strength
behavior of soil samples prepared at three different
water contents was studied. These water contents
represent the dry of optimum, the optimum and the
wet of the optimum conditions.
Representative soil sample collected at the site
0.100 1.000 10.000
of embankment activities was mixed using the
Particle size (mm ) initial water content conditions (i.e., wet of
optimum, optimum and dry of optimum) chosen for
the study (see Table 2). The soil sample mixed with
the required water content were placed in plastic
bags for a period of 48 hours and stored in a humid
environment at constant temperature to achieve
uniform water content conditions. The soil-water
mixture was used for preparing specimens of 38
mm in diameter and 80 mm in height by static
compaction into a mould. The purpose of using
static compaction as opposed to dynamic
d (kN/m3) e Sr % compaction is to obtain a more homogenous
specimen with respect to density throughout the
10.25 1.53 78.34
volume of the specimen (Rahardjo et al., 2004). In
11.05 1.41 96.56 all the cases, it was assured that the water content
10.75 1.34 99.76 throughout the specimen was uniform. This was
achieved by storing the specimens overnight in a
humid environment chamber. The soil specimens
prepared following the above procedures were used
in the testing program.
Unconfined Compression Tests
Unconfined compression tests were conducted
on the specimens that were prepared using three
different initial water contents (dry of optimum,
optimum, and wet of optimum). In other words, 2
unconfined compression tests were conducted for
each of the initial compaction water contents and
after saturation. Saturation of the samples was done
by back pressure and controlled its saturation value
prior to compression test. During the compression
test, confining pressure was given to the samples,
and was equal to the back pressure during the
saturation process. The shear strength tests in the

A3-2
present study were carried out using the common Table 4. Unconfined compression test results before
triaxial test apparatus. The loading was performed and after saturation
following strain controlled procedures. Before After
Saturation Saturation Strength
Point Reduction
Sr UCS, Sr UCS, %
Permeability tests % kPa % kPa
In addition to the unconfined compression tests, Dry 78.34 348.0 99.41 26.5 -92.39%
a total of 3 permeability tests were conducted on Optimum 96.56 244.2 99.53 61.5 -74.82%
specimens prepared at different initial compaction Wet 99.76 128.2 99.85 88.7 -30.81%
water contents as summarized in Table 2. Falling
head method was used for the permeability test,
Table 5. Permeability test results of the
initial saturation was conducted before the test re-compacted samples
commenced.
Point Permeability Test

TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Dry 1.25 x 10-4 cm/sec.

The tests in the present study which consists of Optimum 4.91 x 10-7 cm/sec.
unconfined compression tests and the permeability Wet 6,17 x 10-6 cm/sec.
test on three different initial water contents (dry of
optimum, optimum, and wet of optimum) intend to
show the effect of water saturation on the 400
compacted fill after saturation, i.e., after the dam is
350 Dry
U n c o n fin e d C o m p r e s s iv e S t r e n g th , k P a
inundated. The dry of optimum sample which has
the lowest water content become the highest water Before Saturation
300
content after saturation. The dry of optimum After saturation
sample absorb most water then the other samples 250 Optimum
because it has more pores in it. Table 3 200
summarized the water content, dry density, void
ratio and degree of saturation of the samples after 150
Wet
saturation.
100
Wet
Table 3. Properties of the soil at the compaction Optimum
50
conditions tested after saturation Dry
0
Point
W d e
Sr 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60
% (kN/m3) %
Moisture Content, %
Dry 57.86 10.20 1.55 99.41 Figure 3. Unconfined compression test of re-
Optimum 50.90 11.02 1.42 99.53 compacted samples, before and after saturation
Wet 53.38 10.73 1.35 99.85
100%

90%
From the unconfined compression test result as
80%
shown in Table 4, again the re-compacted sample
70% Wet
Remaining Strength

from dry of optimum shows the maximum strength

60%
reduction. And the wet of optimum sample has
50%
shown the least effect of saturation, because it has
40%
the least void ratio among the other samples.
30%
Permeability tests also indicated that the re- Optimum
20%
compacted sample from dry of optimum is the most
10%
permeable and the optimum re-compacted sample Dry
0%
is the most impermeable. In term of strength, the
44 46 48 50 52 54
wet of optimum re-compacted sample shows the
Moisture Content, %
highest strength after saturation and shows ductile
Figure 4. Strength reduction of re-compacted
stress strain behavior, forming strain hardening path samples after saturation
without significant sudden drop of strength after
peak (brittle).

A3-3
 400
REFERENCES
350 Dry, before saturation
Bowles, J.E. 1979. Physical and Geotechnical
Properties of Soils. McGraw-Hill, inc., USA.
U n c o n f i n e d C o m p r e s s iv e s t r e n th , k P a

300
Fredlund, D. G. and Rahardjo, H. 1993. Soil
Optimum, before saturation
250
mechanics for unsaturated soils. New York:
200 John Wiley.
Holtz, R.D., & Kovacs, W.D. 1981. An
150 Wet, before saturation
Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering
100 Prentice-Hall. New Jersey
Wet, after saturation Laurence D. Wesley.& Satyawan Pranyoto
50 Optimum , after saturation
2010.Mekanika Tanah untuk Tanah
Dry, after saturation
0 Endapandan Residu (Soil Mechanics for
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Sedimentary and Residual Soils). Andi,
Strain, %
Yogyakarta, Indonesia.
Figure 5. Stress strain behavior of re-compacted Rahardjo, H., Lim, T.T., Chang, M.F. and Fredlund,
samples, before and after saturation
D.G. 1995. Shear strength characteristic of
residual soil.Canadian Geotechnical Journal 32.

Figure 6. Photograph of residual soil specimens

after tested

CONCLUSION
To study the effect initial water content prior to
compaction, a series of unconfined compression
tests were conducted on re-compacted residual soil
samples during the construction of tailing dam at
Cikaret, Pongkor, Indonesia.
The study shows that the initial compaction
water content significantly influences the strength
behavior of the compacted soil. It was observed that
the dry of optimum compaction water content gives
the highest strength before saturation, but become
the lowest strength after saturation, the big drop off
strength (7.6% left) due to the highest porosity of
the specimen.
The wet of optimum re-compacted sample
shows not only the highest strength after saturation
but also shows strain hardening stress strain or
ductile behavior which will be advantage for the
slope stability.
For water retaining soil structure which will
cause saturation to the soil embankment, it is
suggested to use wet of optimum compaction water
content (+2 % to 4%) as long as the compaction of
the fill meets the specification.

A3-4
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

ANALYSIS OF INCREASING SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOIL TO SLOPE

STABILITY AFTER CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT COMPLETED WITH
VARIOUS METHOD
Yudhi Lastiasih 1 and Putu Tantri, K.S 2

ABSTRACT: Stage construction of embankment is often obstructed by low bearing capacity of soil because of
that critical height of embankment is smaller than final height of embankment design. Height of embankment
construction will always be greater than final height requirement because of the settlement of soil. Due to the
problems mentioned above, it is conducted the installation of PVD for accelerate consolidation settlement to
reach the final height of the embankment with stable condition. The shear strength will be increased if the
settlement consolidation completed so that the soil bearing capacity will also be increased.
This study aims to analyze how much shear strength increase if settlement consolidation completed. By case
study in Teluk Lamong, Indonesia where the soil is normally consolidated will look how much increase shear
strength that occurs by using the Mohr method coulombs, Ardana & Mochtar (1999) and changes in volume
method. Expected outcomes of this research are obtain a) new shear strength value on various condition of stage
construction of embankment, b) Provide the method that are suitable for looking for increasing shear strength.

Keywords: shear strength, normally consolidated soil

INTRODUCTION that the overall stability increased too and the

Reclamation embankment which is often
carried out always has problems at the requirement
embankment final height. The causes include the
settlement that occurs, height of embankment
implementation and embankment sliding.
Therefore, three things must be controlled. The
main priority of the soil settlement under
embankment problems is the amount of
compression itself and the time of completion the
consolidation settlement. Problems on the height
embankment of implementation is occurring when
the settlement is large enough then the
implementation of the required height of
embankment is also higher than the final height of
embankment. The above conditions can cause new
problems regarding their overall stability. To
resolve the existing problems, it is necessary to do
an effort to accelerate the consolidation that is by
perform the installation of PVD. If the
consolidation settlement occurs, the soil will be
denser and have high shear strength than the
original so that the soil bearing capacity will be
increased. If soil bearing capacity increased so
height design embankment can be reached.
Under these conditions it is necessary to know
how to increase the value of soil parameter
especially shear strength parameter value like as
cohesion if consolidation settlement has occurred
Increased parameters need to be known in order to
proceed the next stage to reach design height
embankment. To achieve these objectives, the
analysis by taking case study of reclamation in the
Gulf Lamong and degree of consolidation that is
used as the analysis is 95%.
REVIEW STUDY
From previous observation and research result
can be seen the relationship between un-drained
shear strength (= Cu ) with vertical effective soil
stress (= σp ') working on the clay.
Some studies that have been done for the
normally consolidated clays (NC-Soil) to increase
the value of Cu are as follows:
Based on Jamiolkowski et al. (1985)
 Cu 
   0.23  0.04 (1)
 ' 
 p 

1
Lecturer, Sepuluh Nopember Institute of Technology, yudhi.lastiasih@gmail.com, Indonesia
2
Lecturer, Sepuluh Nopember Institute of Technology, tantrigeoteknik@gmail.com, Indonesia

A4-1
a. Based on Mesri (1975) & Balasubramaniam An estimate shown in Figure 1 is sufficient for
(1991) the purposes of stability analysis.
 Cu 
   0.22 (2)
 ' 
 p 
c. Based on Skempton dan Henkel (1953)
C 
 u   0.11  0.0037PI  (3)
 ' 
 p 
d. Based on Ardana dan Mochtar (1999)
Figure 1. Increase Shear Strength Due to
Consolidation
- For Plasticity Index PI < 120 %.
Cu (kg/cm2) = 0,0737 + (0,1899 - 0,0016 PI) σp' Increased shear strength on soft soil take place
(4) gradually in line with the process of consolidation
- For Plasticity Index PI > 120 % of soft soil. As for the soil consolidation can be
Cu (kg/cm2) = 0,0737 + (0,0454 - 0,00004 PI) σp' calculated using Equation 7
2
TH
(5) t  v dr (7)
Cv
Where : where
σp' : Vertical Effective Stress of Soil (kg/cm2).  U 
2

IP : Plasticity Index U  60%, Tv    (8)

The value of Vertical Effective Stress of Soil (σp ')
change with time During consolidation. Vertical
Effective Stress of Soil (σp ') can be searched with
the following formulation
U
 p'   ' 
 p '   o p  . po '
 p 'o  (6)
If consolidation settlement occurs in soft soil
due to working loads, such as embankment, will
reduce the excess pore water pressure and the void
ratio on soft soil so that the density and effective
vertical stress would increase. As a result,
undrained shear strength and safety factor would
increase. Increased soil shear strength is a function
of the degree of consolidation, as shown in
Equation 9. Therefore the speed of embankment
must be controlled so that sufficient consolidation
occurs, with the result that the shear strength can
be achieved. This method should be considered
when height of embankment design exceeds the
critical height that can be safely supported by the
subgrade.
Change in magnitude of soil strength can be
taken approximately the same with embankment
load. For normally consolidated clay a factor are
ranging from 0.20 to 0.40. The full increase shear
strength will only occur just below the highest
embankment area and down to the toe of
embankment.
4  100 
U  60%, T  1.781  0.933 log100  U 
v
Besides the relationship un-drained shear
strength (Cu) with a soil effective vertical stress (=
σp '), there is a relationship Mohr circle with the
addition of stress due to the addition of
embankment load to the shear strength value as
shown in equation as follow
cbaru  cawal  a (9)
Un-drained shear strength increment (Cu) due
to the consolidation process can be simply
estimated from triaxial CU test results of effective
parameters as shown in equation 10.
Cu  U tan  '  v (10)
a  U tan  ' (11)
Where :
U = degree of consolidation
’ = effective internal friction angle (0)
v = strength increase (kN/m2)
A = coefficient
There is a relationship of volume change to the
increase in cohesion un-drained soil parameters,
namely from changes in the value of the void ratio
with the relationship between parameters with
Biarez it can be seen that there is cu value after
compression is complete.
The stage is undertaken to get a new Cu as
follows:

A4-2
 1. After had the new void ratio ( e ) then by Table 3. Soil layer parameters for the calculation
using Table 1 new weight of volume (t) can be of data input
obtained, Depth mLWS 0 s/d 6 6 s/d 25 25 s/d 62
2. From new weight of volume (t) and using Thickness m 6 19 37
NSPT 4 12 23
Table 2 and then new Cohesion un-drained (Cu)
Jenis Tanah Silt & Clay Silt & Clay Silt & Clay
can be obtained. 3
gsat t/m 1.6 1.733 1.91
2
Table 1. Soil Parameter Correlation cu t/m 1 2.5 8.22
0
(Biarez, et all,1976) f 3 11 21
e0 1.85 1.34 0.87
2
Cv cm /s 0.0004 0.000657 0.00095
w % 68.55 49.56 32
Cc 0.50 0.33 0.17
2
E t/m 138 250 1500
n 0.2 0.2 0.2

Table 2 . Correlation between NSPT and another

soil parameters (Bowles, 1992)
Notes Cohesionless Soil
N (blows) 0-3 4-10 11-30 31-50 > 50 Figure 2. Isodensity zone from output of plaxis on

3
(kN/m ) - 12-16 14-18 16-20 18-23
height of embankement (H) =3m and slope 1:1.5
0
 ( ) - 25-32 28-36 30-40 > 35
After the stage construction of embankment
very Very
State loose loose Medium Dense Dense
about 3 m and then installed PVD. Installation of
Dr (%) 0-15 15-35 35-65 65-85 85-100 PVD in the zone Container Yard can resolve the
Notes Cohesive Soil consolidation (Uavarage = 95%) which occurs in this
N (blows) <4 4-6 6-15 16-25 > 25 zone within 6 months. After installation of PVD,
3
 (kN/m ) 14 - 18 16 – 18 16 - 18 16 - 20 > 20 vertical consolidation coefficient (Cv) into
Qu (kPa) < 25 20 - 50 30 - 60 40 - 200 > 100 Uavg= 95% Tv= 1.13 , Hdr = 22 m, t = 6 month,
Consistency so
very soft soft medium stiff hard
Tv  H dr
2

ANALYSIS AND RESULT
Input data of soil parameters is based on results
analysis for the calculation can be seen in Table 3.
From soil parameter on Table 3, embankment
with slope 1:1.5 only H = 3 m can be reached as
seen in Figure 2, so we must soil improvement. In
this cases, soil improvement is used PVD. PVD is
construction with spacing 1.4 m, and length (L) =
25 m.
In Figure 2 shows that direct stage construction
of embankment as high as 3 m has a safety factor
(SF) = 1,086 (Critical).
Cv 
t
1.13  2200 2
Cv 
6  30  24  3600
Cv  3.51  10 3 cm 2 / s
With the increasing soil density, the shear
strength parameters (Cu) will be increased as
shown in Table 4. Increased shear strength
parameters in Table 4 is based on the stages
construction of embankment as high as 3 m at each
stage with a waiting time of 8 weeks.
Table 4 has shown an increase in each method,
except in theory Jamiolkowski, Mesri & Skepton
beginning of stages construction of embankment
looks smaller than Cu initial, therefore, the third
theory will not be discussed further.

A4-3
 At this stage with increasing cu condition as For the Ardana & Mochtar and Mohr Coulomb
shown in Table 4 and in implementing the Plaxis, method was not able to proceed to next stage
actually to Mohr coulomb theory with waiting time construction of embankment and thus require a
of 8 weeks is still not enough to increase the height longer time to continue the next stage.
of embankment, while the Ardana & Mochtar Figure 5 shows safety factor for stages
theory is not enough for stage 3 but if the volume construction of embankment after waiting for the
change theory can continue stage costruction until first stage with the volume change method . From
design height of embankment. This can be seen Figure 5, third stage construction of embankment
from the PLAXIS results that simulate stage has been unable to proceed because it is failure.
construction of embankment with improved soil
parameters in accordance mohr coulomb theory, Sum-Msf
2.4

Ardana Mochtar and volume change.

2.1

Table 4. Increasing Shear Strength Parameter (Cu) 1.8

Stage 1 1.5
2
New Cu after consolidation (t/m )
2
Depth (m) Initial Cu (t/m ) Mesri &
Ardana Volume Mohr 1.2
Balasubramaniam
Mochtar Jamiolkowski Skempton Change Coulomb
0-6 1 1.24 0.91 0.74 0.68 2.00 1.06
0.9
6 - 25 2.5 2.45 4.08 3.32 4.35 2.67 2.97 0.95 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.99 1
Stage 2 Sum-Marea
2
New Cu after consolidation (t/m )
2
Depth (m) Initial Cu (t/m ) Ardana Mesri & Volume Mohr
Mochtar Jamiolkowski Balasubramaniam Skempton Change Coulomb Figure 5. Safety Factor on First and Second Stage
0-6
6 - 25
1
2.5
1.98
4.28
2.24
8.47
1.83
6.90
1.68
9.02
2.67
5.56
1.15
3.58
Construction of Embankment with Volume
Stage 3
2
Change Method
New Cu after consolidation (t/m )
2
Depth (m) Initial Cu (t/m ) Ardana Mesri & Volume Mohr
Mochtar Jamiolkowski Balasubramaniam Skempton Change Coulomb
Sum-Msf
0-6 1 2.84 3.79 3.09 2.83 6.44 1.24
2.8
6 - 25 2.5 6.18 12.99 10.58 13.84 7.00 4.24

2.4

By using PLAXIS can be known the process of

2

stage construction of embankment can be

accomplished by increasing Cu. 1.6

1.2

Sum-Msf
1.6 0.8
0.95 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.99 1
Sum-Marea
1.5

1.4 Figure 6. Safety Factor on First ,Second and Third

1.3
Stage Construction of Embankemnt with Volume
Change Method
1.2

1.1
From the Figure 6, the stage construction of
1
0.95 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.99 1 embankment up to design height of embankment
Sum-Marea
can be achieved.
Figure 3. Safety Factor on First Stange Method of approaching field conditions is a
Construction of Embankement with Ardana Mohr Coulomb method if the PLAXIS analysis
Mochtar Theory
when compared with the results of settlement plate.
Sum-Msf
Because from the settlement plate result shown
1.5
after the first stage construction of embankment in
1.4 height equal 3m can be continued to the next stage
after 87 day  12 weeks, so Mohr Coulomb
1.3

method is closely with field result.

1.2

1.1
CONCLUSION
1
0.95 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.99 1
Based on comparative analysis carried out by
Sum-Marea
using Plaxis and the results of field observations in
Figure 4. Safety Factor on First Stage Construction this case study can be summarized as follows:
of Embankemnt with Mohr Coulomb Method

A4-4
 1. That the Mohr Coulomb method is the
most closely method with the condition of
the field
2. Of the three methods of looking for an
increase in the value of Cu after the
consolidation, which gives the smallest
value increase is the method mohr
coulomb.

REFERENCE
Ardana, Made Dodiek dan Indrasurya B. Mochtar
(1999), Pengaruh Tegangan Overburden
Efektif dan Plastisitas Tanah terhadap
Kekuatan Geser Undrained Tanah Lempung
berkonsistensi sangat lunak sampai kaku yang
terkonsolidasi normal, Thesis S-2 di Jurusan
Teknik Sipil FTSP – ITS.
Biarez J, Favre J.L (1976), Correlation de
Parameters en Mecanique de Sols, Ecole
Centrale de Paris.
Bowles J.E (1992), Analisis dan Desain Pondasi,
Jilid 2, Erlangga Surabaya.
Jamiolkowski, M., Ladd, C. C., Germaine, J. and
Lancellotta, R.(1985), New developments in
field and laboratory testing of soils. Proc. 11th
Int. Conf. on Soil Mech. Found. Engng, San
Francisco, 1, 57–153.
Mesri, G. (1975). Discussion: new design
procedure for the stability of soft clays. ASCE
J. Geotech. Engng 101, No. 4, 409–412.
Pedoman Kimpraswil No : Pt T-10-2002-B, 2002,
Panduan Geoteknik 4 Desain & Konstruksi,
Departemen Permukiman dan Prasarana
Wilayah
Skempton, A. W. (1957). Discussion: further data
on the c/p ratio in normally consolidated clays.
Proc. Inst. Civil Eng. 7, No. 2,305–307.

A4-5
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

BACK CALCULATION METHOD TO ESTIMATE SHEAR PARAMETER

(C and ) OF CILILIN, WEST JAVA LANDSLIDES
Ikah N. P Permanasari 1, Gunawan Handayani 2, Arif Rohman 3 and Lilik Hendrajaya 4

ABSTRACT: The determination of shear strength for landslide is important research object in slope stability
analysis. West Java is the province with the highest number of landslide occurrence since 1990-2012 that 1014
incident, or 59.86% of the whole landslide in Indonesia at that time. In this study, back-calculation is discussed
and is conducted to analyze the shear strength parameters of the Cililin landslide. With this method we obtain the
magnitude of = 18, = 18 and Wt = 18.

Keywords: shear strength parameters, slope geometry, factor of safety

INTRODUCTION THEORITICAL BACKGROUND

The determination of shear strength for
landslide slip is an important research object in
slope stability analysis. It is widely accepted that
the shear strength parameters obtained using back
analysis are more reliable than those by laboratory
or in-situ test. But however, back analysis is a much
more difficult task. Many studies have indicated
that it is insufficient to assess shear strength
parameters from the information provided by a
failure surface. This can be done in two ways one is
by assuming one of these parameters; the other is
by establishing a set of simultaneous equations
involving the information of two cross-sections [1].
The back analysis can also be treated as the
optimization problem. NGUYEN [2] developed a
simple and quick method for the back calculation of
slope failures by the secant method. LI et al [3]
The shear strength is defined as the maximum
value of shear stress that the soil can withstand. The
time and conditions under which water is able to
flow into or out of a soil mass determines whether a
drained or undrained analysis should be performed
[6].
In slope stability analysis, the factor of safety
FOS is usually defined as the ratio of the shear
strength of the soil to the shear stress necessary to
bring the slope into a state of limit equilibrium [1].
The strength of the soil is usually described by
Mohr–Coulomb criterion as a function of the
cohesion c and friction angle φ. F can be given by :
' '
' '
݉ ݉ (1)
Where
' ' '
' −1
݉ and ݉

presented hybrid genetic algorithm, and used the
optimization algorithm to identify the shear
strength parameters of geotechnical materials.
JIANG and YAMAGAMI [4,5] illustrated the
theoretical relationship between the strength
parameters and the critical slip surface, and
produced a new method for back analysis of
strength parameters. One of the key problems of
back analysis is to calculate the factor of safety
(FOS). In this paper we examine the shear strength
parameters in Cililin landslide that occurred in 2013.
are strength parameters necessary only to
maintain the slope in limit equilibrium. As the
factor of safety of a failed slope is equal to unity,
the strength parameters back-calculated from the
failure can represent the true field values and
[4].
The back calculation analysis is one where
average shear strength parameters ( and tan )
are calculated from the known slope geometry, unit
weight and factor of safety [7]. When the slope
geometry, unit weight and pore water pressure
distribution in a homogeneous slope are given, the

1
Ikah N.P Permanasari, Institut Teknologi Sumatera, ikahning@itera.ac.id, Indonesia
2
Gunawan Handayani, Institut Teknologi Bandung, gunawanhandayani@yahoo.com, Indonesia
3
Arif Rohman, Institut Teknologi Sumatera, arifrohman1987@ymail.com, Indonesia
4
Lilik Hendarajaya, Institut Teknologi Bandung, lilik.hendrajaya2@gmail.com, Indonesia

A5-1
location of the critical slip surface for a particular measurements have been conducted using Total
method of slices depends only on the magnitude of Station and GPS RTK. GPS positioning method is
and [8]. In order to demonstrate the internal first divided into two, namely the absolute method
relationship between the combination of strength and differential method. Each of these methods can
parameters and stability state, one may consider a then be carried out by means of real time or post-
homogeneous slope with shear strength parameters processing. If the specified object stationary
c and φ. The location of critical slip surface and position, the method is called Static. Conversely, if
factor of safety FOS can be uniquely determined. the object moves the specified position, the method
When the slope geometry, unit weight and pore is called kinematic. Measurement data is processed
water pressure distribution in a homogeneous slope by global software and output in the form of a data
are given, the location of the critical slip surface for mapper XYZ coordinates.
a particular method of slices depends only on the
magnitude of and [9] . A back calculation of
landslide is performed by making some
assumptions on the failure conditions present along
the slide mass or slope at the time of failure and
assuming input parameters which yield a factor of
safety of unity (FS = 1.0)[6]. The relationship
between and and the critical slip surface was
widely used to produce the charts for stability
analysis of simple homogeneous slopes[10,11].
From coordinate data obtained from topographic
measurements and soil type simulated using stable
analytical bishops in order to obtain the coefficient Figure 2. Topographic slope before the avalanche
of sliding and .
In addition to coordinate data of topography
measurements also obtained 3D image data (Figure
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
2 and Figure 3) where the avalanche length is 158
Cililin landslide in West Bandung regency that m, with a peak of 55.273 m width and mass loss
occurred in March 2013 with material movement after the avalanche is 122,463.6 m3 while the
downward slope as far as 500m hit residential areas change of surface area after the avalanche is 0,2303
of the village Nagrog cause eighteen people died ha.
and ten homes were destroyed and twenty-three
heads of families evacuated. The causes of
landslides in the area is the land use by the local
community into the lemongrass plant which then
triggered by heavy rainfall that ocured for a long
time. [12].

Figure 3. Topographic slope after the avalanche

From the measurements that have been made

can be seen the relationship between the height and
the position x for before and after landslides can be
seen as Figures 4 and 5 below.

Figure 1. A day after Cililin landslides

To calculate the shear parameters, first we

perform topographic measurements and determine
the type of soil constituent slopes. Topographic

A5-2
 Can be seen at a distance of 75 to 105 there is
accumulation of material after a landslide suspected
at that point is the end of the sliding plane, so that
the avalanche of material that fell from the crown
of the slope piled up at that point and cause a
buildup resulting in a height after the avalanche
becomes higher than before the landslide

Table 1. Shear Parameter

Figure 4. longitudinal cross section of the slope From calculation we obtain the magnitude of
before the avalanche, the relationship between the
height of the position x shear parameter is = 18, = 18 and Wt=18. And
the value of Factor Of Savety(FOS) is 1,006

Table 2. List of safety factor calculation results to

the center circle sliding plane

From calculation obtained the sliding plane

slopes. Who trough 44.99 point and ending up at
93.4 points which at that point will occur avalanche
of material buildup as our previous assumptions.
which at 93.4 points is the tip of the semi-circle so
that at that point there will be a buildup of
avalanche of material that comes from the slopes of
Figure 5. longitudinal cross section of the slope the peak to the body. That causes at a point between
after the avalanche, the relationship between the
height of the position x 75-105 in the accumulation of material and height
after the avalanche becomes higher than before the
Coordinates obtained are 3D data landslide.
(x,y,elevation), then the data we represent in the
form of a distance using the formula of distance
between two points x, y:

so that we can obtain the relationship between

the distance to the elevation before and after the
landslide as shown in Figure 4 below.

1040
Elevation before landslide
Elevation after landslide
1020
Elevation

1000
Figure 7. Analysis of stability safety factor Cililin
inclined plane with the parameters shown in
980 inclined plane with the parameters shown in Table
2. value of the safety factor is worth 1.006.

960 CONCLUSION

0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 A simple method has been presented to back
Distance calculation slope failures for the determination of
Figure 6. Elevation before and after landslides soil strength parameters. The essential point of the
proposed method is to calculate the value of and

A5-3
 to determine the critical slip surface. As this
relationship is applicable only to slopes consisting
of homogeneous materials, the method should be
carefully used when slopes are assumed to be
homogeneous.

REFERENCES
BAKER R, Tanaka Y. A convenient alternative
representation of Taylor’s stability charts. In:
Yagi N, Yamagami T, Jiang J-C, editors. Proc
int symp slope stab eng, vol. 1. Rotterdam:
Balkema; 1999. p.253–7
DUNCAN J M, WRIGHT S G. Soil strength and
slope stability [M]. Hoboken: John Wiley &
Sons, 2005.
Janbu N. Discussion of ‘‘Dimensionless parameters
for homogenous earth slopes.’’ by J.M. Bell. J
Soil Mech Found Div Am Soc Civ Eng
1967;93(6):367–74.
JIANG J C, YAMAGAMI T. A new back analysis
of strength parameters from single slips [J].
Computers and Geotechnics, 2008, 35:
286−291.
JIANG J C, YAMAGAMI T. Charts for estimating
strength parameters from slips in homogeneous
slopes [J]. Computers and Geotechnics, 2006,
33: 294−304.
JIANG J-C, Yamagami T. Charts for estimating
strength parameters from slips in homogeneous
slopes. Comput Geotechnics 2006;33: 294–304.
Ke ZHANG, Ping CAHO., Rui BAO., (2012).
Rigorous back analysis of shear strength
parameters of landslide slip. Elsevier : Trans.
Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 23(2013)
1459−1464
Laporan Singkat Bencana Alam Gerakan Tanah di
Kec. Cililin, Kab. Bandung Barat. Kementrian
ESDM. Badan Geologi. 2013.Tidak
dipublikasikan.
LI Shou-ju, SHANGGUAN Zi-chang, LIU Ying-xi.
Identification procedure for shear strength
parameters of geotechnical materials using
hybrid genetic algorithm [J]. Chinese Journal of
Rock
M. HUSSAIN. Back-Analysis Procedure for
Landslides. Proceedings of the International
Conference on Geotechnical Engineering.
Mechanics and Engineering, 2005, 24(4): 676−680.
(in Chinese)
NGUYEN V U. Back calculation of slope failure
by the secant method [J]. Geotechnique, 1984,
34(3): 223−227.

A5-4
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

STUDI EXPERIMENTAL RESIDUAL SHEAR STRENGTH AND IMPROVE SHEAR

STRENGTH WITH COMPACTION TEST ON AREA LINGGAMANIK, SUKABUMI

Lestari, A.S 1 , SatriaYogie 2 and Assidiq Bagus 3

ABSTRACT: Residual shear strength is necessary parameter to be understood for decrease soil shear strength
when large. The method to obtain residual shear strength is using direct shear test that allows large shear to
happen. Linggamanik is a village in Sukabumi west Java Indonesia. On 4th Januari 2015, landslide occurred in
Linggamanik village, the soil properties is sedimentary (Sukabumi geology map) and high plasticity clay. At
saturated condition the residual shear strength Linggamanik is 9.21o and on natural soil the residual strength is
12.29o. To improve the residual shear strength this sample is compacted to obtain the optimum water content and
maximum dry density with Standard compaction test method. The results of the compaction test with optimum
water content shear strength improve with cohesion of 0.51 kg/cm2 and friction angle 41o. Vertical strain at
consolidation test with vertical strain stress of 0.5 kg/cm2 on undisturbed sample is 2.3% and the same vertical
stress on standard compaction give 1%.

Keywords: Residual shear strength, compaction

INTRODUCTION Table 2. Gradation of samples

Landslide is natural phenomena that influence Cl Gradation of Sample Percentage (%)

the relief to a significant extent. Shear strength Clay 46.58 40.05
parameters are the angle of internal friction and Silt 41.59 30.15
Fine Sand 7.60 11.65
cohesion. Shear strength parameter is one of the Coarse to Medium Sand 4.15 13.45
basic geotechnical parameters describing the Gravel 0.08 4.70
mechanism of slope stability . Residual shear
strength, which characteristics soil strength after the LOCATION SAMPLE
peak shear strength or overcoming the maximum
Location of soil investigation is at Landslide area
shear resistance.
Linggamanik village, Bantargadung districts
Compaction is an improvement technique to
Sukabumi West Java Indonesia. Linggamanik is a
try increase shear strength parameter.
high landslide zone (Figure 1). On 4th Januari 2015,
SOIL PROPERTIES DATA landslide occurred in Linggamanik villages (red
colour).
Table 1. Soil properties sample

Sample 1 2
Unit weight (t/m3) 1.67 1.68
Void ratio 1.41 1.14
Porocity 0.58 0.53
Specific gravity 2.62 2.61
Water content ( % ) 38.18 53.16
Liquid Limit 115.07 93.52
Plastic limit 41.25 32.02
IP 73.82 61.50
Clay fraction 46.58 40.05

1
Lecturer, UNPAR, Civil Engineering, Bandung Indonesia
2
Student, UNPAR, Civil Engineering, Bandung Indonesia
3
Student, UNPAR, Civil Engineering, Bandung Indonesia

A6-1
 Figure 1. Location sample and landslide zone

Samples are high plasticity clay ( Figure 2). (φ’) and variation clay fraction (CF) and normal
stress for the range of Linggamanik Sampel φ’
about 11o – 12 o.

a. Direct Shear test

Figure 2. Classification sample based on Casagrande

chart

SCOPE OF STUDY
a. Direct shear laboratory test to presents of
the peak and residual shear strength
b. Compaction laboratory test to take the
optimum water content and maximum dry b. Maximum shear strength and residual shear
dencity strength
c. Evaluation to improve shear strength and Figure 3. Typical test at Direct Shear Test
to decrease vertical strain in consolidation
test with water content optimum.

PEAK AND RESIDUAL SHEAR STRENGTH

The most commonly used method for shear
strength parameter by Direct shear test (Figure 3)
and movement on a slip surface sample that has
reached residual condition under a certain normal
stress may occur after an elapsed time during which
normal stress has remained unchanged . There are
three samples with variation normal stress for one
set test Stark Et Al, 2005 gived correlation Liquid
limid and drained residual secant friction Angle Figure 4. Liquid limit – Drained Residual shear
strength

A6-2
 Figure 8. Peak and Residual shear stress saturated
Figure 5. Shear stress and horizontal strain natural sample 1
sample 1
Table 3. Parameter peak and residual strength
Sampel 1 2
Peak
Cohesion (c), kg/cm2 0.25 0.39
Angel of friction (φ), ° 16.2 16.9
Residual
Cohesion (cr), kg/cm2 0 -
Angel of friction (φr), ° 12.3 -
Note : residual sample 2 is error

Table 4. Parameter saturated peak and residual

Figure 6. Shear stress –horizontal strain saturated
strength
sampel 1
Sampel 1 2
Peak
Cohesion (c), kg/cm2 0.04 0.091
Angel of friction (φ), ° 13.1 5.0
Residual
Cohesionl (cr), kg/cm2 0 -
Angel of friction (φr), ° 9.2 -

Figure 7. Parameter peak and residual shear stress

sample 1

A6-3
 Standard method Compaction test contained
optimum water content 35.5% and maximum dry
density 1.26 gr/cm3 (Figure 10 ).
Based on water content maximum, the sample
is tested by direct shear test, unconfined
compression test and consolidation test.

Figure 9. Corelation friction angel residual dan

Plasticity index

The base of the correlation between residual

friction angle and plasticity index of sample 1 (IP = Figure 11. Shear strength parameter after
73.82%) the results of the laboratory test (φr = 12o) compaction
approach Skempton test (Figure 9). The proper
selection and evaluation of a soil improvement Table 5. Shear strength parameter before and after
technique for use at a particular site is neither a compaction
simple way. Parameter Natural Compacted
We try to increase the shear strength parameters sample sample
is compaction test . Cohesion (kg/cm2) 0,25 0,51
Soil compactors are used to perform test Angel of friction () 16,2 41,8
methods which cover laboratory compaction
methods used to determine the relationship between
molding water content and dry unit weight of soils.
Soil placed as engineering fill is compacted to a
dense state to obtain satisfactory engineering
properties such as, shear strength and
compressibility
Figure 10 shows compaction laboratory test to
know about optimum water content and maximum
dry density

COMPACTION TEST

Figure 12. Vertical strain natural and compaction

soil
The following is a comparison between the
settlement of natural soil that has been compacted,
the value of this settlement has been converted into
a percentage decrease of the initial height of the
sample. High initial natural sample 1.97 cm and
height of the compacted soil 11.56 cm.
Unconfined compression test to obtain
maximum compression strength (qu) natural
sample = 4.37 kg/cm2 and qu for disturbed sample
= 1.07 kg/cm2.
Figure 10. Compaction curve-Standard method

A6-4
 Compaction sample about four times greater to REFERENCES
improve compression strength. It was the same
Budhu, Muni. 2007. Foundations and Earth
qu
about cohesive soil = . Retaining Structures. USA: John Wiley & Sons,
2 Inc.
Culling, W. E. H. (1963), “Soil Creep and the
Table 6. Settlement Natural and compaction sample
Development of Hillside Slopes”, Vol 71, No.2,
Stress Natural Soil Compaction Soil 127-161. Chicago Journals.
(kg/cm2) Settlement Settlement Settlement Settlement
( cm) ( %) (cm) ( %)
Das, Braja M. (1976). Advanced Soil Mechanics.
0.25 0.021 1.091 0.042 0.363 Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, New York,
0.50 0.045 2.324 0.116 1.009 London.
Duncan, J.M., and Wright, S.G., (2005). Soil
UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TEST Strength and Slope Stability. John Wiley and
Sons, New York.
Hussain, M. (2010), “Analysis and Behavior of
Preexisting Landslides”,PhD. Thesis, University
of Illinois, Urbana, Champaign, U.S.
Skempton, A.W. (1985). “Residual strength of
clays in landslides, folded strata and the
laboratory.”, Geotechnique 35(1): 3-18.
Stark, T. D., Choi, H., and McCone, S., (2005a).
“Drained shear strength parameters for analysis
of landslides.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng.
131(5): 575-588.

Figure 13. Unconfined compression test Natural

sample and compaction sample

CONCLUSIONS
Residual shear strength is very important to
know the soil shear strength after landslide.
To increase the shear strength of residual soil in
the area Linggamanik is a simple phenomenon that
is compaction soil
1. The value of residual friction angle with direct
shear test sample 1 12.29o and saturated
condition residual friction angle 9.21o.
2. The value of residual friction angle close to the
results of correlation with test results of
plasticity index according Skempton.
3. Residual friction angle shear strength depends
on the value of plasticity soil.
4. To improve the shear strength of residual soil in
the area Linggamanik with compaction soil.
5. The standard Compaction method with
optimum water content can increase the value of
cohesion and friction angle of 2 – 3 times of the
residual friction angle.
6. The standard compaction test can decrease
vertical strain 2 – 3 times of natural sample.

A6-5
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

BEHAVIOR OF ROCK INTERFACE BASED ON BACK ANALYSIS USING

FINITE ELEMENT METHOD

Anita Theresia1, Paulus P. Rahardjo 2, Aris Handoko 3 and Sylvia Herina 4

ABSTRACT: Understanding the behavior of rock interface is a difficult part due to difficulties in sampling and
testings of the interface. Sometimes it is also because the interface covers large areas where the engineering
properties may not be the same all over the sliding plane and the size. This is partly due to the complexity of the
processes driving slope failures and our inadequate knowledge of the underlying mechanisms. Ever increasingly,
experts are called upon to analyze and predict the stability of a given slope, assessing its risk, potential failure
mechanisms and velocities, areas endangered, and possible remedial measures. This paper deals with evaluation
of the rock interface behavior for rock slope stability analysis and the purpose such analyses serve in the
investigation of potential slope failure mechanisms. The discussion concentrates on the use of interface element
to describe discontinuity in finite element numerical modelling. Yet it must also be emphasized that numerical
modelling is a tool and not a substitute for critical thinking and judgement. As such, numerical modelling is most
effective when applied by an experienced and cautious user.

Keywords: Rock interface, Slope Stability, finite element analysis.

INTRODUCTION input data for the stability analysis. The collection

Rock slope stability analyses are routinely
performed and directed towards assessing the safe
and functional design of excavated slopes and/or
the equilibrium conditions of natural slopes.
The analysis technique chosen depends on
both site conditions and the potential mode of
failure, with careful consideration being given to
the varying strengths, weaknesses and limitations
inherent in each methodology. In general,
the primary objectives of rock slope stability
analyses are:
1. to determine the rock slope stability
conditions;
2. to investigate potential failure mechanisms;
3. to determine the slopes susceptibility to
different triggering mechanisms;
4. to test and compare different support and
stabilization options; and
5. to design optimal excavated slopes in terms of
safety, reliability and economics.
A site investigation study should precede any
stability study and includes elements of geological
and discontinuity mapping to provide the necessary
of data ideally involves rock mass characterization
and the sampling of rock materials for laboratory
analysis, field observations and in situ
measurements.
In situ monitoring of spatial and temporal
variations in pore pressures, slope displacements,
stresses and subsurface rock mass deformations,
provide valuable data for constraining and
validating the stability analysis undertaken.
Initiation or trigger mechanisms may involve
sliding movements which can be analyzed as a
numerical problem, but this is followed by or
preceded by creep, progressive deformation and
extensive internal disruption of the slope mass.
The factors initiating eventual failure may be
complex and not easily allowed for in simple static
analysis. Not with standing the above comments,
numerical analyses may be highly relevant to
simple block failure along discontinuities.
It thus follows that where applicable, numerical
techniques should be used in conjunction with
numerical modelling to maximize the advantages of
both.

1
Anita Theresia, ST., MT., anitatheresia_ug@yahoo.com, Indonesia
2
Prof. Paulus P. Rahardjo, Professor of geotechnical engineering, UNPAR, Bandung, Indonesia
3
Senior Geotechnical Engineer, PT. Geotechnical Engineering Consultant, Bandung
4
Researcher, Research Center for Human Settlement, Bandung

A7-1
 The main difference between rock and soils is Numerical solutions for planar and wedge
because rock is significantly influenced by the failures have been widely used to assess
existence of joints and the behavior of joint. The discontinuity-controlled rock slope instabilities.
most difficult part in the determination of property These techniques, largely based on solutions
of the joint. The intact rock properties can not introduced by Hoek & Bray (1991), assume
represents the behavior of the whole rock mass translational sliding of a rigid body along a plane or
system. Most research has rely on the estimate of along the intersection of two planes in the case of a
the properties based on certain guidance such as wedge. Since the sliding block does not undergo
Rock Mass Rating (RMR) or Q system. However any rigid body rotations, all forces pass through the
still the properties of the joints are the most centroid of the block. Furthermore, as in all
important issues. The properties are influenced by Numerical solutions, it is assumed that all points
the joint orientation, the distance between joints, along the sliding plane are on the verge of failure.
the width of the opening and also the materials These assumptions make the problem statically
inside the joints. The existence of water in the determinate, permitting the simple calculation of
joints has also contribution to the stability of the the ratio of resisting forces and driving forces
rock mass. (factor of safety).
Resisting forces are provided by the shear
CONVENTIONAL METHOD strength of the sliding surface (cohesion and
A review of conventional methods of stability friction), and driving forces generally consist of the
down-slope weight component of the sliding block
analysis will precede these sections to highlight the
basic understanding of the problem and to enhance and water pressures along the boundaries of the
visualization of simple slope stability problems. block.
For cases of complex problems or complex
geometry, then numerical technique is applied.
Numerical techniques are routinely used in the
analysis of landslides where translational or
rotational movements occur on distinct failure
surfaces. Analyses are undertaken to provide either
a factor of safety or, through back-analysis, a range
of shear strength parameters at failure.
In general, these methods are the most
commonly adopted solution method in rock slope
engineering, even though many failures involve
complex internal deformation and fracturing which
bears little resemblance to the 2-D rigid block
assumptions required by Numerical analyses.
However, Numerical analyses may be highly
relevant to simple block failure along
discontinuities or rock slopes that are heavily
fractured or weathered (behaving like a soil
continuum).
Figure 1. Simplified solution for planar failure
All Numerical techniques share a common (after Hudson & Harrison 1997)
approach based on a comparison of resisting
forces/moments mobilized and the disturbing c ' ( H  z ) csc   (W . cos   U  V . sin  p ) tan  '
SF 
p p

forces/moments. V . cos  p  W . sin  p

Methods may vary, however, with respect to the Where:

slope failure mechanism in question (translational SF = safety factor
or rotational sliding), and the assumptions adopted c´ = effective cohesion
in order to achieve a determinate solution.  ’ = effective friction angle
Considerable advances in commercially available  p = dip of slide plane
Numerical computer codes have taken place in W = weight of block
recent years. U = uplift force due to water pressure along
slide plane

A7-2
 V = force due to water pressure in tension defined and the use of interface element to model
crack joints in rock.
H = slope height
z = tension crack depth STUDY OF ROCK SLOPE STABILITY
Location of study
The site for study is located in Alor island, East
Nusa Tenggara, north of Timor Island. The geology
of the island is shown on figure 3. The main rock in
the north of the island is volcanic breccia and corals.
During the earthquake that hit this island on 12
November 2004, many points of location along the
main road from Kalabahi to Maritaing had slope
failures consisting rock fall, landslides and debris
flow.

Figure 3. The geology of Alor

A number of rock fall is of interest due to

complex joint condition at site. Figure 4 shows an
example of the rock fall (corral). This type of rock
falls are found in some location.
Figure 2. Simplified solution for wedge failure
under dry conditions and with frictional strength
only (after Hudson & Harrison 1997)

( R A  R B ) tan  '
SF 
W . sin  t
W . cos  t . sin 
RA  RB 
sin( 0 ,5 )
Where:
SF = safety factor
 = friction angle
t = dip of the line of intersection
W = weight of block
,  = wedge geometry factors
Computer programs based on these solutions,
such as SLOPE/W (Geo-Slope 2000), provide a
quick and interactive means to evaluate the
geometry and stability of surface wedges defined
by two intersecting discontinuity planes and a slope
surface; similar programs exist for planar analysis
SLOPE/W (Geo-Slope 2000). The software that we
Figure 4. Example of rock fall found on site
are using for this study is PLAXIS2D where the
benefit lies on the fact that initial stresses can be

A7-3
 Figure 5 shows an example of joint on the site
where no sample can be taken for test, and in most
cases, the properties are estimated based on
experience and estimate by judgement. The intact
rock property onlu slightly gives ideas on the
stability, but the most important is the joint
properties. In this study, the joint is modelled as
boundary between rock or discontinuity with
interface element.
Figure 6. Solutions for stability problem of the rock
in Alor (Rahardjo et al., 2005)

Figure 5. Example of Rock joint in Alor Island

(Rahardjo et al., 2005)
As shown on this figure the joints are very
clearly seen and geometrically can be defined due
to exposure. But in many cases, the joints are
covered by surface layers and the orientation can
not be properly determined. In rock slope analysis
this problem arise. If there is no movement of the
rock and there is no sign of movement, then it is
difficult to mention whether the rock slope is safe.
This is really the challenge.
Figure 7. Analysis for existing condition with
assumed safety factor of 1.0
The trial and error calculation give a value of =
Rinterface = 0.45. For further analysis, it has been
assumed that the rock is on the critical condition,
meaning that equilibrium still apply. The addition
of support will increase the safety factor (Figure 8)
to SF = 1.3.

Case study of Slope with single rock joint

Some example in rock slope problems are
because one will be in doubt whether the rock slope
need treatment. The case become obvious in Alor
island where earthquake hit this island in November
2004. The many slopes that looked stable in normal
condition failed due to seismic force. In this
particular case this section was hard to determine
whether treatmen is necessary. However it was Figure 8. Analysis for after treatment with resulting
decided to provide some support at the bottom of safety factor of 1.3
the slope (Figure 6).
The subsequent analysis is by assuming that the In this paper, we have ability to model
existing condition is in critical condition and has a heterogeneous soil-type behaviour, complex
safety factor of 1.0. In this case, the interface stratigraphic and slip surface geometries and
parameters Rinterface was determined in such away variable pore-water pressure conditions.
using trial and error until we obtained safety factor One objective of rock slope stability analysis is
of 1.0. from then on, we assumed that we can use to devise remedial measures to prevent rock mass
that value of Rinterface. movements. In this case of rockfalls, it is generally
impossible to secure all blocks and therefore

A7-4
consideration must also be given to the design of REFERENCES
protective measures near or around structures
Benko, B. (1997). Numerical Modelling of
endangered by the falling blocks. The problem of
Complex Slope Deformations. Department of
rockfall protection work, therefore, largely involves
Geological Sciences, University of
the determination of travel paths and trajectories of
Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada, 366 pp.
unstable blocks that have detached from a rock
Hoek, E. & Bray, J.W. (1991). Rock Slope
slope face.
Engineering. Elsevier Science Publishing: New
It must also be emphasized that unlike the
York, 358 pp.
application of numerical methods to design
Rahardjo, P.P. and Handoko, A., 2005, “Final
problems involving fabricated materials (steel,
report on Slope Repair along Kalabahi-
concrete, etc.), earth materials (rock and soil)
Maritaing road, Alor island,” report submitted
require special considerations. Furthermore, slope
to Dinas PU, Kupang
stability problems involve a complex relationship
between cause and effect linked by a triggering
mechanism, thus requiring insight into the potential
coupling between processes and triggers (hydro-
/;mechanical coupling). In general, analyses of rock
slope stability problems must be achieved with
relatively limited site-specific data and knowledge
of the rock mass deformation, strength and
hydrogeologic properties. These limitations may be
offset by a detailed site investigation, so that in
practice a continuous spectrum of situations exists
with respect to the amount of data that may be
available for a particular analysis.

CONCLUSION
1. A study on rock slope stability involves
difficulty in determining the mechanism of
slope movement which is necessary for
analysis. In this case modeling joint as
interface element in finite element analysis is
possible.
2. For slope which is known to be in limit
equilibrium or that is already moved, one can
assume a safety factor of 1.0 and by trial and
error to find a value of Rinterface Then for
further analysis, that value is to be used, and
rock support may be analysed to find the factor
of safety after the treatment
3. Numerical models such as finite element
method should be constrained by high-quality
input data and good modelling practice should
also include, where possible, independent
checks on proposed conceptual models or
failure mechanisms and on the numerical
results.
4. The use of interface element to model joint in
rock is appropriate. Back analysis by assuming
SF = 1.0 can be used to model the joint.

A7-5
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

CHARACTERISTICS AND FAILURE MECHANISM OF LANDSLIDES IN

WEATHERED GRANITIC ROCKS IN HAI VAN MOUNTAIN, VIETNAM

P.V. Tien 1, K. Sassa 2, K. Takara 3, H.T. Binh 4 and L.H. Luong 5

ABSTRACT: Hai Van Mountain is highly prone to a numerous landslides because of the complexity of
geological, morphological and climatic settings in the weathered granite area in the Central Region of Vietnam.
In the years of 1999, 2004, 2005 and 2007, , a large number of slope failures were induced by extreme events of
typhoon rainfalls, which seriously caused large damages to infrastructures and interrupted traffic operations on
the national transport systems. In this paper, the characteristics and influencing factors of these phenomena were
presented as results of a site investigation in May 2014. Remarkably, failure mechanism of landslides with
different weathered granitic soil samples were closely analyzed though un-drained laboratory tests of landslide
initiation and motion using the ring shear apparatus. The ring shear test results showed that only weakly
weathered granitic soil samples (HV2 samples) experienced sliding surface liquefaction behavior whereas this
phenomenon has not occurred on heavily weathered granitic rock samples (HV1 samples). Consequently, the
failure mechanism of landslide of two samples is very different under the same conditions. In which, landslides
of weakly weathered granite materials are greatly susceptible to rapid motion while the strongly weathered
granite materials only generate creep landslides during motion. The difference in landslide mechanism resulting
from the different in weathering profiles in term of mineralogical composition in two granitic materials was also
explained clearly from laboratory tests.

Keywords: Landslides, failure mechanism, weathered granitic rocks, ring shear apparatus, sliding surface
liquefaction, mobility, Hai Van, Vietnam

INTRODUCTION storm that triggered numerous sliding, earth flows

and debris flows along the transport systems with
The study area is Hai Van Mountain which is
about 2 million cubic meters in total volume (Tam,
located north of Da Nang City, central region of
2005). From 1st to 5th November, precipitation was
Vietnam in a transition zone of the northern and
recorded 1851 mm at Nam.
southern climate. The mountain belongs to
Dong rain-gauge station and 1074 mm at Da
Annamite Mountain Range in Indochina Peninsula
Nang Meteorological Observatory in which 512
and stretches to the South China Sea. Hai Van
mm of rainfall was reported at Da Nang rain-
Mountain is crossed by two main national
gauge station on 3rd November only. Landslide
transport lifelines, including north–south highway
events occurred along or adjacent to more than 20
(AH1) and the North–South Railway (Figure 1).
segments of the national highway separately,
Landslide phenomena frequently take place in the
which interrupted the transportation operations for
area due to a complexity of topography, geology
8 days and seriously destroyed its infrastructures
and monsoon climate, causing large damages to
on both the railway and the highway. Similarly,
transportation infrastructures and threatened
according to the statistical data of the Management
operation safety along 21 km of the national
Unit for Roads, many slope failures were induced
railway and near 30 km of the national highway in
by heavy rainfalls with an accumulative amount of
Hai Van Mountain. For an example, the area was
301 mm/a day in November 11, 2007. The
confronted by hardest hit of the 1999 historic
landslide disasters induced considerable economic

1
Graduate Student, Kyoto University, phamtiengtvt@gmail.com, VIETNAM
2
Professor, International Consortium on Landslides, kyoji.sassa@gmail.com, JAPAN
3
Professor, Kyoto University, takara.kaoru.7v@kyoto-u.ac.jp, JAPAN
4
Researcher, Institute of Transport Science and Technology, thanhbinh166@gmail.com, VIETNAM
5
Graduate Student, Tohoku Gakuin University, lehongluong@gmail.com, VIETNAM

B1-1
losses with regard to repairing the roads and doing
countermeasures against its reoccurrences.
However, there has not been any record that shows
casualties caused by these landslide events. There
are three reasons for this fact; firstly, most of
landslides happened in the night time when a very
few vehicles or trains operated; secondly, the
Management Unit for Roads and authorities issued
regulation/orders for closing the highway/railway
operations during strong typhoons or storms and
thirdly, this area is located very far from
residential areas.
Figure 1. Location of Da Nang City and Hai Van
Mountain (a) and Study area modified from
landslide classification map created by Miyagi,
2015 (b).
Although several costly structural measures
were employed to strengthen slope stability, the
slopes are highly susceptible to failure in the storm
season. Possibly, the more effective and
economical approach for landslide risk prevention
may be landslide hazard assessment with emphasis
on study on its mechanism and movement
prediction (Sassa, 2014). Since rapidly moving
landslides are the most dangerous ones to human
lives and facilities due to a high mobility while
others with a low mobility are not so dangerous.
Therefore, it is very necessary to study initiation
and motion mechanism of landslides through
laboratory experiments by using the ring shear
apparatus. From the point of this view, the paper
not only deals with synoptic descriptions of failure
characteristics that occurred in weathered granitic
rock area of Hai Van Mountain, but mechanism of
landslide during motion and in the post-failure
stage is also interpreted through ring shear tests.
The understanding of failure mechanism of
landslides is greatly useful to risk assessment of
such hazards such as zonation of landslide-
affected areas and prediction of its occurrences.
B1-2
REGIONAL SETTINGS
Climatic condition
Hai Van Mountain is located in the region that
dominated by severe tropical monsoon climate
with the annual precipitation mostly ranging from
as much as 2000 mm to 3600 mm with the
maximum intensity of 4602.6 mm in 2011. The
rain and storm season only lasts 4 months, from
September to December, but it provides with about
70-80 % of the total precipitation. The notable
features of rainfall in the area are prolonged
precipitation in rainy season and extremely heavy
rainfall during typhoon events of which a vast of
events have a rainfall intensity larger than 400 mm
per month. According to rainfall data collected at
Da Nang rain gauge station in the period from
1975 to 2013, approximately 97.5% of the
accumulative 3-day precipitation ranges between
200 mm and 748.4 mm. Similarly, about 92% of
the cumulative rainfalls is larger than 300 mm in
October every year.
Geologic and topographic conditions
Hai Van Mountain is characterized by the
granitoid Hai Van massif at Triassic age with
mineralogical compositions of biotite granite and
two-mica granite (Bao et al., 1994) (Figure 2). The
petrographical components are composed K-
feldspar, plagioclase, quartz, biotite and muscovite
while chemical components of rocks are about
SiO2 (69,34÷73,92%), Na2O+K2O (6,11÷8,11%)
and K2O/Na2O (>1) (Phuc, 2009). A large
proportion of K-feldspar mineral dominated in
biotite granite whereas two-mica granite is rich in
plagioclase which is weathered much faster than
feldspar and changed into clay minerals such as
kaolinite. The Hai Van massif is situated in a
dangerous cleavage terrain with height of mounts
ranging from 500 m to 1500 m. Although the
angle of slopes is only 250- 400, the entire area is
strongly dissected into many valleys, streams and
erosion slots by a fault system.

Figure 2. Geological structure of Hai Van
Mountain (Geological Survey of Vietnam, 1995)
A site investigation was conducted to explore
failure characteristics and its regional settings in
term of geology, geomorphology and topography
at outcrops on slopes in the whole area of Hai Van
Mountain. During this trip, a total of 14 different
outcrops and slope failures was examined fully
(Figure 3). Some of visited landslide sites in May,
2014 are also inventoried and consistent with a
landslide classification map which was created by
Prof. Miyagi in 2014 as an output of the
SATREPS project in Vietnam (see in Figure 1-b
above).

STUDY METHODS
Site investigation

Figure 3. The locations of visited outcrops and slope failures

Soil sampling 4, 5, 6, 7 and ICL-1, 2) in order to physically

simulate the formation of sliding surfaces and the
During site investigation, two different types of
post-failure motion of landslides under realistic
landslide prone samples were chosen for laboratory
stresses. The apparatus is employed to study
experiments from sites, namely heavily weathered
residual strength, pore pressure generation, sliding
granitic soil samples and slightly weathered granitic
surface liquefaction and deformation characteristics
soil samples (hereinafter called as HV1 sample and
at large displacements because it allows unlimited
HV2 sample, respectively). In which, HV1 sample
deformation of the soil samples.
is mainly weathering products of two mica granite
whereas HV2 sample is derived from biotite granite.
HV1 sample is slightly hard and in red-brown color
while HV2 sample is very soft as well as has a grey
color spotted back and white. The detailed locations
of soil samples are in the middle and in the ridge of
the mountain (as shown in Figure 3).

Un-drained ring shear tests

Since 1984, Sassa and his colleagues in the
Disaster Prevention Research Institute (DPRI) and
International Consortium on Landslides developed
a series of the ring shear apparatuses (DPRI-1, 2, 3, Figure 4. Portable Ring Shear Apparatus (ICL-1)

B1-3
 The un-drained portable ring shear apparatus
(ICL-1), which is able to keep un-drained condition
up to 1 MPa of normal stress and pore-water
pressure was employed in this study. The apparatus
has three main components separately, including:
(1) Instrument box, (2) Monitoring box and (3)
Control box (as shown in Figure 4 from left to
right).
Testing procedures
Firstly, the landslide prone samples were
prepared to be fully saturated with de-aired water in
a vacuum tank. Next, the gap adjustment was
conducted by giving an initial contact pressure
from 0.8 kN to 1 kN between the upper pair of
rings and the rubber edges using the gap control.
The gap value was constant during the test to
maintain un-drain conditions and to prevent leakage
of water and sample during high-speed shearing.
After installing the shear box, the CO2 and de-
aired water circulation were executed to let all
bubbles of air come out from the shear box. Next,
water leakage and rubber edge friction tests were
also made for checking un-drained condition of all
tests before building saturated samples inside the
shear box. The degree of saturation was checked
indirectly by calculating the ratio (BD) of excess
pore-pressure increment and normal-stress
increment under un-drained condition, the term of
BD ratio was proposed by Sassa (1988). In this
study, un-drained tests were usually carried out
with BD > 0.95.
Landslide prone samples at the potential sliding
surface of the natural slopes were normally
consolidated before testing. The initial shear stress
and normal stress due to the weight of the soil mass
above the sliding surface was applied slowly to
reproduce an initial stress state same as field
conditions. Finally, ring shear simulation of
landslides was carried out by different modes of
shearing in corresponding to triggering condition of
landslide phenomena such as shear speed control
tests and cyclic loading control test. In this study,
the potable ring shear apparatus ICL-1 was applied
at 230 kPa of normal stress with an assumption of
15 m depth of potential sliding surfaces of
landslides.
RESULTS
Site investigation results
Features of weathered granite materials
The detailed site investigation found that the
study area homogeneous as most of it is covered by
B1-4
various materials of granite with diversified degrees
of weathering process. The granite rocky masses
with many cracks and joints in different direction
were observed visually (Figure 5-b). Granitic rocks
are fresh or very completely strong or less
weathering or partly weathering in different layers
and different directions (Figure 5-a, c and d).
Consequently, formed materials are very different
from its grain size, mineral composition, colors and
hardness grade. As for a completely weathering
degree, weathered granites were changed into
brown/yellow soil-like materials and white sand-
like materials. Other partly weathering degree,
material of granitic rocks is a mix of soil and stones
with different grain sizes. Such kind of materials is
a bit hard with red and grey colors mixing with a
speckled mineralogical composition in black color.
The more weathering materials are softer and finer
than others.
In Hai Van Mountain, warm and wet conditions
of the tropical climate strongly influence slope
materials involved in landslides, because the rapid
weathering processes under humid conditions
strongly weaken and deteriorate its regolith covers.
The degrees of weathering of granitic rocks in Hai
Van area are very different and show a large
diversity in depth, texture, landform, chemical-
mineral components, geological characteristics and
origin. Slope materials are mainly products of
weathered granites in poorly or unconsolidated
materials.
Landslide characteristics
The most common types of landslide in Hai
Van Mountain are earth slides, rock falls and debris
flows. In which, sliding types are characterized by a
complex form of rotational and/or translational
modes (Figure 6) . The movement of landslide
material may vary from abrupt collapses (as
presented at the outcrop No. 5) to slow gradual
slides (landslides on the slope behind the Hai Van
station). Shallow landslides were frequently
induced by rainfalls due to a loose and
unconsolidated material of slopes. These kind of
landslides are mainly populated a long national
highway while several large-scale and deep-seated
landslides are situated next to the railway station or
at the edge of steep mountains. A scale of
landslides is large-scale or small-scale one with
shallow or deep-seated sliding surfaces depending
on the thick of residual soil on slopes, weathering
degrees of granitic rocks and fracture zones. The
shallow landslides have a volume of 50 m3 to
500m3 with a depth of sliding surface about 2 m to
5 m. However, at least five deep-seated landslides
were found around Hai Van Station, which have a
volume ranging from several hundred thousand
200,000 m3 to several million m3 of material.
According to the site survey, the depths of potential
sliding surfaces of those large-scale landslides in
Hai Van Mountain are estimated to be about 10 m
up to 80 m in which the ratio of length and depth
often ranges from 8 to 20 empirically. Besides, the
investigation revealed that most of failures were
resulted from anthropic factors on artificially
modified slopes (such as cutting slopes or
excavation of road) and only several slides
occurred on natural slopes.

Weathering granite rocks: more degree (left) and less degree Weathering granite rocks: less degree (top) and more degree
(right) (bottom)

Strong weathered granite: Slightly clayed sand-like material Less weathered granite: Sand-like material and very soft

Figure 5. Features of weathered granitic materials

Rotational deep landslide Rotational slump/landslide

Transitional shallow landslide Transitional and rotational deep landslide

Figure 6. Type and description of investigated landslides

B1-5
 Since slope materials are formed from
weathered granite, landslide occurrences directly
relate to its weathering manner and grade. In this
regard, a majority number of landslides was
investigated in the less weathered granite areas than
its occurrence in the slopes of heavily weathered
granitic rocks. The reason is because of a very quite
difference between two kind of granites of which
the connectivity of strongly weathered materials is
much firm while less weathered materials are
isolated and easy to be loosened and eroded.
Obviously, kaolinite mineral in heavily weathered
materials is well connected to bind soil grains.
Laboratory test results
Geotechnical characteristics of soils
Testing on landslide prone samples was
performed in the laboratory to obtain basic
parameters by standard laboratory tests including
physical soil properties (Table 1) and grain-size
distribution (Figure 7).
Table 1. Properties of soil samples
Value
Parameters Haivan-1 Haivan-2
sample sample
Specific gravity, Gs (g/cm3) 2.67 2.64
Wet unit weight, γt (kN/m3) 20.15 17.65
Dry unit weight, γd (kN/m3) 16.32 12.82
Void ratio (e) 0.64 1.05
Permeable coefficient, k
5x10e-5 3x10e-4
(cm/sec)
Figure 7. Grain-size distribution of two samples
The grain size distribution curves show that
HV1 sample contains clay-like fine grains much
more than HV2 sample. Basically, HV1 sample is
silty sand or slightly clayed sand, while HV2
sample is a course grained sand. Both materials are
fine to coarse grained with fine gravels and mica
fragments.
B1-6
According to X-ray diffraction results on both
of HV1 and HV2 samples, the weathered granitic
soil materials mainly consist of quartz, feldspar,
clay materials and mica. Among them, HV1 sample
is rich in kaolinite mineral whereas HV2 sample is
rich in feldspar mineral.
Un-drained ring shear tests
Un-drained monotonic shear stress control tests
were carried out to explore landslide mechanism
and to observe the pore water pressure generation
as well as initiation of failure motion. Test results
showed that excess pore-water pressure generates
during shear displacement after the failure of HV2
sample, but there is not much pore-water pressure
increasing during shearing (Figure 8 and Figure 9).
The steady state shear resistance of HV1 sample is
93.2 kPa with the apparent friction angle on 22.1°
while HV2 sample obtains 5.9° of apparent friction
angle with 24.1 kPa of steady state shear resistance.
The peak friction angle of HV1 sample and HV2
sample are around 41.0° and 36.0° with 143.5 kPa
and 133.1 kPa maximum shear resistance,
respectively. Friction angle during motion of two
landslide samples at large displacement are about
38.0° for silty sand/slightly clayey soil and 33.5°
for sand.
DISCUSSION
Regarding test results presented above, failure
characteristics of two landslide prone samples are
greatly different in un-drained ring shear tests. By
comparison, sheared HV2 samples at sliding
surface are completely liquefied during shearing at
large displacement because of excess pore-water
pressure generation whereas the failure of HV1
sample is not seem to experience the sliding surface
liquefaction due to very less value of pore-water
pressure (Figure 10). For this reason, landslides of
HV1 sample could not move at a high velocity
while landslides of HV2 sample are characterized
by a rapid movement during shearing. The
difference of Hai Van landslide mechanism mainly
depends on such liquefaction behaviors in both
samples, which results from differences in the
nature of the weathered material under un-drained
condition. In this regards, HV1 sample shows
behavior of clayed soils or silty sand (dilative
behavior) while shear behavior of HV2 sample is
close to course sands (contraction behavior).
Therefore, HV1 sample is not prone to liquefaction
behavior at sliding surface because its material is
not susceptible to be crushed during shearing tests.
In contrast, HV2 sand sample is more susceptible to
 grain crushing and sliding liquefaction. As the while HV1 sample would not show a mobility
results, the mechanism of rapid motion of the behavior.
landslides only occurs in the tests of HV2 sample

Figure 8. Effective stress path (left) and time series (right) of shear stress control test for HV1 sample

Figure 9. Effective stress path (left) and time series (right) of shear stress control test for HV2 sample

comparison of vertical displacements as a reduction of

sample heights (Figure 12).

Figure 10. Photograph of the sample HV2 and HV1

after failure

The term of sliding surface liquefaction (Sassa,

1996 and 2000) mentions to the behavior of shearing
zone due to grain crushing of samples. Grains in the
shear zone are crushed during shearing and the soil
structure was subjected to volume reduction. A grain Figure 11. Grain-size distribution of two samples at
crushing leads to excess pore water pressure the sliding surface after shearing until 10m in
compared with two original samples
generation and a rapidly consequent reduction in
effective stress and shear.
In these tests, the evidence of grain crushing as
well as a volume reduction of samples occurred at
sliding surfaces is examined by a comparison of grain-
size distribution of two samples at the sliding surface
before and after shearing (Figure 11) and a

B1-7

Figure 12. The differences of volume change and
height of sliding zones in two samples
CONCLUSIONS
By the site investigation, this study has initially
tried to analyze characteristics of slope failures in Hai
Van Mountain. In the study area of weathered granitic
rocks, slope failures are mostly characterized by
rotational-transitional form or slump type with various
extents (shallow or large-scale deep-seated landslides).
Another type of landslides is debris flow which occurs
on the surface layer of weathering granitic rock
materials or a sedimentary layer.
The physically mechanism of the Hai Van station
landslides can be thoroughly interpreted through a
series of ring shear tests. The motion of those
landslides is dominated by mobility behavior of
weathered granitic materials consisting of the clayed
layer (HV1 sample) and the sand layer (HV2 sample).
As analyzed above, the difference in un-drained shear
behaviors of two samples HV1 and HV2 results in
differences of landslide characteristics in Hai Van
Mountain. Consequently, only the slightly weathered
granitic material is extremely susceptible to rapidly
moving landslide whereas the strongly weathered
granitic material is not apt to fail at a high speed. In
other words, the high mobility behavior of slope
failures is clearly manifested in HV2 sample while
that feature is seem not to find in HV1 sample.
Finally, it can be said that landslides occurring in
the area of weakly weathered granitic rocks in Hai
Van Mountain are the most dangerous ones to
operation safety of the railway. In a point of the view,
a general strategy for landslide disaster prevention and
mitigation should be taken infrastructure construction
of transport networks and land-use planning into
consideration in this area.
Ostric, M., Liutic, K., Krkac, M., Sassa, K., Bin, H.,
Takara, K., Yamashiki, Y. (2012): Portable Ring
Shear Apparatus and its application on Croatia
Landslides, Annuals of Disaster Prevention
Research Institute, Kyoto University, No. 55B, pp.
57-65.
Phuc, L.D. (2009): Granitoid Petrology of Hai Van
Massif. Science & Technology Development, Vol
12, No.05, pp. 46-54.
Sassa, K. (1996): Prediction of earthquake induced
landslides. Proceedings of 7th International
Symposium on Landslides. A.A. Balkema.
Trondheim, 17-21 June, vol 1, pp. 115-132.
Sassa, K. (2000): Mechanism of flows in granular
soils. Proceedings of GeoEng2000, Melbourne, vol
1, pp. 1671-1702.
Sassa, K., He, B., Dang, K., Nagai, O., Takara, K.
(2014): Plenary: Progress in Landslide Dynamics.
Landslide Science for a Safer Geo-environment
(Sassa, Canuti, Yin eds), Vol.1, pp.37-67.
Tam, D.M., Hanh, N.H, et al. (2008): Research on
Selection and Application Conditions of the New
Technologies for Landslide Risk Prevention along
National Highways. Research project in
transportation sector, Ministry of Transport, 2008,
396 pages (in Vietnamese).
Tam, D.M. (2005): Report on the causes of slope
failure at Hai Van station and a proposal of
countermeasures. Research project in
transportation sector, Ministry of Transport, May
2005, 18 pages (in Vietnamese).

REFERENCES
Bao, N.X, Luong, T.D, Trung, H. (1994): Explanatory
note to the geological map of Việt Nam on
1/500,000. Geological survey of Vietnam.

B1-8
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

PREDICTION OF TIME VARIATION OF SHEAR DEFORMATION BASED ON

THE MONITORING OF THE SHEAR STRAIN AND THE PORE
PRESSURE IN SANDY MODEL SLOPE UNDER RAINFALL

K. Sasahara 1

ABSTRACT: It is important to predict shear deformation of a slope due to rainfall infiltration to predict a time of
an onset of rainfall-induced landslides. Monitoring of deformation and soil-water in sandy model slope under
artificial rainfall were conducted to establish the prediction method for shear deformation of the slope due to
rainfall infiltration. Hyperbolic relationship between the shear strain and the pore pressure at the same depth
could be identified from the analysis of the monitored data. Time prediction method of the shear strain in the
slope was established based on the relation as follows. The regression analyses of the shear strain – the pore
pressure relationship at any time before the failure of the slope, and the time – the pore pressure relationship at
the same time were performed at first. Combining both equations produced the equation for the relationship
between the time and the shear strain. Derived equation can predict the time variation of shear strain in the slope.
Prediction of the shear strain with data until later time could simulate the measured time variation of the shear
strain better. Predicted shear strain at deeper layer fits the measured one better than at shallower layer.

Keywords: Rainfall-induced landslide, shear strain, pore pressure, prediction

INTRODUCTION A sediment-related disaster hazard area should be

designated by prefectural governors based on the
The landslide disaster gives much damage to
basic survey. It is defined as the area vulnerable to
human lives and properties all over the world. An
sediment-related disasters. A warning and
early warning system is an effective tool to
evacuation system should be established by
mitigate the damage caused by landslides.
municipal governors in the area according to the
Especially the establishment of an early warning
law. The monitoring of soil-water or deformation
system against rainfall-induced landslides might be
of a slope can be an effective tool for the system.
seriously needed in the south-east Asia region
Time-prediction methods based on the
because they have been suffered from many
monitoring of displacement of a slope have been
rainfall-induced landslides at rainy season.
proposed and been already in practice. The
Existing methods for the early warning against
formulae proposed by Saitou (1965) or Fukuzono
rainfall-induced landslides is divided into 2 kinds.
(1985) has been widely adopted to make time-
The first is a rainfall threshold which is for the time
prediction of an onset of a landslide based on the
prediction of landslides at an area. Typical
monitoring in a slope. They are based on the
threshold is the relationship between rainfall
empirical relationship between time and surface
intensity and a duration of rainfall such as Caine
displacement of a slope before failure expressed as
(1980). Properties of a specific slope such as
Figure 1. Although time-prediction could be
geometry and soil properties cannot be reflected to
successful based on the methods in some cases, it
the threshold. The latter is monitoring of soil-water
could not succeeded in other cases. The reason of
or deformation in a slope for a prediction of an
the unsuccessful cases was identified to be the
onset of landslide at a specific slope. Based on the
change of stress in the slope due to the change in
monitored data, the process of rainfall infiltration
the pore pressure according to rainfall infiltration
or deformation in a specific slope can be
or the change of geometry of a slope according to
interpreted (e.g. Bordoni et al, 2015).
cutting or filling works. The stress-strain
The sediment-related disaster prevention law
relationship should be necessary to explain the
(Uchida et al. 2009) was enacted at 2001 in Japan.

1
Professor, Kochi University, 783-8502, 200, Monobeotsu, Nangoku, Kochi, JAPAN

B2-1
deformation of a slope due to the change of stress
in the slope. Sasahara and Sakai (2014) found the
hyperbolic relationship between pore pressure and
shear strain and that between surface displacement
and groundwater level (hereafter G.W.L.) in a
sandy model slope according to the increase of
pore pressure due to rainfall infiltration. The fact
suggests that the combination of the shear strain to
the pore pressure or that of the surface
displacement to the G.W.L. in the slope might be
able to offer the stress-strain relation in the slope
for the prediction of an onset of rainfall-induced
landslide.
Monitoring of the shear strain and the pore
pressure in a sandy model slope under artificial
rainfall were implemented and the monitored data
was analyzed in order to establish a time-prediction
method of an onset of rainfall-induced landslide
based on the combination of the monitoring of the
shear strain and the pore pressure in the slope.
Figure 1. The relationship between the surface
displacement and the groundwater level a slope
before failure
Monitoring of the shear strain and the pore
pressure in a sandy model slope under artificial
rainfall were implemented and the monitored data
was analyzed in order to establish a time-prediction
method of an onset of rainfall-induced landslide
based on the combination of the monitoring of the
shear strain and the pore pressure in the slope.
METHODOLOGY
Experimental Apparatus
Figure 2 shows the longitudinal section of the
model slope and the arrangement of the monitoring
devices. Photo 1 shows an oblique view of the
model slope. The model is 300 cm in length, 150
cm in width, and 50 cm in depth in the
gravitational direction at the horizontal section; 600
cm in length, 150 cm in width, and 57.7 cm in
depth at the slope section with an inclination of 30
degrees in the steel flume. The model is composed
of granite soil (D50=1.3mm, UC=22.23,
B2-2
FC=13.2%). Maximum and minimum void ratio of
the soil are 0.947 and 0.619. Steel blades of 1 cm in
height were located at every 50 cm in the
longitudinal direction at the base of the flume to
prevent slip between the base of the flume and soil
mass. Lateral wall of the flume is made of glass to
be able to be observed. The inclination and the
thickness of the model slope are determined from
the typical geometry of the topsoil layer in Japan
(Osanai et al., 2009). The soil is compacted
horizontally by human stamping at every 20 cm to
construct the model slope. Undisturbed soil
samples were taken from the surface of the model
slope at every 50 cm, and the wet and dry unit
weights of the samples were measured. The
measurements reveals that the value of the void
ratio ranged from 0.652 to 0.678 and the water
content of the soil layer was 3.7~4.4 %. The base
and upper boundary of the flume were
impermeable while the lower boundary was
permeable. The shear strain in the slope was
measured by a shear strain gauge, which is a series
of tilt meters connected vertically at every 9.2 cm
in depth (Photo 2). The shear strain is defined at
the depth of the center of each tilt meter (4.6, 13.8,
23, 32.2, 41.4 and 50.6 cm). Tilt meters were
connected each other loosely with a bolt and a nut
such that the meters can incline only in the slope
inclination direction. The shear strain increment at
a depth Δγ is defined as tan(Δθ), while Δθ is the
inclination increment of the tilt meter (Figure 3).
The tilt meters used for the shear strain gauges has
a non-linearity of 0.2 degrees, which corresponds
to a value of 0.0035 for Δγ. Maximum inclination
to be measured by the tilt meter is 30 degrees
which corresponds to 0.57 of shear strain γ. The
G.W.L. on the base of the slope was measured by a
water level gauge with an accuracy of 1 cm H2O.
Experimenal conditions
To simulate the actual soil-water condition in a
natural slope which has experienced many rainfalls,
3 pre-rainfall events were conducted before the
main rainfall event. The pre-rainfall events had the
rainfall intensity of 15~30 mm/h and the duration
of 100~180 minutes. The main rainfall had the
intensity of 30 mm/h and continued until the onset
of the failure of the model slope. The duration of
the main rainfall is 240 minutes. The time interval
between each pre-rainfall was 3 days and the
interval between the last pre-rainfall and the main
rainfall was 9 days. Rainfall intensity was
determined based on the record of rainfall at
landslide disasters in Japan (Osanai et al. 2009).
The deformation was video-recorded from the
lateral side of the model slope, and no slip on the
base of the flume could be observed.
Figure 2. Experimental apparatus and arrangement
of measuring instruments
Photo 1. Model slope
Photo 2. Shear strain gauge
Figure 3. Definition of the shear strain
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Previous examination (Sasahara and Sakai,
2014) suggested that the increase of the pore
pressure in the slope generated shear deformation
in the slope. Now the relative pore pressure head
(hereafter R.P.P.H.) is defined to express the pore
pressure at a depth in the slope. Figure 4 shows the
definition of the R.P.P.H. at a depth in the slope.
The G.W.L. at 250 cm from the toe of the slope is
necessary to derive the R.P.P.H. at the location of
shear strain gauge. It is derived from the
interpolation from the G.W.L. at 150 cm and that at
300 cm from the toe of the slope. Figure 5 shows
the relationship between the shear strain and the
R.P.P.H. at different depth in the slope. The shear
strain at the depths of 4.6 cm and that at 13.8 cm
are out of the scope because they increase without
the generation of the pore pressure. The shear strain
at the all depths increases without the generation of
the R.P.P.H. at first and then increases with the
increase of the R.P.P.H. in the saturated condition.
In the saturated condition, the ratio of the shear
strain increment to the increment of the R.P.P.H.
becomes larger as the shear strain increases up to
the maximum R.P.P.H. and then the shear strain
increases significantly without the variation of the
R.P.P.H. The relationship between the shear strain
and the R.P.P.H. up to the maximum R.P.P.H. can
be modified by a hyperbolic relationship.
In addition, maximum R.P.P.H. is larger and
the shear strain under unsaturated condition is
smaller in deeper layer in the slope.
B2-3

Figure 4. Definition of the relative pore pressure
head (R.P.P.H.)
Figure 5. Relationship between the shear strain and
the relative pore pressure at 300 cm in the slope. γ:
shear strain
PREDICTION OF TIME VARIATIN OF THE
SHEAR STRAIN IN THE SLOPE
Basic idea
Procedure for the prediction of time variation of
the shear strain in the slope is proposed based on
the result as above. The relations between the shear
strain and the pore pressure and between the time
and the pore pressure are derived by the regression
analysis of the measured data at any time before the
failure of the slope. The formula for simulating the
relation between the time and the shear strain is
derived by combining those regression equations.
All the formulae can be derived depending
completely on the monitored data.
Data for the analysis
Time-series of the shear strain and the R.P.P.H.
measured at each depth of the center of the tilt
meter are used for the analysis. The G.W.L. is
necessary for deriving the R.P.P.H.. Because the
accuracy of the water level gauge in the experiment
is 1 cm H2O, data was picked up with 1 cm of the
difference of the R.P.P.H. at each depth. The data
less than the maximum R.P.P.H. were used for the
examination because hyperbolic function cannot fit
the data with decreasing R.P.P.H. which
B2-4
correspond to strain softening process after
maximum R.P.P.H. (Figure 6).
Figure 6. Data for the analysis at each depth of the
slope. Colored symbols are used for the analysis;
hollow symbols are out of the target of the analysis
Procedure of the prediction and the results
Regression analysis of the shear strain ~ the
R.P.P.H.
The procedure and the result of the analysis for
the depth of 41.4 cm are explained as an example
as below.
The relation between the shear strain and the
R.P.P.H. at a time before the failure of the slope is
derived by non-linear regression analysis of the
data until the time. The hyperbolic function as
below is adopted for the relation between the shear
strain and the R.P.P.H.
1 Pmax  P
 (1)
Gsur . Pmax  P
γ and P indicate the shear strain and the R.P.P.H.
respectively. Gsur and Pmax are experimental
constants. Non-linear regression analysis was
conducted by Kaleida Graph ver.4.1.1 (Synergy
Software) which derives an optimal constants for
equation (1) by the Levenberg-Marquardt method.
Figure 7 shows the example of the data series
of the shear strain and the R.P.P.H. until γ/γmax =
0.28 as in the left figure; the result of non-linear
regression analysis is shown in the right figure. It is
recognized that regression curve can fit the
measured data well even though the regression was
conducted only with the data at early stage of the
experiment. Here γ is the shear strain, while γmax is
the shear strain at a failure of the slope. Thus γ/γmax
indicates relative shear strain until the failure.
Figure 8 shows the regression curve for the
relations between the shear strain and the R.P.P.H.
derived with the data series until different γ/γmax at
the depth of 41.4 cm. Although the curves with the
data until γ/γmax = 0.09 and 0.22 show the higher
and lower R.P.P.H. than the measured data, the
curves with the data until larger γ/γmax simulate the
measured data relatively well. It shows that the
regression curves with the data even at early stage
can simulate the measured data well.
Figure 7. Example of regression analysis for the
relationship between the shear strain and R.P.P.H..
Depth:41.4 cm. γ/γmax: 0.28 . Colored symbols were
used for the analysis; hollow symbols were not
used
Figure 8. Results of regression analyses for the
relationship between the shear strain and R.P.P.H.
with data until different γ/γmax. Depth: 41.4 cm.
Regression analysis of the time ~ the R.P.P.H.
Regression analysis are implemented to derive
the relation between the time and the R.P.P.H. with
the data until a time before the failure. The relative
time ‘T’’, the elapsed time from the generation of
pore pressure, are used instead of the time. Power
law as below is adopted for the analysis because it
can simulates the measured data well.
P  a1  T ' a2 (2)
Here a1 and a2 are experimental constants derived
by the regression analysis. Figure 9 shows the
regression curves derived with the data until
different γ/γmax in comparison with the measured
data. The regression curves with the data until
more than γ/γmax = 0.22 show small differences and
can simulates the measured relationship well.
Figure 9. Results of the regression analyses for the
relationship between the relative time ‘T’’ and the
R.P.P.H. with data until different γ/γmax. Depth:
41.4 cm. T’: Time from the moment when R.P.P.H.
generated (12,270 seconds).
Prediction of the time ~ the shear strain
Equation for the prediction of the time – the
shear strain at a time before the failure is derived
by incorporating regression equation (2) derived by
regression analysis with the data until the same
data into regression equation (1) as below.
1 Pmax  a1  T ' a2
  (3)
G sur . Pmax  a1  T ' a2
Figure 10 shows the curves for equation (3) derived
from the data until different γ/γmax. The shear strain
with the data until γ/γmax = 0.09 shows slight
increase with time and locates far below the
measured data. The shear strain with the data until
less than 0.38 also locates below the measured data
while the shear strain with the data until more than
0.38 simulates the measured data relatively well.
Figure 10. Comparison of the relationships
between the time and the shear strain with data
until different γ/γmax. Depth: 41.4 cm.
Comparison of the results of other depth
Time variations of the shear strain at other
depth are also derived in the same way. Figure 11
shows the error between the regression curves
between the time and the shear strain and the
measured relationship for different depth. Root
B2-5
mean square of the difference (hereafter RMSE)
between the simulated shear strain and the
measured shear strain for the same γ/γmax at the
same depth are shown as the error in the figure.
RMSE at 23 cm and 32.2 cm decreases at larger
γ/γmax while that at 41.4 cm are almost same
without that at γ/γmax = 0.09. RMSE with γ/γmax
more than 0.7 at any depth is around 0.04. The
shear strain can be simulated better with the data
until larger γ/γmax., especially if γ/γmax more than
0.7. RMSE at shallower layer are larger than that at
deeper layer at the region of γ/γmax less than 0.7. It
means the shear strain at deeper layer can be
simulated well by proposed method.
Figure 11. Comparison of the relationship between
γ/γmax and RMSE between the predicted time series
of the shear strain and the measured one at different
depth. RMSE: Root mean square of the error.
CONCLUSION
Mechanism of shear deformation in sandy
model slope were examined based on the
monitored data on shear deformation and rainfall
infiltration in the sandy model slope in this
research. And prediction procedure of time
variation of the shear strain in the slope were
proposed. Conclusions are listed as follows.
1) The shear strain increment to the increase of
the pore pressure is smaller at first and then it
grew larger with the increase of the shear
strain. The relationship between the shear
strain and the pore pressure can be modified
by hyperbolic function.
2) Procedure for the prediction of time variation
of the shear strain in the slope is proposed as
follows. The relations between the shear
strain and the pore pressure is derived by
regression analysis of the measured data at
any time before the failure of the slope using
hyperbolic function. Regression equation for
the relationship between the time and the pore
pressure are derived in the same way without
a function used for the analysis. The formula
for simulating the relation between the time
B2-6
and the shear strain is derived by combining
those regression equations. These procedure
can be implemented completely based on the
monitored data.
3) Regression equations for the relationship
between the shear strain and the pore pressure
and for the relationship between the time and
the pore pressure could be simulated better at
deeper layer than at shallower layer. As a
result, procedure as above could simulate
actual time variation of the shear strain in the
slope better at deeper layer than at shallower
layer. The simulation of the relation between
the time and the shear strain could fit better to
the measured relationship with the data until
the time closer to the failure of the slope.
REFERENCES
Bordoni, M. et al (2015). Hydrological factors
affecting rainfall-induced shallow landslides:
From the field monitoring to a simplified slope
stability analysis. Engineering Geology 193:19-
37.
Caine, N. (1980). The rainfall intensity-duration
control of shallow landslides and debris flows.
Geografiska Annalar. Series A. Physical
Geography 62: 23-27.
Fukuzono, T. (1985). A New Method for
Predicting the Failure Time of a Slope. Proc.
IVth Intern. Conf. and Field Workshop on
Landslides, Tokyo, Japan: 145-150.
Osanai, N., Tomita, Y., Akiyama, K. and
Matsushita, T. (2009). Reality of cliff failure
disaster, TECHNICAL NOTE of National
Institute for Land and Infrastructure
Management No.530:69-74. (in Japanese).
Saito, M. (1965). Forecasting the Time of
Occurrence of a Slope Failure. Proc. 6th Intern.
Conf. on Soil Mech. and Foundation Eng.
Montreal, Canada 2: 537-541.
Sasahara, K. and Sakai, N. (2014). Development of
shear deformation due to the increase of pore
pressure in a sandy model slope during rainfall.
Engineering Geology 170: 43-51.
UCHIDA, T. et al (2009). Countermeasures for
Sediment-related Disasters in Japan using
Hazard Maps. International Journal of Erosion
Control Engineering 2(2): 46–53.
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

STUDY OF CUT-SLOPE STABILITY ON QUATERNARY VOLCANIC DEPOSITS

CASE STUDY: TRANS JAVA TOLL ROAD, EAST JAVA

Kwari D Pelupessy 1 and Felicia Sutomo 2

ABSTRACT: The term of “Ring of Fire” showed that almost all of Indonesia regions are located in the
constellation volcanic eruptions, which indirectly the result of eruptions and will dominate the formation of local
soil types in particular volcanoes locations. It is interesting to observe that the most of geotechnical design in
some areas dealing directly with the type of soil which is composed of volcanic eruptions layer such as
tuffaceous, breccia, lava and basalt. Case study is in East Java. The construction planning of Trans Java toll road
will pass Notopuro Formation, Argokalangan Morphocet Formation and Alluvium, which are in geologically
types of soil constituent of volcanic eruptions results. This paper sets out to present the summary of cut-slope
stability analysis in quaternary volcanic deposits area with undrained and drained condition. The review results
are expected to provide information regarding the behavior of landslide mechanism and the optimization of slope
inclination for soil types which are consist of quaternary volcanic deposits.

Keywords: Eruption, Quaternary Volcanic, Deposits, Slope failure, Ground water, Limit equilibrium

INTRODUCTION A Strombolian eruption is similar with

In terms of geotechnical aspects, general
knowledge of source rock is very important, due to
rock formation factor, rock weathering into soil,
and other geologic process. All of the mentioned
factors would give great effects to soil formation
and soil behavior. The behavior of volcanic
deposits will be different with soil behavior from
non-volcanic activities.
The case study in this paper is in East Java toll
road. There are cut-slope areas in this toll road
location, which is relatively deep as consequence of
proposed toll road alignment.
The purpose is to give references of cut-slope
modelling and landslide behavior in quaternary
volcanic deposits.
VOLCANIC PROCESSES
Volcanism is eruption process of magma flow
to the surface through cracks or conduit pipe of
volcanoes. There are common types of eruption
such as : Hawaiian, Strombolian, Vulcanian,
Merapi (Peléan), and Plinian.
A Hawaiian eruption is a type of volcanic
eruption where molten lava flows simultaneously
with lava from basaltic magma or basalt.
Hawaiian type, but it is only occurred on active
volcanoes around continent’s edge or continent’s
center.
Vulcanian type is generally violent and the
magma compositions are basaltic andesite to dacite,
and pyroclastic material.
Merapi type is similar with Peléan type, wherein
the eruption consists of gas, ash, and pyroclastic
material, rhyolite material, dacite, and andesite lava.
Plinian eruption is a very explosive volcanic
eruption from high viscosity magma or acid magma.
The magma compositions are andesitic to rhyolitic.
The regions affected by this eruption are subjected
to heavy pumice.
The distribution of volcanic rock which is in
high explosive category has the distribution area up
to 45 km. In normally, if there is no geology
deformation during deposit process hence volcanic
material is deposited horizontally and following the
existing soil surface morphology.
Based on geology information, case study
location is supposed to be area of volcanic activity,
due to the existence of andesite lava, and tuff which
is type of pyroclastic rocks volcanic eruption
(Figure 1).

1
Kwari Pelupessy S.T., M.T., Mott MacDonald Indonesia, kwari.pelupessy@mottmac.co.id, INDONESIA
2
Felicia Sutomo S.T., Mott MacDonald Indonesia, felicia_sutomo@yahoo.com, INDONESIA

B3-1

Figure 1. Vulcanian eruption type
CASE STUDY
Project Description
East Java toll road section will provide
connection between Central Java and East Java
province.
The proposed construction of toll road is 50 km,
wherein 70% of toll road length is generally in
paddy field area. Meanwhile, 30% of toll road area
is low to medium steep hills in Perhutani area,
shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Horizontal alignment layout toll road
In order to accommodate the number of vehicles
in 30 years, toll road is designed with 2-way 4-lane.
The minimum gradient is 0.3% and the maximum
gradient is 2%.
Geology Formation
Design of toll road alignment will cross several
types of rock formation, such as: Lawu deposit,
Alluvium deposit, Notopuro formation, and
Argokalangan Morphocet.
Based on those formation distribution, the soil
parameter design in geotechnical modeling will be
B3-2
classified into several types. They are adjusted from
geology formation, see Figure 3.
Figure 3. Superimposed toll road alignment in
Geological Base Map Layout
Cut-slope in East Java toll road is located in
Notopuro formation and Argokalangan Morphocet
area. Those two formations have morphology of
low and medium steep hills. The type of rock
composition consists of tuff rock, breccia, andesite
lava. The mineral compositions consist of feldspar,
quartz, and dark minerals (probably pyroxene).
Based on stratigraphy of rock layer, the
estimated age of Notopuro and Argokalangan
Morphocet formation is about 1.6 million years ago
on Middle Pleistocene Quaternary.
Refer to age of geology formation, it is very
possible that the form of source rock have changed
significantly due to deposit processes.
Geotechnical Descriptions
In general, the borelogs description along the
cut-slope area indicated soil layers of volcanic rock
deposits. The degree of weathering rock processes
parallel with soil layer depth, shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4. Outcrop at cutting area site
In accordance to borelogs result, the ground
water level in cut-slope section is unidentified. As
for cone penetration test data, the results show
 shallow penetration, with estimated depth from Cut Slope Design
existing surface is 3m to 5m.
Due to limited borrow material volume for
Resume of in situ testing result along cut-slope
embankment therefore material from cutting area
area is described in Figure 5.
will be used. Hence the slope inclination designed
to 1V:2H. For depth of cut-slope greater than 6m,
NSPT qc
[blows/30cm] [kg/cm2]
2m width of benching should be applied.
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 50 100 150 200
Estimated total length of cut-slope area in
0 0
proposed design is 11.8 km (see Figure 6). Depth of
cut-slope varies with maximum depth is up to 19 m.
5 5

10 10
D E PTH [m ]

D E PTH [m ]

15 15

20 20

25 25
Figure 6. Cutting area section in East Java toll road

30
Figure 5. Resume of N-SPT vs Qc in cut-slope area
Generally the borelogs result show N-SPT
values vary from ground surface to 4m depth
consist of firm to very stiff soils with range of N-
SPT vary from 4 to greater than 50. Meanwhile,
range of N-SPT values vary from 20 to greater than
60, in 4m depth to 25m depth of sandy soil layer.
Cone penetration tests result show that the
average cone tip resistance have met the value of
100 kg/cm2.
Basically, soil parameter design in geotechnical
modeling is obtained from the correlation of soil
laboratory data and empirical data result. As
mentioned in earlier part, soil parameter design is
classified based on geology formation. Parameter
design of cut-slope area is presented in Table 1
below.
Failure Model
30
Design analyses in cut-slope area refer to
FHWA code and will be subject to factors of safety
1.5 for short term (undrained) and 1.4 for long term
(drained). The analyses are performed to evaluate
slope stability at the end of the construction stage,
in short term analysis (undrained condition) and
long term analysis (drained condition). Slope/W
version 2012 is used to analyze the slope stability
design.
In Slope/W software analysis, slip surface is
determined by Entry and Exit option. The analyses
which have been used are Morgenstern Price or
Half – Sine type function.
A set of slip surface result is critical analysis
data result from each station in cut-slope area, see
Figure 7 and Figure 8.

Table 1. General Soil Parameter.

 Su c' '
Soil Type
(kN/m ) 3
(kN/m ) 2
(kN/m ) 2
(deg)
Firm to v.stiff 17.5 36-128 6-22 23-30
Medium Dense Sand 18 - - 32
Dense Sand 18 - - 40 Figure 7. Slip surface Cut slope 1V:2H – Undrained
Very Dense Sand 18.5 - - 47
Slope stability analysis in short term analysis
(undrained condition) show that the thickness of

B3-3
slip surface is approximately 9.8m, with range of
safety factor are from 3.1 to 6.2 (see Figure 7).
Meanwhile, the slip surface of long term
analysis (drained condition) show that the range of
safety factor are from 2.7 to 3.5, with thickness of
slip surface is approximately 4.3m, see Figure 8.
Figure 8. Slip surface Cut slope 1V:2H – Drained
DISCUSSION
Evaluation of analysis design shows that the
cut-slope area have inclination of 1V:2H. The
thickness of slip surface is relatively shallow for
drained analysis. As for undrained analysis, the slip
surface thickness is greater than drained analysis
result.
For further discussion regarding the slip surface
pattern in cut-slope area, the slope inclination is
changed from 1V:2H to 1V:1H. Based on the result
of slope stability analyses on 1V:1H. The slip
failure show similar result with slip failure on
1V:2H.
In short term analysis (undrained condition), the
thickness of slip surface is approximately 9m, with
range of safety factor are from 2 to 6 (see Figure 9).
Meanwhile, the slip surface of long term
analysis (drained condition) show that the range of
safety factor are from 1.6 to 2.6, with thickness of
slip surface is approximately 5.3 m, see Figure 10.
Figure 9. Slip surface Cut slope 1V:1H – Undrained
B3-4
Figure 10. Slip surface Cut slope 1V:1H – Drained
From the slope stability analysis above, slip
failure in quaternary volcanic deposits have the
shallow thickness for drained condition and
medium thickness for undrained condition.
CONCLUSION
Soil investigation result in cut-slope area show
that the quaternary volcanic deposits have a high
density with N-SPT values are greater than 20 and
the range of cone tip resistance are from 50 to 120
kg/cm2.
Refer to cut-slope failure which have been
described earlier, the slip surface characteristic of
quaternary volcanic deposits are relatively shallow
in long term analysis (drained condition) and
deeper in short term analysis (undrained condition).
Based on slope stability analyses above shows
factor of safety in cut-slope area are fairly high in
long term and short term condition compare to
factor of safety design criteria, the slope inclination
can be designed steeper up to 1V:1H.
REFERENCES
Abramson et. all. 1996. Slope stability and
Stabilization Method. John Wiley & Sons.
Datun, M., Sukandarrumidi, Hermanto, B.,
Suwarna, N. (1992). Geological Map of The
Ngawi Quadrangle, Jawa . Geological Center
and Development.
Duncan, J., M., and Wright, Stephen., G. (2005).
Soil Strength and Slope Stability. John Wiley &
Sons.
Edil, T., B. (1982). Seepage, Slopes, and
Embankment
FHWA New Jersey Standard. 2005-002.
Geo-Slope International. 2012. Stability Modeling
with Slope/W. Canada.
Hartono, U., Baharuddin., Brata, K. (1992).
Geological Map of The Madiun Quadrangle,
Jawa . Geological Center and Development.
http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/publikasi/booklet_gunun
gapi/bookletgunungapi.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Types_of_volcanic_er
uptions
Hunt, R., E. (2007). Characteristics of Geologic
Materials and Formations. A Field Guide for
Geotechnical Engineers. Taylor & Francis
Group.
Kawamura, S., Miura, S. (2013). Stability
Evaluations of Volcanic Slopes With Crushable
Particles Subjected to Freezing and Thawing.
Mott MacDonald., (2014) Basis of Design
Geotechnical. Indonesia.
Mott MacDonald., (2014) Geotechnical
Interpretative Report. Indonesia.
Pringgoprawiro, H., Sukido. (1992). Geological
Map of The Bojonegoro Quadrangle, Jawa .
Geological Center and Development.
Vallejo, L., G.,Hijazo, T.,Ferrer, M. (2008).
Engineering Geological Properties of The
Volcanic Rocks and Soils of The Canary Islands.
Wesley, L., D. (2010). Geotechnical Engineering in
Residual Soils. John Wiley & Sons.

B3-5
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

PHENOMENA OF EXPANSIVE SOIL SOFTENING AS A TRIGGER TO

LANDSLIDE OF CUT SLOPE

P. C. Tamsir 1 and P. P, Rahardjo 2

ABSTRACT : Indonesia is a tropical country which has a fairly high rainfall intensity in some areas especially in
West Java. A toll-road project in West Java has to go through very large areas containing about 40 km of
expansive soil creating problem during and after construction. Expansive soil contained montmorillonite mineral
which is very sensitive due to water content fluctuation. This will cause expansive soil to swell and shrink.
Naturally, Na-montmorillonite mineral will absorb water causing soil to expand and losing its shear strength.
The value of the swelling and shrinking on expansive soil is highly dependent on the expansive soil degree of
activity.
Problems will arise if the expansive soil exposed without surface treatment neither proper drainage system.
During exposure, the soil becomes soft due to increasing water content which can trigger landslides. This is an
issue that must be solved in order not to disturb the operation of the highway and slope at expansive soil area.
This paper discusses the identification of expansive soil characteristics, the mechanism of slope failure and slope
treatment on expansive soil. The research is on going through visual occurrence and laboratory tests. The results
of laboratory tests show that the strength of expansive soil drops significantly by the increase of the water
content or liquidity index of the soil. The treatment that suitable for cut slope is by covering the surface and
avoid any ground water migration to the expansive soils, which has been applied and proved to be effective.

Keyword : Expansive soil, swelling, shear strength, slope treatment, landslide

INTRODUCTION variation on swelling pressure and volume changes

A toll-road project of 116 km long was
constructed on very large areas containing about 40
km expansive soil in West Java, Indonesia.
Indonesia is a tropical country with high rainfall
intensity. West Java alone has an average rainfall of
2,000 mm per year with an average temperature of
34º Celsius (BMKG). This climate conditions have
a very significant influence on the swelling and
shrinkage behaviour of expansive soil.
Expansive soil is widely distributed in Java
Island, and it is very harmful to the engineering
infrastructure for its special characteristic,
related the moisture content.
Moisture content plays a particularly important
role in the case of expansive clays.
Geotechnical problems arise during the
construction of the toll road in West Java area, a
few cut slopes in the area have failed during rainy
seasons. This failure was due to expansive clay
exposure that leads to moisture content changes.
Changes of the moisture content will cause
value that may lead to changes in the strength also.
The slopes will immediately swells rapidly and
loses strength, its surface cracks into pieces that
leads to shallow failures.
This paper describes the geological settings in
West Java Toll-road slope areas, where the slopes
to be cut, the mechanism of softening of expansive
soils causing several damages and expansive slope
treatment after the excavation.
GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY OF WEST
JAVA
The geography of West Java consist of lowland
in the north part and quartenary volcanoes in the
south. Between the two zones, the transition zone is
located between both areas. Figure 1 shows the
geography of West Java. The project location is in
the transition zone (van Bemmellen, 1949).
Distribution the soil can be classified as very clayey
gravelly SAND as shown in Figure 1.

1
Graduate Student, Universitas Katolik Parahyangan, Bandung – Indonesia
2
Professor of Geotechnical Engineering, Universitas Katolik Parahyangan, Bandung-

B4-1

Figure 1. Geography Zones of West Java
(van Bemmellen, 1949)
Based on geological report of West Java (N.
Ratman & S. Gafoer, 1998), the lithology of West
Java consists of four zones: Northern Java Zone,
Bogor Zone, Central Volcanic Zone and Southern
Mountain. By comparing the geological map and
the longitudinal alignment, most of the this toll road
area is located at Northern Java Zone and some
areas in the central volcanic zone and Kaliwangun
Formation.
The Northern Java zone consists of few
formation with a range of geological age from old
to recent, i.e., plio- Pleistocene sedimentary rock
Figure 2. West Java Geology map
SLOPE AND SITE CONDITION
This project is a toll road of 116 km long, and
during construction there were many areas that
must be excavated and backfilled. Some areas are
excavated areas at expansive soil with varying
depth from 1 to 15 m. Soil investigation had
already been carried out throughout the project
areas, including site investigation and laboratory
testing. From this soil investigation, it was known
that there are many slope characteristics on
expansive soil condition. In some areas, at the top is
a porous lateritic red clay having NSPT values from
B4-2
(QTs), Pleistocene sediments (Qps), Holocene
carbonates rock (Qt), river and coastal sediments
(Qa). While those of Central Volcanic Zone, the
geological formation consist of lake deposit (Qd),
Holocene intrusive rock (Qi), Holocene igneous
rock (Qv), Pleistocene igneous rock (Qpv), plio-
Pleistocene rock (Qtv) and Neogene volcanic (Tnv).
And the areas where the expansive soil was
found has indicated to have tertiary layers
underneath. The tertiary layer suspected as the late
miocene sediments, which been presumed as the
expansive soil layer. The late miocene sediments as
a tertiary sediments is consists of glauconite
sandstone, marl, breccia,claystone with nodules
concretions of hard limestone, shale and
conglomerate,includes Cantayan Fm. In the Cianjur
Quadrangle; andesite sandstone and claystone of
Subang Fm.,and glauconite sandstone of
Nyalindung Fm. And on top of the teritiary
sediments, there are the Quaternary Pleistocene
sediments which consist of tuffaceous and
conglomeratic sandstone, tuff and conglomeratic
tuff.
Expansive area found
3 to 9 blows per 30 cm. The porous nature of this
clay results from leaching of soluble components
(salt and precipitation) a few meters below, which
causes laterization. This porous clay overlays
medium to stiff silty sand, which in turn overlays
greyish clay (Figure 3). Some other areas consist of
brownish grey clay or yellowish silty clay all over
the slope. When exposed, the brownish grey clay
showed signs of slaking and immediately getting
very soft after rain (Figure 3).
Figure 3 shows soil typical layering where
expansive soils are found below lateritic soils.
 Figure 3. Soil Profile and Example of Slope Failures

MECHANISM OF SLOPE FAILURES AND test, Consolidated undrained (CU) Triaxial Test,
TREATMENT Swelling test and Oedometer Test.
Figure 4 shows the results of water content and
From the visual site visit, it is understood that
plasticity of the soil. Index test results average
the slopes failed sometimes after the expansive soil
value are summarized in Table 1 which have clay
layers and exposed once it is in touch with air and
content between 54% to 60%, water content
water. The soils absorbed water and swell. The
between 34% and 47%, Liquid limit average value
following days, upon swelling, the soil soften and
between 77 to 85 and average Plastic Limit
loose majority of strength. Meilani (1999) reported
between 34 to 44 and Plastic Index around 42.
that the decrease in shear strength of expansive
soils in West Java could drop as low as 10% of its Liquid Limit vs Depth Liquid Limit Plastic Limit vs Depth Plastic Limit
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150
original strength once it is exposed in water. 0 0

2 2

SOIL INVESTIGATION 4 4

6 6
Soil investigation for this project was conducted
8
Depth (m)

8
Depth (m)

in all areas. Types of tests performed on the project

10 10
are deep boring with SPT, laboratory tests on
12 12
undisturbed samples , and CPTu. Deep boring
14
14
result showed an average NSPT value for clay in 16
16 Reddish Brown
Reddish Brown
range of 20 to 30. During excavation, initially Greyish Brown
18
Greyish Brown
18
expansive soil was not detected because it burried
Plasticity Index vs Depth Plasticity Index
Water Content vs Depth Water Content (%)
under the upper layer (lateritic reddish clay and 0
0 50 100 150
0
0 50 100 150

silty sand), but after the excavation and some 2 2

laboratory test results came out, geotechnical 4 4

consultant on this project suspected any existence 6 6

of expansive soil under all the layered soil. It was 8 8

Depth (m)

Depth (m)

found that some areas have expansive soil 10 10

properties, while others are not. And to determine 12 12

the expansive areas, the swelling test were 14 14

conducted along the project site and discovered the 16 16

Reddish Brown Reddish Brown

possibility of expansive soil area 40 km long. Not 18

Greyish Brown
18
Greyish Brown

all the data are presented in this paper; only those Figure 4. Index Properties Results
from STA 130+000 to STA 171+100.
Table 1. Atterberg Limits
Laboratory Tests Clay %<2µm w (%) LL (ave) PL (ave) PI
Reddish Brown 60 47 85 44 41
Laboratory tests that were conducted included Greyish 54 34 77 34 43
index tests, unconsolidated undrained (UU) Triaxial

B4-3
 Unconsolidated Undrained Triaxial test were
carried out on the specimens. The results are shown
in Figure 5 shown the stress path that was
developed using coordinat ;t as the shear strength at
failure; s is the coressponding mean total stress.
Coordinate s and t axis formula used to plot the
data are defined as equation below.
1   3  3
s ; t 1 (1)
2 2
Triaxial UU tests on Reddish Brown clay give
very low cohesion value (near zero) with friction
angle 26°. Test on Greyish clay showed two
different values, first group has greater cohesion
value (80 kPa) and friction angle 26°, the other
group have lower value, cohesion value is around 2
kPa with friction angle 12.5°. The lower value has
higher water content.
This condition is interpreted as the first group
which is closer to its original condition and the
second group shows degradation of soil strength
due to increase of water content. The sample might
have been obtained in the active zone of the clay
layer.
Triaxial UU Reddish Brown Clay
600
500 STA 130+000
STA 133+820
400
STA 133+820
300 STA 134+970
t
condition, meanwhile for Greyish clay the cohesion
number is increased by the depth of boring. Triaxial
test results show a very low cu value,and large φu.
It has to be noted that in reality the soil is not
saturated.
Table 2. Triaxial Test Results
Clay
UU CU
Cu (kPa) φu° C' (kPa) φ'°
Reddish 0 26 9 29
Greyish Brown 2 12.5 22 10
CONE PENETRATION TESTING (CPTu)
The authors believe that the most reliable data
should be obtained from an undisturbed sample,
however some laboratory tests sample would be
disrupted due to sampling process, handling, testing
method and many other factors are not handled
with care. Therefore, insitu soil investigation
method has been used and analyzed to acquire
shear strength parameters for clay layers.
CPTu gives the following indexes ; cone
resitance qc, sleeve resistance fs and pore pressure
u. Some studies has been conducted a series of
correlation to obtain friction ratio FR, pore pressure
ratio Bq, horizontal stress coefficient Ko, undrained
shear strength parameter Su and Overconsolidation
ratio value. At this point, it is important to point
out that the actual soil condition are influenced by
geology factor. Hence the interpretation of OCR as

200
STA 134+970 the stress history may not be correct. It is
STA 134+970 interesting to find out that the ‘OCR’ values of the
100 STA 149+675
soils show very high ‘OCR’, however this does not
0
reflect stress history.
0 200 400 600 800
s Undrained shear strength parameter can be
Triaxial UU Grey STA 130+000
STA 133+820
estimated from CPTu results. There are two main
600
STA 133+850 approaches of interpretatioN, based on theoritical
500 STA 133+850 solution and other based on empirical correlations.
STA 138+550
400 And the empirical correlation was otabined using
STA 149+675
300 STA 158+900 this following equation :
t

STA 160+825
200 STA 160+825 qC   V
STA 161+250 su  (2)
100
STA 161+250 NK
STA 171+100
0
STA 171+100
0 200 400
s
600 800
STA 171+100
Nk is an empirical cone factor, some studies
from ESOPT (1974 and 1982), ISOPT (1988)
Figure 5. Triaxial UU Results
showed that Nk factor are resulting from 15-20. For
this case the Nk value that used is 15.
Consolidated undrained (CU) Triaxial test were
Figure 6 and Figure 7 show the results of CPTu
only conducted in one areas for reddish brown soil,
tests. The interpreted OCR is very high, specially in
soil depth tested was 5 m below the ground and 5
laboratory results.
areas for Greyish Clay with varies depth. Strength
Based on CPTu-01 result, the soil type can be
parameter results from triaxial test consolidated
classified into three layers, 1.5 m clay, thick silty
undrained. Cohesion obtain from Triaxial CU Test
sand layer (around 5 m) and clay layer until the end
for reddish brown is 7 kPa and 9 kPa for effective
of testing. CPTu-02 in the other hand showed a

B4-4
very thick clay layer until the end of testing around and Ko results gives an indication of stress history
7.5 m depth. CPTu data interpretation showed an of this soil. The results shown highly
extremely stiff Su (undrained shear strength) value overconsolidated soil with a strongly OC on the top.
around 250 – 300 KPa (Muni Budhu, 2000). However this is not correct as explained in the
Meanwhile the pore pressure values obtained are previous section.
very low (near to zero) in both test results. OCR

Soil Behaviour Type Cone resistance,qc(MPa) Sleeve resistance,fs(MPa) Friction

Pore ratio,FR(%)
pressure,u 2(MPa) Friction ratio,FR(%) Pore pressure ratio,Bq
after Robertson,1986 OCR (Chen SuOCR
(kPa)(Camp anella et
OCR (Chen&
& Mayne, 1996) Ko Ko
(Kulh awy && Mayne, 1990)
(Kulhawy (Ch
OCR en &
(Chen & Mayne, 1996)
Mayne, 1996) Mayn e, 1990) Maynal,
e, 1982)
1996)
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 2
-0.5 40 6 80.510 12 1 0
0 225 4 506 8 1010012
75 -10 -0.5
10 20 0 30 0.5
40 1
50 0
0 100
25 20050
300 75
400 500
100
0 0 0 00 00 00 0
0
(3) Clays

1 1 1 11 11 11 1
1
<- Depth in m to reference level

(11) V.Stiff fine grained*

2 2 2 22 22 22 2
2
(3) Clays
(11) V.Stiff fine grained*

3 3 3 33 33 33 3
3

(11) V.Stiff fine grained*

4 4 4 44 44 44 4
4

(11) V.Stiff fine grained*

Depth(m)
5 5 5 55 55 55 5
5

6 (11) V.Stiff fine grained*

6 6 66 66 66 6
6

(3) Clays
7 7 7 77 77 77 7
7

(3) Clays

8 8 8 88 88 88 8
8

9 (3) Clays 9 9 99 99 99 9
9
(6) Sandy silt to clayey silt

Figure 6. CPTu -01 Results

Soil Behaviour Type Cone resistance,qc(MPa) Sleeve resistance,fs(MPa) Friction
Pore ratio,FR(%)
pressure,u 2(MPa) Friction ratio,FR(%) Pore pressure ratio,Bq
after Robertson,1986 OCR (Chen & Mayne, 1996) Ko (Kulhawy & Mayne, 1990) SuOCR
(kPa)(Camp anella
(Chen & Mayne, et
1996) Ko (Kulhawy & Mayne, 1990)
OCR (Ch en & Ko (Kulh awy & OCR (Ch en
al, &
1982) Ko (Kulh awy &
Mayn e, 1996) Mayn e, 1990) Mayn e, 1996) Mayn e, 1990)
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 2
-0.5 40 6 80.5
10 12 1 00 225 4 6
50
8
75
1010012 -10 -0.520 030 0.5 1 00 25 200
50 300
75400100
10 40 50 100 500 0 10 20 30 40 50
0 0 0 00 00 00 00 0
(2) Organic soils-peats

1 1 1 11 11 11 11 1
<- Depth in m to reference level

(3) Clays

(3) Clays

2 2 2 22 22 22 22 2

3 3 3 33 33 33 33 3

(3) Clays

4 4 4 44 44 44 44 4

(3) Clays
Depth(m)

5 5 5 55 55 55 55 5
(3) Clays

(3) Clays

6 6 6 66 66 66 66 6

(3) Clays

7 (11) V.Stiff fine grained* 7 7 77 77 77 77 7

(3) Clays

8 8 8 88 88 88 88 8

9 9 9 99 99 99 99 9

10 10 10 10
10 10 10
10 10
10 10
10 10

Figure 7. CPTu -02 Results

STABILITY ANALYSIS AND DESIGN the toe of the slope is assumed to increase of water
content which subsequently cause slope failure.
Analysis of Failures
Reddish clay and silty sand parameter was taken
During rainy seasons, some areas on the slope from correlation for medium stiff soil. Greyish clay
failed. The failure occured because the expansive parameter, factor of safety and slip surface was
soil areas was exposed. Clays, especially highly shown as Table 3, Figure 8, and Figure 9.
plastic and heavily overconsolidated clays, are
subject to swell when in contact with water. Low Table 3. Parameter and FOS
confining pressures and long periods of access to Estimated Parameter Factor of
Clay
Cu (kPa) φu° Safety
water promote swell (Duncan, 2005).
Before Rain 80 26 1.62
To determine the condition of the slopes in the
UU Wn>> 2 12.5 0.36
rain (increases water content), back analysis has
been conducted. The clay parameter that used to
Analysis shown that at normal condition, the
evaluate safety factor was the same parameter
soil will have a 1.62 factor of safety. However, the
determined from Triaxial UU Test. The water at

B4-5
strength of the soils decrease significantly with
increasing water content which will lead to slope
failure. As shown on Figure 3 water pounding can
also cause softening at the toe of the slope.
Figure 9 shows the mechanism of slope failure
where the toe become soft create new sliding plane
as deep sliding.
1.624
Figure 8. FOS and Slip surface Normally condition
0.359
Figure 9. FOS and Slip surface for Higher Water
content
SLOPE PROTECTION
Protection was made to prevent failure on slope
as a result of changes in moisture content. The
concept of slope repair at expansive-soil area was
to used shotcrete that meant to cover the entire area
of slope. Shotcrete was used to cover the slope in
order to reduce the changes in soil moisture content.
Shotcrete should be conducted soon after weathered
surface is removed, maximum 24 hours the exposed
soil has to be covered. To ensure the immediate
Shotcrete work, removal of surface should be done
by dividing the slope in small section.
However, the slopes still need good drainage
system to prevent water running through the slope.
B4-6
CONCLUSIONS
Slope failure investigation on a toll-road project
in north java was discovered because of soil
softening (reduce soil strength) that occurs on
Expansive soil. Triaxial UU tests result for same
type of soil with different water content shown
different result of strength parameter. Cohesion and
friction angle for higher water content was reduce.
Back analysis showed that the failure could be
explained with this laboratory testing results.
CPTu results confirmed the existence of
overconsolidated and high undrained shear strength
data. CPTu get higher parameter then laboratory
data, that is why CPTu results did not used in this
analysis.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The Author would like to acknowledge the
permission of PT. Lintas Marga Sedaya (LMS) to
allow the use of the data for this paper.
REFERENCES
Bemmelen, R.W.V., (1949), “The Geology of
Indonesia.”
Budhu, Muni (2000), “Soil Mechanics and
Foundation.”
Duncan, J.M. (2005). “Soil Strength and Slope
Stability.”
GEC (2007), “ Soil Investigation Report Book IIB”.
GEC (2007), “ Soil Investigation Report Book IIC”.
Lunne,T., Robertson, P.K., Powell, J.J.M. (1997),
“Cone Penetration Testing in Geotechnical
Practice.”
Ortigao, J.A.R., Loures, T.R.R, Nogueira, C. and
Alves, L.S. (1997), “Slope Failure in Tertiary
Expansive OC Clays”. Journal of Geotechnical
and Geoenvironmental Engineering, Vol.123
No.9, Sept, 1997.
Raman,N., Gafoer,S. (1998), “Geological map of
western part of java.
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

FLEXIBLE FACEING UNDER REAL 1:1 FIELD TEST CONDITIONS

C. Balg 1, C. Wendeler 1 and P. Baraniak 2

ABSTRACT: With the federal help of Commission for Technology and Innovation (CTI) of the Swiss Federal
Department of Economic Affairs, Education and Research, a large-scale field test setup with flexible slope
stabilization systems were performed in Winterthur, Switzerland under the direction of the Bern University of
Applied Sciences in Burgdorf. Within this project, a 13 x 15 m steel frame box was filled with soil material and
tilted up to 85° using a 500 ton crawler crane. Different meshes and net coverings combined with a nail
anchoring system were used to stabilize the soil material against instabilities near the surface. Also the soil
parameters were varied and studied.
This paper gives an overview of the test assembly and summarizes the results from the large-scale field tests
which were performed up to now. In addition, the retrograde calculation of the RUVOLUM dimensioning
concept was verified.
The large-scale field tests performed create an ideal foundation for a better understanding of the load bearing
capacity of flexible slope stabilization systems under real stress conditions and comparison of different meshes
under same conditions as well for further developing and adapting them to project-specific requirements.

Keywords: Flexible facing, 1:1 field tests, design concept, RUVOLUM

INTRODUCTION
TESTING EQUIPMENT
A total of 23 large-scale field tests were
performed on flexible slope stabilization systems in The testing equipment consists of a 13 x 15 m
cooperation with industry partner Geobrugg AG. steel frame which can be filled with soil material
Varying the distance between nails and the soil through a 10 x 12 m surface up to a layer thickness
materials made it possible to analyze the load of 1.20 m. The incline of the frame can vary
bearing capacity of the different systems in detail. between 0° and 85° by lifting it with a 500 to crane.
This allowed for an objective system comparison at
similar conditions.
After the testing equipment, the soil material
used and the flexible slope stabilization systems
tested are described, the measurement equipment
will be explained and the test results summarized.
The evaluation will be primarily limited to visual
analysis of surface deformations based on laser
scans. Using system-specific spike plates,
interesting results will be obtained concerning load
distribution, transmission of force and deformation
behavior. This information will serve as a basis for
the verification of the RUVOLUM dimensioning
concept and provide tips for practical
implementation. Figure 1. Total overview of testing equipment

1
Geobrugg AG, Romanshorn, christophe.balg@geoburgg.com and corinna.wendeler@geobrugg.com, Switzerland.
2
Bern University of Applied Sciences, piotr.baraniak@bfh.ch, Switzerland.

B5-1
 The base and side areas of the test area are
covered flat with rough wooden planks. To ensure
that the sliding surfaces of instabilities close to the
surface form within the filling material and do not
follow the board floor, wooden slats with a cross
sectional area of 30 x 60 mm were applied to
increase roughness in the transverse direction (cf.
Figure 3 and Figure 4).
Figure 2. Test no. 1, TECCO® G65/3 + P33, nail
grid 2.5 x 2.5 m, round gravel 16 - 32 mm,  = 35°
Figure 3. Test no. 2, hexagonal steel wire mesh
80x100/2.7 mm, nail grid 2.5 x 2.5 m, round gravel
16 - 32 mm, at end of test
Figure 4. Test no. 13, TECCO® G65/4 + P33, after
dismantling mesh cover and removing material, nail
grid 3.5 x 3.5 m
B5-2
The mesh cover was sewn to upper and lower
edge ropes. Depending on the safety system,
they exhibit a diameter of 14 - 22 mm and are
braced against laterally positioned bollards. To
create a cut-out from an infinitely long slope which
is as realistic as possible, the mesh cover was
screwed to the side of the frame using U-profiles.
This created a bedding which was immovable in the
lateral direction.
GEWI D = 28 mm or D = 32 mm with solidified
cladding tubes were used as nails. The connection
to the framework construction was made with a
base plate welded to the nail which was itself
screwed onto another steel plate. The cladding tube
was led into a steel tube fastened to the base plate.
The nail is considered bend-proof in its connection
to the frame. Conventional solidification of the nail
was not possible due to reasons concerning the
installation and time frame.
Spike plates adjusted to the mesh were used to
fasten it. The upper support cable was not held up
with nails; instead, it was fastened against bollards
using fixing ropes. The lateral distance between the
bollards corresponded to the respective horizontal
distance between the nails. The mesh webs
exhibited widths of 2.0 to 3.5 m and were
connected to one another in a force-locking manner
via system-specific connectors. To prevent the non-
compacted gravel from falling out between the
mesh, a mesh with an opening width of 20 x 20
mm with low tensile strength and no static function
was laid out under the mesh cover starting with the
4th test.
Figure 5. Test no. 5, TECCO® G65/3 + P33, at
beginning of test, sandy gravel 0 - 63 mm, nail grid
2.5 x 2.5 m, top edge fastening
GOALS
The overarching goal for the execution of large-
scale field tests was to analyze and better
understand the load bearing capacity of this type of
slope stabilization system under different limiting
conditions and under conditions which are as real
as possible. This was done with view to the optimal
application of such systems in practice. Only
instabilities close to the surface with a maximum
thickness of 1.20 m were examined in this research
project. The overall stability and thereby the
dimensioning of the nail anchoring system to
prevent fracture mechanisms with low-lying sliding
surfaces will not be discussed.

SOIL MATERIAL
In some tests, round gravel with a grain size of
16 – 32 mm was used as soil material (Figure 6).
This non-compacted material always fell into the
densest bedding during installation. This reflects
natural conditions only in a limited manner;
however, in view of limiting conditions which are
as useful as possible for comparison, this is optimal
for test purposes.
In other tests, sandy gravel made of broken-up
recycling material with a grain size of 0 - 63 mm
was used (Figure 7). It has good interlocking
properties and is similar to slope waste.
The following table 1 summarizes the specific
soil values on a characteristic level. These are based
on many years of experience and are used for
comparative calculations. The friction angle of the
non-compacted gravel corresponds with the incline
of the material cone in the immediate vicinity.
Table 1. Specific soil values
‘k c’k k
Soil material [°] [kN/m2] [kN/m3]
Round gravel, 16 – 32 mm 33 0 20
Sandy gravel made of broken-up
recycling materials, 0 – 63 mm 38 0 21
SLOPE STABILIZATION SYSTEMS TESTED
The following table 2 summarizes the flexible
slope stabilization systems tested in the scope of the
CTI research project. They are made of a flat
element, a mesh or net cover, and system-specific
spike or mounting plates adjusted to fit this element.
Figure 6. Test no. 1, TECCO® G65/3 + P33, at
beginning of test, round gravel 16 - 32 mm, without
mesh
Figure 7. Test no. 5, TECCO® G65/3 + P33, sandy
gravel 0 - 63 mm, with connection clips and
underlaid mesh
Table 2. Slope stabilization systems tested
Slope stabilization systems tested
A TECCO® G65/2 high-tensile steel wire mesh, mesh
size 143 x 83 mm, wire diameter 2.0 mm, steel wire
tensile strength min. 1770 N/mm2, Type P33 system
spike plate size 33 x 20 cm
B TECCO® G65/3 high-tensile steel wire mesh, mesh
size 143 x 83 mm, wire diameter 3.0 mm, steel wire
tensile strength min. 1770 N/mm2, type P33 system
spike plate size 33 x 20 cm, type P66 system spike
plate size 66 x 29 cm
C TECCO® G65/4 high-tensile steel wire mesh, mesh
size 143 x 83 mm, wire diameter 4.0 mm, steel wire
tensile strength min. 1770 N/mm2, type P33 system
spike plate size 33 x 20 cm, type P66 system spike
plate size 66 x 29 cm
D Hexagonal steel wire mesh, mesh size 80 x 100 mm,
wire diameter 2.7 mm, steel wire tensile strength
approx. 500 N/mm2, steel mounting plate square 20 x
20 cm
E Hexagonal steel wire mesh with vertical ropes, mesh
size 80 x 100 mm, wire diameter 2.7 mm, steel wire
tensile strength approx. 500 N/mm2, vertical ropes
Ø 8 mm, distance between ropes 30 cm, steel
mounting plate square 25 x 25 cm
F Heavy chain-link mesh, mesh size 50 x 50 mm, wire
diameter 4.6 mm, steel wire tensile strength approx.
650 N/mm2, steel mounting plate square 28 x 10 cm

B5-3
MEASUREMENT EQUIPMENT
The surface including nail heads and steel
frames were scanned flat using laser scans to serve
as a reference level. White cones set on the nails
and various mirrors served as orientation aids and
reference points. The scan was repeated after
changing the incline by 5° each time. Figure 7
shows a cross-fade of individual scans. A pendulum
and an automatic inclinometer are used to
determine the inclination of the steel frame.
The displacements of the top middle nail were
measured via a rope potentiometer to verify the
scan data and monitor the deformation during the
test. In addition, the forces in the upper and lower
support wire ropes were determined using load cells
specially adapted to the conditions.
Information on developments in selected nails
during changing conditions was gathered using
strain gauges. Analyzing this would go beyond the
scope of this article. A dissertation will provide a
detailed analysis.
Figure 8. Test no. 4, TECCO® G65/3 + P33, cross-
fade of individual scans
Figure 9. Test no. 5, TECCO® G65/3 + P33,  =
85°, sandy gravel 0 - 63 mm
B5-4
TEST RESULTS
In order to analyze the load bearing capacity
and deformation behavior of flexible slope
stabilization systems, laser scans at a steel frame
inclination of 60° are compared with one another in
the following. Figure 10 shows the state of a
TECCO® G65/4 type high-tensile steel wire mesh
with spike plate P66 and a width of 66 cm with
round gravel and a nail grid of 3.5 x 3.5 m. Figure
11 shows the same situation with the same spike
plate and nail arrangement as well as the same soil
material. The only different is the mesh. Instead of
a high-tensile steel wire mesh with a longitudinal
tensile strength of at least 250 kN/m and a wire
diameter of 4 mm, a high-tensile steel wire mesh
with the same mesh size but with a wire diameter of
3 mm and a tensile strength of at least 150 kN/m
was used. The stronger mesh is somewhat stiffer
under the same conditions. It is subject to less
deformation and the soil material slides downwards
to a lesser degree.
Figure 10. Test no. 12, TECCO® G65/4 + P66, nail
grid 3.5 x 3.5 m, round gravel 16 - 32 mm,  = 60°
Figure 11. Test no. 14, TECCO® G65/3 + P66, nail
grid 3.5 x 3.5 m, round gravel 16 - 32 mm,  = 60°
 If you compare Figure 11 with Figure 12, the
following becomes clear: On the one hand, smaller
spike plates are used (33 cm wide spike plate, type
P33 instead of 66 cm wide spike plates, type P66).
On the other hand, a high-tensile steel wire mesh
with a wire diameter of 2 mm and a longitudinal
tensile strength of at least 65 kN/m is used. The
stabilizing lateral influence of a smaller spike plate
is weaker than with a larger one with sufficient
bending stiffness. Furthermore, a somewhat weaker
mesh under the same limiting conditions is
somewhat more stressed, which becomes clear due
to somewhat larger deformations with a wider
bulge which slides downwards to a larger degree.
The differences between Figure 12 and Figure
13 are the soil material used and the mesh. If a soil
material with better interlocking properties and a
much stronger steel wire mesh with identical mesh
size and form are installed, much less deformation
is to be expected.
Figure 12. Test no. 17, TECCO® G65/2 + P33, nail
grid 3.5 x 3.5 m, round gravel 16/32 mm,  = 60°
Figure 13. Test no. 13, TECCO® G65/4 + P33, nail
grid 3.5 x 3.5 m, round gravel 0 - 63 mm,  = 60°
The large-scale field tests also show the positive
influence of the installation of the spike plates in
previously-created recesses. Creating troughs
makes it possible to actively stretch the mesh
during installation. This significantly reduces
deformations when lifting the steel frame, which
makes a significant effect on the load bearing
capacity of the entire system.
The mesh geometry in conjunction with the
transmission of force from the mesh to the nail
anchoring system also plays an important role.
Since the introduction of high-tensile steel wire
meshes with rhombus-shaped holes around the end
of the 1990s, a nail grid was deliberately
recommended whose nail rows are arranged
laterally at an offset of half the horizontal distance
between nails. Previously, square nail grids
modeled after conventional rope nets were common.
If horizontal nail distance “a” is set to be
identical to nail distance in fall line “b”, a field of
“a x 2b” is stretched between the nails. When
observing the transmission of force from nail to nail
(cf. Figure 11), it becomes clear that it follows the
mesh geometry. Supported by the most direct
erosion of force possible, this fact has a positive
effect on the load bearing capacity and deformation
behavior of such flexible systems.
Figures 14 - 17 show the areas around the spike
plates at different inclinations in the same test.
Figure 15 shows the stabilizing influence of the
plates. In addition to the stress of the mesh on the
shearing action primarily on the upper spike plate
edge, Figure 16 illustrates that the connections of
the mesh web to each other must be force-locking
and that they also represent a significant component
of the entire system. Figure 17 was taken after the
test was completed and shows that the web also
hangs on the upper nail. In the RUVOLUM
concept, this corresponds to force Z.
Figure 14. Test no. 4, TECCO® G65/4 + P33, nail
grid 2.5 x 2.5 m, sandy gravel 0 - 63 mm,  = 45°
B5-5

Figure 15. Test no. 4,  = 55°
Figure 16. Test no. 4,  = 65°
Figure 17. Test no. 4,  = 0° at end of the test
VERIFICATION OF RUVOLUM
DIMENSIONING CONCEPT
The RUVOLUM dimensioning concept was
developed on the basis of many years of experience
in the area of flexible slope stabilization systems
and was verified in 2008 using only model tests.
The large-scale field tests performed in the scope of
the CTI research project make it possible for the
first time to examine the theoretical model
approach and the underlying assumptions under
realistic conditions and using repeatable tests.
Figure 18 shows a two-body sliding mechanism
which is trying to slide out between the nails and is
B5-6
prevented by the mesh cover and nails, with
reference to the 2nd "Building in Soil and Cliffs"
colloquium at the Technical Academy of Esslingen
in 2000. Figure 19 illustrates the cross section of
the unstable block under the stabilizing influence of
the lateral spike plates. The fracture mechanism
decisive for dimensioning has width “ared”.
The graphic analysis of the laser scan shows
good agreement with the model approach in
accordance with the RUVOLUM concept.
Comparative calculations are now to be performed.
When doing so, a differentiation has to be made
between the dimensioning situation while taking
the corresponding partial safety factors according to
EUROCODE 7 into account and the state of failure.
Figure 18. Two-body sliding mechanism in the
examination of instabilities near the surface in
accordance with the RUVOLUM concept
Figure 19. Reduced cross section as a result of the
stabilizing influence of the lateral spike plates or
nails in accordance with the RUVOLUM concept
For the back-calculation, the results of large-
scale field tests no. 11 using TECCO® G65/3 steel
wire mesh in combination with type P33 spike
plates and type GEWI D = 32 mm nails with a
rusting away of 4 mm on the diameter are to be
used as an example. The nail grid was 3.5 x 3.5 m.
The soil material was broken-up sandy gravel made
of recycling material.
The first movements near the surface occurred
at an inclination of  = 53° (cf. Figure 20). The
mesh was then punctured at  = 80° (Figure 21).
If the flexible slope stabilization system used in
test no. 11 is measured based on the RUVOLUM
concept in accordance with EUROCODE 7, a
maximum slope incline of  = 50° results under
consideration of the parameters in table 3. If the
nail grid is reduced to 3.40 x 3.40 m, the
permissible slope incline is increased to
 = 53°.
Parameters
Force parallel to the slope Z = 15 kN
Inclination of the nail compared to the
horizontal line  = 40°
Friction angle partial safety factor  = 1.25
Cohesion partial safety factor  = 1.25
Bulk density partial safety factor  = 1.00
Model uncertainty factor mod = 1.10
The results of the back-calculation correlate
quite well with the situation in which the first
instabilities close to the surface were observed.
If all partial safety factors are set to 1.00, the
radius of the pressure cone increased to  = 0.30 m,
the load bearing capacity of the mesh at point-by-
point application of force at the upper nail with Z =
30 kN is fully utilized and if the nail inclination is
assumed to be perpendicular to the slope surface as
before, the break is calculated to occur at a slope of
 = 76°. This result also agrees very well with the
test results.

DIFFERENT SAFETY SYSTEMS

Figure 20. Test no. 11 TECCO® G65/3 + P33, nail
grid 3.5 x 3.5 m, sandy gravel 0 - 63 mm,  = 53°,
first slides close to the surface
Figure 21. Test no. 11, stamping of mesh at  = 80°
In addition to mesh covers with rhombus-
shaped openings, hexagonal steel wire meshes with
and without vertical ropes and heavy chain-link
mesh were tested. Depending on the mesh
geometry, the significant differences in the load
bearing capacity had to be determined while doing
so.
Figure 22 and 23 show a hexagonal steel wire
mesh with a mesh size of 80 x 100 mm and a wire
diameter of 2.7 mm combined with vertical ropes
with a diameter of 8 mm at distances of 30 cm to
each other. The 16 - 32 mm round gravel was used
as soil material. The nail grid was 3.5 x 3.5 m. As
the analysis of the laser scan shows, it was not
possible or only partially possible to carry off the
loads to the lateral nails due to the vertically
dominating structure. A concentration of load and
larger deformations in the base area of the slope
were the consequences.

Table 3. Parameters for the back-calculation

Parameters
Slope inclination  = 50°
Horizontal distance between nails a = 3.50 m
Distance between nails in line of the slope b = 3.50 m
Layer thickness t = 1.00 m
Radius of the pressure cone  = 0.15 m
Inclination of the pressure cone compared
to horizontal line  = 45°
Friction angle of soil  = 38°
Soil cohesion c = 0 kN/m2
Bulk density of soil  = 20 kN/m3

B5-7
 Figure 22. Test no. 7, hexagonal steel wire mesh
80x100/2.7 with vertical ropes in distances of 30cm
Figure 23. Test no. 7, hexagonal steel wire mesh
with vertical ropes in distances of 30 cm, nail grid
3.5 x 3.5 m, round gravel 16 - 32 mm,  = 60°
The test assembly for test no. 8 corresponded to
that of test no. 7. However, a heavy chain-link
mesh with a mesh size of 50 x 50 mm and a wire
diameter of 4.6 mm with spike plates adapted to
this was used as a mesh cover. Figure 24 shows the
mesh used. As predefined by the structure of the
mesh, it tries to carry the forces off to the side
under around 45°, as shown by the blue dotted line
in Figure 25. If the same nail grid is used as with
other tests, the force vectors starting from the upper
nail do not meet directly. The force is transferred
by redistributions, resulting in large deformations.
To improve the situation, the nail arrangement must
be adapted to the structure of the mesh or the
distance between the nails must be reduced
correspondingly in the fall line.
CONCLUSIONS
The large-scale field tests performed create an
ideal foundation for a better understanding of the
load bearing capacity of flexible slope stabilization
systems as well as for further developing them and
adapting them to project-specific requirements.
B5-8
Figure 24. Test no. 8, heavy chain-link mesh
50 x 50 / 4.6 mm
Figure 25. Test no. 8, heavy chain-link mesh 50 x
50 / 4.6 mm, nail grid 3.5 x 3.5 m, round gravel 16
– 32 mm,  = 60°
The size of the test frame seems to have been
well-selected for simulating instabilities near the
surface. In supplementary tests, additional results
on impacts to the nails and especially in the nail
head area will be gathered.
It was possible to verify the RUVOLUM
dimensioning concept. The results agree well with
the test results and the experience gathered over the
last 15 years. They are based on a model approach
which illustrates the real conditions in a simplified
but sufficiently exact manner.
REFERENCES
Brändlein P. (2004). LGA Nuremberg, Germany,
Monitoring and supervision of laboratory
testing of the TECCO slope stabilization system,
Test report BPI 0400046/1.
Rüegger, R.; Flum, D. (2006). Anforderungen an
flexible Böschungsstabilisierungssysteme bei
der Anwendung in Boden und Fels. Technische
Akademie Esslingen, Beitrag für 4. Kolloquium
„Bauen in Boden und Fels”.
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

THE EFFECT OF DISCONTINUITY ORIENTATION ON THE STABILITY

OF ROCK MASSESS

Cindarto Lie 1 and H. R. G. K. Hack 2

ABSTRACT: The shear stresses generated in an excavated rock slope are usually very low in comparison with
the shear strength of the intact rock material. However, existing discontinuities such as bedding and cleavage
planes and joints, in rock masses may have sufficiently low shear strength to act as failure plane. Geometry
together with the frequency of the discontinuities are then the dominant factors governing the potential mode of
failure, namely: rotational, translational, or toppling mode. This paper discusses the effect of the orientation and
shear strength of internal discontinuities in the sliding body on the stability of a slope rock mass. The factor of
safety decreases if the inclination angle of internal discontinuities in a sliding body increases from dipping
“with” to dipping “against” the slope face. Sensitivity analyses are given to explain the influence.

Keywords: Rock slope, discontinuities, sliding body, dipping “with”, dipping “against”, horizontal acceleration
factor (Kc)

INTRODUCTION The slaty cleavage is well developed and has

largely overprinted the bedding. The rock mass
The stability of slopes in rock masses is greatly contains many joint sets of which joint sets 1 and 2
affected by the geometry and the strength are the main sets. Figure 2 shows the main
parameters of the discontinuities within the rock discontinuity sets.
mass(Price et al. 2009; Wyllie and Mah 2004). This
paper analyses and discusses the effect of the
orientation of internal discontinuities in a sliding
body of a rock slope by sensitivity analysis. The
factor of safety decreases if the inclination angle of
internal discontinuities in a sliding body increases
from dipping “with” to dipping “against” the slope
face. An excavated rock slope that is partially
instable is used to illustrate the influence (Figure 1).
Part of the slope failed after rainfall. The sensitivity
analysis is carried out by the methodology
described by Sarma (1979). The methodology
allows determining the stability of a slope with Figure 1. Rock slope at about 6.7 km from Falset
varying geometry. along road T710 from Falset to Gratallops, Priorat,
Spain
SITE CHARACTERISTICS
Geotechnically, the rock mass is a light to dark
The rock slope is situated along the road T710
grey, argillaceous, very thinly foliated and very
between Falset and Gratallops, Spain. The slope is
closely jointed, slightly weathered, slate,
excavated for the construction of a new road around
moderately strong, impermeable except along joints
1990 and has an excavated slope dip of about
and cleavage planes. The weathering of the rock
75o.The slope is excavated in Carboniferous
mass varies between fresh and slightly and is at
metamorphic rocks consisting of mainly slate with
some localized spots moderate (ISO 14689-1 2003).
occasionally some meta silt- and sandstone beds.

1
Ph.D. Student, Parahyangan Catholic University, Bandung, INDONESIA
2
Associate Professor Engineering Geology, Faculty of Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation (ITC), University of
Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands.

B6-1
The rock mass is extensively folded, cleaved, and
jointed. The orientation of the cleavage planes
varies and dips with about 37o to 60o towards the
slope face. The stereographic projection (Figure 2)
shows that the main failure mechanism is plane
failure over the cleavage plane. However, the basal
slip surface is stepped since the dip of the cleavage
plane varies over the slope and the rock mass is
extensively jointed (Figure 3).
Figure 2. Stereographic projection and kinematic
stability envelope
Figure 3. Simplified cross section
Discontinuity properties
The cleavage nor joint planes contain significant
infill. Most cleavage and joint surfaces are slightly
weathered and some are stained. Equotip (Equotip
2015; Verwaal and Mulder 1993) and Schmidt
hammer tests showed no significant reduction of
the strength of the cleavage nor joint surfaces
compared to the intact rock strength. Average
Equotip or Schmidt Hammer readings obtained
from the stained cleavage and joint surfaces are
about 98% of those obtained from fresh intact rock
surfaces (Cindarto 1992).
B6-2
Laboratory shear tests
Laboratory direct shear tests have been carried
out on samples of the cleavage plane. Prior to the
shear tests, the surface roughness profiles of both
top and bottom parts of the cleavage plane have
been measured by a small profilograph with a three
times vertical exaggeration. The roughness profiles
of the cleavage surfaces are quite smooth (Figure 4).
Figure 4. Roughness profiles of the cleavage plane
(vertical exaggeration is 3 x)
The direct shear test results are presented in
Figure 5. The Mohr-Coulomb shear strength
criterion parameters are a cohesion of 0 kPa and a
friction component (φ) of 43.5o. This corrected
value represents the basic friction angle of the rock
surface, after corrected from dilatation angle.
Figure 5. Direct shear test result of the cleavage
plane
BACK ANALYSIS CALCULATION
A simplified geometry is used for the back
analysis calculations (Figure 3).
Janbu’s (1973) and Sarma’s (1979) methods of
slices to calculate the stability of the slope have
been used to back analyze the stability of the
slope.The principal difference between Janbu’s and
Sarma’s methods is that in Janbu’s method the
sides of the slices are always vertical, while in
Sarma’s method non-vertical sides of slices can be
adopted. Janbu’s method is not further discussed
because in particular, the orientation and shear
properties of the internal discontinuities across the
sliding body that are not necessarily vertical,are of ܾ1 1 ܾ1 1 ܿ 1
importance, and, hence, Sarma’s method is more
‫ݏ‬1 1 ‫ݏ‬1 1
applicable. However, Janbu’s method is used for (2)
control.
ܾ1 1 ܾ1 1 1
Sarma’s method of non-vertical slices ‫ݏ‬1 1 ‫ݏ‬1 1
(3)
Sarma’s method described here is slightly
different from its original, but the main feature of ܾ2 2 ܾ2 2 ܿ 2
introducing a horizontal acceleration factor (Kc) to
‫ݏ‬2 2 ‫ݏ‬2 2
give an additional unknown force remains the same.
In the absence of a real horizontal load, factor Kc ‫ݏ‬1 1 ‫ݏ‬1 1
(4)
can be used as a measure of the stability. For Kc = 0,
the system is in limiting equilibrium and the Factor ܾ2 2 ܾ2 2
of Safety (FoS) is equal to 1. For Kc> 0, the system 2 ‫ݏ‬2 2 ‫ݏ‬2 2
is in stable condition, as the system needs an
additional horizontal force (KcW) to bring it in the ‫ݏ‬1 2 ‫ݏ‬1 1
(5)
limiting equilibrium state. The FoS is then larger
ܾܽ ܽ ܾ3 3
than 1. For Kc< 0, the system is in an unstable
condition, i.e. the system needs external support to ܿ 3 ‫ݏ‬2 2 ‫ݏ‬2 2
make it stable, and thus the FoS is smaller than 1. (6)

ܾܽ ܽ ܾ3 3
Failure geometry
3 ‫ݏ‬3 2 ‫ݏ‬2 2
The failure geometry used for the back analyses (7)
contains three separate blocks formed by the failure The cohesion component of the shear strength is
surface, i.e. the cleavage plane, and internal 0 and thus the shear force along the base equals (i
discontinuity sets, i.e. discontinuities that provide refers to the block number):
release surfaces and internal slip surfaces (Figure 6).
(8)
Force equilibrium
And similarly under assumption that the
The force equilibrium under assumption that the cohesion component is 0, the shear force along the
rock slope is fully drained and that the shear side is:
strength on the interfaces between the blocks is
(9)
purely frictional should be in equilibrium in rest:
In which: = weight of block; = normal
F x  0 and F y 0 (1) force on base block; = normal body force on
side block; = friction angle of base slip surface;
= friction angle of side block; = base
inclination angle; = side inclination angle; Kc is a
horizontal acceleration factor following Sarma.

Figure 6. Simplified block sections for back

analyses

This implies that equations 2 through 7 should

apply (see Figure 7 for the locations of the forces):

B6-3

Figure 7. Forces working on blocks (symbols see
text). The location of the blocks is given in Figure 6
The 6 unknowns in equations 2 through 7 are
Nb1, Nb2, Nb3, Ns1, Ns2 and Kc. The unknowns are
determined by matrix operations using a
spreadsheet program. The static Factor of Safety
(FoS) of the slope is then found by reducing tan φ
by dividing with FoS until Kc = 0. Three or four
seed trial values are required to obtain the correct
FoS. The results of the back analysis are
summarized in Table 1.
discontinuities across the sliding block. A series of
geometrical cross-sections of the slope with
different inclination angles for the internal
discontinuities is defined (Figure 8).
The cohesion of the basal slip surface and
internal discontinuities is zero and the friction angle
of the internal discontinuities surfaces is taken the
same as the friction of the basal slip surface (φ =
43.5o). Assumed is that the slope failed in drained
condition.
The factor of safety (FoS) of each geometrical
cross section is calculated by Sarma’s method of
non-vertical slices. The results of the calculation
are shown in Figure 9. As the inclination angle of
the internal discontinuities increases the FoS
decreases.

Table 1. Back calculation result under drained

conditions

The friction angle obtained by the direct shear

tests (Figure 5) is comparable to the friction angle
back analyzed from the slope under drained Figure 8. Geometrical cross section with different
condition. This likely indicates that the failed part inclination angles of internal discontinuities across
of the slope failed in drained condition. Supporting sliding body
evidence is that this part of the slope failed after
rainfall, i.e. not during rainfall. This also likely
indicates that water pressures were not the reason
for failure, as then failure would have been more
likely during rainfall. However, the influence of
water on the cleavage plane minerals likely reduced
the friction angle of the slaty cleavage plane and
subsequently caused the failure. The nature of the
rock mass of the slope, being intensively broken
and likely to allow water to be drained easily, also
supports the conclusion that water pressures are an
Figure 9. .Factor of Safety vs. the inclination angle
unlikely reason for failure.
of internal discontinuities
SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS
In addition, a sensitivity analysis is done on the
A sensitivity analysis is carried out to study the influence of the shear friction angle (φ) of the
influence of the orientation of internal internal discontinuities in relation to the inclination

B6-4
angle (δ) of the internal discontinuities (Figure 10).
The influence of the shear strength is more
pronounced where the inclination angle of the
internal discontinuities (δ) changes from negative to
positive, i.e. from dipping “with” to dipping
“against” the slope face. This is caused by higher
normal stresses on the internal discontinuities
surfaces.
CONCLUSIONS
The orientation of internal discontinuities has an
influence on the Factor of Safety ofa rock slope as
expected. As the inclination angle increases (from
dipping “with” to dipping “against” the slope face)
the Factor of Safety decreases. Internal
discontinuities can be shear zones, faults, bedding
planes or joints.The shear strength of the internal
discontinuities also has an influence upon the rock
slope stability. The extent of the influence depends
on the inclination angle of the internal
discontinuities. As the inclination angle increases
from dipping “with” to dipping “against” the slope
face, the influence is more pronounced.
Figure 10. Critical horizontal acceleration (Kc)
vs. shear friction angle (φ) for varying inclination
angle (δ) of the internal discontinuities
REFERENCES
Cindarto L (1992) Rock slope stability; Research
project report on rock slope stability in Falset,
Spain. International Institute for Aerospace
Survey and Earth Observation (ITC), Delft, The
Netherlands.
Equotip (2015) Equotip hardness tester; Proceq.
Equotip; Proceq. http://www.equotip.com/.
Accessed 12 May 2015.
ISO 14689-1 (2003) Geotechnical investigation and
testing. Identification and classification of rock.
Part 1: Identification and description. 1st edition.
vol 14689-1. International Organization for
Standardization, Geneva, Switzerland.
Janbu N (1973) Slope stability computations. In:
Hirschfeld RC, Poulos SJ (eds) Embankment-
dam engineering. John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
New York, pp 47-86.
Price DG, De Freitas MH, Hack HRGK,
Higginbottom IE, Knill JL, Maurenbrecher M
(2009) Engineering geology; principles and
practice. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg.
doi:10.1007/978-3-540-68626-2.
Sarma SK (1979) Stability analysis of
embankments and slopes. Journal of the
Geotechnical Engineering Division 105
(12):1511-1152.
Verwaal W, Mulder A (1993) Estimating rock
strength with the equotip hardness tester. Int J
Rock Mech Min 30 (6):659-662.
doi:10.1016/0148-9062(93)91226-9.
Wyllie DC, Mah CW (2004) Rock slope
engineering : civil and mining (based on Rock
Slope Engineering by Hoek, E. and Bray, J.).
4th edn. Spon Press, London.
B6-5
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

INFLUENCE OF HYDRAULIC CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS IN THE

UNSATURATED SOIL SLOPES WITH VARIOUS HORIZONTAL WATER TABLE

A. Indra Noer Hamdhan 1

ABSTRACT: In unsaturated slope stability analysis, the negative pore water pressure or suction and the
hydraulic characteristic of soils such as hydraulic conductivity and degree of saturation will influence the factor
of safety. Four different hydraulic parameters sets of the USDA series for the Van Genuchten Models are used
to evaluate the effect of these parameters in slope stability with various depth of the horizontal water table,
namely clay, silt, and loamy sand. Mohr Coulomb soil models are used for all the soils. The critical factor of
safety (FOS) occurs at the ratio depth and height of slope (d/H) = 0.8 – 1.0. After passing the minimum, the
increase of water table depth will increase the FOS of the unsaturated slopes. The FOS of the unsaturated slopes
with hydraulic parameters for clays (low permeability) are significantly increased. Conversely, the FOS of the
unsaturated slope with hydraulic parameters for loamy sand (high permeability) show no significant increase and
when the ratio of d/H is more than 1.2, the depth of the horizontal ground water table does not influence the
stability.

Keywords: unsaturated soil slopes, hydraulic characteristics, horizontal water table, factor of safety

INTRODUCTION The mechanical and hydraulic models used in the

analysis are the Mohr Coulomb failure criterion
In slope stability analysis, the effect of negative and the Van Genuchten model respectively.
pore water pressure or suction is usually not taken
into account because suction will reduce with HYDRAULIC MODELS
rainfall infiltration and therefore it can be assumed
Hydraulic parameters of the groundwater flow
that matric suction does not influence the long
in unsaturated zones (above the phreatic surface)
term stability of the slope. However, to reduce
are described by the Soil Water Characteristics
matric suction from the soil, the rainfall needs to
Curve (SWCC). The SWCC is an important
be sustained over a significant time period and also
hydraulic parameter for transient seepage analysis
the rainfall intensity needs to approximate the
in unsaturated soils. The SWCC is a measure of
saturated coefficient of permeability of the soil at
the water storage capacity of the soil for a given
the ground surface. Hydraulic characteristics such
soil suction (Ng and Pang, 2000). SWCC
as saturated coefficient of permeability and initial
describes the capacity of the soil to keep water at
degree of saturation, (Rahardjo et al., 2001, 2007)
different stresses. There are many models which
are parameters which are important in the analysis
describe the hydraulic behaviour of unsaturated
of slope stability considering suction. The location
soils. Van Genuchten (1980) presented the set of
of the groundwater table also influences the
closed-form equations of hydraulic characteristics
stability of unsaturated slope as illustrated by
of unsaturated soils which is based on the capillary
Rahardjo et al. (2010).
model of Mualem (1976). The Van Genuchten
In this paper, slope stability analysis of
model introduces the relation between saturation
unsaturated soils considering suction will be
and suction pore pressure head (p):
discussed. The influence of various depths of the

 
horizontal water table in slope stability will be
evaluated. A simple case of a homogeneous slope 
S  p   S res  S sat  S res 1  g a  p 
gn gc

has been chosen. The international soil

(1)
classification system USDA series is used for
determining the hydraulic data for the analysis.

1
Lecturer, Institut Teknologi Nasional (Itenas) Bandung, indranh@itenas.ac.id, INDONESIA

B7-1
where permeability and unsaturated shear strength as
illustrated by Fredlund (1995, 2000), and Fredlund
pw et al. (2011). Lu and Griffith (2004) developed the
p   (2)
w g method to analyze the suction stress profiles based
on the Soil Water Characteristic Curve (SWCC).
Lu and Likos (2006) introduced the suction stress
pw is the suction pore pressure, Sres is a residual characteristic curve (SSCC) to describe the state of
saturation that describes a part of the fluid that the stress in unsaturated soil.
remains in the pores even at high suction heads, Figures 1 and 2 illustrate the influence of the
Ssat is the saturation when the pores are filled with parameters ga and gn on the shape of the Soil Water
water, w is the density of water, and g is the Characteristics Curve (SWCC). The parameter ga
gravity acceleration. will influence the air entry value of the soil and the
ga, gn, gc are fitting parameters. ga is a fitting parameter gn will influence the slope of the soil
parameter that is related to the air entry value of water characteristic curve.
the soil and has to be measured for a specific Table 1 shows the hydraulic data of the USDA
material, gn is a fitting parameter that is a function series for Van Genuchten models. The Soil Water
of the rate of water extraction from the soil once Characteristics Curve (SWCC) and the suction-
the air entry value has been exceeded, and gc is a relative permeability curves of these data are
fitting parameter which is used in the general Van illustrated in Figure 3 and Figure 4, respectively.
Genuchten equation and it is assumed that:
Table 1. Hydraulic Data (USDA series with Van
1 gn Genuchten Models)
gc  (3)
gn Soil ksat [m/s]
ga gn gl
[1/m] [-] [-]
When the Van Genuchten model is used the Sand 8.3E-05 14.50 2.68 0.50
effective degree of saturation (Se) is obtained as Loamy Sand 4.1E-05 12.40 2.28 0.50
(Genuchten and Nielsen, 1985): Sandy Loam 1.2E-05 7.50 1.89 0.50
Loam 2.9E-06 3.60 1.56 0.50
Silt 6.9E-06 1.60 1.37 0.50
S  S res
Se  (4) Silty Loam 1.3E-06 2.00 1.41 0.50
S sat  S res Sandy Clay
3.6E-06 5.90 1.48 0.50
Loam
The relative permeability krel (S) in relation to Clayey Loam 7.2E-06 1.90 1.31 0.50
Mualem – Van Genuchten is: Silty Clay Loam 1.9E-06 1.00 1.23 0.50
Sandy Clay 3.3E-06 2.70 1.23 0.50
2 Silty Clay 5.5E-08 0.50 1.09 0.50
 g n 1
 Clay 5.5E-07 0.80 1.09 0.50
gl 
 gn
 gn

k rel S   S e  1  1  S eg n 1   (5)
 
   
  1.0

0.8
where gl is a fitting parameter that has to be
measured for a specific material.
0.6
Saturation

The derivative of the degree of saturation with

respect to the suction pore pressure is:
0.4 ga = 1, gn = 2, gl = 0.5
ga = 5, gn = 2, gl = 0.5
 1 2 g n 
  ga = 10, gn = 2, gl = 0.5
 g 
S  p w  1  g n    g a   p  
gn gn
  
 S sat  S res 
n
 g n 1 ga = 20, gn = 2, gl = 0.5
  g n   pw  1   g a w   0.2
p w  g n     w     w   ga = 50, gn = 2, gl = 0.5

ga = 100, gn = 2, gl = 0.5

0.0
(6) 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
2
Suction (kN/m )
The Soil Water Characteristic Curve (SWCC) Figure 1. Influence of parameter ga on the SWCC
can be used to predict the unsaturated soil
properties such as unsaturated coefficient of

B7-2
 1.0
theory and presented the matric suction coefficient
() for the effective stress of unsaturated soils:
0.8

 '    p a     p a  p w 
0.6
Saturation

(7)

Where ’ and  are, correspondingly, the

0.4
ga = 5, gn = 1.25, gl = 0.5
ga = 5, gn = 1.50, gl = 0.5
ga = 5, gn = 1.75, gl = 0.5 effective and total stress, pa is the pore air pressure,
0.2 ga = 5, gn = 2.00, gl = 0.5
ga = 5, gn = 2.25, gl = 0.5 and pw is suction pore pressure. The term (pa – pw)
is called matric suction and  is the matric suction
ga = 5, gn = 2.50, gl = 0.5

0.0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
coefficient and varies from 0 to 1 covering the
2
Suction (kN/m )
range from dry to fully saturated conditions. For
Figure 2. Influence of parameter gn on the SWCC fully saturated soil (= 1), the effective stress
equation is acquired as:
1.0

 '    p w  (8)
0.8

and for dry soil (= 0) the effective stress

Sand
0.6 equation is:
Saturation

Loamy Sand
Sandy Loam
Loam

 '    p a 
Silt
0.4 Silty Loam
Sandy Clay Loam
(9)
Clay Loam
Silty Clay Loam
0.2 Sandy Clay
Silty Clay By assuming that the pore air pressure is
constant and is small enough to be neglected (pa ≈
Clay

0.0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 0), consequently for a dry soil, effective stress and
Suction (kN/m2) total stress are the same. The matric suction
Figure 3. SWCC for USDA series with Van coefficient () is usually obtained from laboratory
Genuchten Models tests on both saturated and unsaturated samples.
Commonly, the laboratory tests on unsaturated
1.0 soils are expensive, time consuming and difficult
Sand
Loamy Sand to carry out. Oberg and Sallfors (1997) and
Sandy Loam
0.8 Loam Vanapalli et al. (1996) suggested that the
Silt
factorcan approximately be replaced by the
Relative permeability

Silty Loam
Sandy Clay Loam
0.6 Clay Loam degree of saturation or the effective degree of
Silty Clay Loam
Sandy Clay
saturation, because the shear strength of
Silty Clay
0.4 Clay
unsaturated soils is strongly related to the amount
of water in voids and in turn to the matric suction.
0.2 In Figure 5 examples of experimental data are
plotted together with approximations suggested in
0.0 the literature (Vanapalli et. al., 1996).
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Consequently, the effective stress equation can
2
Suction (kN/m )
be simplified to:
Figure 4. Relative permeability vs suction for
USDA series with Van Genuchten Models  '    Se pw (10)

SHEAR STRENGTH OF UNSATURATED

SOILS
The principle of effective stress is applicable
for saturated soils. For unsaturated soils, the water
phase fills only parts of the pore volume, whereas
the remainder is covered by air. Bishop (1959) has
modified Terzaghi’s classical effective stress
where Se is the effective degree of saturation of
soil that is a function of the suction pore pressure
and this relationship as defined by the Soil Water
Characteristics Curve (SWCC). Fredlund et al.
(1995) proposed a model to estimate the shear
strength of unsaturated soil based on the saturated
soil shear strength and the Soil Water
Characteristic Curve (SWCC).

B7-3
 Figure 6. Geometry and finite element mesh of the
slope

(a) Table 2. Clay Parameters with Mohr Coulomb

Model
Description Symbol Unit Value
3
Unit weight  [kN/m ] 20
Elasticity modulus E’ [kPa] 7500
Effective poisson's
' [-] 0.35
ratio
Effective cohesion c' [kPa] 40
Effective friction o
' [] 10
angle
Permeability k [m/day] 0.047

(b) Table 3. Silt Parameters with Mohr Coulomb

Model
Figure 5. Determination of matric suction
Description Symbol Unit Value
coefficient; (a)  – Sr relationship – experimental
data; Unit weight  [kN/m3] 20
(b)  – Sr relationship (Vanapalli et al., 1996) Elasticity modulus E’ [kPa] 7500
Effective poisson's
' [-] 0.35
In unsaturated soils, the weight of the soil () is ratio
Effective cohesion c' [kPa] 20
calculated by following formulation:
Effective friction o
' [] 20
angle
  (1  S e ) unsat  S e  sat (11) Permeability k [m/day] 0.599

where unsat is the unsaturated soil weight above Table 4. Loamy Sand Parameters with Mohr
the phreatic level and sat is the saturated soil Coulomb Model
weight below the phreatic level. Description Symbol Unit Value
3
Unit weight  [kN/m ] 20
SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS Elasticity modulus E’ [kPa] 7500
Effective poisson's
Geometry, finite element mesh and material ' [-] 0.35
ratio
properties Effective cohesion c' [kPa] 10
Effective friction
The height of the slope is 10 m and the gradient ' [o] 30
angle
(horizontal to vertical) is 2:1. Figure 6 shows the
Permeability k [m/day] 3.499
geometry and the two dimensional finite element
meshes consisting of 642 15-noded elements.
Boundary Conditions
Three different hydraulic parameter sets of the
USDA series for the Van Genuchten Models The ground water table was assumed to be
(permeability) are used to evaluate the effect of horizontal at a certain depth (d). The lower
these parameters in slope stability with various boundary of the model was assumed as impervious
depths of the horizontal water table, namely clay, boundary (Figure 7). To evaluate the influence of
silt and loamy sand as given in Table 2, Table 3 various depths of horizontal water table on the
and Table 4 with Mohr Coulomb soil model. slope, the analyses were performed with d/H ratios
between 0.0 and 2.0.

B7-4
 Table 5. The Factor of Safety of Slopes with
Various Depths of Horizontal Water Table
(Without Suction)
FOS
Figure 7. Boundary conditions of the model d/H Loamy
Clay Silt
Sand
Results 0.0 5.54 3.86 3.12
0.2 4.49 3.11 2.56
Table 5, Table 6, and Figure 8 show the 0.4 3.79 2.67 2.27
changes in the factor of safety (FOS) with various 0.6 3.38 2.43 2.12
depths of horizontal water table with and without 0.8 3.10 2.29 2.05
considering suction for clay, silt and loamy sand 1.0 2.91 2.24 2.09
slopes. When fully submerged (d/H = 0), the FOS 1.2 2.96 2.34 2.19
1.4 3.01 2.38 2.19
is maximum for all different hydraulic parameters
1.6 3.05 2.38 2.19
because there is no suction. The critical level that 1.8 3.06 2.38 2.19
gives the minimum factor of safety occurs at d/H ≈ 2.0 3.07 2.38 2.19
0.8 – 1.0 (d ≈ 8 - 10m). After passing the minimum,
the increase of water table depth will increase the Table 6. The Factor of Safety of Slopes with
FOS of the unsaturated slopes. The FOS of the Various Depths of Horizontal Water Table (With
unsaturated slopes with hydraulic parameters for Suction)
clays (low permeability) are significantly increased. FOS
Conversely, the FOS of the unsaturated slopes with d/H Loamy
Clay Silt
hydraulic parameters for loamy sands (high Sand
permeability) show no significant increase and 0.0 5.54 3.86 3.12
0.2 4.50 3.11 2.53
when the ratio of d/H is more than 1.2, the depth of
0.4 3.80 2.69 2.24
horizontal ground water table will not influence 0.6 3.39 2.47 2.11
the stability. 0.8 3.12 2.36 2.05
Without considering suction, the fully 1.0 2.95 2.32 2.11
submerged slope also has the maximum FOS and 1.2 3.03 2.49 2.31
the critical level that gives the minimum factor of 1.4 3.12 2.67 2.32
safety occurs at d/H ≈ 0.8 – 1.0 (d ≈ 8 - 10m). 1.6 3.23 2.86 2.32
When the ratio of d/H is more than 1.2, the depth 1.8 3.36 3.06 2.32
2.0 3.53 3.15 2.32
of horizontal ground water table will not influence
the stability, hence the FOS of the slope remains
6.0
Clay (Without Suction)
constant. Silt (Without Suction)
The failure mechanisms of the clay slopes, silt 5.0 Loamy Sand (Without Suction)
Clay (With Suction)
slopes and loamy sand slopes without considering Silt (With Suction)
4.0
suction are shown in Figure 9 to Figure 11 Loamy Sand (With Suction)

respectively. Figure 12 to Figure 14 illustrate the

FOS

3.0
failure mechanisms, suction and degree saturation
of the clay slopes, silt slopes and loamy sand 2.0

slopes with various depths of horizontal water 1.0

table.
0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
d/H
Figure 8. Change of FOS with different d/H ratios

B7-5
Figure 9. Failure mechanism with various depths
of horizontal water table in clay slopes without
considering suction

Figure 12. Failure mechanism, suction and

saturation with various depths of horizontal water
table in clay slopes

Figure 10. Failure mechanism with various depths

of horizontal water table in silt slopes without
considering suction

Figure 13. Failure mechanism, suction and

saturation with various depths of horizontal water
table in silt slopes

Figure 11. Failure mechanism with various depths

of horizontal water table in loamy sand slopes
without considering suction

Figure 14. Failure mechanism, suction and

saturation with various depths of horizontal water
table in loamy sand slopes

B7-6
SUMMARY Rahardjo, H.; Nio, A., S.; Leong, E., C.; Song, N.,
Y. (2010). Effects of groundwater table
The finite element method has been used to
position and soil properties on stability of slope
evaluate the stability of unsaturated soil slopes.
during rainfall. Journal of Geotechnical and
The stability of an unsaturated slope will be
Geoenvironmental Engineering, Vol. 136 (11),
affected by the distribution of negative pore water
ASCE: 1555-1564.
pressures (suction). The slope stability increases
Rahardjo, H.; Ong, T., H.; Rezaur, R., B.; Leong,
when the shear strength contributed by matric
E., C. (2007). Factors controlling instability of
suction is taken into account. Different hydraulic
homogeneous soil slopes under rainfall. Journal
parameters will generate different distributions of
of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
saturation in different soils based on the Soil Water
Engineering, Vol. 133 (12), ASCE: 1532-1543.
Characteristic Curves (SWCC) for the particular
Vanapalli, S. K.; Fredlund, D. G.; Pufahl, D. E.;
soil. These parameters will effects the FOS of the
Clifton, A. W. (1996). Model for the prediction
slope. The water table location also will influence
of shear strength with respect to soil suction.
the factor of safety of the slopes.
Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 33 (3):
REFERENCES 379-392.
Van Genuchten, M., T., (1980). A closed-form
Brinkgreve, R.B.J.; Swolf, W. M.; and Engin, E. equation for predicting the hydraulic
(2010) Plaxis, users manual. The Netherlands. conductivity of unsaturated soils. Soil Science
Fredlund, D., G. (2000). The 1999 R.M. Hardy Society of America Journal, Vol. 44 (5): 892-
Lecture: The implementation of unsaturated 898.
soil mechanics into geotechnical engineering. Van Genuchten, M., T.; Nielsen, D., R. (1985). On
Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 37 (5): describing and predicting the hydraulic
963-986. properties of unsaturated soils. Annales
Fredlund, D., G.; Sheng, D.; Zhao, J. (2011). Geophysicae, Vol. 3 (5): 615-628.
Estimation of soil suction from the soil-water
characteristic curve. Canadian Geotechnical
Journal, Vol. 48 (2): 186-198.
Fredlund, D., G.; Xing, A.; Fredlund, M., D.;
Barbour, S., L. (1995). The relationship of the
unsaturated soil shear strength to the soil-water
characteristic curve. Canadian Geotechnical
Journal, Vol. 33 (3): 440-448.
Lu, N.; Griffiths, D., V. (2004). Profiles of steady-
state suction stress in unsaturated soils. Journal
of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Engineering, Vol. 130 (10), ASCE: 1063-1076.
Lu, N.; Likos, W., J. (2006). Suction stress
characteristic curve for unsaturated soil.
Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Engineering, Vol. 132 (2), ASCE: 131-142.
Ng, C., W., W.; Pang, Y., W. (2000). Influence of
stress state on soil-water characteristics and
slope stability. Journal of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Engineering, Vol. 126 (2),
ASCE: 157-166.
Oberg, A. L.; Sällfors, G. (1997). Determination of
shear strength parameters of unsaturated silts
and sands based on the water retention curve.
ASTM Geotechnical Testing Journal, Vol.
20(1): 40-48.
Rahardjo, H.; Li, X., W.; Toll, D., G.; Leong, E., C.
(2001). The effect of antecedent rainfall on
slope stability. Geotechnical and Geological
Engineering, Vol. 19 (3-4): 371-399.

B7-7
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

IMPORTANCE OF ELONGATION FACTOR IN DETERMINING

GEOSYNTHETICS STIFFNESS FOR FINITE ELEMENT CALCULATION

GOUW Tjie-Liong 1

ABSTRACT: The application of geosynthetics for reinforced earth, also known as mechanically stabilized earth,
is gaining popularity in Indonesia. At the same time, many engineers have started using geotechnical finite
element software in designing the geosynthetics reinforced earth. Unfortunately, many of them still do not
know the importance of elongation factor in determination of the geosynthetics stiffness to be input into the
finite element calculation. Some engineers even said that elongation of the geosynthetics need not be considered
in selecting the right geosynthetics material, only the breaking strength and the type of geosynthetics need to be
considered. Such misconception can lead to bad performance or even failure of the geosynthetics reinforced
earth. This paper elaborates the importance of the elongation factor and the correct procedure in determining the
stiffness of geosynthetics materials for finite element software input.

Keywords: Elongation, stiffness, geosynthetics, finite element analysis

INTRODUCTION one of the important inputs to the finite element

software is the stiffness of the geosynthetics
The application of geosynthetics for reinforcing
material in use. Unfortunately, the product
earth embankment was first introduced in the
specification of the geosynthetics materials, be it
second half of 1980s. It was successfully applied as
geogrids, geotextiles or geomembranes hardly
reinforcement of road embankment underneath the
provides such value. The worse thing is that the
Soediatmo toll road, the original highway toward
design engineer often does not know that the
Soekarno-Hatta International Airport of Jakarta,
stiffness value varies with the allowable elongation
which was built on top of swampy lands. Since then,
of the geosynthetics. In a geotechnical forum, one
among other applications, it has been widely
asked: “In a geotextile catalog, we often presented
accepted as one of the alternatives to reinforce
with the elongation at break. What I do not
man-made slopes and retaining structures. As the
understand is when we should adopt large
computer technology advances, so does the
elongation and when to take a small elongation”.
geotechnical engineering software. To the author’s
Many engineers answer that the elongation is not
knowledge commercial geotechnical finite element
important! One even said: “I think elongation of the
application came to Indonesian engineers in the mid
geotextile materials need not be considered in
of 1990s, and slowly gaining popularity since then.
selecting the material. What important is its
By now, many engineers have been using either
breaking strength.”. And many of them just simply
Plaxis, Phase-2, Geo-Studio, Geo5 or other similar
input its breaking strength (in kN per m run) as the
software.
stiffness of the selected geosynthetics material. This
In line with the widespread application of
is definitely wrong! In light with the above
geosynthetics reinforced earth structures for road
erroneous approach, this paper explains the
embankment, bridge approach, man-made slope,
importance of elongation in the performance of
retaining structures, and other similar geotechnical
geosynthetics reinforced soils structures and
structures, the need to utilize finite element
elaborates the right method to derive the stiffness of
software become more and more important in order
the geosynthetics material to be input into a
to be able to design a performance based
geotechnical finite element software.
geotechnical structures. To make sure the stability
and the movement of the geosynthetics reinforced
structures fall within their safe and tolerable limit,

1
Senior Lecturer, Binus University, Jalan Syahdan No. 9, Jakarta 11480, Indonesia, gouw3183@binus.ac.id

B8-1
GEOSYNTHETICS WORKING PRINCIPLE ultimate load also known as short term load
capacity. The elongation is known as elongation at
Geosynthetics (geotextiles or geogrids), that are
break and typically expressed as strain (%). A good
used as reinforcement, be it placed as a single sheet
product typically present the complete curve of test
at the base of an embankment (Figure 1) or placed
load (often expressed in % of ultimate strength) vs
in layers to make reinforced earth wall (Figure 2),
elongation (strain) as depicted in Figure 5.
work by relying on their tensile strength. Under the
earth pressures, the geosynthetics shall deform and
subject to tension force. Subsequently, it will

Geotextiles
elongate as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 1. Geosynthetics reinforced embankment

Figure 2. Geosynthetics Reinforced Earth

Geotextiles

Geogrid

Figure 3. Geosynthetics reinforcement working

principle

BREAKING STRENGTH & ITS ELONGATION

When geosynthetics are used as reinforcement,
the most important property is their tensile breaking
strength. To determine the tensile breaking strength,
a relatively simple tension test is employed as
shown in Figure 4. The test is performed by
gripping the two ends of the geosynthetics
specimen as shown and applying continuously
Geogrid
increasing load until breaking (rupture) takes place.
The load at rupture and the corresponding
elongation are recorded. This tested rupture load is
known as breaking or ultimate strength and is
normally expressed in terms of a load per unit
width (kN/m) rather than an actual stress since
stress requires the material thickness, which is
generally difficult to describe because it does not Figure 4. Geosynthetic Tension Test
remain constant during tensile loading. The (after Sarsby, 2007)

B8-2
 Figure 5. Example of Short Term “Stress”-Strain
Curve of Geosynthetics Figure 7. Typical Creep Isochronous Curve of
(after Chamberlain & Cooper, 2010) Geosynthetics (after Kaliakin et al, 2000)

LONG TERM CREEP RUPTURE STRENGTH

Geosynthetics are typically made of polymeric
materials and polymeric materials are elasto-visco-
plastic materials which exhibit time dependent
(creep) behavior, i.e. when subjected to a constant
load, it deforms continuously as shown in Figure 6.
Many manufactures and researchers have
conducted the creep test on geosynthetics materials
(Watts et al, 1998, McGown, 2000, Kaliakin et al,
2000). The result of the creep test is then typically
plotted in a set of load vs strain curves with its
time effect as schematically presented in Figure 7.
This set of curves is known as isochronous curves.
Figure 8 is an example of the isochronous curves
for the same material of the short term strength
curve presented in Figure 5.

Figure 8. Example of Isochronous Curves

(mod. after Chamberlain & Cooper, 2010)

It is clear that the strength of the geosynthetics

Figure 6. Idealized Creep Curve of geosynthetics at
Constant Temperature (after McGown, 2000 )
degraded with time. The degradation of the strength
is also often plotted as time vs % of ultimate
strength as shown in Figure 9. When strain is not a
limiting factor in the design of the geosynthetics
reinforced soil, this time creep degradation curve
(Figure 9) is used to determine the long term creep
strength. If strain is the limiting factor then the long
term creep strength is determined from the
isochronous curves (Figure 8). Depending on

B8-3
polymer type and the manufacturing process, each
geosynthetics have different long term creep
performance, creep is more pronounced in
polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP) than in
polyamide (PA) or polyester/polyethylene
terephtalate (PET) as shown in Figure 10. Figure 11
presents the curves of geogrids made of
polyethylene terephtalate (PET material).

Figure 9. Time Creep Degradation Curve

(mod. after Chamberlain & Cooper, 2010)

Figure 11. Time Creep Degradation & Isochronous

Curve (after Chamberlain & Cooper, 2008)

DESIGN STRENGTH OF GEOSYNTHETICS

The allowable design (tensile) strength, Tall, of
geosynthetics is determined through following
equation (Koerner, 2005, Sarsby, 2007):

Tult
Tall  (1)
RFCR xRFID xRFI CBD xRFJOINT

where:

Tult = short term ultimate (breaking strength)

RFCR = reduction factor due to creep
RFID = reduction factor for installation damage
RFCBD= RFCD x RFBD
RFCD = reduction factor for chemical damage
RFBD = reduction factor for biological damage
Figure 10. Results of Creep Tests on Various Yarns RFjoint = reduction factor for joints/seams
of Different Polymers
(after den Hoedt, 1986; from Shukla and Yin, 2006) When strain is not an important factor in the
design of the geogrids, i.e. for stress rupture design
approach, the reduction factor due to creep (RFCR)
obtained from one over % of ultimate strength of
the time creep degradation curve for the
corresponding geosynthetics as typically shown in
Figures 9 and 11a. As an example, for a design life
of 50 years, Figure 9 gives creep strength of around

B8-4
73% of ultimate strength, therefore, the
RFCR=1/0.73=1.37.
If strain is an important limiting factor where
the maximum strain is generally limited to a certain
percentage, then the isochronous curves is used to
determine the creep reduction factor. For example,
if design life of a structure is 50 years, and the
limiting strain is 5%, Figure 8 gives creep strength
in the order of 37.5%, which is translated into
RFCR=1/0.376=2.65.
Table 1 presents the recommended strength
reduction factors (Koerner, 2005). The values of
RFCR in the table shall be used only when there is
no creep reduction or creep isochronous curve
available. The low end of the RFCR range refers to
applications which have relatively short service
lifetimes and/or where creep deformations are not
critical to the overall performance of the
geosynthetics reinforced structures.
Table 1. Geosynthetics Strength Reduction Factors
(after Koerner, 2005)
When there is joint in the geosynthetics
reinforced soil structures, joint reduction factor,
RFJOINT, values can be taken within1.8 to 2.0.
STIFFNESS MODULUS OF GEOSYNTHETICS
In a country where the geosynthetics code of
practice still not available, such as Indonesia, many
geosynthetics brochures provided by the suppliers
only gives the breaking strength and the elongation
at break in numbers. To obtain the axial stiffness
modulus of the geosynthetics, many engineers
either simply input its breaking strength (in kN per
m run) as the stiffness of the selected geosynthetics
material or divide the breaking strength over the
elongation at break. Obviously, those are not
appropriate approach. The correct approach is
presented below.
From the “stress” strain curve of the
geosynthetics, it can be seen that the stiffness
modulus of the geosynthetics is actually non linear.
However, for practical purposes, a linear stiffness
up to its allowable tensile stress is normally
adopted, and is calculated as follows:
Stress  Tall 1
E    (2)
Strain  A 
hence:
Tall
EA  (3)

The allowable tensile strength of geosynthetics
normally stated in load per unit width (kN/m), the
EA values obtained is also in the unit of load per
unit width (kN/m). So, the axial stiffness is
obtained by dividing the allowable tensile strength
of the geosynthetics by its corresponding (or
allowable) strain. For a certain type of structures
where deformation should be limited, the author
takes the following limiting strain (note that
wherever available the limiting strain given by local
code of practice should be taken):
 Basal reinforced embankment: 6%
 Slope stabilization: 4 – 5%
 Retaining wall : 3 – 5%
 Bearing and foundation: 2%
Example of the axial stiffness calculation is
given below:
 Given breaking strength of a geocomposite is,
Tult = 300 kN/m.
 For slope stabilization, design life 100 years
 Limiting strain = 5%
 RFCR = 1/(37.5%) = 2.67 (from Figure 8)
 RFID = 1.10
 RFCBD = 1.04
 No joint
 Tall = 300 / (2.67x1.10x1.04)  98.4 kN/m
 EA = 97.40/5%  2000 kN/m
In finite element analysis, for high slope
stabilization application, rather than modeling the
geosynthetics as elastic material, it is better to
model it as elastoplastic material so that the tension
force acting at the geosynthetics layers can be
limited up to the allowed short term capacity
(taking RFCR = 1) calculated as follows:
Tall-short term = 300 / (1x1.10x1.04) = 262 kN/m
B8-5
CLOSSURES
The above shows that the performance of
geosynthetics depends on its elongation or strain.
The axial tension stiffness modulus of
geosynthetics materials clearly depends on its
elongation. Simply dividing the breaking strength
with it is corresponding elongation to derive the
stiffness is inappropriate. The proper procedure of
deriving the geosynthetics axial stiffness must be
through determination of the allowable tension
capacity and its corresponding strain level as
elaborated in the paper.

REFERENCES
Chamberlain, B. and Cooper, G. (2008), BBA
Agrément Certificate no 05/4266 for Fortrac
Geogrids.
Chamberlain, B. and Cooper, G. (2010), BBA
Agrément Certificate no 03/4065 for Paralink
Composite.
Den Hoedt, G. (1986), Creep and Relaxation of
Geotextiles Fabrics, Geotextiles and
Geomembranes, Vol .4. No. 2, pp. 83-92.
Kaliakin, V.N., Dechasakulsom, M. and
Leshchinsky, D. (2000), Investigation of the
Isochrones Concept for Predicting Relaxation of
Geogrids, Geosynthetics International, Vol.7,
No. 3, pp.79-99.
Koerner, R.M. (2005), Reduction Factors Used in
Geosynthetics Design, GSI White Paper 4, GII
Publications, Folsom, Pennsylvania, 13 pp.
McGown, A.. (2000), The Behavior of
Geosynthetic Reinforced Soil System in
Various Geotechnical Applications, Proc.2nd
European Geosynthetics Conference, Vol.1:
Mercer lecture, Keynote Lectures, Geotechnical
Applications., Bologna, Italy.
Sarsby, R.W. (2007), Geosynthetics in Civil
Engineering, Woodhead Publishing Limited,
Cambridge, England.
Shukla, S.K. and Yin, J.H. (2006), Fundamentals of
Geosynthetic Engineering, Taylor & Francis,
London.
Watts, G.R.A., Brady, K.C. and Greene, M.J.
(1998), The Creep of Geosynthetics, Thomas
Telford, England.

B8-6
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

HIDDEN LANDSLIDE: AS THE CALDERA RIM DEFORMATION AT

FUKAYAMADAKE PLATEAU, AT THE FOOT SLOPE OF KURIKOMA
VOLCANO, KURIHARA, JAPAN
Le Hong Luong 1 and Toyohiko Miyagi 2

ABSTRACT: During the late Tertiary to Quaternary, the Tohoku District of northeastern Japan received a large
volcanisms. Among them the number of caldera structures developed at along the Ohu Back Bone Range. All
most of all Caldera buried by volcanic sediments and lacustrine sediments. Near the Kurikoma volcanic area also
has 7 caldera structures. The distribution of landslide topographies is strongly influenced by the caldera structure.
The famous Aratozawa landslide is also located at a caldera. One of the reasons of such landslide concentration,
the lacustrine fine layers will have a role of slip surface. The shape of caldera itself is also important potential of
land deformation.
The Fukayamadake plateau is a small upland shape area. Although, at the northwestern margin, there is
caldera rim located. The caldera had established at about 1 million years ago. But during the Pleistocene, the
lacustrine sediment such as tuffaceous silt, clay, pumice sand etc accumulate and developed the platy bedding
structure. And then, pumice fall deposit, welded tuff deposit covered the sediment. Now the area looks very flat.
There are a number of massive landslide topographic areas distributed. At the moment of 2008 Iwate-Miyagi
Nairiku Earthquake, a huge number of landslides occurred there.
At a part of the Fukayamadake area, some landslides and small cracks happened just one to two years after
the earthquake. So, we reexamined the actual distribution of landslides.
The area has a series of intensive data such as Aerial Photographs, 5 meter DEM by Laser Scan, the data of
gravity anormaly etc., and field investigation data.
Base on the recent study, we deduced the hidden massive landslide. That is mostly covered by new volcanic
deposit. The Hidden landslide that is seems to be a part of caldera rim deformation. The establishment of caldera
structure, itself is a type of mass movement. The land deformation is mainly caused by the recent volcanism.
Such as Volcanic ash fall, Pumice flow, and Welded tuff accumulation. The influences of the deformation lead
the secondary deformation such as the landslides.

Keywords: Landslide, Caldera rim, Kurikoma Volcano, Geopark

INTRODUCTION
Inner arc of Northeast Japan (Tohoku district)
is very active orogenic movement during Neogene.
The volcanism and earthquake is also common.
The area is also heavy precipitation because of the
temperate monsoon and typhoon. There also over
200 geological caldera structures are developing.
Among the district there are over 160000 landslide
areas are identified by landslide topography
mapping (NIED, 1985 to 2008). Oyagi (2008) says
the caldera structure and the deposit such as
lacustrine layers have high potential of large scale Figure 1. Typical landscape of the study area
landslides occurrence. (The Fukayamadake Pastureland and Mt.
Kurikoma Volcano)

1
Graduate student, Tohoku-Gakuin University, lehongluong@gmail.com, Japan
2
Professor, Tohoku-Gakuin University, miyagi@mail.tohoku-gakuin.ac.jp, Japan

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 The almost of all landslide hazards are GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY
appearing as the reactivation process at a part of AREA
landslide topographic area. On the other side the
The area of target landslide is might be located
ground true picture of landslide phenomena is not
at Fukayamadake Plateau. Now there is no clear
still perfect reveal. This occasion, we like to
main scarp and no landslide body. The area is
discuss about the possibility of large scale
just4km far from the Aratozawa Landslide. At
landslide existence at plateau topographic area at
June 14, 2008, The Iwate Miyagi Nairiku (Inland)
Fukayamadake plateau near Kurikoma volcano,
Earthquake happened and more than 4000
Miyagi prefecture, Northeast Japan.
landslides generated around the area.

Figure 2. The distribution of the geologic caldera structures and Quaternary volcanics in Tohoku district
Northeastern Japan (Right up). The landform classification map includes landslide topography. The landslide
topographies referenced from NIED Data

OUTLINE OF GEOLOGY AND LANDFORMS According with the severe land devastation by
Iwate-Miyagi Nairiku Earthquake, intensive
The geological investigations carried by many
geophysical investigations are carried. The
geologists. The compilation of the series of
measurement of Gravity Anomaly is also carried.
geological survey by Kitamura (1986) is
The date clearly mentioned the boundary of
remarkable. The reexamination of the stratigraphy
geological caldera rim (Figure 3). The rim
by Oba et al (2009) is also important background
distribute at a part of the research area. The laser
of the study. The basic geo-structures are
data was also collected by Forestry Agency Japan.
referenced from the seamless geological map by
Figure 4 shows the contour map which produced
Geological Survey Japan. The basic geological
from the 5 meter grid DEM data. The figure shows
stratigraphy is recognized the Miocene
the clear Lineament stretch from southeast to
sedimentary series as the semi consolidated
northwest. The distribution of the landslide
tuffaceous sandstones and andesite, Pliocene lake
topography and related phenomena is also
deposit as the slightly consolidated sediments, The
reexamined by 1/10000 color aerial photographs.
Caldera established at about I million years ago.
The result shows as Figure 5.
The caldera filled by the series of lacustrine
sediment such as silt, fine sand and pumice etc.
LANDSLIDE AND RELATED PHENOMENA
The filling up process might be complete till the
OF FUKAYAMADAKE PLATEAU AREA
over lying the Pleistocene volcanic materials such
as welded tuff, taffaceous sandstones, pumiceous The features such as landslide and lineaments
tuff had been accumulated till 40 ka ago, it and cracks are revealed through the air photo
developed the plateau. The plateau dissected by interpretation and field investigation (Figure 5).
stream erosion and landslide processes (Figure 2). The photos were taken at 1976 in color and in

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1/10000 in scale. The data of the NIED that
established by 1/40000 monochrome photo image.
This means that has some difficulty of identify the
micro landforms through the photo interpretation
(Uchiyama et al, 2014).
The Fukayamadake plateau is deeply dissected
by the stream networks. In spite of such linear
erosion, the by large scale landslide topography
(LS1, 2 and 4) are identified at the northern margin.
These landslides were occurred on the lacustrine
deposit in caldera. On the other hand the small
landslides (LS 3, 5 -9) and lineaments (L1 to L8)
concentrate at the southwestern margin of the
plateau. These phenomena distributed at the
Miocene semi consolidated geology. Based on the
gravity anomaly and the geologic features, it
assume the caldera rim might be distributes at
northern margin of the plateau as the hidden
geological structure. The L1 has distinctive
characteristics. The trace of the L1 stretches from
SE to NW as the clear line. The Southwestern side
of the line is clear and steep scarp and consists by
Miocene hard rocks. The scarp has more than 40
meters in relative height at WE end and it
disappear at the NW end. However the
Northwestern side of the line has no scarp.
However there are number of small landslides
distributed. L1 has the clearness in SW side scarp
and ambiguity in NE landslides side. The LS 3 and
LS 5 are extremely fresh and active landslides
where located at the NW end of L1. A series of
cracks and swamps concentrates between the area
of L1 and LS 5. The other small cracks distribute
at behind of LS 8 and L5.
HIDDEN LANDSLIDE AND THE
GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE
At the moment of 2008 Iwate-Miyagi Nairiku
Earthquake the LS 3 and LS5 occurred and its
extending year by year (Figure 6-2). However the
Figure 3. Gravity anomaly of the Caldera structure
area by Geological Survey of Japan
slip surface is appears as the evidence of former
landslide (Figure 6-4). The surface has clear
grooves and several millimeter of ferric layer.
Behind the LS3 and LS5 there are several large
cracks and swamps distributes. It develop at the
knot of LS5 and L1 (Figure 6-7).The LS9 is also
important landslide. The slip surface appears at the
NE edge of L1 trace (Figure 6-5). Small cracks
also located just above of main scarp of LS9
(Figure 6-6).
The series of field evidence and their remote
sensing and measuring data, we are able to
presume the large scale land deformation. The
consideration result is illustrated in Figure 7.
The detection of hidden landslide will be
thinking as follows.
1) The caldera rim establish and secondary
deformation: The rim must be located at the
northern margin of Fukayamadake plateau.
Around the rim there has the possibility of
secondary modification. The large lineament of
L1 might be the structure of secondary rim
deformation. The southern side of L1 is same
as the main scarp. The northern side of L1 is
same as the landslide body.
2) The characteristics of L1: The southern side as
the main scarp, the relative height is higher at
eastern end (40 meter) and it disappears at the
western end. The scarp has not received the
stream erosion. The area of western end, there
are many cracks distributed (The most large
one has 20meter long, 15cm in width). The L1
inequality deforms, and it seems still active.
3) The northern side likes a landslide body:
According with the L1 deformation, the surface
deformed to be the uphill facing slope. The
near part of L1 trace changed to the tensional
field. Then, LS 6-9, L5-8 developed. These
landslides are relatively active.
Figure 4. Shadow image of the study area. Established
by 5 meter DEM
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Figure 5. The distribution of Landslide topography, linearment and cracks at the area of Fukayamadake plateau,
Mt. Kurikoma foot slope, Miyagi Prefecture, Northeastern Japan

Figure 6. Field evidences of the landslide related features at Fukayamadake area.

1. Air view of the target area. L1 and LS9 marked of the photo. 2. LS5 landslide.
3. Southwestern side scarp of L1. 4. Slip surface of LS5 (also former slip surface ).
5. Slip surface of LS8. 6 and 7. Cracks on the plateau near LS 5and LS6.

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 Figure 7. Cross profile at LS 8, 9 area

CONCLUDING REMARKS
The geological caldera structure has the
potential of various kinds of secondary land
deformation. The large scale deep sheeted
landslide such as Aratozawa Landslide is one of
the remarkable phenomena. At the same time the
caldera rim its self is also not permanent structure.
Rim itself is similar to the main scarp of huge
landslide. And secondary rim making processes is
also be able to establish at behind the rim. This is
really the process of landslide. At the
Fukayamadake plateau, There is large scale active
lineament (L1). The scarp of one side of the
lineament is undoubtedly main scarp of huge
landslide. And the other side of the lineament is
landslide body. The velocity of the movement is
very gradual. But according with the land
deformation, the shallow landslides will lead.

REFERENCES
Forestory Agency Tohoku Regional Forest Offece
(2015): The Chronicle of a Mountain Disaster
– The Iwate-Miyagi Nairiku Earthquake in
2008. 30ps.
Miyagi, T., S. Yamashina, F. Esaka and S. Abe
(2011) Massive landslide triggered by 2008
Iwate-Miyagi inland earthquake in the
Aratozawa Dam area, Tohoku, Japan.
Oyagi, N., S. Uchiyama, A Sano., M. Ogura and S.
Doshida (2014) Landslide Maps, Series 57
“Island of Okinawa Prefecture” Explanation of
Landslide Distribution Maps. National research
institute for Earth Science and Disaster
Prevention, Japan. No. 389, P. 1-14.

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 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

ASSESSMENT AND MONITORING STRATEGY FOR SLOPES IN DIFFERENT

GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS

Agus Setianto Samingan 1

ABSTRACT: This paper presents an assessment carried out on slopes that are located in different geological
formations and approach to the monitoring strategy for performance review. The first slope was constructed in a
reclaimed land near the Southern coastline of Singapore with geology predominated by soft soil and reclamation
fill whilst the second is a slope in residual soil formation with unsaturated soil zone near the ground surface. The
groundwater level for the first slope remains essentially constant with slight effect from the tidal level and
continuous water recharge ensures that the soil remains at saturation. Variation in the groundwater level is
expected to be more prevalent in the second case and the factor of safety of the slope is largely affected by the
seasonal change of the pore-water pressure distribution in the soil. Unsaturated soil analyses involving seepage
and slope stability have been undertaken for this slope while for that located in the reclaimed land assessment
was conducted at its different stages of construction. Instrumentation and monitoring strategy for the two slopes
follow different approaches and are controlled by the hazards and hazard causes identified.

Keywords: slope stability, reclamation, residual soil, unsaturated soil, rainfall infiltration, instrumentation and
monitoring

INTRODUCTION dissipates during consolidation after the placement

of reclamation fill. In order to accelerate
A number of constructions in Singapore
consolidation, prefabricated vertical drains (PVDs)
involve either slope cutting or slope forming,
were installed and hence targeted shear strength
where in both cases, assessment of stability is an
for stability can be achieved more rapidly.
important aspect as far as safety is concerned. Two
The second slope is located in a built-up area
slopes in different geological formations have been
and may have been trimmed down from its original
assessed with the first located near the Southern
terrain during the development of amenities in the
coastline of Singapore and the second at the centre
area. The geology is mainly of Bukit Timah
of the island (Figure 1).
granitic residual soils. Groundwater table in
The first slope was formed as part of a near
residual soil is normally located below the ground
shore reclamation work for construction of an
level giving rise to an unsaturated zone near the
underground road tunnel in this area, which is
surface. In the unsaturated zone, pore-water
predominantly of soft soil named as Kallang
pressure is negative, which is called suction. The
formation mainly from marine and alluvial
piezometric measurement carried out at the site
members. The groundwater table is at or close to
indicated that the groundwater table was located
the ground level and remains essentially
between 3m and 4m below ground level at the
unchanged as soil is continuously recharged by sea
slope crest while at the toe it remained close to the
water though a slight variation due to tidal effect
surface. The groundwater table at this slope is
has been observed. The soil has been found to be
influenced by weather; namely, infiltration during
always at saturation throughout the year. The
rain and evaporation in the dry season. Suction
stability of this reclamation slope is mainly
changes as affected by water flux and since shear
affected by the sequence how it is formed during
strength of unsaturated soil varies with suction
reclamation. Since shear strength of the soft
(Fredlund and Rahardjo, 1993); there is also
Kallang formation soils increases with soil
alteration in the factor of safety of the slope as a
effective stress, the factor of safety of the slope
function of suction.
increases as the excess pore-water pressure

1
Senior Project Manager, Mott MacDonald Singapore Pte Ltd, 1 Grange Road 07-01 Orchard Building, SINGAPORE

C2-1
 For these two slopes, different instrumentation
and monitoring strategies have been adopted. It is
imperative to note that the monitoring strategies
adopted are controlled by the hazards and hazard
causes identified. For the first slope, vertical and
lateral movements of the soil as the slope was
formed by backfilling are important and would
provide first indication of instability. Soil
movement may not be significant for the second
slope since the soil is relatively stiffer. However,
variation in groundwater table affects its stability
and measurement for this variation is therefore
important.
This paper presents the assessment that has
been carried out on these two slopes from the
design perspective and monitoring strategies
adopted for performance review.

Slope 2 – Residual soil

(granitic) formation

Slope 1 – Kallang formation

(marine and alluvial)

Figure 1. Locations of the two slopes assessed

ASSESSMENT OF SLOPE 1 (RECLAMATION clays might have still been undergoing

SLOPE ON SOFT SOIL) consolidation before the “new” reclamation was
undertaken 30 years later.
This slope was constructed in two stages. Stage
Figure 2 shows the typical cross section of the
1 was meant for formation of working platform for
reclamation slope. One will easily recognize that if
installation of PVDs. This stage was undertaken to
a deep seated slope failure were to occur, its
the targeted level of 4m above the existing ground
critical slip surface would not extend below the
level, which was below the sea level. Stage 2 (or
bottom of the upper marine clay layer. From the
Final Stage) was carried out once the shear
results of undrained triaxial tests and field vane
strength of the soft soil (i.e. mainly marine clay)
shear tests, it was evident that the undrained shear
had achieved the targeted value for stability. The
strength of this layer was generally around 15kPa
final level was 5.5m above the existing ground
at the top and increased with depth at a rate of
level and was constructed with seawall retaining
1.2kPa/m from the depth of 5m below the existing
the backfill material behind. This reclamation
seabed level.
slope extends 500m long with an approximately
The design of Stage 1 reclamation was
40,000-m2 reclaimed area, in which an
undertaken by considering loads from the PVD
underground road has been constructed.
machine and temporary access road. A factor of
The area is predominantly covered with marine
safety (FOS) of the slope was found to be greater
clay, fluvial and localised transitional (estuarine)
than 1.5 with the aforementioned shear strength
members of Kallang formation with alluvial layer
profile of upper marine clay layer.
(old alluvium) located at a depth around 40 to 50m
The PVDs were designed as per the
below the existing ground level. “Old” reclamation
methodology described in FHWA (1986) to
works had been carried out in 1980s and the soft
achieve a target undrained shear strength value of

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20kPa at the top of the upper marine clay layer, the
value that would give an FOS of greater than 1.5
for the final stage of reclamation in 2 years
duration. This period correspond to a time frame
required to achieve 90% degree of consolidation
2nd stage
5.5m
4m ~25m wide
PVD-treated
zone
Figure 2. Typical cross section of Slope 1 (reclamation slope on soft soil
Prior to commencement of Stage 1 reclamation,
several inclinometers and deep settlement markers
were installed along the reclamation slope to
monitor soil movement (see further in the next
section). Within a short period after the completion
of backfill placement for this stage, the
inclinometers in one localised area registered a
rapid lateral soil movement with a total lateral
movement of more than 300mm on average within
the upper marine clay layer in the first few days
(Figure 3).
Upper marine clay
layer
Figure 3. Lateral soil movement on Slope 1 after
Stage 1 reclamation
Results from cone penetration tests (CPTs)
immediately undertaken after the incident
for this clay layer. The final arrangement of the
PVDs was 2m maximum spacing with triangular
pattern and a minimum length of 11m, which
extended below the bottom of the upper marine
clay layer (Figure 2).
1st stage Existing seawall
Existing reclamation fill Sea
Existing seabed
Upper marine clay
Fluvial clay
Lower marine clay
indicated that the undrained shear strength of the
upper marine clay layer in the localised area was
lower than that obtained earlier (cu = 15 + 1.2z
interpreted earlier versus cu = 5 + h at the incident
location, where cu is in kPa and h is in meter
measured from 5m below the existing seabed
level). The CPT data assessment using Robertson
method (Robertson et al., 1992) showed that the
layer, where the maximum lateral movement
occurred (i.e. earlier interpreted as the upper
marine clay layer) turned out to be of organic soils
(peat). This can be interpreted as estuarine, which
is interbedded within the upper marine clay layer.
The back-analysis carried out showed that the
slope FOS was close to unity indicating that the
slope was in a quasi-stable condition. An
immediate remedial measure by placing concrete
blocks (1m thick) at the toe of the reclamation
slope (under seawater) was implemented to arrest
the movement and brought the slope to a stable
condition (with an FOS of greater than 1.2) such
that the PVD installation could be carried out
safely.
Stage 2 reclamation was carried out after 2-
year duration of PVD treatment. The undrained
shear strength profile derived from CPTs indicated
significant improvements during the treatment
(Figure 4). The slope stability analysis conducted
with the undrained shear strength profile of the
upper marine clay layer after the PVD treatment
showed an FOS of greater than 1.5, which satisfies
the requirement for permanent slope for this
project.
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INSTRUMENTATION AND MONITORING
STRATEGY FOR SLOPE 1 (RECLAMATION
SLOPE ON SOFT SOIL)
The objective of instrumentation and
monitoring scheme for this slope was mainly
governed by the facts that the soft soils were still
consolidating with lateral and vertical soil
movement expected as a result of the consolidation
and lateral destabilizing soil pressure. Since Stage
1 reclamation was meant to establish a platform for
the PVD installation, slope instability became the
main hazard and early warning by monitoring soil
movement was needed.
Earlier interpretation
After PVD treatment
Actual
Figure 4. Improvement of undrained shear strength
of the upper marine clay layer due to PVD
treatment
Alarm level is required, which is defined as the
limit, when exceeded, immediate remedial
measures are to be implemented (such as
placement of concrete blocks at the slope toe). The
soil lateral movement at the quasi-stable condition
(in this case 7mm/day based on the measurement
during incident) can be regarded as the alarm level
for Stage 1 reclamation before Stage 2 can be
carried out. It is also prudent to evaluate the
effectiveness of PVD treatment by measuring the
excess pore-water pressure in the treated soil to
ensure that the target shear strength was achieved
before Stage 2 reclamation commencement. In this
case, piezometers were also installed in addition to
the instruments for measuring soil movement.
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For Stage 2 reclamation, besides slope
instability hazard in the short term, long term soil
movement is also of concern. Early warning of
instability can be obtained from measurement of
the soil lateral movement with an alarm level
similar to that adopted for Stage 1. Excessive soil
movement that occurs after Stage 2 reclamation
gives rise to problem associated with serviceability
of structures and services that may be built on top
or within this reclaimed land in future. Alarm level
for the long term lateral movement and settlement
should be obtained from estimation either using
numerical analysis or curve fitting. For this
particular project, finite element analysis using
Plaxis with soft soil model was adopted together
with Asaoka’s observational method (Asaoka,
1978). One would expect that the long term soil
movement is minimum i.e. with most of the
movement occurring before the handover of the
completed project to the owner.
Figure 5. Comparison between measurement and
prediction of the soil lateral movement (from
commencement of PVD treatment)
Inclinometers, deep settlement markers and
ground settlement markers were used to monitor
the performance of the reclamation slope during
Stage 2 reclamation. Figure 5 shows the
comparison between measured soil lateral
movement and the prediction for the area where
the excessive soil movement was earlier detected.
Table 1 summarises the instrumentation and
monitoring scheme adopted for Slope 1.
ASSESSMENT OF SLOPE 2 (RESIDUAL SOIL
SLOPE)
The 2nd slope is located in the Bukit Timah
granitic residual soil formation and the site
investigation indicates that the soil is uniformly of
Grade VI (GVI) in terms of weathering grade. The
slope is approximately 11m in height with an
inclination of 1 in 2 to 2.75. As it is located in the
built-up area, there are structures (mainly
residential buildings) located near both the crest
and bottom of the slope that will be affected if the
slope fails.
The measured groundwater table (using
piezometers) was 3 to 4m below the ground level
at the crest and at the toe the groundwater table
was close to the surface. It should be noted that the
groundwater table changes with time as affected
by wet-dry cycles with the soil zone above the
groundwater table remains unsaturated. The soil
has a low effective cohesion of 1kPa with an
effective friction angle of 31.5o (measured in
consolidated undrained triaxial tests) and a
saturated unit weight of 19.5 kN/m3.

Table 1. Instrumentation scheme for Slope 1 (reclamation slope on soft soil)

Hazard cause Hazard Monitoring Instrumentation Alarm level
objective required
Stage 1 Low shear Slope instability Early warning of Inclinometers Rate at a quasi-stable
strength of soft and excessive soil instability by condition (in this case
clays movement monitoring soil 7mm/day)
lateral movement (Alarm Level 2)
and settlement and
indication of unsafe
PVD installation Alarm Level 1 can be
taken as 70% Alarm
Level 2 (~5mm/day)
Deep settlement N.A. (for verification
markers purpose only)
Confirmation of Piezometers N.A. (for verification
effectiveness of purpose only)
PVD treatment
before Stage 2
commencement
Stage 2 Ineffective PVD Slope instability Early warning of Inclinometers Rate at a quasi-stable
treatment and excessive soil instability by condition (in this case
causing shear movement monitoring soil 7mm/day)
strength of soft lateral movement (Alarm Level 2)
clays lower than Short term: and settlement and
targeted value disruption to indication of if
for stability staged backfilling is Alarm Level 1 can be
construction taken as 70% Alarm
activities required
Level 2 (~5mm/day)
Deep settlement N.A. (for verification
Long term: markers purpose only)
serviceability Ground N.A. (for verification
issue during the settlement purpose only)
design life (120 markers
years)
Estimation of Inclinometers Estimation from FE
remaining or long modelling or curve
term soil lateral fitting (in this case
movement and 63mm/year till handover,
settlement 2mm/year afterwards)
Deep settlement Estimation from FE
markers modelling or curve
fitting (in this case
232mm/year till
Ground
handover, 9mm/year
settlement afterwards)
markers

There was concern that the slope might not
meet the long term factor of safety as regulated (i.e.
FOS > 1.4) as affected by rainfall given that
rainfall intensity in Singapore is considered high.
Assessment was carried out to study the effect of
rainfall on the FOS of this slope using the
unsaturated soil mechanics principles.
A model was set up using Geostudio with the
first objective to model the infiltration of rainwater
into the slope using Seep/W. It is recognized that
rainwater infiltration occurs during wet season
while evaporation takes place during dry season.
However, only rainwater infiltration was required
to be studied herein. The infiltration analysis

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 Infiltration = 0.8 ks
commenced by establishing a steady-stage
Initial groundwater table
groundwater table assuming it was close to the
measured position. This can be done by applying a
Evaporation = 0.07 ks
small flux (i.e. a fraction of the soil saturated
coefficient of permeability) at the slope crest and Steady state groundwater table
ks = 0.00864m/d = 10-7 m/s
toe, which can be either positive flux (i.e. Fredlund & Xing’s SWCC

infiltration) or negative flux (i.e. evaporation) or

combination of both. The infiltration analysis
requires information on the hydraulic properties of
the soil that include the saturated coefficient of Figure 8. Steady-state groundwater table and
fluxes applied at the slope crest and toe
permeability (ks), soil-water characteristic curve
(SWCC) and permeability function. The measured
Subsequently, a rainfall intensity of
ks value for this soil is 10-7m/s and in this analysis
533mm/day, which represents the maximum
the SWCC (i.e. the relationship between
intensity for 25 years return period in Singapore,
volumetric water content and suction) was derived
was applied on the slope surface for one day
using Fredlund and Xing (1994) SWCC equation
duration as per the contract requirement. The pore-
from the multivariate statistical procedure given in
water pressure distribution in the soil after rain is
Agus et al. (2001) (Figure 6). The permeability
shown in Figure 9.
function for the soil was computed using the built-
in function in Seep/W with the measured ks and
Groundwater table (after rain)
derived SWCC (Figure 7). Figure 8 shows the
position of the steady-state groundwater table with
fluxes at the slope crest and toe as applied for a 10-
day duration in the seepage analysis.

Current soil
Sat. VWC = 0.39 m 3/m3
a = 54.8kPa
n = 0.62
m = 1.18

Figure 9. Pore-water pressure distribution in the

soil after rain

It can be observed that the suction (denoted as

Figure 6. SWCC of the soil in this assessment
compared with the envelopes from Agus et al.
(2001)
ks = 0.00864m/d = 10-7 m/s
Max. range of application (max. suction = 45kPa)
Figure 7. Computed permeability function for the
soil assessed
negative pore-water pressure contours in the
figure) decreases near the surface where the
positive flux was applied, creating another
groundwater table near the surface, which is
termed as perched groundwater table. During
measurement using water standpipe, the
groundwater table can be wrongly perceived to be
located at ground surface. This may lead to
unnecessarily conservative slope strengthening
design since the shear strength of the soil is under
estimated.
Slope stability analysis was carried out for the
cases before and after the rainfall event with a
surcharge of 10kPa applied at the crest to model
possible loadings although the structures near the
crest are piled. The factors of safety for both cases
are almost similar and are greater than 1.5 (Figure
10).
Further examination was carried out as the
factor of safety may reduce days after the rain.
This was conducted by assuming no rainfall event
occurred for ten consecutive days after the heavy

C2-6
rain (533mm/day rainfall intensity for one day
duration). It was found that the factor of safety
dropped with time but, in any case, was still
greater than 1.5. The analysis suggests that the
amount of rainwater infiltration is not significant
and most of the rainwater flows down the slope as
surface runoff. The unsaturated soil zone is
essentially preserved resulting in a high soil shear
strength above the ground water table.
The assessment carried out on Slope 2 (residual
soil slope) as described above indicates that the
pore-water pressure distribution in the soil is
affected by the rainwater infiltration. Although the
slope factor of safety remains unaffected for this
case, its value is also influenced by the water flux
since the shear strength of the unsaturated soil is a
function of suction.
Surcharge = 10kPa
Figure 10. Factor of safety of Slope 2
(residual soil slope) after rain
INSTRUMENTATION AND MONITORING
STRATEGY FOR SLOPE 2 (RESIDUAL SOIL
SLOPE)
Due to its high factor of safety, the slope has
actually not been instrumented. This particular
section has been provided for a purpose of
illustrating how the instrumentation and
monitoring scheme should be set up for this slope
that will be useful for a similar case, where factor
of safety of the slope is close to unity or can go
even lower posing hazard to the public.
The instrumentation and monitoring scheme
for this type of slope will be controlled by
possibility of the slope instability caused by
rainwater infiltration. The rise in groundwater
table will generally decrease the factor of safety
due to the reduction in the shear strength of the soil.
Rainwater infiltration can cause development of
perched groundwater table, which may also reduce
the slope factor of safety. The finite element
modelling of infiltration and further slope stability
analysis provides estimate of the rainfall intensity
that can cause instability to the slope.
Measurement of groundwater table and rainfall
intensity has become the main objective for the
instrumentation and monitoring scheme for this
slope. Piezometer and water standpipe are
commonly used for this purpose. It is important to
note that the groundwater table measured should
not be confused with the perched groundwater
table developed during rainwater infiltration as
mentioned earlier. It is therefore recommended to
always couple water standpipe with piezometer
with piezometer tip located at a depth below the
“actual” groundwater table. Rainfall intensity can
be measured for instance using tipping bucket rain
gauge. The instrument consists of a funnel that
collects and channels precipitation into a container.
The amount of water collected is measured
regularly by means of electrical signal. The tipping
bucket rain gauge, however, tends to underestimate
the amount of rainfall particularly during heavy
rainfall events. A more accurate rainfall intensity
measurement can be obtained using optical and
acoustic rain gauges.
Figure 11. Jet fill tensiometer (Fredlund and
Rahardjo, 1993)
For this slope, it is also interesting to know
how pore-water distribution changes as affected by
water flux during wet-dry cycles, particularly the
movement of wetting front within the unsaturated
soil zone above the groundwater table. This will
require measurement of negative pore-water
pressure in the soil. Measurement of negative pore-
water pressure can be carried out using
tensiometers. Tensiometer has a high-air entry
ceramic cup at its tip (Figure 11), which acts as a
membrane separating water and air phases in the
soil. The instrument can measure suction up to
C2-7
100kPa before cavitation occurs, which is
sufficient for the range of suction dealt with for
this case.
For this slope, alarm levels are generally
determined by the groundwater table position and
rainfall intensity that cause instability to the slope
but provides sufficient allowance for
implementation of measures depending on the risk.
Table 2 summarizes alarm levels that can be
adopted for Slope 2. For the groundwater table,
Alarm Level 1 can be defined as the groundwater
table, which results in an FOS of 1.2. When
breached, contingency action plan needs to be
‘activated. Alarm Level 2 is the groundwater table
that causes the slope FOS to be as low as 1.1 and if
the groundwater table keeps rising, the slope will
fail. When this level is breached, emergency action
plan is implemented (Figure 12).

Table 2. Alarm levels for Slope 2 (residual soil slope)

Measurement Instrument Alarm Level 1 Alarm Level 2
Groundwater table Water standpipe Groundwater table location causing Groundwater table location causing
Piezometer slope factor of safety of 1.2 slope factor of safety of 1.1
Rainfall intensity Rain gauge 533mm/day rainfall intensity for one Rainfall intensity causing slope factor
day duratio of safety of 1.1

Groundwater Level Rainfall Intensity

Alarm Level 1 No Alarm Level 1 No

Continue monitoring Continue monitoring
breached? breached?

Yes Yes
Contingency action plan
Groundwater
table Alarm Level 1
breached?
Alarm Level 2 No
Continue monitoring
breached? Yes

Contingency action plan

Yes

Emergency action plan

Alarm Level 2 No
Continue monitoring
breached?

Yes

Emergency action plan

Figure 12. Monitoring strategy for Slope 2 (residual soil slope)

In terms or rainfall intensity, the alarm level
should be coupled with that of the groundwater
table since rainwater infiltration may not always
cause the groundwater table to rise (Figure 12) and
reduce the slope FOS. In this case, the rainfall
intensity of 533mm/day for one day duration can
be adopted as Alarm Level 1 with no activation of
contingency action plan if groundwater table
Alarm Level 1 is not breached. The assessment
indicates that a rainfall intensity of ten times that
of 25-year return period, although causes the
development of perched groundwater table, does
not result in the drop in the factor of safety
approaching unity. In this case, realistically only
the groundwater table Alarm Level 2 is used to
determine if the emergency action plan needs to be
implemented.
Figure 13 shows the groundwater tables
corresponding to Alarm Level 1 and Alarm Level
2 for this slope. Similarly, it should be noted that
this groundwater table should not be confused with
the perched groundwater table. As mentioned
earlier, the development of perched groundwater
table does not cause significant drop in the slope
factor of safety (see Figure 10).

C2-8
 Groundwater table at
1.2m below ground level
(Alarm 2, FOS = 1.1)
Groundwater table at
1.9m below ground level
(Alarm 1, FOS = 1.2)
Figure 13. Alarm Level 1 and Alarm Level 2 for
groundwater table
Figure 14 shows the result of analysis for the
rainfall intensity Alarm Level 2. It can be seen that
although the perched groundwater table has been
developed and suction within the two groundwater
tables has consequently decreased, the slope factor
of safety remains essentially high (greater than 1.5).
These suggest that for this particular slope the
distribution of suction above the groundwater table
does not significantly affect the slope FOS. The
slope FOS is largely only determined by the
groundwater table position.
Perched groundwater table
Figure 14. Alarm Level 1 and Alarm Level 2 for
groundwater table
CONTINGENCY AND EMERGENCY ACTION
PLANS FOR SLOPE 2
The contingency action plan, which is activated
when Alarm Level 1 is breached, consists of the
following:
1) Site inspection i.e. to observe if there is
any depression, soil movement, etc. that
indicate slope instability
2) Temporarily covering the slope with
canvas to prevent water ingress during rain
3) Increasing the instrumentation monitoring
frequency
4) Designing slope strengthening measure
and stabilization
5) Implementation of
strengthening/stabilization measures if
slope condition worsens based on the
inspection and instrumentation readings
Temporary covering the slope with canvas is
implemented until it is ensured that the
groundwater table does not rise further based on
the instrumentation readings. For the
strengthening/ stabilization design, the worst
groundwater table (i.e. the one corresponding to
Alarm Level 2) can be used as the basis for the
design.
The emergency action plan activated upon
breach of Alarm Level 2 includes:
1) Evacuation of residence of the property
adjacent to the slope
2) Slope strengthening/stabilization based on
the design carried out when Alarm Level 1
is breached.
Among strengthening/stabilization measures
that are widely adopted for residual soil slopes are:
 Planting vegetation or turfing the slope –
vertifer grass (http://www.vetiver.org)
can be planted to improve the slope
stability
 Provision of horizontal drains to lower
the groundwater table
 Capillary barrier system
 Soil nailing
 Retaining wall
CONCLUSIONS
Results of an assessment of two slopes that are
located in different geological formations have
been presented. Slope 1 is a reclamation slope,
which is located in soft soil. Slope 2 is located in a
granitic residual soil formation. Instrumentation
and monitoring strategies for the two slopes are
different but both are based on the hazards and
hazard causes identified. The following
conclusions can be drawn from the assessment:
1) Stability of Slope 1 (reclamation slope) is
not significantly affected by the
groundwater table variation given that the
slope is located near the sea and there is a
continuous water recharge.
2) PVDs improve the soft soil shear strength
significantly resulting in a high FOS of the
slope (> 1.5).
3) Instrumentation using inclinometers, deep
and ground settlement markers are adopted.
Piezometers can be employed to provide
indication if the PVDs work effectively in
reducing the excess pore-water pressure
during accelerated consolidation process.
4) Instrumentation and monitoring scheme
adopted will provide early warning of
C2-9
 slope instability during construction of the Robertson, P.K., Sully, J.P., Woeller, D.J., Lunne,
slope in the reclaimed land. In the long T., Powell, J.J.M. and Gillespie, D. (1992).
term, the scheme will indicate if there is Estimating coefficient of consolidation from
excessive long term soil movement that piezocone tests. Canadian Geotechnical Journal,
will affect its serviceability. 29(4): 539-550.
5) Alarm levels for the instruments can be
determined based on the estimation of soil
movements from the numerical modelling
or observational method.
6) For Slope 2 (residual soil slope), the FOS
is affected by the groundwater table
position. It is important to distinguish the
“real” groundwater table from the perched
groundwater table, which can be formed
during rainwater infiltration.
7) Since it is located in the residual soil
formation with groundwater table below
the ground surface and unsaturared soil
zone above it, the assessment of this slope
should be based on the unsaturated soil
mechanics principles. This is especially
true when assessing the effects of water
flux (precipitation and evaporation) on its
stability.
8) Instrumentation scheme adopts
piezometers, water standpipes and rain
gauges with alarm levels based on the
groundwater table causing instability.
9) Contigency and emergency action plans
should be set up for the residual slope.
Alarm levels adopted should be
determined to allow the actions to be
implemented.

REFERENCES
Agus. S.S., Leong, E.C. and Rahardjo, H. (2001).
Soil-water characteristic curves of Singapore
residual soils. Geotechnical and Geological
Engineering, 19: 285-309.
Asaoka, A. (1978). Observational procedure of
settlement prediction. Soil and Foundations,
18(4): 87-101.
FHWA (1986). Prefabricated Vertical Drains –
Volume I: Engineering Guidelines. Federal
Highway Administration, US Department of
Transportation, Report No. FHWA/RD-86/168.
Fredlund, D.G. and Rahardjo, H. (1993). Soil
Mechanics for Unsaturated Soils. John Wiley
& Sons, Canada.
Fredlung, D.G. and Xing, A. (1994). Equation for
the soil-water characteristic curve. Canadian
Geotechnical Journal, 31: 521-532.

C2-10
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

GEOLOGICAL HAZARD POTENTIAL ANALYSIS OF CIMANUK WATERSHED

Fikri Noor Azy 1, Luthfan Harisan Jihadi 1, Mohamad Sapari Dwi Hadian 1 and Zufialdi Zakaria 1

ABSTRACT: The Cimanuk watershed is one of the main pillars of water resources in West Java covering a very
populated region and industrial area. Casualties and damages potentially caused if a hazard occurs. Therefore,
preliminary study should be done before disaster mitigation in order to reduce the impact of disaster. Cimanuk
watershed area covers 3,493 km2 and 258 km length of river is divided into parts based on each geounit. Zone I,
Cimanuk head water that covers Garut City and its surrounding area, is volcanicregionwhich consist of
interbedded lava and pyroclastics, tephra deposits (ash-tuff plain), recentvolcanics material, and epiclastics
deposits (lahars). Geological hazards that potentially occur in the area are lahars flood, landslides, or mass
movement caused by the presence of active volcanoes which can producevolcanics deposits to the river or valley,
steep slopes, and tectonic activities.Zone II, Cimanuk sub-head water that covers Sumedang and Majalengka, is
tertiary sediments region which consist of sand stone and mudstone. Geological hazards that potentially occur in
the area are mass movementand flash flood which caused by geological conditions i.e.; claystone that has low in
filtration and can be a sliding plane when the load is high, land use increased with increasing human population,
and high rainfall. Zone II, Cimanuk downstream that covers Indramayu and the surrounding area, is quarter
sedimentary region which consist of alluvium. Geological hazards that potentially occur in the area are flood and
coastal erosion in deltas and shoreline with length of 114 km which caused by high land use due to high urban
population and human activities. After that, by doing detail research of each zone with every geological hazard
potential, we can conduct some treatment as a part of disaster mitigation e.g.; reforestation and soil conservation
at water recharge area in Zone I, evaluation of dam manufacturing in Zone II based on detail analysis of
geotechnic research, and engineering of flood canal or wave breaker in Zone III.

Keywords : Cimanuk watershed, geological hazard, geounit, and watershed management

INTRODUCTION area and 258 km length that divided into parts

based on each geounit.
Cimanuk River elongated from Garut City to
lower region, Indramayu City. Tributary of the river METHODOLOGY
with Cipeles River and Cilutung River is located at
First, geomorphological and geological aspect
Majalengka City. Its watershed is the main water
of cimanuk watershed is identified by using remote
source for the regions across the river. Basically,
sensing and secondary data i.e.; lithology,
Majalengka and Indramayu are industrial cities and
geological structure, and historical geology. Then,
very vital to the economy throughout the region
based on the identification, the entire region of
while Garut City and its surrounding area is very
study area can be categorized and assumed that
populated. Therefore, if a hazard occurs, it will
each zone has its uniform setting i.e.; genesis,
potentially cause casualties and considerable
composition, geologic structure, and relief type;
damages. Thisstudy is meant to estimate what kind
and thus, we can assume that each zone is divided
of hazard that potentially occurs in the region as a
based on its geounit. Therefore, as the physical
preliminary study of disaster mitigation.
setting of a geounit is homogeny, geological hazard
can be estimated based on geological hazard
STUDY AREA
guidelines promoted by Rivard (2009). And thus,
The study area is mainly focus in the region geological hazard that potentially occurs in each
across Cimanuk watershed which covers 3,493 km2 zone, though out the area,is identified.

1
Universitas Padjadjaran,fikrinoorazy@gmail.com, INDONESIA

C3-1
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Geomorphology and Geology of Cimanuk
Watershed
The upper part of Cimanuk watershed, which
functions as headwater, is mountainous and hilly.
The typical geomorphological condition also exists
in the central and northern part which consists of
valleys and plains. The slopes though out the areas
are varying in inclination, between flat to steep.
River drainage patterns in the upper part of
Cimanuk watershed are sub-radial up to radial on
the slopes of mountains and hills, sub-dendritic up
to dendritic, sub-parallel up toparallel, sub
rectangular up to rectangular, sub-trellis up to trellis,
and anastomotic pattern (Sulaksana et al., 2013). In
further discussion, the upper part is categorized into
Zone I.
In the middle part of Cimanuk watershed,
mainly covers sedimentary formations in the region.
Hills and valley of sedimentary rock exist, mainly
caused by tectonic activity. Slopes in the area are
varying in inclination, between flat to steep. In
further discussion, the upper part is categorized into
Zone II.
In the lower part of Cimanuk watershed,
alluvium plain exist and covered by meandering
river with anastomotic flow patterns. This section
also continues up to the mouth of the river that
forms delta. In further discussion, the upper part is
categorized into Zone II.
Lithological material that consists throughout
Cimanuk watershed can be divided into several
rock formations (Alzwaret al., 1992; Djuri, 1995;
Achdanet al., 1992). The majority of rocks can be
grouped into volcanic rocks, plutonic rocks,
sedimentary rocks, and sediment quarternary rocks.
Age of each rock formation is varies between the
oldest (Oligocene-Miocene) to the youngest
(Holocene-Recent). The volcanics rock formation
can be divided into three categories i.e.; efflata and
lava; pumice tuff and breccia; and volcanic breccias
with lava deposition (Alzwaret al., 1992). Plutonic
rocks formation is consist of intrusion along the
region of Cimanuk River. Sedimentary rock
formation is consists of five categories i.e.;
claystone in sets with tuffaceous sandstones;
sandstones; claysand conglomerates; shale with
inter layering sand stones and limestones; and
claystone which contains a layer of limestone
(Djuri, 1995). Sedimentary quarternary rock
formation consists of alluvium and floodplains
(Achdanet al., 1992).
The upper part of Cimanuk watershed indicates
traces of tectonic faults which are horizontal and
C3-2
normal faults. The type of fault is easily
recognizable in sedimentary rocks, and rather
difficult to recognize it in volcanic rock, especially
the quaternary volcanic rock.According Sulaksana
et al (2013), an indication of the presence of faults
in the volcanic rock can be recognized through
geomorphological characteristics that caused
lineaments of ridges and rivers. These lineaments
indicate weak zones which are susceptible to mass
movement. Horizontal faults relatively have
southwest-northeast direction, while vertical faults
relatively east-west. An indication of the existence
of a Leuwigoong horizontal fault is reflected in
Cimanuk River bend which angle is almost 90o,
forming a groove coincides with the direction of the
fault. In addition to the fault, at a bend of Cimanuk
River also discovered another fault direction
perpendicular to the first fault, which is northwest-
southeast. However, in the geological mapsheet of
Garut Pamengpeuk (Alzwaret al., 1992), the
Leuwigoong fault is not mentioned. Indication of
active tectonics is also demonstrated by the
deployment of a fairly extensive alluvium in the
western city of Garut. The phenomenon can be
correlated to the presence of depression due to the
role of fault zones which overlay each other. The
tectonics that have occurred in the Cimanuk
watershed also mentioned in geological mapsheets
Arjawinangun (Djuri, 1995), is the form of the
anticline, horizontal fault, and normal fault.
According to Bemmelen (1949), period of tectonic
activity in this area is in Miocene-Pliocene tectonic
period.
Geological condition in though out Cimanuk
watershed can be divided into three main categories
(Rivard, 2009) which are the upper part, middle
part, and lower part of Cimanuk watershed. The
upper part covers magmatic rocks formation which
consists of inter-bedded lava and pyroclastic, tephra
deposits (ash-tuff plain), recent volcanic material,
and epiclastic deposits (lahars). The middle covers
sedimentary rocks formation which consists of
siltstones, interbedded sedimentary rocks, and
lutites rocks. The lower part covers alluvium
deposit which consists of meandering river and
delta.
Based on the characteristics of geounit which
consist of geology and geomorphology properties,
Cimanuk watershed can be divided into three zones
i.e.; Zone Ion the upper part, Zone II at the middle
part, and Zone II on the lower part. The division of
these zones can estimate hazard that potentially
occur.
Physical Setting Associated with Geological hazard
A geological hazard is a geological state that
may lead widespread damage or risk.Geological
hazards are geological and environmental condition
and involve long-term or short-term geological
processes. Geological hazard can be relatively
small features, but they can also attain huge
dimensions and affect local and regional socio-
economy to a large extent. In the research area,
divided into zones that reflect the distinctive
characteristics of its geological hazard. There is a
close relationship between the physical conditions
on the surface of the earth and the forces working
from within the earth (endogenous) and external
(exogenous) with geological hazard that appears.
Explanation of the characteristics of disasters that
will result will be outlined as follows (Figure 1).
Zone I
This zone is located on the river upstream
Geomorphology Mountains and hills with creeks
that disgorge the surrounding volcanoes and
empties into the river Cimanuk. This zone is
located on an active volcanic area with quarter-
lived volcanic rocks products. Rock consists of
Figure 1.Map of the zones in study area
Efflata and Lava, pumice and Tuff Breccia,
Volcanic Breccia and Deposition Lahar.
Geounit division in this zone based Rivard
(2009) that is magmatic rocks consisting of
interbedded Lava and Pyroclastics, Tephra Deposits
(Ash-tuff Plain), and Modern Volcanics and
Epiclastics Deposits (lahars).
Interbedded flows are highly unstable due to the
presence of the weak tuff beds. Undermining of the
tuffs can lead to collapse or landsliding of the
overlying lavas. Vertical jointing in the lavas
presents a potential for large slides along the scarps.
Tunnelling through these rocks is hazardous
because of the risk of collapse. (Rivard, 2009)
The principal hazards associated with thick ash-
tuff deposits are burial, erodability and slope
instability. Burial by tephra can collapse roofs of
buildings, snap power and communication lines and
damage or kill vegetation. Because the deposits are
porous and friable, especially when they are young,
or loosely consolidated, they are easily eroded.
Tephra deposits are unstable because of the
steepness of slopes and the movement of
groundwater in the naturally porous material. Local
faults occur which are caused by settling and
compaction. (Rivard, 2009)
C3-3
 Lahars threaten lives and property both on
volcanoes and in the valleys that drain them.
Because of their high bulk density and velocity
lahars can destroy vegetation and even substantial
structures in their paths, such as bridges. The
deposits of lahars can deeply bury crops and
developments. They can also fill stream channels,
thus decreasing the channel’s capacity to carry
flood flows. In contrast to pyroclastic flows and
surges, lahars andfloods have sharply defined upper
limits along valley sand in many cases people can
quickly climb to safety if safe areas are identified
beforehand. (Scott, 2000)
Not only lahars flood, tectonic activity in this
area may cause devastating earthquake.
Development of settlements and urbanization in the
region are very massive, especially in densely
populated areas in the center of Garut City and the
surrounding districts. Casualties and major
damages may be resulted by said disasters.
Zone II
This zone is located on the watershed transition
to the Structural Geomorphology Sedimentary hills
with rivers that flow follows the pattern of the
structure is rectangular, trellis, and several sub-
dendritic. This zone contained in marine sediment
deposition area affected tectonically active in the
Tertiary. Rock consists of claystone with
interbedded and inserts sandstones, conglomerates,
shales and some clastic limestone.
Geounit division in this zone based Rivard
(2009) is composed of sedimentary rocks and
Lutites siltstones and interbedded sedimentary
Rocks.
Hazards associated with shales are essentially
related to their low resistance to mechanical
weathering and erosion. Their variable strength is
related largely to their water content. They are
susceptible to sliding and slumping and generally
provide poor subgrade support for structures due to
high compaction potential. A particular hazard
relates to two mineral products of lutite rock
weathering; montmorrillonite and bentonite. These
minerals are of the smectite class of clay minerals
that are very fine-grained and are highly reactive
with water. These minerals have a layered
structure; if water enters into the individual
minerals, it can vary the basal spacing and swelling
will result. The damage they are able to cause (such
as to paved roads and reinforced concrete
foundations) stems from the great pressures which
they can exert as they swell when water has gained
access to them. (Legget and Karrow, 1983).
C3-4
The main geological hazard associated with
Interbedded Sedimentary Rocks sequences is the
risk of landslides due to the lack of support of
resistant rocks underlain by weak (generally shale)
strata. Seepage between bedding planes is a further
indication of possible slide areas. (Rivard, 2009)
In this zone, the development of settlements and
urbanization is very high. The area is very densely
populated especially in Sumedang, Majalengka
City, and the surrounding areas. Casualties and
major damages can be resulted by poorly managed
and planned infrastructure against potential disaster.
Earthquakes can be the major cause of the disaster
considering Zone II is affected by tectonics activity,
as mentioned before.
Zone III
This zone is located on the downstream river
geomorphology Alluvium and floodplains of the
river flow pattern anostomotic and the formation of
meandering river. This zone is located on the area
of sediment deposits, and the river that ends in the
Java Sea forminga delta.
Geounit division in this zone based Rivard
(2009) is surficial deposits consisting of
Meandering Alluvial Deposits and Deltas.
There are two stages of Meandering Alluvial
Deposits which are conduct the geological hazard
event particularly flood. First, the bank-full stage,
water flow velocities on the outside and insides of
channel bends produce discrete sites of erosion and
deposition by a complementary hydraulic cut and
fill process. This results in the gradual migration of
the meanders down stream. The resulting sinuosity
of the channel is what has given the floodplain the
geomorphologic appellation of a meandering
floodplain. Second, The over-bank flood stage
produces discharges that exceed the channel
capacity, cause flood waters and the suspended
sediment load to leave the channel to be initially
deposited as levees immediately bordering the
channel and eventually be deposited on the adjacent
plain. This results in successive vertically accreting
parallel laminae in the forms of the other unit
Components. In a purely hydrological sense, a
flood is just a very high discharge above the bank-
full stage standard. Statistically, a flood is defined
by the return period. For a geological hazard
perspective it is convenient to define a flood as any
over-bank flow. (Rivard, 2009). Flood could be a
disaster, if affected to the people and their
properties.
Fluvial flooding, tidal flooding, storm surges
and sea level rise are geological hazards common to
all marine deltas. Shoreline harbours, seaport
facilities and associated maritime infrastructures
located on distributary channels are all subject to
these hazards as are extensive agricultural and
reclaimed lands, aquaculture installations, and other
fisheries. Channel siltation has continuous
unfavourable effects on navigation and flood
dispersal. Widespread forest clearing and
agricultural activity has resulted in greatly
increased sediment supply in some deltas. Global
climate changes and associated sea-level rise are a
serious threat to all deltaic environments and
induced the coastal erosion. (Rivard, 2009)
CONCLUSION
Cimanuk Watershed has three zones that reflect
the circumstances and characteristics of geounit
which consist of homogeny geological and
geomorphological properties. Zone I, in the upper
part of the area, consists of active volcano which
produces quaternary rocks as result of volcanic
eruptions in old quaternary age. This zone has the
potential geological hazard such as mass movement
and lahars flood. Zone II, in the middle part of
Cimanuk watershed, is a hilly region which cover
tertiary marine sedimentary deposition that exposed
to strong tectonic deformation. This zone has the
potential geological hazard such as landslide and
flash flood. Zone III, in the lower area, is an
alluvium plain and flood plain which cover quarter
sedimentary deposition and delta of Java Sea. This
zone has the potential Geological hazard such as
flood and coastal erosion.
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Achdan, D., dan Sudana, D., (1992). Geologi
Lembar Indramayu, Jawa, Skala1:100.000.
Pusat Penelitian dan Pengembangan Geologi,
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Alzwar, M., Akbar, N. & Bachri, S. (1992).
GeologiLembar Garut dan Pameungpeuk, Jawa
Barat, Skala1:100.000. Pusat Penelitian dan
Pengembangan Geologi, Bandung.
Djuri, (1995). Geologi Lembar Arjawinangun, Jawa
Barat, Skala 1:100.000. Pusat Penelitian dan
Pengembangan Geologi, Bandung.
Legget RF, Karrow PF (1983) Handbook of
geology in civil engineering. McGraw-Hill,
New York, pp 42–16–17.
Rivard, L.A. (2009). Geological hazard-associated
Geounit : Atlas and Glossary. Springer-Verlag
Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin.
Scott WE (1989) Volcanic and related hazards. In:
Tilling RI (ed) Volcanic hazards. Short course
in geology, Vol 1. Presented at the 28th
International Geological Congress, Washington
D.C., American Geophysical Union, p 15
Sulaksana, N., Sukiyah, E., Sjafrudin, A. and
Haryanto, E.T., (2013).Karakteristik
geomorfologi das cimanuk bagian hulu dan
implikasinya terhadap intensitas erosi serta
pendangkalan waduk jati gede. Bionatura-Jurnal
Ilmu-ilmu Hayati dan Fisik, Bandung.
Van Bemmelen, R.W., (1949). The Geology of
Indonesia, Volume IA. The Hague Martinus
Nijhoff, Netherland.

SUGGESTION
Watershed management should be done to
reduce the impact of these geological hazard is by
doing detail research of each zone with every
geological hazard potential. After that, by doing
detail research of each zone with every geological
hazard potential, we can conduct some treatment as
a part of disaster mitigation e.g.; reforestation and
soil conservation at water recharge area in Zone I,
evaluation of dam manufacturing in Zone II based
on detail analysis of geotechnic research, and
engineering of flood canal or wave breaker in Zone
III.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are grateful to Mohamad Sapari
Dwi Hadian and Zufialdi Zakaria who guided us in
writing.

C3-5
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

LANDSLIDE HAZARD IN GEOTHERMAL AREA OF PATUHA

Putu Krishna Wijaya 1 and Dwikorita Karnawati 2

ABSTRACT: The Government of Indonesia faced the situations where they need to start limiting the
construction of power plants that use fuel oil. To resolve these issue, electric power development using
geothermal energy is one of the best solution considering the potential of geothermal energy in Indonesia covers
40% of the world's geothermal potential.
In addition to having a positive impact because it can be developed as area of power plants geothermal
energy, geothermal area also has some negative effects. Geothermal areas susceptible to landslide disaster that
can threaten lives and property losses to local people living in the area of geothermal.
The purpose of this study are to understand the cause and the spreading of landslide susceptibility zone. The
methods that used are direct field mapping i.e geology, hydrothermal alteration, engineering geology and landuse.
Those factors are integrated in a susceptibility map using AHP method (analytical hierarchy process). Laboratory
analysis that was used is the analysis of engineering geology, Petrography, and XRD. The results reveals that the
landslide susceptibility zone is divided into four zones. The main landslide controlling factor is a hydrothermal
alteration, and the main triggering factor is high rainfall in February.

Keywords: Geothermal, hydrothermal alteration, landslide, susceptibility zone, clay mineral

INTRODUCTION distribution of landslide susceptibility zones in

Patuha geothermal area.
The Government of Indonesia faced the By understanding the distribution of landslide
situations where they need to start limiting the susceptibility zones, it is expected that placement of
construction of power plants that use fuel oil. To housing and infrastructure can be installed on the
resolve these issue, electric power development safe zone, so as to minimize the loss of life and
using geothermal energy is one of the best solution property when such disasters occur.
considering the potential of geothermal energy in
Indonesia covers 40% of the world's geothermal METHOD
potential.
The stages include pre-field research, field and
In addition to having a positive impact because
post-field. Before the field observations, it is
it can be developed as area of power plants
preceded by an analysis of secondary data obtained
geothermal energy, geothermal area also has some
through literature, journals, proceedings and other
negative effects. Geothermal areas susceptible to
sources of research which related to the title. The
landslide disaster.The placement of infrastructure
data and samples obtained from the field
such as pipelines, roads, and office in geothermal
observations were then tested in laboratory analysis
area are generally less attention to disaster aspect,
to determine the geological soil index properties.
but actually there is a potential disaster that
XRD analysis and petrographic analysis conduct to
threatens lives and may damage the existing
determine the lithology composition and degree of
infrastructure.
alteration constituent that occurred in study area.
The objectives of this study are to (1).
Results of laboratory analysis and field
Understand the landslide controlling factor in
observations are then combined to produce
geothermal area of Patuha. (2). To find out the
morphology maps, geological maps, geological

1
Department of Geophysical Engineering, Sepuluh Nopember Institute of Technology, krishna@geofisika.its.ac.id /
krishna_wijaya@yahoo.co.id, Surabaya, INDONESIA
2
Rector, Geological Engineering Department of Gadjah Mada University, dwikoritakarnawati@yahoo.com, Yogyakarta,
INDONESIA

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structures map, engineering geology maps, maps of
hydrothermal alteration zones, and landuse maps.
Each of parameters on maps are then given a
weighting value using the AHP (Analytical
Hierarchy Process) method. Each sub parameter
are given score, then multiplied with the value
weights of each parameters with the help of ArcGIS
software, spatial analyst (weighted overlay) and
finally generated landslide susceptibility map.
(a)
(b)
Figure 1. Geomorphological map (a) and morphology condition on 3D study area (b)
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RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Morphological Condition of Study Area
The classification of geomorphological units in
research area based on morphometric aspects
mapping that accounting the slope angle.
Calculation of slope (morphometry) is performed
directly on the field. Slope variation ranges on
≤ 100 ≥ 400, so it can be divided into four units,
namely gentle slope unit ( ≤ 100 ), moderate steep
slope ( > 100 ≥ 200 ), steep slope ( > 200 - < 400 ),
and very steep slope ( > 400 ). Gentle slope unit has
2 landslide point, moderate steep slope unit has 9
landslide points. Steep slope unit has 18 landslide
points and very steep slope unit has 9 landslide
point landslide (Figure 1).
Geological Condition of Study Area
Regionally lithology of study area is composed
of Qv (pJ) formation, which consists of lava and
lahar of Mt. Patuha. Based on field observations,
lithology could be divided into units of hornblende-
Andesite Lava flow, pyroxene andesite lava flow
units, pyroclastic flow unit of Patuhawati,
kasimbukan, Bedengtilu, and Alkateri.
Hornblende-Andesite Lava Unit
This unit extends North-East direction to the
Southwest, along the eastern regions of Sukasari –
Patuhawati – to Curug Cayunan. Andesite
hornblende Lava also exposed at the some point in
Bedengtilu area.
In megascopic view, Hornblende-Andesite Lava
colour is black grey. Its texture is porphyro
aphanitic, with phenocryst size 1 mm – 3 mm. It is
groundmass size is very fine-fine ( < 0.05 – 0.5
mm ). Its crystal form is subhedra and phenocryst
contain of plagioclase, hornblende, pyroxene,
whereas groundmass contain of pieces of
plagioclase, and mafic minerals (Figure 2).
Figure 2. Hornblende phenocryst on Andesite-
Hornblende Lava
Pyroxene Andesite Lava Unit
Pyroxene andesite lava unit is exposed along
Ci-Sintok river (NE-NW). In megascopic view,
pyroxene andesite has black colour,
porphyroaphanitic texture, groundmass contain of
mafic mineral and their phenocryst consists of
abundant pyroxene and less abundant plagioclase.
In petrography view, pyroxene andesite lava unit
are grey, porphyritic texture, hypidiomorphic
granular, and hypocrystalin. Its crystal size is
< 0.03 mm – 1.5 mm, and consist of abundant
plagioclase, less abundant of pyroxene, and opaque
mineral (Figure 3).
Figure 3. Pyroxene phenocryst on pyroxene
andesite lava
Andesite Breccia
Andesite Breccia is exposed almost in the whole
of research area. Most of andesite breccia are in
moderately-completely weathered condition.
Andesite breccia flow units spread into several
units, they are pyroclastic flow of Bedengtilu,
Patuhawati, and Alkateri. Pyroclastic is one term of
explosive volcaniclastic deposits. Pyroclastic is
aggregate or particles that form by explosive
volcanic activity that deposited by transportation
process soon after that activity occur (Cas and
Wright, 1987).
Alteration Zone of Study Area
Hydrothermal activity of Patuha led to the
process of hydrothermal alteration zone along the
structure that has evolved through previous fault
and joint. Meteoric water infiltrate and are warmed
by geothermal heat source. The water then moves
into the top of layering rocks, through the existing
gaps then change the composition of rocks which is
product of the last eruption of Mount Patuha
(hornblende-andesite lava pyroxene andesite lava,
and pyroclastic breccia).
Based on their mineral assemblage, the
alteration zone is divided into two zones of
alteration, they are argilic and propylitic. To
determine the type of alteration, we used two
approaches analysis methods, i.e. XRD and
petrographic analysis. XRD analysis using two
types of testing: analysis of bulk and analysis of
clay (clay analysis). XRD analysis carried out on
the seven-point sampling that spread on each unit
of lithology. Petrography analysis on the other hand
is used to understand the origin of the samples that
have been altered.
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 Figure 4. Geological map of research area

(a)

(b)
Figure 5. Argilic alteration outcrop (a) and RD analysis that show mineral assemblage of arligic alteration (b)

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a. Argilic Alteration Zone
Argillic alteration is characterized by clay
mineral such as kaolin (halloysite, kaolinite,
dickite) and illite, smectite, illite-smectite interlayer,
as well as association of mineral assemblages
formed in a low – medium pH ( 5 – 6 ) and low
temperature ( < 200 – 250 0C ), (Corbett, 1998).
The number of landslides in argillic alteration zone
is the 19 point.
b. Sub - propylitic Alteration Zone
Sub - propylitic alteration zone consists of
chlorite to the zeolite group of minerals. Sub -
propylitic alteration generally takes place at lower
temperatures with acidic pH. Mineral assemblages
that are often found in these alteration zones are :
chlorite, chlorite/smectite, silica, chalcedony,
quartz, actinolite /albite, carbonate (Ca, Mg, Mn,
Fe), (Corbett, 1998). The number of landslides in
the sub - propylitic alteration zone is 13 point.
(a)
(b)
Figure 6. Sub-Propilitic alteration outcrop (a) and
XRD analysis that show mineral assemblage of
sub-propilitic (b)
Geological Structure Condition of Study Area
The geological structure is one of the
parameters that controlling landslide. The
geological structure of data obtained through field
data and determination of lineament aided by
satellite imagery. The geological structure of
dextral fault is estimated to be in the area of
Patuhawati. While the pattern lineaments indicates
the direction northeast-southwest and Northwest-
Southeast.
Geological structure zone in the area of research
is divided into two zones, the zones of 0 – 300 m,
and > 300 m. Zones of 0 – 300 m is the most
influential zone against the occurrence of landslide,
and the zone of > 300 m less influential. Most
landslides occur in the zone of 0 – 300 m, (27
points).
Geological Engineering Condition of Study Area
The litology of research area is composed of
hornblende-andesite lava, and pyroclastic breccias
that weathered and turned into soil with varying
thickness. Based on grain size and genesis, the
geological engineering unit is divided into five
units, namely: 1. Silty sand residual volcanic unit,
2. Silty sand colluvial unit, 3. Clay-sandy residual
volcanic unit, 4. Clay-Sandy coluvial unit, 5. Sandy
gravel units.
Landuse
Research areas have some form of land use, i.e.
plantations, forests, grasslands, crops, and
settlements. Each land use has its own impact on
the conditions of the stability of slopes. At tea
plantation unit there are 26 point of landslide. In
settlement units, there are two points of landslide,
and in units of protected forest and shrubs, there are
two points of landslide.
Landslide Susceptibility Map Making
Percentage of influence in each landslide
controlling factors that influence the assessment of
landslide susceptibility zone map are hydrothermal
alteration 44.24%, geological structures, geological
engineering, 16.49% morphology and land use
6.29% (Table 1). Those parameters are divided into
classes. Each classes are given weighting.
Determination of value made subjectively
supported by input from which overlayed on any
map parameter. The given value shows how big the
influence of these parameters on landslide. Value
score used ranging from 1 to 3, in accordance with
the provisions of the assessment/scoring on a
regulation of the Minister of public works no.
22/PRT/M/2007. The higher the score in parameter,
the higher the influence to landslide (Figure 7).
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Table 1. Pair-wise and normalization matrix
Results multiplication of weighting parameter
value and score on each sub-parameter then overlay
using ArcGIS software and generates landslide
susceptibility map (Figure 8). The results reveals
that the susceptibily level are divided into three
zone; low, moderate and high susceptibility zone
(Figure 8).
Figure 7. Flow chart stages to make landslide susceptibility map (Bell, 1999 (with modifications)
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Landslide Mechanism in Patuha Area
Ancient landslides that occurred in Patuha area
are the integration of several factors, such as factor
of hydrothermal alteration, structural geology,
engineering geology, slope and landuse (Figure 9).
In accordance with the results of AHP analysis on
matrix comparison, hydrothermal alteration factor
is a factor that is more impacting than the four other
landslide controlling factors. Patuha area lies on
argillic alteration zone that rich in halloysite and
kaolinite clay that form from hydrothermal
processes. Patuha area took place on structure zone
of 0 – 300 m, and is located in the shear fault zone.
This shear zones will weaken the shear strength of
soil or rock. Mostly slope in Patuha area at 340
(steep slopes unit). Engineering geological
conditions such as residual soil, result from
weathering of volcanic lava and andesite breccia
with 25 m thickness of silty sand soil. The
controlling factors causing slope becomes prone to
move and when triggering factors such as rain
water infiltration is present in a high intensity in
February 2010 (reached 944.5 mm in 25 days), thus
making slopes are in critical condition and at the
time exceeded ( Fs < 1 ) will happen eventually
landslide (Figure 10).
 Figure 8. Landslide susceptibility map in Patuha area

Figure 9. Ancient landslide plane at Cicacing area

Figure 10. 3D profile of Patuha slope when landslide occured

C4-7
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The first author would like to thank you to Prof.
Ir. Dwikorita Karnawati and Made Uthari who gave
suggestion and always support the first author while
finishing this research.
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 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

LANDSLIDE RISK EVALUATION BY COMBINATION OF MORPHOLOGY,

GEOLOGY AND SIMULATION APPROACH IN TROPICAL HUMID REGION
Le Hong Luong 1, Toyohiko Miyagi 2, Shinro Abe 3, Eisaku Hamasaki 4 and Pham Van Tien 5

ABSTRACT: In tropical humid region such as Vietnam, landslides occur frequently, resulting of loss of human
life, damage construction works, seriously affect to living condition . They are generally controlled by the slope
morphology, geology, weathering characteristic. Assessing landslide risk is a complex operation that requires a
combination of different methodologies. In Japan, Japan Landslide Society has developed inspection sheet for
risk evaluation in Tohoku area, but all features in the sheet involve geomorphic factors within and outside of
landslide and it doesn’t mention geological features. Explain for this, geology in Tohoku area almost consists of
volcanic and tuffaceous sediment, it isn’t so complex in comparision to Humid tropical region. In Humid tropical
region, we must pay attention to complex geology and weathering process: bedding plane parallel to slope;
cracks, fractures, faults and weathering of bed rock; hard beds overlaying softer rock (mudstone..); presence of
coal layer between other layers of sedimentary rock… These factors direct and strong influence on spatial and
distribution of mass movement. So geological factor should be mentioned as important factor in inspection sheet
for risk evaluation. In this paper, we will discuss, clarify the geology variety and weathering characteristics in
central Vietnam, combine with morphology and simulation for landslide risk evaluation.

Keywords: Central Vietnam, landslide mapping, risk evaluation, weathering, bedding plane, coal layer

INTRODUCTION SUBMISSION RISK EVALUATION BY AHP

In humid tropical region, landslides are most
frequent one and affect major threat to human life,
property, constructed fatalities, infrastructure. It
causes by combination of geology, weathering,
strength of rocks/soil, high pricipitation.
In many places, the frequentcy and severity of
landslide events seem to be rising. Assessing this risk
is a big challenge that require a combination of
geomorphology, geology and weathering. It’s
shortcoming if we only mention morphology in risk
evaluation, geology and weathering must consider
main factors promote landslides in humid tropical
region.
In this paper we will discuss an integrated
inspection sheet combining morphology and geology
for risk evaluation for humid tropical region.
Morphometric approach
At first we will discuss about morphology, why
morphology is important. As we know, morphology
play an important role in landslide recognization and
landslide risk evaluation. Because it provide specific
image of landform of study and surrounding area.
Those are form of topographic surface; the area
extent of an object, if we know the size (dimention)
of landslide, we can deduce depth of slip surface;
spatial arrangement of objects in characteristic order;
morphometric characters such as height difference,
slope steepness and aspect, and the presence of
convexities or concavities in the terrain; regional and
local characteristics in relation to the surroundings.
For example, an upper concavity and lower
convexity on a slope indicate presence of landslide;
combination of cone-shape geometry (in plan) and
upwardly convex slope profile is debris flow
deposition zone; a clear and sharpness of scarp, it
may be new landslide.

1
Graduate student, Tohoku Gakuin university, lehongluong@gmail.com, Vietnam
2
Professor, Tohoku Gakuin university, miyagi@izcc.tohoku-gakuin.ac.jp, Japan
3
Doctor, Okuyama-Boring Co., Ltd, abe@okuyama.co.jp, Japan
4
Doctor, Advantechnology Co., Ltd, hamasaki@advantechnology.co.jp, Japan
5
Graduate student, Kyoto university, phamtiengtvt@gmail.com, Vietnam

C5-1
 Most of landslides are reactive of landslide.
When landslides ouccured, they leave discernible
morphological signs. From these features we can
deduce probability of landslide occurrence by
morphology and analytic hierarchy process (AHP)
approach. By this way, Japan landslide society had
developed inspection sheet for risk evaluation in
Tohoku area (Toyohiko Miyagi, 2004). In this sheet,
items were classed as large categorization, large
categorizations are also classed into medium and
small categories, involve geomophic features inside
and outside of landslide (Figure 1). All items are
putted in a card. Scores are putted by high skill
engineer. Total score reflects the level or risk of
landslide reoccurrence.
Figure 1. Inspection sheet of risk evaluation based on
geomorphology and AHP approach
In humid tropical region such as Viet Nam,
morphology recognization is a bit difficult because of
aerial photo scale (1/25.000) and high cover of
vetgetation/forest. So modification of inspection
sheet should be necessary.
Geology approach
Above inspection sheet doesn’t mention geology.
In humid tropical region, geology must be discussed;
because of diversity of geology structure, age and
detail of rocks/soil parameter. What parameter should
be used. It’s not yet completed result. Now, we are
discussing for reasonable result: geology structure;
direction of joints and fracture; generally rock type;
rock/soil parameter (density (γ), cohesion (c), friction
angular (φ)); special layer, such as coal layer;
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weathering level and depth. So we must think the
value of contribution to the reoccurrence of landslide.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTIC OF GEOLOGY
AND LANDSLIDE IN VIET NAM
Viet Nam is a humid tropical country, has a richly
varied geologic composition with over 500
stratigraphic unit and strata, rock have been found
from Cambrian to Quaternary (Nam, 1995). In scope
of this paper and provide information why geology
and weathering is important for risk evaluation, we
have conducted field surveys along Ho Chi Minh
route and National road No.7. It was classified into 4
zones: Quaternary, Mesozoic, Paleozoic,
Precambrian. Hereafter we will discuss geology and
weathering features reflecting characteristics of
landslide in each area.
National road No.7
A Luoi town
Ho Chi Minh road Ha Noi
Prao
Thanh My
Kham Duc
Figure 2 Location of field observation
Quaternary
This area is located on Kham Duc basin along the
river as the river terraces. Geological structures are
usually flat, including lake deposit with extreme
weak layers such as organic rich, peat and clayey
layers and volcanic rocks: intruded basalt consolidate
hard and heavy rock. The lake deposit (Black reddish
brown color but weathering level is not so deep).
Boundary of the volcanic and lake deposit (Black
deeply weathered material, There are many holes due
to the lava gas), Lake sediment is deeply weathered
and changed to clayey materials.
Landslides occur as rotational slide along river
side slopes are consisted by the complex of small to
surface landslides and soil creeps.
Mesozoic grained, it contains high content of quartz and mica.
The area gets slightly to moderately weathered;
This area has been observed between Prao and
shallow to moderate depth depending on lithology,
Thanh My town, altitude ranging from 600-1000m.
depth of weathering crust layer is changeable from
Geological structure exhibits a layered structure
10m to 30m. Sedimentary rocks break into small to
overlapping each other. It has a well-defined bedding,
medium block. Joints and fractures are well
changes from very thinly bedded (2cm of mudstone)
developed.
to thickly bedded (3m of sandstone). Consist of
Most of landslides occurred as translational slide
Conglomerate, Gritstone, Sandstone, Siltstone,
along bedding plane and weak layer. Weak layer:
Mudstone, Shale, Argillite layers and contains lens of
mudstone and coal layer are key-factors control
coal layer. The sandstone is generally fine to coarse
landslide in this area (Figure 4).

Figure 3. Typical example of landslide regarding to geology in Quaternary zone. 1, 3, 4: Black reddish brown
color lake deposit; 2: Intruded Basalt; 5: holes due to the lava gas; 6: landslide inventory map

Paleozoic sedimentology: metamorphic rocks and magmatic

rocks:
Paleozoic develops Ordovician, Silurian and
- Metamorphic rocks are widespread, includes
Devonian at the field. Along Ho Chi Minh road, they
Long Dai, A Vuong and Nui Vu formation, which
can be divided into two group by means of
rich in quartz components consist of quartz mica-

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schist, quazt-sericite schist, quatz-feldspar schist,
sericite schist.
- Magmatic rocks include Ben Giang-Que Son
formation and Dai Loc complex. This intrusive
granite magmas consist of gabbro diorite,
granodiorite, diorite, and quartz-biotite-hornblende
diorite, pegmatite
Characteristics of landslide in this area depend on
degree of weathering. On metamorphic rocks area,
where has a high weathering, most landslides occur
at high and deep weathering layer and classified as
slump. At moderate weathering area and magmatic
rocks, landslides are small and might be classified as
shallow debris slide or debris flow and wedge type.
Debris slide occur at top of weathering crust: reddish
brown soil and has high content of clay. Wedge type
occurs at slightly weathered rocks. In that layer, there
are many cracks in different direction. Landslide at
N16º04’50.4” E107º29’17.2” is a typical of this
landslide type (Figure 5-4). Landslide at
N16º05’11.8” E107º28’16.6” is a complex
combination of multiple wedge (Figure 5-3).
Silurian is observed along National road No.7.
Geology structures generally composes of sandstone,
gritstone, shale, schist of Song Ca formation. It
shows high folding structure and the area is very
close to big and deep-seated fault. Rock strength is
rather hard. Landslides don’t often occur in hard rock
area, but they are abundant in this area. To answer
for this question, we assume that fault and folding are
main factor to promote landslide in this area.

Figure 4 Typical example of landslide regarding to geology in Mesozoic.

1, 2: Bedding plane; 3, 4: lens of weak layer ; 5: lens of coal layer; 6: aerial photo of landslide

C5-4
 Figure 5 Typical example of landslide regarding to geology in Paleozoic.
1: Schist stone; 2, 3, 4, 5: wedge type; 6: reddish brown has high content of clay

Figure 6 Typical example of landslide regarding to geology in Silurian.

1: fold and fault; 2, 4, 5: folding structure;

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 Figure 7 Typical example of landslide regarding to geology in Precambrian.
1, 6, 7: reddish brown, silty to sandy grained; 2, 4: high weatherd granite;
5: blocks of granite; 9: landslide location map

Precambrian FUTURE IMAGE FOR INTEGRATED

This region formed by granite rock of
Precambrian age and belong to Kham Duc formation,
consist of hornblende, quartz-mica, biotite. Granite
has undergone intensive tropical weathering process
and creates profile with various characteristics and
thickness. Surficial weathered material layer is
reddish brown and is silty to sandy grained. It rapidly
looses with increasing amounts of water (Figure 7-6,
7, 8). Granites rock mass break into small to medium
blocks, these blocks are only observed at river with
depth 10-30m lower than surface (Figure 7-5). So
depth of high weathering crust is bigger than 30 m.
Most of landslides in this area are small to
medium size and strong associated with weathered
material. Type of landslides are rotational slide and
debris flow slide, occur in intense and heavy rain. In
that time, it saturates residual soil. Landslide material
is porous and friable and enter stream forming a
debris flow (Figure 7). In rotational slide, main scarp
has tendency to a vertical
INSPECTION SHEET
With above analysis, geology and weathering
must be play important role in landslide occurring.
For purpose of risk evaluation in humid tropical
region, we will develop an integrated inspection
sheet for risk evaluation by following flowchart
(Figure 8). At first Landslide inventory map will be
built by aerial photo interpretation and apply Japan
landslide society – inspection sheet for risk
evaluation. Then we will develop an integrated
inspection sheet. The sheet will mention: stratigraphy,
rock type, weathering features, geology structures
and sensitive key layer. Two sheets will be combined
for risk evaluation. For choosing which characteristic
in each categorize is more important on evaluating,
we will use AHP approach. Final evaluation will be
checked by calculation of factor of stability by 3D
simulation.

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 Figure 8. Flowchart for developing integrated inspection sheet and risk evaluation

DISCUSSION
Evaluating possibility of landslide occurrence is a
complex operation that require a combination of
different methodologies. In this paper we have
discussed the importance of geology and weathering
in humid tropical region. They must play an
important role in landslide occurrence evaluation. We
have proposed a flowchart and in integrated sheet, we
intend to mention: stratigraphy, rock type,
weathering features, geology structures and sensitive
key layer.

REFERENCES
Nam, T. N. (1995). The geology of Vietnam: A brief
summary and problems. Geoscience reports of
Shizuoka University, 1-9.
Toyohiko Miyagi, G. B. (2004). Landslide risk
evaluation and mapping - Manual of aerial photo
interpretation for landslide topography and risk
management. Report of the National Research.

C5-7
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

THE IMPORTANCE OF ADEQUATE GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATION FOR

SLOPE STABILITY REMEDIATION – LESSONS LEARNT

Henrico Winata 1 and Achmad Muzni Chasanudin 2

ABSTRACT: In 2007, movement was recorded in a slope adjacent to a ridge line development area in East
Kalimantan. The movement resulted in cracking of a main roadway and adjacent buildings. Piles were installed
along the edge of the road in an attempt to stop the slope movement; however, the movement was ongoing. A
geotechnical investigation which was limited in plan extent and depth drilled was carried out to provide
remediation recommendations. Slope stability analyses were carried out based on this limited geotechnical
investigation and a gabion wall retaining structure was built part way down the slope. However, the gabion wall
construction initiated further slope instability related to subsurface conditions below the gabion wall, in an area
previously not investigated. The paper outlines the initial investigation, attempted remediation works and cause
of ongoing slope failure. Subsequent investigation has been carried out and options to prevent damage to the
ridgeline development have been prepared.

BACKGROUND clay materials within the slope. The gabion wall

Slope movement and damage to an access road
and adjacent buildings occurred at project site in
East Kalimantan in 2007. Location of the slope
failure in relation to the building and road is shown
in Figure 1.
A geotechnical investigation by an owner
appointed consultant (third party) was carried out
immediately and as a result; piles were installed
along the edge of the access road with the intent of
halting slope movement.
The slope continued to move after pile
installation. In July 2011 Golder was
commissioned to carry out a geotechnical
investigation. The investigation was carried out
with a limited scope of fieldwork (related mainly to
access limitations). A report was submitted in
September 2011 by Golder in which it was
recommended that a gabion wall be constructed
part way down the slope which (at the time) was at
the southern extent of the owner property. Ideally
the gabion wall would have been located at the toe
of the slope; however owner did not have
ownership of the full slope at the time.
In addition to the gabion wall, it was
recommended that a drainage system be
implemented to reduce the likelihood of further
slope failure triggered by water softening of the
construction was commenced in 2013 and
completed in November 2014.
Immediately after the construction was
completed, significant lateral and vertical
movement occurred at the slope in December 2014.
Photos showing the site condition after December
2014 are shown in Figure 2 and 3.
Further geotechnical investigation was carried
out to find out the cause of the continue movement
and to provide recommendation on site remediation
to stop failure and save the restaurant and other
building adjacent to the slope from failure.
This paper outlines the investigation processes
(both initial and post gabion wall failure) and
details subsequent design recommendations.
Lessons learnt from the ongoing slope movement
are discussed.
INITIAL GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATION
The initial investigation completed in March
2012 was limited due to site access restrictions.
The fieldwork consisted of drilling of four
boreholes and conducting one Cone Penetration
Test (CPT).
The subsurface conditions within the upper
slope consist of up to 9 m of soft to firm sandy /

1
Principal, Golder Associates Indonesia
2
Head of Data Acquisition and Study Service, TOTAL E&P Indonesie

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 silty clay fill (uncompacted) over stiff to very stiff
silty clay.
A plot showing variation of N60 with depth is
provided in Figure 4.
The proposed remedial action to stabilise the
slope was to construct a gabion wall part way down
the slope on the boundary of the owned land.
The gabion retaining wall was designed to
retain the uncompacted fill above the wall and
assumed (incorrectly) that the natural ground below
the wall was of sufficiently high strength to ensure
stability of the slope below the wall

Figure 1. Site Plan showing failure area

Subsequent to the occurrence of large slope

movements and further damage to the road and
adjacent buildings after the gabion wall was
constructed, Owner purchased the slope area below
the gabion wall. A borehole drilled in the slope
below the gabion wall encountered soft soil from
surface to 4 m depth. An inclinometer installed in
the borehole recorded significant movement at 6.5 m
depth below ground. The inclinometer tubing
subsequently was broken due to the ongoing
movement.

Figure 2. Site Condition after Failure in December

2014

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Figure 3. Road Condition after Failure in December
2014

Figure 5. SPT ‘N’ value versus elevation under the

slope

Subsurface condition in front of gabion wall

Below the gabion wall the subsurface condition
consists of mostly firm to stiff silty clay from surface
to 5 m to 6 m, overlying soft to firm silty clay to 9.5
m, then stiff to very stiff silty clay.
A plot of shear strength versus depth based on the
available data is shown in Figure 6. The black dashed
line in Figure 6 is a proposed design line for this area.

Figure 4. N60 versus depth

Additional Geotechnical investigation in 2015

In order to fully understand ground conditions
upslope and downslope of the gabion wall, and to
assess design options to prevent further damage to
the road and adjacent structures, three 40 m deep
boreholes were drilled. A plot showing variation of
N60 with depth (RL) under the slope is provided in
Figure 5.

Subsurface condition below the road

The subsurface conditions at the test locations
between the road and the gabion wall consist of
mostly soft to firm with some very stiff silty clay fill
to about 9m, overlying residual stiff to very stiff silty
clay to about 11m.
A plot of shear strength versus depth based on the
available data is shown in Figure 6. The blue dashed Figure 6. Shear Strength value versus elevation near
line in Figure 6 is a proposed design line for this area. the slope toe

C6-3
Causes of ongoing slope movement activated progressive failure in the un-engineered fill
between the wall and the road.
The ongoing slope movement has been attributed
This postulated failure mechanism is illustrated as
to the following causes:
a not to scale sketch in Figure 8.
1. Poor Surface water drainage control
The top of the slope where movement is
occurring is at a confluence point where surface
water from upslope hard standing areas is discharged
over the access road onto the slope during heavy rain
events.
Figure 8. Likely landslide mechanism
This has resulted in erosion of the slope surface
and water ingress into the slope with subsequent
Stability analyses for the current condition below
softening of the uncompacted clay fill, as the water
the gabion wall have been carried out using the
slowly seeps through the fill.
SLIDE program and result indicates a Factor of
safety of 0.98 (unstable condition). The result of the
2. Non-engineered and unsuitable fill material
stability analysis is shown in Figure 9:
Based on laboratory testing carried out on the fill
material (refer Figure 7) the clay fill is of medium to
high plasticity (and medium to high swell potential),
and hence would generally be considered unsuitable
as fill to support a roadway.
In addition, the test results indicate that the fill
was most likely side-cast instead of being placed in
compacted layers; as required for fill to support a
roadway on the side of a hill.

Figure 9. Stability analysis at current slope condition

The inclinometer data from the borehole below

the gabion wall confirms that about 60mm of
movement has occurred at the approximate level of
the failure surface indicated in the computer model.

Figure 7. Plasticity Index versus Liquid Limit
(Dakshanamanty and Raman, 1973)
3. Soft soil in front of gabion wall
The additional investigation in 2014 indicated a 4
m thick layer of soft to firm clay (probable valley
alluvium) in front of the gabion wall.
It is considered most likely that the weight of the
gabion wall (and additional fill associated with the
gabion wall construction) has initiated a failure
through the soft soil layer in front of the wall.
Subsequently, the failure in front of the wall has re-
PROPOSED REMEDIATION
Subsequent to the failure of the reinforced
concrete piles installed in 2007/2008 to prevent
ongoing cracking along the road and in the
Recreational building, remediation efforts have been
directed at stabilising the slope below the road.
Failure of the gabion wall to prevent slope movement
and the results of the 2015 investigation drilling
indicate that slope movement will most likely
continue to occur unless existing un-compacted fill
can be removed and replaced with engineered fill.
This would entail fill removal to a depth of the order
of 5m, beneath the slope and beneath the access road.
Removal and replacement of such a large volume
of fill is not practical. Hence the proposed approach
is to build a retaining structure which will retain the
road and buildings, combined with drainage
measures to minimise ongoing slope movement
below the road.

C6-4
 An analysis of the existing concrete piles was
undertaken to assess if they could be used as part of
the proposed retaining structure.
Inclinometer results indicate that the maximum
depth of movement under the slope is of the order of
4m. Hence we adopted a depth of 5m over which the
existing piles (and proposed retaining structure)
could lose support on the passive (downslope) side.
Based on the results of drilling, laboratory testing and
experience based judgement, we assigned the
following ground profile and geotechnical parameters
shown in Table 1.
The computer program WALLAP was used to
calculate deflections and bending moments for the
existing 400mm diameter piles. Assumptions were
made for pile reinforcement, as this information was
not available. The calculated maximum bending
moment (155 kNm/m) in the concrete piles exceeded
our estimate of the capacity of piles (79 kNm/m),
indicating that there is a possibility that the piles have
cracked with a subsequent loss of capacity to resist
lateral loading.
Table 1. Material Types and Strength Parameters
Figure 10. Existing concrete pile
Based on the above result, it was decided to
ignore any contribution from the existing concrete
piles (shown in Figure 10) in the current design. It is
recognised that this is a conservative approach as the
piles would (most likely) not have lost support to 5m
depth on the passive side and even if cracked, they
would still have some load capacity.
The most recent drilling of three deep boreholes
has shown that there is no rock within a practical
depth below the slope into which ground anchors
could be installed to provide lateral restraint to a
retaining structure. Hence it was necessary to
consider a structure which had sufficient stiffness to
cantilever 5m above the potential movement level on
the downslope side of the structure. The adopted
section was a “combined wall” which comprises steel
Based on the above result, it was decided to
ignore any contribution from the existing concrete
piles (shown in Figure 10) in the current design. It is
recognised that this is a conservative approach as the
piles would (most likely) not have lost support to 5m
depth on the passive side and even if cracked, they
would still have some load capacity.
The most recent drilling of three deep boreholes
has shown that there is no rock within a practical
depth below the slope into which ground anchors
could be installed to provide lateral restraint to a
retaining structure. Hence it was necessary to
consider a structure which had sufficient stiffness to
cantilever 5m above the potential movement level on
the downslope side of the structure. The adopted
section was a “combined wall” which comprises steel
H piles with milled grooves on the flanges, and
connected with double sheet pile sections; as shown
in Figure 11.
Figure 11. Typical section on proposed combined
wall
WALLAP analyses were run using both Total and
Effective Stress analyses, and for pile lengths of 15m
and 18m. The results are summarised in the Table 2
below.
Table 2. Results of WALLAP Retaining Wall
Analyses
Maximum
Pile Lateral
Analyses Bending
Length Deflection
Method* Moment
(m) (mm)
(kNm/m)
TSA 15 484 116
ESA 15 360 91
TSA 18 555 110
ESA 18 411 80
* TSA = Total Stress Analysis; ESA = Effective Stress Analysis
10kPa surcharge load applied on active (upslope) side of retaining structure
The maximum bending moment is less than the
allowable bending moment for the HZ-880M-C
section for all four cases. We estimate that the lateral
deflection would be less than the calculated 116 mm
because it is unlikely that the full 5 m of support
would be lost on the down-slope side of the structure,
and also by abutting capping beams, the existing
concrete piles would provide some restraint to lateral
movement. Detailed results of the total stress analysis
for the 15 m long section are provided in Figure 12.
C6-5

Figure 12. Detail result of the Total Stress Analysis
(TSA) by WALLAP
In conjunction with the retaining wall
construction it has been recommended that all surface
water collection drains within the development area
be repaired and the surface water channelled along
the edge of the road to lined downslope drains on
either side of the area of slope movement. In addition,
all buried service within the development area should
be checked for leakages and a groundwater
interception trench should be incorporated as part of
the remediation works, as indicated in Figure 13.
Figure 13. Section of combined wall in relation to
road and drainage system
LESSONS LEARNT
The stability of the slope on site has been an issue
since 2007 and was caused by unsuitable fill material
being place in an uncontrolled manner (without
compaction) to form a platform for road and building
construction. The situation at the area of movement
was most likely exacerbated by both surface water
(from damaged drains) and groundwater (from
broken services) softening the already poor quality
clay fill.
The initial attempted remediation of installing
small diameter piles with limited shear and bending
C6-6
capacity was unable to resist the large forces
generated by the slope movement. The ground failed
around the 0.4 m diameter piles which were installed
at 1.5 m centres.
The geotechnical investigation in 2012 was
inadequate in terms of depth of drilling and (most
important), it did not provide a profile of ground
conditions under the full extent of the slope. The
subsequent construction of a gabion wall part way
down the slope was based on an assumption that
ground conditions downslope of the wall were
adequate to support the wall. This proved to be
incorrect due to the presence of an unexpected soft
clay layer about 5 m below ground surface level.
In summary, the lessons learnt are that extensive
investigation with boreholes extending well into
natural ground and over the full length of the slope
are required to adequately investigate slope
movement. In addition, if the area of slope movement
incorporates uncontrolled and unsuitable fill, then the
risk of ongoing movement will always be high due to
the highly variable nature of the fill. Hence
consideration should be given to either removing the
fill (if practical), or accepting that fill will continue to
move and designing to protect and support existing
structures.
Water is often the catalyst that initiates slope
movement; hence precautions should always be taken
to minimize the potential for water to enter the slope.
REFERENCES
CRI Clayton, The Standard Penetration Test (SPT):
Method and Use, CIRIA report 143, 1995
Donald P Coduto, “Foundation Design – Principles and
Practices”, Prentice Hall, Second Edition, 2001.
Golder Associates report 118712003-018-R-Rev2, 27
September 2011. Geotechnical report on Camp
Road Slope Stabilisation, Skempton A.W.,”Standard
Penetration Test Procedures and the Effects in Sands
of Overburden Pressure, relative Density, Particle
Size Aging, and Overconsolidation”, Geotechnique,
Vol. 36, No.3, Sept, 1986.
Golder Factual Report No. 148712020-047-R-
RevA_WO-06 Factual Report-Restaurant.
M Carter and S P Bentley,”Correlation of Soil
Properties”, Pentech Press, 1991.
Slide Computer Program Version 6.0. 2D Limit
Equilibrium Slope Stability Analysis by Rocscience.
Golder Engineering Report No. 128712001-024-R-
Rev0_Eng Report dated 15 June 2012.
Golder Factual report No. 148712020-039-R-RevA
WO-05 Factual Report-RECREATIONAL dated 24
February.
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

ENGINEERING CONTROLS FOR HILL-SITE DEVELOPMENTS IN MALAYSIA

Yee Thien Seng 1

ABSTRACT: Historically in Malaysia, the engineering and construction of slopes had relied extensively on
standard design templates from the Public Works Department. However, modern road and railway geometrics
and large building developments which had resulted in large slopes had also brought along slope failures of
increased adverse significance. It was not until the massive North-south Expressway project from the mid-1980’s
that the need for geo-mechanics in slope engineering was recognized. But this was largely restricted to a few
public infrastructural works undertaken by the private sector.
In 1993, a landslide that brought down a block of condominium with 49 fatalities had prompted the
Institution of Engineers Malaysia to produce the first Position Paper for mitigation of the consequences of
landslides in the country in 2002. The Position Paper was then comprehensively updated in 2009 to include
engineering controls for developments on hill-sites in response to a state government’s directive to suspend all
new developments on ground possessing the gradient steeper than 25 o following the continued occurrence of
slope failures.
This paper deliberates on the engineering controls for satisfactory hill-site developments as well as the need for
the acquisition of relevant soil mechanics fundamentals to mitigate landslide hazards in Malaysia.

Keywords: Slopes, engineering controls, hill-site developments

INTRODUCTION earthworks in the private sector building

Geographically, both Peninsula and East
Malaysia, on the island of Borneo, possess elevated
ground topographies in their interiors. The
significant natural slopes are concentrated along the
edges of such terrains. In East Malaysia, they also
coincide with its international border with
neighbouring Indonesia. The state of Sabah has its
highest terrains in its northwest region.
The Public Works Department (PWD) had
historically implemented the larger infrastructural
civil engineering construction projects in Malaysia.
Naturally, these projects involved earthworks and
slopes; both cuts and filled where hilly terrains had
to be traversed and PWD had developed its
preferred slope engineering practices comprising
standard slope geometry templates to be applied on
prescriptive bases with little regard to the properties
of the materials in the slope body. Road
engineering catered to low design speeds then and
required relatively small scale earthworks involving
largely small slopes; both cut as well as filled. The
constructed slopes performed relatively
satisfactorily in service. Such prescriptive PWD-
design templates for slopes were also adopted for
developments. This had been the practice of
virtually every sector in the civil engineering
industry, with the exception of earthdam
constructions.
It was not until the commencement of the
North-South Expressway (NSE) running the length
of Peninsula Malaysia where the high speed
multiple lane expressway with road geometrics that
necessitated large earthworks whilst traversing hilly
terrains were required. The slopes involved with
earthworks to satisfy such road geometrics were
considerably larger than in the past. Early sections
of the expressway completed just after the mid-
1980’s quickly exhibited significant slope distresses
(Ting et al., 1990). As the result, the expressway
concessionaire soon became aware that the PWD-
prescribed slope geometries were not likely to be
entirely satisfactory when adopted indiscriminately.
Instead, revised slope design procedures which
relied on soil mechanics and material engineering
properties of specific relevance to the slopes to be
constructed were called for in the endeavour to
alleviate integrity problems with the slopes on the
NSE project in its later designed sections

1
Yee Thien Seng, Malaysian Geotechnical Society, yeethienseng@hotmail.com, MALAYSIA

D1-1
commencing in 1989. However, not all sections of
the NSE embraced the revised procedures.
RECENT SLOPE FAILURES
The improved slope engineering practices
adopted on parts of the NSE project did not receive
wide acceptance and, instead, the industry soon
reverted back to using the PWD-prescribed slope
geometries. In the meantime, the development of
large and dense townships emerged where
integrated infrastructures precluded the use of steep
building platforms when located on hill-sites. This
involved enormous earthworks and hence required
large slopes, both cuts and fills, which stretched the
adequacy of the PWD-prescribed slope geometries
in the same manner as with the early NSE slopes. A
number of slope failures with tragic consequences
ensued. Table 1 lists a few of the dramatic ones that
impacted the more recent constructions. They
include those on the NSE that had retained the use
of PWD-prescribed slope geometries.
There are also a significant number of major
debris flow incidents in Malaysia but they are
outside the scope of this paper. These tend to affect
settlements outside regulated development areas.

Table 1. Recent slope failures in Malaysia

Date Event
Taman Hillview, Kuala Lumpur. Landslide from uphill
11 December
1. toppled Block 1 of the 14-storey Highland Towers
1993
condominium with 49 fatalities (Figure 1).
Just south of Ipoh on the North-South Expressway.
2. 6 January 1996 Anchored slope collapse from uphill killed a truck driver
and closed the expressway for 2 weeks.
3. 8 February 1999 Sandakan, Sabah. Landslide killed 17 persons.
Taman Hillview, outside Kuala Lumpur. Retaining wall
20 November
4. failure and landslide from uphill destroyed a bungalow
2002
house killing 8 persons.
Bukit Lanjan. Rock slope collapse onto the North-South
26 November
5. Expressway outside Kuala Lumpur. Temporarily closed the
2003
expressway for 6 months.
Taman Zooview, outside Kuala Lumpur. Collapse in high
6. 31 May 2006 slope retrofitting works led to 4 fatalities at a settlement
downhill of the slope.
Bukit Antarabangsa., outside Kuala Lumpur. Landslide
7. 6 December 2008 from uphill destroyed 14 bungalow houses with 5 fatalities
(Figure 2).
Canada Hill, Miri. Landslide from above into a petrol
8. 16 January 2009
station resulting in 2 casualties.
Hulu Langat. Landslide from uphill struck an orphanage
9. 21 May 2011
killing 15 children and the caretaker.
Puncak Setiawangsa, Kuala Lumpur. Anchored slope
29 December
10. collapse forced the evacuation of 88 residents from
2012
adjoining areas, both above and below the slope.

D1-2
 Figure 1. Highland Towers Block 1 Collapse following a Landslide in 1993 (IEM, 1995)

Figure 2. Bukit Antarabangsa Landslide in 2008 (The Star, 2008)

ROUTINE CONTROLS ON BUILDING ii. Land Conservation Act,

DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS iii. The Environmental Quality Act,
iv. The National Forestry Act,
Like in other well-structured societies, building
v. Waters Act,
development projects in Malaysia have to comply
vi. Geological Survey Act,
with a number of regulatory requirements before
vii. Mining Act
they can be approved for implementation. A total of
viii. Street, Drainage and Building Act,
10 federal legislations and various state enactments
ix. Town and Country Act,
are available to control of land use and indirectly to
x. Local Government Act
effect the management of slopes and landslides.
The federal legislations are: For fresh developments, the controls are exerted
i. The National Land Code, through the granting of approvals by the Local

D1-3
Authorities. The Local Authorities comprise town
councils and city councils each under the
jurisdiction of the state in which they are located.
Although the Local Authorities are administered
under the Ministry of Housing and Local
Government (a federal ministry), the Local
Authorities implement the regulatory policies of the
respective state governments they fall under. The
approvals regulate all aspects applicable to the
projects.
There are a total of 149 such councils all over
Malaysia but most of them lack personnel with the
necessary expertise in slope engineering and
maintenance. Yet following completion of
developments, the Local Authorities have to take
over and maintain the infrastructures and public
amenity facilities which include slopes in the public
spaces. Those slopes on lands owned privately
remain the obligations of the respective landowners.
In response to the continual occurrences of
slope failures, a number of state departments from
various federal agencies have expended efforts
towards mitigating slope failures and their
consequences. The Department of Town and
Country Planning under the Ministry of Housing
and Local Government and the Department of
Minerals and Geoscience under the Ministry of
Natural Resources and Environment had been
particularly active in drafting up guidelines for
proposed courses of action to address the safety of
slopes. These guidelines thus far are purely based
on the inclination of the terrain at the site of the
development for decisions on the permission to
build and also for the choice of buffering corridors
between the slope and the closest building with the
objective of avoiding the consequences from the
hazards of slope failures.
Such guidelines are implemented through the Local
Authorities and they invariably only take effect on
fresh submissions for developments. These
guidelines are applied early in the approval process
and they accord no engineering considerations of
specific relevance to the ground thereat. In other
words, they ignore all available engineering
capabilities either to evaluate the stability of the
ground or the possibilities to elevate the integrity of
the ground to an acceptably stable state. Since such
guidelines do not encompass any engineering
considerations applicable to the ground at any
development site, they have no relevance to old
developments; neither do they provide guidance on
how to deal with such situations.
D1-4
EARLY ENGINEERING CONTROLS FOR
DEVELOPMENTS ON HILL-SITES
It was not until the tragic collapse of the
Highland Towers Block 1 condominium in 1993
that the public realised the need for engineering
controls on hill-site developments to mitigate
landslide hazards. The Institution of Engineers
Malaysia (IEM) had formulated a position paper
(IEM, 2002) with recommendations to the
government on engineering controls to be
implemented for developments on hill-sites. The
recommendations were intended to ensure the
safety of developments on hill-sites. A federal
agency was also proposed to be formed under the
Ministry of Housing and Local Governments to
regulate and approve all hill-site developments.
The position paper had recommended that
slopes for hill-site development be classified into
Class 1 to Class 3 according to the level of risk with
Class 3 denoting the highest level of risk covering
ground with gradients in excess of 25o. It was a
system adapted from that practised in Hong Kong.
The classification was based on the geometry of the
slopes, namely, height and gradient. No special
requirements were required for Class 1 slopes but a
Geotechnical Report by a “Qualified Professional
Engineer” was recommended to be mandatory for
developments on Class 2 slopes. For a development
on Class 3 slopes, the developer was required to
engage an Accredited Checker.
UPDATED CONTROLS RECOMMENDED BY
THE INSTITUTION OF ENGINEERS,
MALAYSIA
Following a directive by the state government
of Selangor to suspend all building developments
on hill-sites steeper than 25o (Class 3 slopes) in that
state as well as the occurrence of a deadly landslide
at Bukit Antarabangsa, all in 2008; IEM set out to
revisit the existing guidelines for hillsite
developments before producing its updated Policies
and Procedures (IEM, 2009) to the government of
Malaysia. This document also alternately referred
to as the Updated Position Paper was completed
and issued on 25 June 2009. A significant number
of recommendations were made as follows:
Federal Agency for Control of Developments with
Slopes
The call for the setting up of the new federal
agency to regulate hill-site developments to provide
harmonious technical input in the regulatory
process for slope engineering matters is renewed.
Its existence would accord a consistent treatment on
slope engineering issues to be available to the Local
Authorities considering that the latter mostly do not
possess the necessary expertise themselves. It
would also have a vital function to operate and
manage a repository for scheduled maintenance
work for slopes registered by Local Authorities
over the entire country and would be equipped to
efficiently flag out upcoming prior scheduled
maintenance work such that such important work
are not missed out.
In order to accord effective control on safety in
any newly completed development, consent from
the federal agency is recommended to be obtained
prior to the required certification for occupation by
the Local Authorities. This would overcome the
deficiency in slope engineering expertise in the
Local Authorities when it comes to the verification
of constructed works.
It is also recommended that all land use
conversions to residential and commercial purposes
ought to take into account hill-site safety issues and
shall take advice from this federal agency. This is
in the expectation that owners of hill-site lands
could be alerted to possible slope engineering
controls required at the earliest possible stage of
planning.
The formation of this agency by the Minister of
Works, Malaysia is now in progress.
Terrain Classification for Hill-site Developments
This is an aid for managing the decision making
process for dealing with submissions for planning
approvals. The updated Position Paper recommends
the use of the full Hong Kong terrain classification
system but with the emphasis on its application to
the ground in its natural terrain state. This is shown
in Table 2 and it reflects the fact that constructed
significant slopes, whether cut or fill, at an
integrated development would be dictated by the
natural terrain on which the development is sited.
Henceforth, the steeper the natural terrain, the more
pronounced would be the controls on constructed
slopes required.
This terrain classification system is currently
employed by a number of Local Authorities (with
further adaptions) when processing fresh
applications for development projects.
The Agency referred to in Table 2 is the Federal
Agency for control of developments with slopes.

Table 2. Slope Classifications

Slope Class Suitability for Development Details Engineering Evaluation

NATURAL TERRAIN
– gradient < 15o OR
1 Suitable CUT SLOPES – Normal
gradient < 15o, Gross
Height < 30m
Crest of ridges OR
NATURAL TERRAIN
2 Suitable – 15o< gradient < 25o Normal
for areas with no signs
of past instabilities
NATURAL TERRAIN Independent Review by
3 Suitability of site to be assessed with – 25o< gradient < 35o Qualified Person other
detailed engineering studies for areas with no signs than the Submitting
of instabilities Engineer
Normally Discouraged. Under
exceptional circumstances, the
Developer with his Building Consultant NATURAL TERRAIN Independent Review by
Professionals may liaise closely with the – gradient > 35o for Qualified Person other
4 Local Authorities and the Agency to areas with no signs of than the Submitting
establish that a given site is safe for past instabilities. Engineer
development: all in accordance with the
practices recommended in this Position
Paper.

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Accredited Checkers for Slope Engineering in the actual construction works and assumed no
responsibility for the constructed works.
In line with the recommendations in the original
However, as the need for the Qualified Person
position paper to require the use of Accredited
was premised on the reasoning that the Submitting
Checkers for hill-site development project, the
Engineer often did not possess the necessary
Board of Engineers Malaysia started the
expertise for slope engineering matters, the practice
registration of Accredited Checkers in 2003 for the
of not requiring input from the Qualified Person in
purpose of conducting accredited checking on the
the construction phase (which should have been an
design efforts of the project engineering consultants
equally crucial phase in any construction as the
for hill-site developments. The objective of the
design phase) was deemed unsatisfactory. The
checking is to ensure the adequacy of safety in the
updated controls will require the Qualified Person
slopes and constructions associated with them
to participate through the engineering design and
following the recognition that the majority of
construction process and to assume joint
practising engineers in industry lacked the special
responsibility with the Submitting Engineer to the
capabilities required for slope engineering work.
development. This would be effected by requiring
There are a total of 16 Accredited Checkers
the Qualified Person to jointly endorse the as-built
registered under the ‘Geotechnical’ category and 20
drawings of the construction. To implement this
Accredited Checkers registered under the
action would require amendments to the
‘Structural’ category.
Registration of Engineers Act 1967 as well as all
However, experience with the use of Accredited
other Statutes that govern the conduct of
Checkers in Malaysia has been less than
engineering activities in Malaysia.
satisfactory and the Updated Position Paper
recommends Accredited Checkers to be re-
Drains on Slopes to have Self-Cleansing
examined. It is the realisation that the accredited
Hydraulics
checking effort needs to be considerably more
involved than the mere exercise of examining the Drains on a slope face are necessary to maintain
arithmetic efforts in the design produced by the the integrity against erosion from surface water
submitting engineer. Instead it is expected to be a flowing over it. They are frequently constructed
holistic review of the entire engineering process as along intermediate berms on a slope face. When
well as the philosophy of the design to see that it is constructed with insufficient gradient, the flow
appropriate for the construction and is of relevance velocity in the slope drain would invariably be
to the specific features at the site concerned. For incapable of transporting away soil particles and
this, the Updated Position Paper recommends that debris that get deposited inside the flow channel.
the Accredited Checker needs to be in possession of Repeated depositions of soil and other debris that
relevant geotechnical engineering and expertise do not get removed would degrade the interceptive
which includes that in the field of project capacity of drains to leave water overflowing the
management, civil engineering construction drains and unabatedly run down the slope face to
processes, structural engineering, earthworks erode it.
construction, surface and sub-surface drainage as Maintenance of drains on the faces of large
well as other fields of relevance. slopes is extremely cumbersome owing to access
and logistics difficulties. As the consequence, slope
Requirement for Qualified Person to Certify and drains are frequently dysfunctional owing to
Endorse As-built Drawings sediment deposition.
The Updated Position Paper recommends that
Owing to the Updated Position Paper’s
all slope drains should be designed and constructed
recommendations to have Accredited Checkers re-
to be capable of self-cleansing for soil particles up
examined, for the purpose of this paper the engineer
to 1mm size under flows from the three-month
performing the task of checking a Submitting
recurrence interval rainfall intensity. Drains
Engineer’s design is termed as the Qualified Person
possessing such performance characteristics would
other than the Submitting Engineer or, in short, the
reduce the need for deliberate intervention to keep
Qualified Person. In the 2002 recommendations,
them functional.
the Qualified Person’s (then called the Accredited
Checker) role was confined to checking the design
documents provided to him and his responsibility
did not proceed beyond that stage. The Qualified
Person then had no involvement with proceedings

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Checking and Certifying Safety at Old
Developments
Historically, slope failures with tragic
consequences were predominantly at old residential
developments that were completed a very long time
ago. Invariably, the slope engineering in these
residential developments employed the PWD
prescribed slope geometries which may today be
seen as probably inadequate. For such
circumstances, the updated guidelines are
recommending that all old developments located on
or adjoining ground of Class 3 and Class 4 slopes
ought to be assessed by Qualified Persons. The
objective would be to establish if upgrading to the
safety of any slope at such developments is
required to be implemented and to advise the Local
Authorities accordingly.
Development platforms on hill-site terrains
require extensive use of retaining walls to create the
flat footprint plots for individual buildings. The
safety assessments at old developments located on
or adjoining ground of Class 3 and Class 4 slopes
would also extend to the adequacy of old retaining
walls with heights greater than 3m to determine if
upgrading to such walls is necessary for satisfactory
continued service. Where they are found necessary,
the Qualified Person would be required to advise
the responsible authorities for corrective actions be
taken.
Where determined to be adequate, the
respective old development would be certified safe.
Otherwise, its certification of adequate safety
would only be made after the satisfactory
completion of the required retrofitting works.
Need to Upgrade Soil Mechanics Teaching in
Universities
The degree of stability customarily sought for in
slope engineering seldom exceeds the Factor of
Safety of 1.5. With a Factor of Safety of 1.5, it
would proffer a reserve of strength of 50 percent
against collapse in a plain slope. This reserve for
stability is significantly smaller than the reserve of
strength against collapse for other constructions
undertaken by civil engineers. Yet the material
strength that can be relied on for use in the analysis
for stability slopes is hardly obvious to practising
engineers who traditionally employed peak state
shear strengths.
Plain slopes derive their integrity from shear
strengths mobilisable to resist sliding. Traditionally,
civil engineers are taught that cohesive soils
possess an extra component of shear strength in
addition to that generated by effective stress
resulting from friction. The extra strength
component is attributed to cohesion. This position
had come about from measurements made during
shear testing of soil specimens in the laboratory. A
great majority of current text books on soil
mechanics instruct the same.
However, Critical State Soil Mechanics,
introduced in Schofield and Wroth (1968), operates
on the premise that soils do not possess cohesion
strength. The extra shear strengths over the critical
state strengths observed in tests are recognized to
be generated by soil dilatancy which, collectively
together with critical state strengths, is manifested
as peak state shear strengths. Peak state strengths
are mobilized at small shear strains and the shear
strengths would quickly degenerate with shear
straining beyond the peak to the critical states. At
critical states, shear strengths available in soils are
derived from friction as the result of effective
stresses without dilatancy effects. In the context of
potential sliding along lengthy shearing surfaces
associated with landslides and slope failures,
progressive failure ensures that operational shear
strengths available along most of the shearing
surface would essentially be the critical state
strengths.
Skempton (1970) reviewed the evaluation of 5
landslide cases involving natural and cut slopes in
heavily over-consolidated clays in Britain
(Skempton, 1964) and concluded that the shear
strengths mobilized in first-time failures were the
‘fully-softened’ strengths. Bolton (1993) also
asserts the same except that the critical state
strength is used instead. For practical intents and
purposes, both fully-softened strength and critical
state strength are synonymous.
Take and Bolton (2011) provides measurements
and observations from centrifuge tests to track the
accumulation of shear strains along the shearing
plane in steep clay slopes upon successive wet
season exposures to drive strengths towards critical
states. (Steep slopes refer to slopes with gradients
greater than the critical state friction angle of the
material.) Prior to wetting, the presence of suctions
in the slopes contributed the extra component of
shear strengths over and above those available from
critical state friction and dilation. The effect of wet
season exposures was very rapid destruction of the
suctions or negative pore water pressures in the
body of a slope leading to loss of the extra
component of shear strength. Each wet season’s
loss of suction resulted in mostly irrecoverable
shear strains along the shearing surface which
D1-7
accumulated over multiple wet seasons to drive
available strengths towards critical states.
It seems obvious from available current
knowledge that even in soils traditionally classified
as cohesive, cohesion strengths do not exist to
contribute towards stability in slopes against first-
time failures and, thus, cannot be relied upon in
slope engineering work. Henceforth, to permit
engineers to work with conviction in slope
engineering, they have to embrace the version of
soil mechanics that does not advocate the existence
of cohesion strength in soils.
This need for the revamp in the teaching of soil
mechanics in civil engineering courses is
recommended in the Updated Position Paper. For
practising engineers in industry, they would need to
attend short courses that are regularly conducted on
the subject for re-education.
Schofield, A.N. and Wroth, C.P. (1968). Critical
state soil mechanics. McGraw-Hill.
Skemption, A.W. (1964). Long-term stability of
clay slopes. Geotechnique 14, No. 2: 77-101.
Skempton, A.W. (1970). First time slides in over-
consolidated clays. Geotechnique 20, No. 3:
320-324.
Take, W.A. and Bolton, M.D. (2011). Seasonal
ratcheting and softening in clay slopes, leading
to first-time failure. Geotechnique 61, No. 9:
757-769.

CONCLUSION
Malaysia regularly experienced slope failures
that led to property damages and loss of lives.
The tragic collapse of Highland Towers Block 1
condominium in 1993 with the loss of 49 lives
initiated the need for engineering controls on hill-
site developments.
IEM had formulated and recommended the
necessary engineering controls by way of position
papers to the Government; first in 2002 and then
followed by an update in 2009.
The key features of the recommended
engineering controls for hill-site developments in
Malaysia have been deliberated on.

REFERENCES
Bolton, M.D. (1993). What are partial factors for?
Proceedings of the international symposium on
limit state design in geotechnical engineering.
Danish Geotechnical Society for International
Society of Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering TC 23, in DGF Bulletin 10: 565-
583.
IEM (1995). Proceedings of the symposium on
hillside development: engineering practice and
local by-laws. The Institution of Engineers,
Malaysia, Petaling Jaya, Malaysia.
IEM (2002). Position paper for mitigating the risk
of landslide on hill-site development. The
Institution of Engineers, Malaysia, Petaling Jaya,
Malaysia.
IEM (2009). Updated policies and procedures for
engineering control of hill-site developments.
The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia, Petaling
Jaya, Malaysia.

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 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

WIDESPREAD SLOPE MOVEMENTS WITHIN THE AUSTRIAN ALPS

G. Moser 1

ABSTRACT: The Austrian Alps are a complex nappe range with a big variety of landscapes and rocks. The
diversity of rocks as well as tectonic processes enables a spread of gravitational mass movement. Especially
variable solid rocks are effecting big landslides, as shown on two examples below. Both of the landslides are
located within the so called Ultrahelvetic, a shelf sediment with predominately marls and sandstone. Particularly
the marls vary from brittle behavior at dry status to pasty condition after weathering.
The local name of the two presented landslides is 1) “Gschliefgraben” and 2) “Pechgraben”. The following
figure shows the location of these two landslides on a simplified geological map of Austria:

1) 2)

Figure 1. simplified geological map of Austria,

1) Gschliefgraben landslide, 2) Pechgraben landslide

At both of the landslides a differentiation between cause and trigger of the movement has to be made. While
the causes are an interaction of morphology, grain size distribution and mineralogy, the trigger is mostly a
climatic primary event, like in the Pechgraben, where the movement has been boosted by an extraordinary
rainfall on 2nd of June 2013. At the Gschliefgraben it became apparent, that climatic events can be an indirect
trigger too, as the landslide had been activated by a rockfall, that happened onto water saturated weathered marls
of the Ultrahelvetic after heavy rain end of November 2007.
Gschliefgraben as well as Pechgraben are well known as historic landslide areas. At both of the recent
landslides not only big areas had been involved (Gschliefgraben about 35 ha, Pechgraben about 80 ha), also
settlement areas and infrastructure were affected or endangered. In both cases an emergency management team
was built, that promptly started investigations and took action day to day basing on current development to avoid
the movement proceeding into the settlement area. The field investigations covered geological mapping (rip

1
Dr. Günter Moser, ZT-GmbH Moser/Jaritz, Münzfeld 50, A-4010 Gmunden, AUSTRIA, g.moser@moser-jaritz.at

D2-1
mapping), laser scanning, drillings with borehole investigations as well as land and airborne geophysics. From
the recorded data analog and numeric models have been calculated for design and configuration of measures.
The main remediation measures had been dewatering by wells and drains to increase the shear strength of the
sediments, reduction of pore water pressure by stone filled trenches and removal of soil at the front ridges of the
sliding.
With overall costs of around 14 million Euro at the Gschliefgraben and about 4,5 million Euro in the
Pechgraben it had been possible to prevent any major damage to houses as well as local facilities and utilities.

Keywords: landslide, remediation, Ultrahelvetic, geotechnics, geoinformatics

INTRODUCTION AND HISTORY hazard zone. The location is well in demand;

however, since 1978, there is a construction stop
The Gschliefgraben as well as the Pechgraben,
for buildings.
both E-W trending valleys (see figure. 2
Gschliefgraben), are located at the tectonic border
between the Rhenodanubian Flysch and the
Ultrahelvetic with predominately marls and
sandstones, and the Northern Calcareous Alps with
mainly limestones and dolomites. During the
Holocene era, this tectonically overprinted mix of
competent and incompetent as well as impermeable
and highly permeable rocks gave rise to episodic
landslides.

Figure 3. historic landslides at Gschliefgraben

(numbers do represent years)

GEOLOGY AND HYDROGEOLOGY

Figure 2. morphology of Gschliefgraben with local
names of neighbouring mountains, elevation of
Traunstein is 1691 m, lake elevation is 422 m, both
above sea level
As this was an early settlement area the
historical events of landslides had been well
documented in the Gschliefgraben. The Figure no.
3 shows the historically documented events, named
after local houses or owners. The oldest event was
“Hoisn” before “Ramsau” and “Kalibauer”, which
was the first landslide that could be dated with 1734.
The last event before the present one was 1910.
The dimensions of the mass movement were
well known to the experts of the torrent and
avalanche control, giving rise to a hazard zone map
for the Gschliefgraben in 1974. This has been
included into the first legally binding land use plan
in 1978. Today, there are 74 objects within the red
The geological and hydrogeological exploration
of the Gschliefgraben and Pechgraben landslide
was carried out by means of various methods.
Below we shall elaborate on the exploration
through geological-geomorphologic mapping on a
scale of 1:2000 as well as through subsurface
explorations. While these were limited chiefly to
the area of the current landslide, mapping focused
in particular on the geology and morphology of the
entire Gschliefgraben including its marginal areas.
For the Pechgraben the mapping will be completed
by the end of 2015. In addition, displacement
measurements and observation of the mountain
water levels were carried out on both sites, which
led to the determination of initial emergency
procedures.
Geology
As the geological situation of Gschliefgraben
and Pechgraben is comparable, the general
description is done together for both landslides. The
central part of the landslides is made of rocks of the
Ultrahelvetic, which emerge here in the form of a
tectonic window below the Rhenodanubian Flysch

D2-2
and the overlying Northern Calcareous Alps. While,
in the North, the Ultrahelvetic borders the
Rhenodanubian Flysch throughout, for tectonic
reasons only the remainders of this unit are
preserved in the South. Therefore, the ultrahelvetic
rocks in the South are prevalently in direct contact
with the Northern Calcareous Alps, which
internally can be divided here in three nappes
bottom-up: Kalkalpine Randschuppe, Bajuvarikum
and Tirolikum. The tectonic units are cut by a NW-
SE striking dextral and a NE-SW striking sinistral
fault system, which are characterized by strike-slip
faults (Egger et al. 2007).
The ultrahelvetic stratigraphic sequence is
severely torn as a result of the high tectonic stress
and the mass movements. Besides coarse-grained
sandstones and lime marls of the Lower to Upper
Jurassic (Gresten Formation and Blassenstein
Formation), there are in particular variegated marls
and lime marls of the marl group
(Buntmergelgruppe) as well as, secondarily,
glauconitic sandstones and nummulitic limestones,
which, according to Prey (1983), have been
deposited between the Lower Cretaceous and the
Paleogene.
The cretaceous sandstones and marls of the
Rhenodanubian Flysch that occur on the immediate
margin of the Gschliefgraben can be attributed to
the Rehbreingraben Formation (“Gaultflytsch”), the
Reiselsberg Formation, and the Seisenburg
Formation. The Calcareous Alpine, which joins the
central Gschliefgraben in the South, is dominated
by limy and dolomitic sedimentary rocks. Within
the Kalkalpine Randschuppe appear besides the
Upper Triassic Kössen Formation and thick-bedded,
dark grey limestones with uncertain stratigraphic
position, also siliceous limestones and dark-spotted
marl of the Lower Jurassic. Besides a gypsum-clay
schist-sequence (comp. Prey 1983), probably to be
classified as Upper Triassic (Karn), Hauptdolomit
and Plattenkalk (also Upper Triassic), occurring
here in an anticline structure, are prevalent in the
Bajuvarikum, which is situated above the
Randschuppe.
During the Holocene, products of weathering
and deposits of the various landslide processes were
formed.
Hydrogeology
The northern Alpine foreland, which comprises
the Gschliefgraben and the Pechgraben, is
characterized by large amounts of precipitation.
Especially under barrage weather conditions (moist
air from NW-N), high and prolonged precipitation
(rain or snow) is apt to occur.
The catchment area of both sites is mainly
determined by morphology.
Besides the ultrahelvetic rocks and their
products of weathering, the marls of the Kalkalpine
Randschuppe as well as the interbeddings of pelites
within the Rhenodanubial Flysch act as aquiclude.
Accordingly, also the sediments of the mass
movements are predominantly impermeable to
water. Particularly, the jointed solid rocks act as
joint aquifers. Besides the competent rocks of the
Rhenodanubian Flysch and the Ultrahelvetic,
occurring subordinately as far as area is concerned,
these are mainly the rocks of the Northern
Calcareous Alps. Especially in the Plattenkalk and
Hauptdolomit of the Bajuvarikum, water,
benefitting from the bedding planes dipping in
northern direction, can flow off toward the sites. In
the Gschliefgraben especially the coarse-grained
debris could be functioning as a pore aquifer: this
means first of all the large talus material as well as
the fluvial sediments in the lower parts of the
creeks. Further pore aquifers—at least in some
areas— are the glacigenous sediments.
Local pore aquifers in coarse-grained sites (eg.
rockfall deposits, old land surfaces) can occur in the
area of earth/debris flows. Since these aquifers
frequently lack free drainage in the lower area, they
are partially under pressure.
APPEARANCE OF RECENT LANDSLIDES AT
GSCHLIEFGRABEN AND PECHGRABEN
The morphology of the Gschliefgraben area is
largely a result of the mass movements that have
developed since the melting of the glacial glaciers.
Fall, topple, and spread processes dominate in the
eastern and southern marginal areas of the
Gschliefgraben as well as the Pechgraben, which
are characterized by hard rocks (Northern
Calcareous Alps). On the other hand, slide, flow
and creep processes characterize the central part of
both sites, which is built mainly from incompetent,
soft rocks (especially ultrahelvetic rocks).
Gschliefgraben
At the Gschliefgraben in late November 2007,
presumably triggered by a rock fall in April 2006,
an earth flow amounting about 3.8 million m³
accumulated solids, was set in motion. The active
earth and debris flows, typical of the
Gschliefgraben, originate, with the exception of one
debris flow, at its middle southern margin, mainly
D2-3
from the central upper part of the area as well as By end of August 2008, the evacuation was
from the upper southern-exposed slopes of the suspended in consideration of requirements.
Gaißbühel. Besides the active ones, further, often The following pictures give both an impression
only vaguely distinctive, earth/debris flows can be about the development of the earth flow and the
identified. Their material properties are highly typical appearance of earth flow surface shapes.
dependent on the respective area of origin. As seen in Figure 4, the earth flow shows
The earth/debris flows merge in the central, significant vertical displacement at transverse
middle part of the Gschliefgraben. From there, the ridges before any major horizontal displacement
deposited material is transported by fluvial happens.
conveyance or—as in 2007— in the form of a large
debris flow toward (lake) Traunsee. The deposits of
these large mass movements make up the debris
cone, approximately 1 km in width, which has been
forming below the Gschliefgraben ever since the
melting of the glacial glaciers. The debris fan is
characterized by typical flow structures such as
bulges, banks, humps, and hollows, which, however,
depending on their age, display more or less
overprinting as a result of erosion processes. At the
end of the debris flow deposits, more or less
strongly developed transverse ridges have formed.
The most conspicuous component of the
earth/debris flows are giant, at times up to 100 m3
blocks. They consist mainly of the quaternary talus
breccia and of dark lime materials, which probably
are predominantly Plattenkalk.
To a large degree, the deposits of the current
debris flow of 2007/2008 have in the meantime
been anthropogenically overprinted as a result of
the rehabilitation and safety measures.
Dislocation velocity was up to 4.7 m/day at the
beginning, and as a result the earth masses
threatened to damage 37 estates with 55 buildings
and to shift parts of these into the lake, as happened Figure 4. development of transverse
several times during the past centuries. ridges(development within about a few days)
Due to the re-activation of the landslide in
December 2007, 55 houses had to be evacuated. As The next Figure (no. 5) shows a torrent
a result of the measures taken by the torrent an regulation, built in the 1960ies to keep the creek at
avalanche control, 40 houses could be re-occupied. its position. The construction was destroyed by the
landslide completely within 2 months.

Figure 5. torrent regulation before and after landslide took place

D2-4
 The lateral boundary of the displacement area
can be determined at the appearance of side ridges
or Riedel shears as seen on Figure 6 below.
thirteen core borings as well as one deep hammer
blow drill were sunk at the site of Gschliefgraben
and seven core drillings were erected in Pechgraben.
Each core bore was performed according to
geological-geotechnical considerations and samples
were taken for soil tests.
Beside drillings a number of investigations were
carried out at both Gschliefgraben and Pechgraben
(Table 1). To observe the space limits of this paper,
only some of the monitoring methods are discussed
below.

Figure 6. Riedel shears – left part is still stable,

while right part is in motion

Pechgraben
The Pechgraben landslide was monitored since
several months already before an extraordinary
rainfall at beginning of June 2013 enlarged the area
of displacement from about 25 ha to triple of
around 80 ha and about 8 million m³ of soils being
involved into the earth flow. The main flow
direction was towards west but a side stream
developed towards the settlement area of
Pechgraben located south of the earth flow. The
maximum displacement velocity was close to 10
m/day.
Compared to a more or less uniform directed
movement in Gschliefgraben, different partial
currents of the earth flow developed in the
Pechgraben. Figure 7 shows the sliding surface of Figure 7. shear surface (overview left picture and
one of these partial currents, orientated towards the detail right picture)
village of Pechgraben.
The ascending sliding surfaces, producing the
side ridges became of impressing dimensions at a
narrowing section in the middle part of the
Pechgraben landslide (Figure 8).

SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION
Monitoring Methods
Since the onset of the landslides, a subsurface
exploration program by means of core borings has
been initiated and constantly expanded. On the one
hand, the core borings were expected to provide Figure 8. shear surface (overview left picture and
insights into the substratum and the dimension of detail right picture)
the current active landslide. On the other hand, they
were to be developed subsequently into measuring
points for inclinometer measurements and water
pressure (water gauge and piezometer). A total of

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 Table 1. subsurface exploration methods at sites
METHOD Gschlief- Pech-
graben graben
Airborne Laserscanning x x
Aerial Photographs x x
Remote sensing
Octocopter flights x
Echo Sounding x x
Survey of drafts x x
Observation of ranging-poles x x
Monitoring of drafts x x
Surface - surveying
Monitoring of anchors x x
Webcam x
Terrestrial survey x x
dGPS survey x x
Borehole logs x x
Inclinometer (manual and automatic) x x
Well gauges and piezometer x x
Depth - surveying
TDR x
Seismics und geophysics x x
Soil mechanics x x
Precipitation, temperature, barometric x x
Hydrology pressure
Discharge in pipes and open channels x x

Differential GPS (dGPS) 153 fixed points were installed in Gschliefgraben

and 95 in Pechgraben, some of which were
Because of practical difficulties in situating
destroyed by the mitigation measures. In the
fixed points outside the active land slide area and
beginning, measurements were performed day-to-
due to adverse visibilities, a surveying traverse with
day, with increasing stabilization of the landslide,
several stations would have been necessary,
measurement intervals could be stepwise expanded.
bringing about error propagation problems.
The results of dGPS surveying are analyzed with a
Therefore, daily dislocations were detected by
spreadsheet program and plotted in a GIS to be sent
differential GPS (“dGPS”), providing a positional
to the project team for further interpretation (Figure
accuracy of 15 – 20 mm at a measurement time of
9).
30 seconds per point (Energie AG reference
network). Since the beginning of dGPS surveying,

Figure 9. Positions of the dGPS surveying points in Gschliefgraben.

Base map: analytical hillshading from ALS data

D2-6
Airborne Laserscanning (ALS) mapping as well as for volume-calculations,
difference-modeling and deriving profiles or
For both of the sites an airborne laserscanning
synthetic views used in planning the
was available from before the landslides became
countermeasures.
active. During the high active period of the
Figure 10 shows the calculated volume
landslides, four laserscanning flights had been
differences between the morphology at Pechgraben
performed at each site. The precision of the derived
before landslide (19-04-2011) and the first phase of
digital height models (“DHM”, raster cell size
the landslide (12-06-2013). The interpretation
1*1m) is 20cm (horizontal) and 15 cm (vertical).
covers the lower third of the whole landslide area at
The ALS surveys provide high quality base data for
Pechgraben.
geomorphological and structure-geological

Figure 10. ALS based calculated volume (difference modelling) at Pechgraben

Inclinometer/Time Domaine Reflectometry (TDR) electromagnetic signal is sent into the ground.
When there is a deformation of the cable by soil
One of the most relevant parameters of a
displacement, part of the signal is reflected to the
landslide is the depth of the sliding surface. In
instrument unit. As the signals rate of spread is
Gschliefgraben two methods of determination have
known, the depth of calculation can be calculated.
been used. First the classical inclinometer readings
This method is less damageable regarding shearing-
had been done wherever the velocitiy of
off and was available some weeks longer than the
dicplacement allowed it. Some of the inclinometer
inclinometer measurement.
drillings had been sunk more than once because the
In Figure 11 the principle of measurement
inclinometer pipe had been destroyed by slope
(Singer, Festl, Thuro 2008) and a graph of
movement. Considering that problem a newly
measurement out of the Gschliefgraben readings is
developed method (Technical University of Munic)
displayed. The reading shows a clear sliding
was used. Therefore a coaxial cable is fixed on the
surface at 16.8 m below surface.
inclinometer pipe. Via that cable an

D2-7
 Figure 11. TDR measurement, method (left) and measurement results from Gschliefgraben (right)

MONITORING RESULTS/INTERPRETATION debris and mud flows are mixed by later

movements.
Due to the large quantities of measurement
As a basis for any measures decision a three
methods and data, an extract of results is discussed
dimensional interpretation of the subsurface
below.
situation is essential. Just understanding the
Drillings established the sheeting of the
geological background can assure, that only
earth/debris flow cone of the Gschliefgraben and
measures will be carried out, which improve the
Pechgraben. Mudflow deposits could be discerned
situation. Figure 12 shows a cross section through
especially in Gschliefgraben, which were marked
the Gschliefgraben landslide with low permeable
by a high content of slightly rounded, coarse
fine grained layers of old landslides and higher
components. Because of their coarse grain content,
permeable sediments in between from former
mudflow deposits are mostly water-bearing.
surfaces, remaining from mudflow deposition.
Mountain water is under pressure due to the lateral
Under appropriate climatic condition the inflow
uphill spreading of these sediments. These ground
of water into the water bearing intermediate layers
layers, which are dominated by coarse grains, could
is higher, than the outflow capacity. So a
partially as well be characterized as old surfaces.
hydrostatic pressure within the higher permeable
Weathering caused the flushing out of fine matter.
water bearing layers against the overlaying fine
This could be called a condensed horizon, in which
grained layers is developing, promoting the
enrichment of coarse components occurred. The
formation of a shear plane within fine grained marl.
same mountain water situation as in the mud flow
The findings of the exploration work had also
deposits can be expected here. A large portion of
been the basis for a number of calculations.
the explored soils is represented by landslide
Parameter identification work was done,
sediments. These landslide elements contain some
considering the results of laboratory investigation
silty argillaceous matrix, which in turn contains
with varying soil properties, varying water levels
various portions of coarse components. Thus, loose
and varying depth of sliding surfaces. The slope
rock is partially grain supported, and to a larger
stability calculations were done with polygonal
extent matrix supported. A good quarter of the
sliding plane (Janbu), rotational slip (Bishop),
matrix is composed of swellable clay minerals
single lamella, kinematic element method and
(findings of the Geological Survey of Austria,
numeric method. From these calculations it became
Vienna). The included components range from
apparent, that the system is reacting very sensitive
sizes of a sand grain to blocks with a size of several
against changing water tables.
cubic meters. Dark and bright Calcareous Alpine
In Figure 13 a simplified model of displacement
limestone is predominant among the pebble and
displays the situation in Gschliefgraben, where a
stone components, while the larger blocks almost
rockfall triggered the movement of water saturated,
exclusively consist of Quaternary breccia made up
weathered fine grained marls, being supported by
of slope debris. Frequently, the layers of repeated
increasing hydrostatic pressure within higher
permeable layers below.

D2-8
 Figure 12. Geological interpretation of exploration data at Gschliefgraben
Figure 13. Simplified model of displacement
The complexity of displacement correlations
and the large number of data promoted the
geoinformatics processing and analysing of
monitoring data by Explorative data analysis
(“EDA”), explorative spatial data analysis
(“ESDA”) and explorative space-time data analysis
(“ESTDA”). For space reasons these interpretation
results are not displayed here.
REMEDIATION MEASURES
Basing on daily results of monitoring data and
interpretation the following measures have been
carried out. As the basic process of slope movement
of Gschliefgraben and Pechgraben was comparable,
the remediation activities have been matchable too.
The biggest difference in measures is the largely
missing of higher permeable layers within the fine
grained weathered marls in Pechgraben. As a
matter of fact the costly large extent of well
erection in Gschliefgraben was not required in
Pechgraben.
Table 2 gives a summary of main measures
without considering different phases of erection
time.
On both sites the landslide was stopped just
before reaching the buildings. Figure 14 shows,
how close the transverse ridges came up to the
settlement area.
The success of making the substratum dryer and
increasing the shear strength at any possible area
within the landslide arises by ascending shear
planes as seen in Figure 15 below.
The levelling of terrain at the ascending shear
planes respectively transverse ridges was done
limited, considering the possible uplift by
hydrostatic pressure of permeable layers below.
D2-9
 Table 2. Remediation measures in Gschliefgraben and Pechgraben
Measure Gschliefgraben Pechgraben
discharge of drained water in total length 4.3 km total length 1.7 km
pipelines, which are situated outside
the moving area.
construction of open channels for > 3 km > 3 km
surface runoff disposal
construction of longitudinal and > 5 km > 4 km
lateral drainages for drying,
ventilation and to reduce the
pressure of the debris flow
establishment of grooves and not measured not measured
tongues with steel boards to retain
water from entering the debris flow
drilling of wells to dehydrate and 281wells not required
reduce water pressure in shear zones depth of 15 - 25 m
at the head of the landslide. water is average volume 200 to 350 m³ per
pumped with the perspective of a day
transition to a free surface discharge
system
controlled and limited removal of 215 000 m³ 30 000 m³
soil to prevent lateral landslide
activation
levelling local terrain maxima and done done
surface sealing to reduce shear
stress and to isolate subsurface
water circulation from precipitation
erosion control and surface areal areal
consolidation by grass-seeding and
afforestation
setup of a permanent monitoring Inclinometer, surface surveying, Inclinometer, surface surveying,
system for displacement observation water table monitoring pore pressure monitoring

Figure 14. Gschliefgraben, transverse ridge on the right side, wells between ridge and buildings
(blue pipes)

D2-10
 Figure 15. Ascending shear plane direct upstream of a row of wells (view left and detail right)
CONCLUSIONS
The landslides at the Gschliefgraben and the
Pechgraben could be stopped after a period of
remediation, with none of the concerned building
damaged; currently, in Gschliefgraben only in the
upper catchment area local displacements are
observed. In Pechgraben measures have only been
taken in the southern area, as there is no settlement
area in the northern part of displacement.
To implement effective countermeasures,
extensive monitoring and interdisciplinary
interpretation of results is mandatory: detailed
geomorphological and geological field work,
resulting in a large-scale map and the inclusion of
subsurface exploration results was the foundation
for understanding the geological and hydrological
framework of the landslide. For a seamless
integration of geophysical results it is essential to
obtain sufficient seismic velocity information from
wells with sonic logs or from checkshots. Only with
this kind of data is it possible to clearly determine
the border between moving and nonmoving masses.
Interpreting the huge amount of monitoring data
acquired from active landslides calls for explorative
data analysis methods for an efficient
parametrization of later spatial-statistical modelling.
Actuo-geological processes like landslides can be
efficiently portrayed by space-time geostatistics,
providing homogeneous process models that enable
quantification and intuitive communication of
results. For a description of the soil mechanics of
an earth and debris flow the geotechnical standard
models are insufficient. Formulation of forces
acting on the lamellae or units of failure (according
to conventional methods) or material equations
(according to numerical methods) alone cannot
adequately explain the fracture process. Also,
extreme caution is needed in applying soil physical
values obtained by laboratory studies as material
behaviour is dependent upon time, stress changes,
water pressure, and consistency. This non-linear
material behaviour appears especially in triaxial
experiments. Experiments involving varying lateral
stress (vertical and horizontal pressure) and rates of
loading and unloading dependent upon the position
of the sample in the earth and debris flow are best
suited for this purpose. For safe permanent
settlement at the Gschliefgraben alluvial fan, the
well pumping activities have been replaced by a
free surface discharge system; in Pechgraben no
pumping activities had and have been required.
As no guarantee for a prevention of any
reactivation of the landslides in the future can be
given, a permanent monitoring system was
installed at both sites. These monitoring systems
cover the major parameters, are automatically
operated and assure that in case of any reactivation
the response time will be as short as possible.
REFERENCES
Baumgartner, P. (1976): Die Massenbewegung bei
Gmunden im Gschliefgraben (Traunsee,
Oberösterreich) – eine Analyse aus
hydrogeologischer und ingenieurgeologischer
Sicht.- unv. Diss. An der Universität Innsbruck,
106 S., Innsbruck.
Baumgartner, P. und Sordian, H. (1982): Zum
horizontalen und vertikalen Aufbau des Erd-
Schuttströmekegels des Gschliefgrabens am
Traunsee bei Gmunden (Oberösterreich).- Jb.
Oö. Mus.-Ver., 127/1, S. 227-236, Linz.
Egger, H. & Husen Van, D. (2007): Die Geologie
des Kartenblattes Grünau – ein Überblick.- In:
Arbeitstagung 2007 der Geologischen
Bundesanstalt Blatt 67 Grünau im Almtal und
Blatt 47 Ried im Innkreis.-Beiträge zur
D2-11
 Geologie Österreichs, S. 5-25; Wien (Geol. B.-
A.).
Gruber, H., Marschallinger, R. (2008): Erfassung
und raum-zeitliche Interpretation von
Hangbewegungen.- Beiträge zur COG-
Fachtagung Salzburg 2008, S. 166-182,
Heidelberg (Wichmann).
Hofmann, R., Poisel r., Breymann, H. (2008):
Großhangbewegung Gschliefgraben -
Zusammenfassender Bericht Geotechnik.- 85 S.,
Wien.
Joanneum Research (2008): Endbericht
geophysikalische Bohrlochmessungen – Teil 1:
HB1, KB 1, KB 2, KB 3, KB 5, KB 6, KB 7 –
Teil 2: KB 1-DL, KB 2-DL, KB-BL 11.- 17 S.,
Leoben.
Joanneum Reserach (2008): Seismikergänzung
Gschliefgraben.- 13 S., Leoben.
Joanneum Research (2009): 3 D-Modell
Gschliefgraben.- Bericht.- 34 S., Leoben.
Prey, S. (1951): Der Gschliefgraben in der
Flyschzone bei Gmunden.- Mitt. Geol. Ges., 44,
S.263-265, Wien.
Prey, S. (1983): Das Ultrahelvetikum-Fenster des
Gschliefgrabens südöstlich von Gmunden
(Oberösterreich).- Jb. Geol. B.-A. 126-1, S. 95-
127, Wien.
Pürstinger, C. & Schiffer, M. (2008): Technischer
Bericht Projekt 2008/II Gschliefgraben.- 81 S.,
Bad Ischl (Forsttechnischer Dienst für Lawinen-
und Wildbachverbauung).
Singer, J., Festl, J., Thuro, K. (2008):
Computergestützte Auswertung von Time
Domaine Reflectometry Messdaten zur
Überwachung von Hangbewegungen.- Beiträge
zur COG-Fachtagung Salzburg 2008, S. 19-34,
Heidelberg (Wichmann).
Weidinger, J.T., Niesner, E., Millahn, K. (2007):
Interpretation angewandt geologisch-
geoelektrischer Untersuchungen in der
Gschliefgraben Rutschung am Traunsee Ostufer
(Gmunden/Oberösterreich).- ATA Geologische
Bundesanstalt, . 57-72, Wien.

D2-12
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

LANDSLIDE DISTRIBUTION AND LANDSLIDE SUSCEPTIBILITY IN THE RÍO

LA CARBONERA WATERSHED, PICO DE ORIZABA VOLCANO, MEXICO
Gabriel Legorreta Paulín 1, Marcus I. Bursik 2 and Trevor Contreras 3

ABSTRACT: In Mexico, numerous GIS-based applications have been used to represent and assess slope
stability. However, there is not a practical and standardized landslide mapping methodology under a Geographic
Information Systems. This paper provides an overview of the on-going research projects from the Institute of
Geography at the National Autonomous University of Mexico (PAPIIT # IN102115) that seeks to analyze the
distribution of landslides and produce a landslide susceptibility map along the stream systems of Pico de Orizaba
volcano, Mexico by using ArcMap geographic information systems. The Río La Carbonera watershed on the
southeastern flank of Pico de Orizaba is selected as a case study. Landslide occurrence was ascertained through a
landslide inventory map created from multi-temporal aerial photographs and field investigations. The geologic
and geomorphologic factors in combination with high seasonal precipitation, high degree of weathering, and
steep slopes predispose the study area to landslides. The analysis revealed that slope failures are most abundant
in volcanic terrains than in sedimentary terrains. The technique and its implementation of each stage in a GIS-
based technology is presented and discussed.

Keywords: GIS, landslide, inventory

INTRODUCTION method using Geographic Information Systems

In volcanic environments, during the volcanic
repose period, small but hazardous non-magmatic
landslides and debris flows occur continually. This
type of landslide can deliver volumes higher than
105 m3 (Capra et al., 2002, Korup et al., 2004) and
create a potentially hazardous situation for people
and property. However, those catastrophic
volcanic events are generally separated by long
time spans, of the order of many hundreds or
thousands of years (Capra et al., 2002). On the
other hand, during volcanic repose periods, small
but hazardous non-magmatic landslides and debris
flows occur continually along stream systems of
large stratovolcanoes. The coalescence of up-
stream landslides increased the destructive power
of debris flows. It is important to assess the
potential impact and damage to human settlements
and economic activities. In Mexico, volcanic
regions with stratovolcanoes and monogenetic
fields are very common. Although the importance
of assessing such process, there are few landslide
inventory maps, landslides geo-datasets, and there
is no practical and standardized landslide mapping
(GIS). This is the case on Pico de Orizaba volcano,
the highest mountain in Mexico (5675 m a.s.l.),
which has a great potential to produce landslides
and debris flows because of its large area of
weakened rocks at high altitudes and under high
seasonal rainfall. The Río La Carbonera watershed
on the southeastern flank of Pico de Orizaba
volcano has been selected as a case study area. In
the study area, an inventory of more than 230
landslides was mapped from interpretation of
multi-temporal aerial photographs and local field
surveys to assess and describe landslide
distribution. All landslides were digitized into a
ArcMap (GIS), and the spatial geo-database of
landslides was constructed from standardized GIS
datasets. Of the mapped landslides, more than
eighty percent are in volcanic rock or deposits, and
the others are in weathered sedimentary rocks and
deposits. The Landslide susceptibility is modelled
by using SINMAP with default geotechnical
system parameters. The technique and its
implementation of each level in a GIS-based
technology is presented and discussed.

1
Researcher, Laboratorio de Análisis Geo-espacial, Instituto de Geografía, UNAM, legorretag@hotmail.com, México
2
Professor, Department of Geology. University at Buffalo, SUNY. mib@buffalo.edu
3
Researcher, Forest Practices Division. Washington State, Department of Natural Resources, trevor.contrears@dnr.wa.gov

D3-1
BACKGROUND STUDY AREA
The Río La Carbonera watershed is at
Worldwide, landslide inventory maps have
18°58’45.78”-18°49’26.83” N and 97°15’34.62”-
been used to study landslide distribution, type,
97°08’7.44” W, on the southeastern flank of Pico
abundance and modeling landslides instability by
de Orizaba volcano in the eastern part of the
using a GIS. (Washington State Department of
Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt (TMVB)
Natural Resources (DNR), Forest Practices
physiographic province. The watershed lies within
Division, 2006; Hervás and Bobrowsky, 2009;
Veracruz State, Mexico (Figure 1); it covers 71.9
Blahut et al., 2010). This landslide mapping is the
km2 with an elevation range from 1224 to 1345 m
foundation for modeling landslide susceptibility
a.s.l. and hillslopes between 0° (inner valleys of
and hazard.
relatively flat plains) and 68° (mountainous
In Mexico, numerous GIS-based applications
terrain). Hillslope gradients are controlled by the
have been used to map and assess slope stability
bedrock; weakly consolidated mudstone and
(Capra et al., 20003: Capra y Lugo-Hubp, 2006;
limestone supports slopes up to 32°. Steeper
García-Palomo et al., 2006; Pérez-Gutiérrez, 2007;
hillslopes (32° – 45°) are supported by interbeds of
Secretaría de Protección Civil, 2010). These
cemented conglomerate, agglomerates, and lahar
studies include concepts and explanations of
deposits. Steepest hillslopes ( > 45° ) are supported
landslide classification, trigger mechanisms, and
by lava flows. The river is a tributary of the Río
criteria, considerations, and analysis for landslide
Blanco, which flows into the Gulf of Mexico.
hazard reconnaissance, etc. A general framework
and guidance for a state and city atlas of landslide
hazards and risks was prepared by Mexico’s
National Center for Prevention of Disasters
(Centro Nacional de Prevención de Desastres,
2004). In Veracruz State, an atlas of geological and
hydrometeorological hazards of Veracruz was
created in 2010 by the Secretary of Civil
Protection of Veracruz State in collaboration with
other federal and state government agencies. This
atlas has a general framework for GIS landslide
risk evaluation at state and municipal level, but no
guidelines for the estimation of landslide volume.
On Pico de Orizaba volcano, most of the
research has focused on the volcanic history to
establish the present morphology of the landscape
and the potential hazard of volcanic events and
flank collapse (Siebe et al., 1992; Carrasco-Núñez
et al., 1993; Carrasco-Núñez and Rose, 1995; De
la Cruz-Reyna and Carrasco-Núñez, 2002; Macias,
2005). Based on previous geological studies, maps
have been created to show the risk of catastrophic
voluminous lahar movement along stream systems
of Pico de Orizaba (Hubbard, 2001; Sheridan et al.,
2001; Concha-Dimas et al., 2005; Hubbard et al., Figure 1. Localization of the study area
2007). Each uses landslide deposit volumes and
GIS applications to assess hazard at local or In the study area, the climate is Subtropical
regional scale. In spite of this effort, there are few semi-cold (Cb’(w)) at 3000-4400 m a.s.l., and
landslide inventory maps, geo-datasets, and Subtropical temperate, subhumid (C(w1), C(w2)),
landslide susceptibility maps for small non- and C(m)(f) and Tropical semi-warm, humid
volcanic-triggered landslides that occur continually (A)C(m)(f)) at <3000 m a.s.l. (García, 2004). The
along the stream systems of Pico de Orizaba. mean annual precipitation is 1000 – 1100 mm/yr at
> 4000 m a.s.l. and 927 mm/yr at < 1500 m a.s.l.
(Palacios et al., 1999), with most falling as rain
during seasonal storms between May and
November (Figure 2).

D3-2
 The stream system of Río La Carbonera
watershed erodes a weathered and highly dissected,
folded, and faulted Cretaceous basement of
limestone and shale.
Figure 2 Clime of the study area
The Cretaceous sedimentary rock constitutes
about 55.2% of the total area in the watershed and
has been covered by Tertiary and Quaternary lavas,
pyroclastic flows, fall deposits, and alluvium. The
Tertiary rocks and deposits cover 40.8% of the
watershed area, whereas the area covered by
Quaternary alluvium is 4% (Figure 3).
Figure 3. Geology of the study area
The study area is prone to landsliding due to
the combination of several factors: high
precipitation during the wet season, steep and hilly
slopes, and a high degree of weathering of
volcanic and sedimentary rocks. During the
present study, more than 230 landslides were
mapped from aerial photographs and field
verification.
METHOD
Landslide data were collected from two sets of
aerial photographs and fieldwork to create a single
historic landslide inventory map. The aerial
photographs cover a 14-year period from 1994 at a
scale of 1:20 000 to 2008 at a scale of 1:10 000.
During aerial photographic interpretation,
landslides were mapped and classified into shallow
landslides, debris flows, debris slides, deep-seated
landslides, earthflows, and rock falls, according to
the landslide hazard zonation protocol (2006) of
Washington State DNR Forest Practices Division,
Cruden and Varnes (1996), and Wieczorek (1984).
All landslides were digitized into a GIS, and a
spatial geo-database of landslides was constructed
from standardized GIS datasets. Pertinent
attributes of mapped landslides were recorded on
the GIS geo-dataset. These include 1) mass
wasting process, 2) level of certainty of the
observation, 3) photo identification date, 4)
landslide size, 5) landslide activity, 6) landslide
parts (head, evacuation zone, deposit), 7) slope
shape, 8) field slope gradient, 9) map gradient
measured from the 10 m digital elevation model
(DEM), 10) land use, 11) elevation where the
landslide started, 12) aerial photograph
identification number, 13) landslide area, 14)
landslide volume, and 15) researcher’s comments.
In parallel with the aerial photograph
interpretation, the landslide process within the
watershed was characterized by collecting
background information: topographic and geologic
paper maps at scale 1:50,000, and paper maps of
land use, climate, and hydrology at scale 1:250,000.
All paper maps were converted to a 10 m raster
format, georeferenced, and incorporated as GIS
layers into ArcMap. Background information also
included a 10 m DEM and its derived slope angle,
slope curvature, and contributing area thematic
maps that were constructed from the 1:50,000
topographic maps. With the GIS layers,
characteristics such as catchment area, stream
length, stream patterns, stream orders, drainage
density, and angles of junction were generated
from GIS analysis.
D3-3
 Concurrent with landslide mapping, field Table 1. Model accuracies and model efficiency
reconnaissance and landslide verification was SINMAP
carried out. The amount of field verification was
Landslide
15% of all mapped landslides, which enhances
Producer´s accurecies 38.46
confidence in the landslide assessment.
User´s accurecies 0.19
The landslide susceptibility is modeled by
Model Efficiency -206.29
using a cartographic–hydrologic model (SINMAP)
using default parameters: soil density 200kg/m3,
The producer's accuracy shows that SINMAP,
T/R minimum 2000, T/R maximum 300, cohesion
tends to underpredict. SINMAP approaches appear
minimum 0, cohesion maximum 0.5, internal
to reflect topographic conditions more than
friction angle minimum 35°, internal friction angle
landslide geomorphology. It seems the model just
maximum 45°. The model is assessed and
detect steep terrain rather than the landslide
compared by using a contingency table that shows
process. The SINMAP output (Figure 4) show high
the amount of overlap and relation between
instability along the folded and faulted Cretaceous
inventory and predicted maps.
hills of limestone and shale and along the gorges
where steep slopes exist. However, the models fail
RESULTS
to detect landslides.
The landslide inventory shows that in the
watershed, shallow landslides (including debris
slides and debris flows) are the predominant type
(88.98%), followed by meander bends (5.51%),
deep-seated landslides (including earthflows) (3%)
and, rock falls (2.12%). The GIS overlay of
geology versus landslide inventory shows that
82.2% of the mapped landslides are in volcanic
rock or deposits, and the rest are in weathered
sedimentary rocks and deposits. Abundance and
types of landslides are determined by geological
conditions in conjunction with anthropogenic land
use. In the upper portion of the watershed,
andesitic lava flows do not readily erode, and they
act as sponges to hold the surface water. Hence,
shallow landslides are not frequent, but rockfalls
are. In the middle portion of the watershed,
shallow slides and deep-seated landslides are the
predominant process in ash fall and pyroclastic
flow deposits Also, along the channel where lava
flows form steep steps, rock falls have occurred. In
the lower portion of the watershed, earthflows and
debris slides tend to occur in the weathered
sedimentary rock, and rock falls along the steeps
river walls. Figure 4. SINMAP susceptibility model
SINMAP models’ performance is evaluated in
terms of producer’s accuracy, user’s accuracy, and The model has a low percentage of user
model efficiency. A contingence table that shows accuracy and negative values in the model
the amount of overlap and relation between efficiency. This shows that the model prediction
inventory and predicted maps was used to classified incorrectly nonlandslide areas.
calculated accuracies and model efficiency (Table
1). CONCLUSIONS
In this paper we briefly introduce and review
the implementation of a method for landslide
mapping and landslide susceptibility assessment in
unstable areas on volcanic and sedimentary
terrains. The analysis of the spatial relationship

D3-4
between landslides and geologic deposits and
rocks revealed that slope failures are most
abundant in the upper-middle basin where loose
pyroclastic fall deposits predominate. The
assessment of SINMAP model by using default
system parameters shows that SINMAP
underpredict. The study at Rio La Carbonera is an
attempt to produce the prototype of standardized
methods for future landslide studies in Mexico.
The method is achieved through the
standardization and integration of thematic layers
and their related geo-database in a GIS-based
system. By directly addressing the landslide
mapping issues, local authorities in Mexico such as
the civil protection agencies of Veracruz State and
other governmental organizations will benefit with
regard to landslide hazard mitigation and planning.
Future research will involve modeling SINMAP by
using calibrate geotechnical data.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors thank authorities from, the
International Consortium on Landslides (ICL) and
and to the Laboratorio de Mecánica de Suelos,
Facultad de Ingeniería, UNAM for their help.This
research was supported by Project COA del IGG
and PAPIIT # IN102115.
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Blahut J, Van Westen, C.J, Sterlacchini, S. (2010).
Analysis of landslide inventories for accurate
prediction of debris-flow source areas.
Geomorphology. 119(1-2): 36-51.
Capra L, Macías J.L, Scott K.M, Abrams M,
Garduño-Monroy, V.H. (2002). Debris
avalanches and debris flows transformed from
collapses in the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt,
México. Behavior, and implication for hazard
assessment. Journal of Volcanology and
Geothermal Research. 113(1-2): 81-110.
Capra, L., Lugo-Hubp J., Borselli, L. (2003). Mass
movements in tropical volcanic terrains: the
case of Teziutlán (México). Engineering
Geology (69): 359–379.
Capra, L., Lugo-Hubp, J. (2006). Fenómenos de
remoción en masa en el poblado de Zapotitlán
de Méndez, Puebla: Relación entre litología y
tipo de movimiento. Revista mexicana de
ciencias geológicas, 20 (2), 95-106.
Carrasco-Núñez G, Rose W. I. (1995). Eruption of
a major Holocene pyroclastic flow at
Citlaltépetl volcano (Pico de Orizaba), México,
8.5-9.0 ka. Journal of Volcanology and
Geothermal Research. 69(3/4): 197-215.
Carrasco-Núñez G, Vallance J W, Rose W. I.
(1993). A voluminous avalanche-induced lahar
from Citlaltépetl volcano, Mexico:
Implications for hazard assessment. Journal of
Volcanology and Geothermal Research.
59(1/2): 35-46.
Centro Nacional de Prevención de Desastres
(CENAPRED). (2004). Guía básica para la
elaboración de mapas estatales y municipales
de peligros de riesgos. Centro Nacional de
Prevención de Desastres. Secretaría de
Gobernación, México. 389 p.
Concha-Dimas, A., Cerca, M., Rodríguez-
Elizarrarás, S., Watters, R.J. (2005).
Geomorphological evidence of the influence of
pre-existing basement structure on
emplacement and deformation of volcanic
edifices at the Cofre de Perote-Pico de Orizaba
chain and implications for avalanche
generation. Geomorphology. 72: 19-39.
Cruden, D.M., Varnes, D. (1996). Landslide types
and processes. In: Turner A.K.; Shuster R.L.
(eds) Landslides: Investigation and Mitigation.
Transp. Res. Board, Spec. Rep., 247, pp 36-75.
De la Cruz-Reyna, S., Carrasco-Núñez, G. (2002).
Probabilistic hazard analysis of Citlaltépetl
(Pico de Orizaba) Volcano, eastern Mexican
Volcanic Belt. Journal of Volcanology and
Geothermal Research, 113, 307-318.
García, E. (2004). Modificaciones al sistema de
clasificación climatic de Köppen. Instituto de
Geografía, UNAM. Serie Libros #6, 90p.
García-Palomo A, Carlos-Valerio V, López-
Miguel C, Galván-García A, Concha-Dimas A.
(2006). Landslide inventory map of Guadalupe
Range, north of the Mexico Basin. Boletín de
la Sociedad Geológicas Mexicana. 58 (2): 195-
204.
Hervás, J., Bobrowsky, P. (2009). Mapping:
Inventories, Susceptibility, Hazard and Risk.
In: Sassa, K. and Canuti, P. (Eds.), Landslides -
Disaster Risk Reduction. Springer, Berlin,
ISBN 978-3-540-69966-8, pp. 321-349.
Hubbard, B.E, Sheridan, M.F., Carrasco-Nunez, G.,
Díaz-Castellon, R., Rodriguez, S. (2007).
Comparative lahar hazard mapping at Volcan
Citlaltépetl, Mexico using SRTM, ASTER and
DTED-1 Digital Topography, Journal of
Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 160
(1), 99-124.
Hubbard, B.E. (2001). Volcanic Hazard Mapping
Using Aircraft, Satellite and Digital
Topographic Data: Pico de Orizaba
D3-5
 (Citlaltépetl), México. Thesis. Department of
Geology. SUNY, at Buffalo.
Korup O, McSaveney, M.J. Davies, T.R. (2004).
Sediment generation and delivery from large
historic landslides in the Southern Alps, New
Zealand. Geomorphology, 61(1/2): 189-207.
Macías, J.L. (2005). Geología e historia eruptiva
de algunos de los grandes volcanes activos de
México. Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica
Mexicana. Volumen Conmemorativo del
Centenario Temas Selectos de la Geología
Mexicana, LVII (3), 379-424.
Palacios, D., Parrilla, G., Zamorano, J.J. (1999).
Paraglacial and postglacial debris flows on
Little Ice Age terminal moraine: Jamapa
Glacier, Pico de Orizaba (Mexico).
Geomorphology 28, 95-118.
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vulnerabilidad por los deslizamientos en masa,
caso: Tlacuitlapa, Guerrero. Boletín de la
Sociedad Geológica Mexicana, 59 (2), 171-181.
Secretaría de Protección Civil. (2010). Atlas de
peligros geológicos e
hidrometeorológicos del estado de Veracruz.
Comp.: Ignacio Mora González; Wendy
Morales Barrera, Sergio Rodríguez Elizarrarás.
Xalapa: Secretaría de Protección Civil del
estado de Veracruz: Universidad Veracruzana:
UNAM. 1V
Sheridan, M.F. et al. (2001). Mapa de Peligros del
volcán Citlaltépetl (Pico de Orizaba).Esc:
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Siebe, C., Komorowski, J.C., Sheridan, M.F.
(1992). Morphology and emplacement collapse
of an unusual debris avalanche deposit at
Jocotitlán Volcano, Central Mexico. Bull.
Volcanology 54, 573-589.
Washington State Department of Natural
Resources (DNR), Forest Practices Division,
(2006). Landslide Hazard Zonation (LHZ)
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Wieczorek, G.F. (1984). Preparing a detailed
landslide inventory map for hazard evaluation
and reduction. Bulletin of the Association of
Engineering Geology. 21: 337-342.

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 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

FEATURES OF FORMATION AND ACTIVIZATION OF LANDSLIDE PROCESSES

IN KYRGYZSTAN
Kamchibek Kozhogulov Chonmurunovich 1 and Olga Nikolskaya Victorovna 2

ABSTRACT: The results of long-term researches of a landslide danger on the territory of Southwest Tien Shan
are given in paper. As a result of these researches the regional and local attributes of a landslide danger of the
Southwest Tien Shan territory are revealed, the basic natural factors of formation and activization of landslides
in territory of Kyrgyzstan quantitatively are appreciated such as: geological structures of slopes, age of basement
rocks and properties of covering soils, tectonic, seismic energy allocated at earthquake, change of a level of
underground waters, quantity of atmospheric precipitation. The periodicity of landslides activization is revealed
and are established basic natural prognostic attributes of a landslide danger and the categories of a landslide
danger are developed.

Keywords: Mountain slope, geological structure, covering soils, property of soils, landslide danger, attributes of
a landslide danger of the Southwest Tien Shan territory

INTRODUCTION On the basis of the analysis of results of the

Development of mineral resources of mountain
and foothill territories of Central Asia, construction
of roads and railways on mountain slopes and
foothills, construction of hydroelectric power
stations on the mountain rivers are inevitably
accompanied by change of the established natural
balance of mountain slopes. The antropogeneous
activity in a combination to features of a geological
structure of mountain-plicate areas, active tectonic
accompanying high seismicity and climatic
conditions of region results in activization and
intensive development of exogenous geological
processes such as landslips and landslides. The
long-term experience of study of landslide
processes shows multifactor and variety of this
process. The problem of the forecast of catastrophic
natural man-caused slope processes and
stabilization of slopes with covering soils is one of
difficult and urgent for mountain regions.
The purpose of the offered paper is
acquaintance of the researchers of natural
catastrophes with the revealed natural factors of
formation and activization of landslide processes
and their quantitative estimation in Southwest Tien
Shan territory.
researches that have been carried out till now the
basic attention is given to study of already
generated landslide or description of a landslide
process after landsliding. The given work
represents results of study of slopes with covering
soils, on which the probability of formation of a
landslide body is high and the conditions are shown,
at which there will be an activization of landslide
process. It is established that formation and
development of landslides in cutting and mountain-
plicate areas have a number of essential distinctions.
In cutting areas the landslides developing mainly in
basement rocks and in mountain-plicate areas
landslides developing in covering soils on basement
rocks of mountain slopes. The formation of
covering soils in the territory of Southwest Tien
Shan occurred in quaternary. It is rather young
rocks, which structure includes products of decay
and over-sediments of basement rocks that
predetermine a variation of physical and
mechanical properties of soils within the limits of
one slope let alone region.
METHODS AND EQUIPMENT
The basic methods that used at realization of
field and laboratory researches are accepted: a

1
Professor, Institute of geomechanics and development of subsoil of the National Academy of Sciences of the Kyrgyz
Republic, ifmgp@yandex.ru, KYRGYZSTAN
2
Professor, Institute of geomechanics and development of subsoil of the National Academy of Sciences of the Kyrgyz
Republic, nikol-48@mail.ru, KYRGYZSTAN

D4-1
method of engineering and geological analogies
allowing to establish prognostic attributes of a
landslide danger to other slopes on the base of
signatures of a geological structure, properties of
rocks of mountain slopes, level of underground
waters of the surveyed slope; a method of
“clapstick” for determinate of level change of soil
waters (estimated on wells); a method of flat shift
on the consolidated surface at study of soils
properties; methods of statistics at processing of Figure 1. Landslide in Oylen-Bulack village
sequence of data on events of the catastrophic (Patchata river basin)
natural phenomena: landslides, earthquakes,
atmospheric precipitation, level of underground In territory of the South of Kyrgyzstan landslide
waters; the analysis and generalization of processes develop mainly on slopes of a northwest
researches results. The used equipment: PLL-9 field and northeast exposition with steepness from 5˚ up
laboratory, for realization of tests of soils properties to 45˚ in covering soils with capacity 10 – 20 m
in field conditions, P10-S device of flat shift, (Figure 2, Figure 3a and Figure 3b).
complete set of sieves for definition granulometric
composition of soils, device PRG-2 – “clapstick”,
theodolite.

RESULTS
On the basis of the analysis of long-term
observations for manifestation of gravitational
slope processes in Kyrgyzstan the characteristic
kinds of manifestation of these processes on
different high-altitude marks are revealed (Table 1).

Table 1. The dependence of the development of

slope process of the slope height above a sea level

Height above a sea Figure 2. Connection of manifestation of landslide

level and Slope processes processes with slope exposition (Maximal quantity
character of a relief of landslides manifesting on slopes with North,
3700-5000 m Large fragmental
Northeast and Northwest exposition)
Mountain taluses, falls of rock
Permafrost zone blocks, landslips Landslide processes develops basically on the
3700-2500 m distribution area of secondary and neozoic
High foothills Taluses, landslips, measures in foothill and middling hill zones in
Seasonally frost soils single landslides eluvial and deluvial cover of basement rocks.
zone
Their large quantity is confined for the
2500-1000 m Areal distribution of distribution area of shale stratum. The intensity of
Low foothills landslides, mudflows,
Alpine meadows zone taluses landslides manifestation is caused by a geological
structure, relief of district, structure both properties
800-1000 m Landslides, mudflows,
Adyry mud-and-stone flows of soils and basement rocks composing slopes,
neotectonic, and quantity atmospheric precipitation
and changing of level of underground waters.
Landslide sites in Kyrgyzstan are located
The long-term observations for processes of
lengthways riverbeds basically and have linear
formation, activization and displacement of
distribution frequently. The development of modern
landslide bodies have allowed revealing the certain
landslides occurs both on a body of ancient
periodicity of these processes. In the territory of
landslides and on slopes yet unaffected by landslide
Kyrgyzstan the years with the maximal
processes, the new landslides are formed more
manifestation of landslides are allocated. It is 1969,
often than living up old.
1973, 1980, 1989, 1994 and 2003. The processing
of experimental data of observations for

D4-2
manifestation of the dangerous natural phenomena
has allowed allocating temporary intervals with
their greatest quantity. The maximum quantity of
landslides is made active with periodicity 9 years
(1). In 1996 the statistical processing registered on
territory of Kyrgyzstan dangerous slope processes
for last 50 years was carried out and is established
that the new phase of activization of landslides in
the Kugart and Yassy rivers basins will begin since
1998 and the activization of landslides in 2003-
2004 years will reach their maximum. The given
forecast was completely justified.
Figure 3. Dependence of activization of landslide
processes from a) steepness of slope,
b) capacity of covering soils
The problems connected with study of influence
of seismic loadings on process of formation and
development of landslide processes are one of
urgent in tectonic active areas, which Kyrgyzstan
concerns also. As established by the authors the
earthquakes with magnitude more than 5 numbers
in territory of Kyrgyzstan are manifesting with
periodicity 8 years ( 1) too. Is revealed that
activization of landslides on territory of Kyrgyzstan
is connected to earthquakes.
Earthquakes with magnitude up to 7 numbers
make active the generated landslides displacing
directly at earthquakes or during 1 - 6 months after
it. At earthquakes with magnitude more than 7
numbers the generated landslides descend directly
after earthquakes and their maximal quantities is
made active and are displaced after 1 - 2 years.
Figure 4. Schematic sections of landslide slopes,
which are characteristic for the south of Kyrgyzstan.
a) Landslides in loess-like loam unconformably
lying on interstratifying limestone;
b) Landslides in conglomerates;
c) Landslides in loess-like loam unconformably
lying on interstratifying sandstones;
d) Landslides in loess-like loam conformably lying
on interstratifying sandstones;
e) Landslides in loess-like rocks;
f) Landslides in loam with capture of basement
rocks
The essential factor of activization of landslides
in the spring period is the atmospheric precipitation
as snow and rain. At precipitation more than 500
mm in this period in surveyed territory in a
combination to such factors, as a steepness of a
slope, the structure of covering soils, results in
mass formation and activization of landslides.
The landslides in Kyrgyzstan are formed and
are made active at a high level of earth waters. The
analysis of change of level of earth waters in
observant wells has allowed establishing that the
continuous increase of water on 30-40 cm per day
within 6-7 day is an attribute of activization of
landslide process on this slope in 10-15 days.
Depending on structure of ground of covering
soils, namely the ratio of a sandy and clay
component, their sizes, the seepage speed of
moisture in grounds is depends. With increase of
clay component in ground the drench speed of
ground is decreased thus its humidity is increased.
At the contents in grounds clay fraction more than
50 % results in formation not only large landslides
but in high speeds of displacement of landslide
D4-3
bodies on a slope. The cases are registered, when
landslide bodies were displaced on a slope with
length 300-500 meters for 1-2 minutes thus
landslide bodies were displaced on distance up to
800 meters. On separate slopes landslide bodies
«flew» through the river and destroyed apartment
houses on opposite coast.
The increase of humidity of a ground results in
decrease it strength properties: couplings and
corner of internal friction. At humidity 25 % a
ground of covering soils on a slope pass in a fluid
condition and at humidity 28 % are broken fix of a
ground and landslide process on a slope develops
within 2 – 3 minutes.
CONCLUSIONS
Among variety of factors of landslide formation
in Kyrgyzstan the main features of landslide
formation in Kyrgyzstan are height above a sea
level, geological structure, age of basement rocks,
structure and humidity of grounds of covering soils.
Is established, that landslide processes actively
developing on slopes by a steepness 20˚-30˚ at
height of 1000-2500 meters above a sea level in
secondary-neozoic rocks, mainly in covering loams,
lying on basement rocks.
Is revealed that the landslides are made active
with the certain periodicity and landslides with
volume more than 1 million cubic metre are formed
and are made active with periodicity 9 years.
The formation of landslides is connected
directly with tectonic of region and landslide bodies
are formed within the limits of breaks. Most
dangerous are water-bearing breaks, on which
underground waters migrate. The seismicity of
region is directly connected with tectonic. The
greatest quantity of landslides is made active at
earthquakes with magnitude 3-5 numbers. The large
landslides are formed after earthquakes with
magnitude 6-8 numbers after 1,5-2 years.
The revealed features of landslide formation in
Kyrgyzstan allow to make the forecast of
activization of landslides in regional scale and for a
separately taken slope and to develop measures on
decrease of risk of sudden displacement of
landslides and consequently, protection of the
population.
REFERENCES
Aitmatov I., Kozhogulov K., Nikokskaya O. Complex
Evaluation Of The Landslide Dangerous Slopes
Steadiness In Kyrgyzstan // 30th International
Geological Congress. Beijng, China 1996.
D4-4
Aitmatov I., Kozhogulov K., Nikokskaya O.
Geomechanical Basis Of Landslides Forecast In
Covering Soils Of Mountain Folded Areas //
Problems Of Geomechanics And Development Of
Minerals Deposits / (IFMGP № 1). - Bishkek:
ILIM, 1997. - pp. 9-20.
Aitmatov I., Kozogulov K., Nikolskaja O. Landslides
In Kyrgyzstan Forecast And Prevention. IUFRO, 8
Confernce Forest Environment Kyoto University
1998 Kyoto, Japan, pp.157-158.
Aitmatov I., Kozogulov K., Nikolskaja O. The
Geomechanics Of Landslide Slopes. - Bishkek:
ILIM, 1999 – p. 209.
Kozhogulov K., Nikokskaya O. The Basic Attributes
Of Landslide Danger In Mountain Folded Areas //
Problems Of Geomechanics And Development Of
Minerals Deposits / (IFMGP № 1). - Bishkek:
ILIM, 1997. - pp. 60-66.
Kozhogulov K., Nikokskaya O., Meleshko A. Features
Of Formation And Activization Of Landslide
Processes In Mailuu-Suu River Basin // Problems
Of Geomechanics And Development Of Minerals
Deposits / (IFMGP № 1). - Bishkek: ILIM, 1997. -
pp. 292-301.
Kozhogulov K., Nikokskaya O., Shermatov S.
Geomechanical Features Of Landslide Sites Of
Bishkek - Osh Road // Problems Of Mountain
Roads. - Bishkek: Technologia, 1998. - pp. 17-21.
Kozogulov K., Mamyrov E., Nikolskaja O. The
Account Of Seismicity Influence At Estimation Of
the Stress And Stability Of Landslide Dangerous
Slopes // Modern Problems Of Designing,
Construction And Operation Of Highways //
Materials Of The International Scientific And
Technical Conference Almaty: Kaz ATK, 1998. -
pp. 63-67.
Nikolskaja O. Estimation Of Influence Of
Underground Waters And Atmospheric
Precipitation On Roads Steeps Stability On
Mountain Slopes // Mathematical Methods And
Modeling At Designing Of Mountain Roads //
KGUSTA № 7, Bishkek, 1998.- pp. 54-58.
Nikolskaya O.V. Estimation Covering Soils Stability
On Mountain Slopes / Materials IX All-Union
Conferences On the Rock Mechanics, Frunze,
October 3-5 1989. Bishkek: ILIM, 1990. - pp. 185-
193.
Stress-strain State Of Open Pits Edges In Structurally
Heterogeneous Massifs In Mountainous Folded
Regions. Proceedings Of The Third International
Symposium On Mine Planning And Equipment
Selection Istanbul. Turkey, 18-20 Oktober, 1994.
Balkema.
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

THE HONG KONG EXPERIENCE IN LANDSLIDE RISK MANAGEMENT FOR

SUSTAINABLE URBAN DEVELOPMENT
Jenny F Yeung 1

ABSTRACT: Many countries and cities, including Hong Kong, have been developing swiftly, resulting in
various problems that may hinder their further development if not handled properly. In Hong Kong, our steep
hilly terrain, high seasonal rainfall, coupled with the extremely dense urban development, have rendered the city
particularly vulnerable to landslides. In fact, Hong Kong has a tragic history of landslides since the late 19th
century during the period when Hong Kong was gradually transformed from a small fishing village to an
international financial centre. It was not until the establishment of the Geotechnical Engineering Office in 1977
that a comprehensive Slope Safety System came into play. With the concerted effort of the Government and the
community since then, the landslide risk in Hong Kong has been significantly reduced to less than about 25% of
the level in 1977. However, we should never be complacent as the landslide risk could never be totally
eliminated. We are ever facing new challenges in landslide risk management as the frequency of extreme
weather increases owing to the global climate change. It is important for us to continue the assessment of
changing landslide risk pattern and enhance emergency preparedness with a view to achieving sustainable
development of the city.

Keywords: landslide risk management, slope safety, sustainable urban development, emergency preparedness

INTRODUCTION million of people, who have in turn made Hong

Kong one of the world’s most densely populated
Hong Kong was once a small fishing village off regions, with an average density of about 6,500
the southern coast of China during the Qing people/km2, not mentioning that most of the land
Dynasty. The name “Hong Kong” literally means falls on hilly terrain or has been reserved as country
“Fragrant Harbour”, which might refer to the parks and other uses. Most tall buildings have to be
fragrance from the Victoria Harbour where incense built on the narrow strips of land along the two
was stored for export in the old days. The city is sides of the Victoria Harbour. The developed area
famous for its distinctive skyline and the deep constitutes less than one-fourth of the total land
natural harbour. mass. Limited developable land has also created a
After the Second World War, Hong Kong dense infrastructure, which makes Hong Kong one
enjoyed unprecedented economic growth with of the most vertical cities around the globe.
increasing population and entered a new decade of
manufacturing industry in the 1960s. Since then,
the Government has been investing heavily in
infrastructure and housing development in order to
meet the various needs of the ever-expanding
community.
Today, Hong Kong has been transformed into
one of the three most important international
financial centres, alongside New York and London.
The territory, with a total land area of only 1,104
km2, comprises Hong Kong Island, Kowloon
Penisula, the New Territories, and a total of 263 Figure 1. Densely populated urban areas on the
outlying islands. It is the home to around 7.2 north and south coasts of Hong Kong Island

1
Geotechnical Engineering Office, Civil Engineering and Development Department, Government of the Hong Kong Special
Administrative Region

D5-1
 The unique urban setting, coupled with deep the Sau Mau Ping Resettlement Estate, Kowloon,
weathered geological profiles and high seasonal collapsed in the afternoon. Immeasurable tons of
rainfall, has made Hong Kong very susceptible to flowslide debris engulfed a temporary housing area,
landslides. Unfortunately, slope safety was not destroying 78 squatter huts, killing 71 people and
among the prime objectives of the Government injuring 60 others.
during the older days of the city’s development,
until a series of disastrous landslides occurred in
the 1970s. This paper presents the acute landslide
problems that Hong Kong has been facing in the
process of urban development. It also describes our
experience in the formulation and implementation
of the Hong Kong Slope Safety System,
highlighting its achievement over the past some 30
years, and identifying the challenges in landslide
risk management ahead.

HISTORY OF LANDSLIDES
Hong Kong has a tragic history of landslides. Figure 2. Sau Mau Ping Landslide in 1972
The earliest record of landslides dates back to 1889,
causing loss of lives and damage to properties. By night fall, on the other side of the Victoria
As the city’s population grew rapidly after the Harbour, the hillside above a steep temporary
Second World War, so was its physical excavation in the Mid-Levels area of Hong Kong
infrastructure. In order to cope with the abrupt Island collapsed. Landslide debris originating from
increase in population from 1.8 million to 4.6 Po Shan Road struck a 12-storey residential
million between 1948 and 1977, building building and a six-storey house, causing both to
developments had limited choice but to extend from crumple completely, taking away another 67 lives
the flat areas along the coastline to the foothills and and injuring 20 people. The total landslide fatality
up onto the hilly terrain. In addition, Hong Kong of 138 has been the highest death toll ever caused
has high rainfall with an annual average of 2,300 by a rain-induced disaster on a single day, making
mm, and the rainfall intensity is particularly high the “618 Disaster” never forgotten by many Hong
during the summer wet season between May and Kong people of that generation.
September. However, in the absence of an
effective system to control the geotechnical
standards of land developments in those days, the
design and construction of the earthworks were
quite often not sufficiently robust to withstand the
severe rainstorms, leading to frequent failures of
man-made slopes. Moreover, many new immigrants,
having nowhere to live, built flimsy squatter huts
on steep hillsides, and worsened their already
precarious situation with uncontrolled earth cutting
and filling. All in all, these factors have contributed
to the increase in the risk and consequence of
landslides. In the past some 60 years after 1947,
Figure 3. 1972 Po Shan Landslide
more than 470 people died as a result of landslides
in Hong Kong. LANDSLIDE RISK MANAGEMENT
Natural disaster makes no distinction between
the rich and the poor. It came to the darkest day in It was not until after yet another catastrophic
the landslide history of Hong Kong on 18 June landslide occurred in 1976 that a landslide risk
1972 when two devastating landslides occurred on management system first appeared in Hong Kong.
Hong Kong Island and the Kowloon Peninsula on Just when Sau Mau Ping seemed to have
the same day. After a continuous torrential rain recovered, three soil fill slopes behind a residential
with more than 600 mm rainfall recorded over the block, which had been constructed without proper
past three days, a 40 m high road embankment in compaction, collapsed in a severe rainstorm and

D5-2
killed 18 people. The failed slope was as close as in guidance on good geotechnical engineering
200 m from the previous landslide site four years practice. Fill embankments were formed by simply
ago. end-tipping without any compaction, resulting in
Consequently, the Government of Hong Kong loose fill slopes at an angle of about 35 that are
became determined to find a solution to the susceptible to earth liquefaction.
landslide problem. Thanks to the recommendation
of an independent review panel, comprising six
overseas and local geotechnical experts, appointed
by the Government, the Geotechnical Control
Office (renamed as Geotechnical Engineering
Office (GEO) in 1991) was subsequently set up in
1977, with a view to regulating geotechnical
engineering and slope safety in Hong Kong.

The Key Strategies for Landslide Risk Reduction

The GEO encountered many challenges at the
beginning of its establishment, the key issues being
how to ensure the safety of newly constructed
slopes and to reduce the landslide risk imposed by
the existing slopes. This has called for a
comprehensive Slope Safety System, through
which a holistic strategy for landslide risk
management can be developed and effectively
implemented.
Figure 5. Buildings very close to substandard steep
slopes
As the city continued to develop, more and
more slopes were formed and the landslide risk
would increase accordingly if this problem was not
solved. In order to contain the landslide risk at the
level when GEO was established, i.e. the 1977 level,
it was considered necessary to exercise
geotechnical control for all newly constructed
slopes and retaining walls. An essential first step
was to set up and promulgate proper geotechnical
standards. This led to the publicaton of the
Geotechnical Manual of Slopes (First Edition) by
GEO in 1979, providing guidance on standards for
the design and construction of slope works that best
suit the local environment.

Figure 4. Key strategies for landslide risk reduction

Minimising risk arising from new developments

Due to the shortage of developable land in
Hong Kong, building and infrastructure
developments often involve site formation works
comprising cutting on hillsides and filling up of
valleys with excavated soil. However, there was
little geotechnical input in the early days, and
empirical methods were adopted in slope design Figure 6. GEO Publications providing geotechnical
and construction. For instance, soil cut slopes were standards on various aspects
constructed by rules of thumb, such as 10:6 cutting
with 1 to 2 m wide berms at about 7.5 m vertical Many more geotechnial guidance documents
intervals, resulting in a relatively steep average were released afterwards, providing the industry
slope angle of about 50. There was also lacking with practical references on various geotechnical

D5-3
aspects. Today, GEO’s geotechnical standards
guidebooks have been extensively referred to and
well respected internationally.
With the engineering standards in place,
geotechnical regulation of new slopes formed by
the private sector has been enacted through the
Buildings Ordinance, Laws of Hong Kong, which
controls the standards and safety of all private
building developments. The GEO is responsible to
conduct technical audits on the design and
supervision of construction of all new slopes to
ensure that they are up to the current safety
standards, and will not contribute to further
increase in the overall landslide risk. As for public
works under government projects, administrative
measures have been put into place to allow the
implementation of a similar checking system for all
earthworks related to these projects.
Figure 7. Checking of site formation works at a
private development site
Furthermore, geotechnical control has been
exercised right from the very first stage of a
development project. A mechanism has been set up
for GEO to give advice on land development
proposals and land use planning. Special
geotechnical conditions may be imposed in lease
documents, taken into account the potential impact
of natural terrain landslide hazards. For
developments in difficult terrain, GEO may even
advise against the developments or make
alternative proposals.
Implementation of landslip preventive measures to
systematically contain the overall landslide risks of
the existing man-made slopes
Numerous cut slopes, fill embankments and
retaining walls have been formed over the past
hundred years. Their stability is in doubt and they
are prone to landslide risk. Therefore, a wise way
to tackle the problem of reducing the landslide
D5-4
danger of these existing man-made slope features
would be to first try quantity the problem. To this
end, GEO has spent a great effort in compiling a
Catalogue of Slopes for Hong Kong. At present,
about 60,000 sizable slope features have been
registered, and preliminary field inspection has
been carried out for all these slopes. A
computerised Slope Information System (SIS) was
developed to contain the Catalogue of Slopes,
together with the technical information of each
slope, thereby improving the efficiency of data
retrieval and updating. The SIS, being the world’s
largest database of its kind, is accessible to the
general public on the Hong Kong Slope Safety
Website (http://hkss.cedd.gov.hk). It has been a
principle source of comprehensive and up-to-date
slope information that is widely used by
geotechnical practitioners, slope owners,
maintenance agents and their consultants in
carrying out slope stabilisation and maintenance
works.
Figure 8. Distribution of slopes in Hong Kong
Moreover, to ascertain the maintenance
responsibility of slopes, the Government conducted
a Systematic Identification of Maintenance
Responsibility of Slopes in the Territory (SIMAR)
exercise, the findings of which can be obtained
from the Slope Maintenance Responsibility
Information System through the internet
(http://www1.slope.landsd.gov.hk/smris).
While the Government was determined to
rectify the unsatisfactory situation of the existing
government slopes, it is apparent, with the number
of government slopes amounting to around 40,000,
that the available resource is very limited in
comparison to the size of the problem. As such, a
ranking system is needed to select the most
deserving man-made slope features for appropriate
actions. A long-term retrofitting programme named
the Landslip Preventive Measures (LPM)
Programme was initiated since 1977 to
systematically upgrade the existing government
man-made slope features to meet the current
standards of safety by carrying out stabilisation
works. A typical method for upgrading fill slopes
is to replace the loose fill by properly recompacted
fill to prevent liquefaction. As for soil cut slopes,
soil nails have been widely installed to improve
their stability against sliding.
Figure 9. A typical fill slope upgraded by
recompaction
Figure 10. Soil nails commonly used in stabilising
soil cut slopes
The focus of programme has been evolving
since its launching. At the beginning, priority was
given to those large loose fill slopes threatening
public housing estates, hospitals and schools, with a
view to preventing slope failures similar to the Sau
Mau Ping landslides from happening again. In
mid-1980s, the scope of the selection process was
extended to cover all slope features affecting
occupied buildings. Subsequently, slopes posing
high indirect consequence to life, such as those
affecting major roads, were also included.
However, the output of the LPM programme was
relatively low in its early stage.
In 1994, a masonry retaining wall suppporting a
housing estate Kwun Lung Lau failed, resulting in 5
fatalities. About 3,900 residents were temporarily
evacated overnight. The Government considered it
necessary to expedite the pace of slope stabilisation
works. Consequently, a 5-year Accelerated LPM
Project was launched in 1995. The momentum was
sustained by the commencement of a 10-year
Extended LPM Project in 2000.
Figure 11. Kwun Lung Lau Landslide in 1994
On the other hand, for old man-made slope
features that have been identified to be under
private ownership by the SIMAR exercise, safety
screening is conducted, in accordance to a similar
risk-based priority system. If a private slope is
found to be liable to become dangerous, statutory
action will be enforced under the Buildings
Ordinance through the issue of a Dangerous
Hillside (DH) Order, requiring its owners to carry
out the necessary investigation and upgrading
works.
Figure 12. Annual output of LPM Programme
When the LPM Programme was completed in
2010, about 4,800 government slopes were studied
and among which upgrading works were carried out
for 4,500 slopes that were found substandard. The
success rate for slopes upgraded has been higher
than 99.8%. In addition, a total of about 5,100
private slopes were safety-screened, in which 2,500
were served with DH Orders. The total expenditure
of the Programme amounted to about US$1.8
billion.
D5-5
 Despite all effort for bringing slopes to the as roving exhibitions and school talks are organised
current safety standards, regular maintenance is regularly, and pre-wet season media briefing is held
essential to the continued stability of slopes. The every year. These play two key roles in enhancing
Government actively maintains all the 40,000 slope safety, i.e. to reduce the probability of
government slopes, with a total annual expenditure landslides by reminding the private owners to
of about US$110 million, by carrying out periodic maintain their slopes regularly, and to reduce the
inspection and routine maintenance. consequences of landslides by promoting personal
precautionary measures during heavy rain.
Reducing risk by minimising the possible
consequences of landslides
With the implementation of works programmes,
the overall landslide risk of man-made slopes
decreased over time. However, slope upgrading
works are often costly and they may disturb the
environment and the community to certain extent.
Besides, notwithstanding the large resource put in
the LPM Programme, the number of slopes that can
be investigated or stabilised is small as compared to
the number of slopes in the Catalogue of Slopes.
An effective approach to further reduce landslide Figure 14. GEO’s Public Education Programme
risk is therefore to minimise the possible
consequences of landslides.
Since the mid-1980s, the Government has
adopted a policy to clear squatter structures that are
identified as being especially vulnerable to
landslide hazards and to rehouse the affected
residents in public housing estates. Through this
non-works approach, the landslide risk to the
squatters can be completely eliminated, and the
squatter landslide casualty has decreased drastically
from 28 during 1977-1987 to three in 1988-1997,
and further to only one during 1998-2007.

Figure 15. Community Advisory Unit of GEO

providing advice to private slope owners

However, the private slope owners may not

Figure 13. Squatter areas vulnerable to landslides
It is also considered that collaborative effort by
the Government and the general public is the
ultimate solution to combat landslide risk in Hong
Kong. In this regard, GEO has been promoting
public awareness and response in slope safety
through an extensive year-round public education
programme, publicity, information services and
public warnings. Public education campaigns, such
have the necessary knowledge and expertise in
carrying out the required slope stabilisation or
maintenance works. As such, GEO has produced a
variety of standards and guidebooks on slope
maintenance, such as “Layman’s Guide to Slope
Maintenance”, “Simple Guide to Dangerous
Hillside Orders” etc., to teach the private owners to
plan and implement slope maintenance and
upgrading works. A Community Advisory Unit has
been set up, which is specifically tasked to assist
private owners to fulfill their duties to maintain
their slopes and to comply with DH Orders as
appropriate, through direct outreach advisory and
information services.
Most landslides in Hong Kong are rainfall-
induced. To safeguard the public against landslide
danger, GEO operates a Landslip Warning System

D5-6
jointly with the Hong Kong Observatory (HKO). and each team comprises 12 professional and
Decisions on whether the Landslip Warning is to be technical staff. Most of the geotechnical engineers
issued are based on a mechanism that analyses in GEO are members of the emergency teams, and
rainfall and landslide data collectively. While the are on standby duty according to a roster.
SIS readily provides the spatial distribution of
slopes in the territory, a correlation model between
rainfall and landslides have also been established.
In parallel, real time rainfall data are continuously
sent to the GEO control centre by a network of over
120 automatic recording raingauges installed in
various parts of Hong Kong. Combining with the
rainfall forecast provided by the HKO, the number
of predicted landslides in the coming few hours can
be estimated. When the alarm criteria are met,
GEO will then recommend the Landslip Warning to
be issued by the HKO to inform the public the
danger of possible occurrence of many landslides. Figure 17. GEO’s Emergency Control Centre in
operation
The performance of the Landslip Warning System
has been well proven. In the past 20 years, almost
Effectiveness of the Slope Safety System
all of the landslide fatalities occurred when the
Landslip Warning was in force. By 2010, the state-of-the-art quantitative risk
assessment (QRA) conducted by GEO indicated
that the overall landslide risk of man-made slopes
posed to the community was greatly reduced to less
than 25% of that prevailing in 1977.
The effectiveness of the Hong Kong Slope
Safety System is also reflected by the sharp
reduction of landslide causalities over the years. It
has been 20 years since the last multiple fatality
landslide, i.e. the Kwun Lung Lau incident,
occurred in Hong Kong in 1994.
The Hong Kong Slope Safety System is now
regarded as a role model in urban landslide risk
management, and is one of the most established and
Figure 16. Mechanism of Landslip Warning System effective systems worldwide.

In addition, GEO maintains a 24-hour round-

the-year emergency service by providing advice to
government departments on immediate or potential
danger due to landslide incidents, and on measures
to deal with them. On receipt of serious or
significant landslide reports, geotechnical engineers
will be sent to sites as soon as practicable to
conduct inspection. The inspecting geotechnical
engineers will exercise professional judgment in
recommending immediate actions necessary for
minimising the landslide risk, such as evacuation of
buildings, closure of roads, covering of landslip Figure 18. Landslide fatalities in Hong Kong
scars, diverting of surface runoff and so on.
In particular, during a Declared Emergency, for CHALLENGES AHEAD
instance, when the Landslip Warning or the
Owing to the concerted effort in slope safety by
Typhoon Signal No. 8 is issued, the Emergency
the Government and the community for over 3
Control Centre (ECC) will be activated in the GEO
decades, the overall landslide risk in Hong Kong
to handle landslide incidents. The ECC is operated
has reached an “As Low As Reasonably Practicable
by one of the 13 emergency teams that is on duty,

D5-7
(ALARP)” level, commensurate with the
international best practice in risk management.
However, there is no room for complacency as the
landslide risk can never be eliminated. There is
still an average of about 300 landslides reported to
GEO every year.
Natural Terrain Landslide Hazard
About 60% of the total land in Hong Kong that
has not been significantly modified by human
activities is commonly referred to as “natural
terrain”. Much of the steeply sloping natural terrain
has been subject to thousands of years of
weathering and progressive deterioration, and
therefore is prone to landslide in heavy rain.
From a review of aerial photographs taken
between 1924 and 2009, about 109,000 landslides
on natural terrain were identified. Based on the
review, an inventory of landslides, i.e. the
Enhanced Natural Terrain Landslide Inventory, has
been compiled.
In the past, most of the natural terrain landslides
in Hong Kong occurred in relatively remote areas
and did not cause much safety concern or nuisance
to the public. However, as urban development
continues to encroach upon the natural hillsides, the
landslide risk arising from natural terrain keeps on
increasing. Natural terrain landslides have caused a
total of 16 fatalities since 1980, 13 of which were in
the squatter areas. An alarming incident occurred
in August 1999 when the debris of a chanalised
debris flow originated from a natural hillside buried
a number of squatter dwellings of a village in Sham
Tseng, the New Territories, causing one fatality and
several injuries.
While most of the high-risk old man-made
slopes have been treated under the LPM
Programme, about 2,800 Historical Landslide
Catchments (HLC) that are close to existing
buildings or important transport corridors have
been identified to possess known landslide hazards.
In 2010, QRA estimated that the landslide risk
arising from natural terrain had already increased to
a level comparable to that from man-made slopes.
If the work on slope safety is not sustained,
landslide risk will progressively increase with time
due to slope degradation and infringement of more
urban developments on steep natural hillsides.
Hence, GEO launched a rolling programme named
the Landslip Prevention and Mitigation (LPMit)
Programme to dovetail with the LPM Programme
with a view to containing the overall landslide risk
associated with both man-made slopes and natural
D5-8
hillside catchments at a level within the ALARP
zone.
The name of the new programme “Landslip
Prevention and Mitigation (LPMit)” differs from
that of the original programme “Landslip
Preventive Measures (LPM)” by the word
“mitigation”. It implies the change in the approach
in dealing with natural terrain landslide risk in
Hong Kong.
Figure 19. Trend of landslide risk in Hong Kong
Unlike man-made slopes, natural hillsides
extend over large areas and involve highly variable
ground and hydrogeological conditions.
Conventional geotechnical approaches of detailed
ground investigation and slope engineering may not
be applicable in studying and reducing their
landslide risk. Besides, extensive stabilisation
works on natural hillsides are costly, technically
impracticable and environmentally undesirable.
Instead, landslide risk of natural terrain is typically
dealt with by mitigation measures, such as debris
resisting barriers. Reduction in natural terrain
landslide risk is not achieved by preventing natural
terrain landslides from occurring, but through
protecting the facilities at the foothill from the
landslide hazard, thereby minimising the
consequence of natural terrain landslide risk.
Selection of natural hillsides for mitigation is
currently based on the “react-to-known-hazard”
principle, that only HLCs that are posing hazards to
existing developments will be considered for
appropriate action. However, deterioration and
failure of natural hillsides is a natural phenomenon
and landslides may also occur on hillsides with no
past failure.
 Figure 20. Check dams commonly used as debris
resisting barriers
To better safeguard the public from natural
terrain landslide hazards, GEO has deployed much
resource in research and development projects in
recent years to enhance understanding of types,
mechanisms and causes of natural terrain landslides.
Through improving the capability in debris
mobility modeling, guidance on design of landslide
debris resisting barriers has been developed.
Through detailed study of the correlation between
rainfall intensity and the density of natural terrain
landslides, the number of natural terrain landslides
can be predicted for issue of the Landslip Warning.
Improving Slope Appearance
As the living standards continue to improve in
Hong Kong, people have increasingly higher
aspiration for a better quality of life. In addition to
enhancing the stability of slopes, GEO has
endeavoured to make them look as natural as
possible and to blend in with the environments.
Substantial effort has been devoted in enhancing
the aesthetics of slopes upgraded under the LPM
and LPMit Programmes. Technical Guidelines on
Landscape Treatment on Slopes have been issued
on the good practice in landscape treatment and
bio-engineering for slope works.
All newly constructed and upgraded
government slopes are landscaped through planting
and other aesthetic measures to minimise their
visual impact. Commonly used methods include
hydroseeding with the use of erosion control mats
as necessary, provision of masonry block facing,
colouring, planter boxes and holes etc. Existing
trees and vegetation on slopes are retained as far as
practicable. A hard slope surface cover, such as the
traditionally used sprayed concrete, can only be
adopted as a last resort after other techniques have
been found inadequate on slope stability ground, or
as emergency repairs to landslip scars. Private
slope owners are encouraged to follow the same
standards, through the release of “Layman’s Guide
to Landscape Treatment of Slopes”.
Figure 21. Guidelines for planting on slope features
Climate Change and Extreme Landslide Events
In recent years, extreme weather events brought
by climate change have caused threatening and
heart breaking disasters in many parts of the world,
resulting in tremendous loss in lives and properties.
The HKO has predicted that climate change is
likely to increase both the frequency and intensity
of extreme rainfall events in Hong Kong. Given
Hong Kong’s climatic and geographical conditions,
there is therefore an increasing possibility for
serious landslides, which may potentially cause
multiple fatalities, to occur particularly during
extreme rainfall events.
In June 2008, a record high rainstorm hit Lantau
Island, the western part of Hong Kong with an
hourly rainfall as high as 145.5 mm. With the
highest four-hour cumulative rainfall of 384 mm,
the rainstorm had a theoretical statistical return
period of about 1,100 years. Landslip Warning was
issued for two periods of a total of about 55 hours.
More than 300 landslide reports were received, one
of which resulted in two fatalities. A few hundreds
more natural terrain landslides were observed by
subsequent helicopter inspections. A fishing
village in Tai O on Lantau Island was once isolated
from the other part of the island due to blockage of
land routes by landslide debris. The debris flowed
from high up the mountain blocked the road
drainage of the Airport Expressway, resulting in
flooding and complete closure of this sole road
access to the Hong Kong International Airport.
D5-9

Figure 22. Natural terrain landslide in Lantau 2008
blocking the Airport Expressway completely
The rainstorm highlights the potential
vulnerability of developments located close to
natural terrain. Incidentally, the intense rainfall
was concentrated in a less densely populated part of
Hong Kong. Should this rain fall in the densely
populated urban areas, the impact could be much
more serious.
Figure 23. Four-hour cumulative rainfall
distribution during June 2008 Rainstorm
In light of this, GEO has enhanced its
emergency preparedness for handling severe
landslide event scenarios, in respect of emergency
response and crisis communication. In 2012, the
Government conducted a major inter-departmental
exercise, which included a drill on emergency
evacuation of about 120 people caused by a
landslide scenario that might happen after
prolonged rainfall. The landslide drill provided a
good opportunity for all the departments involved
to test their response at various critical stages of
emergency.
Nevertheless, there is a limit to the
Government’s emergency capacity. It is therefore
of paramount importance that the public are well
informed and educated to take their own personal
precautionary measures. A set of “self-rescue”
messages have recently be formulated and
D5-10
promulgated, which remind the public to keep away
from slopes when the Landslip Warning is in force
and to watch out for any signs of landslips. When
felt threatened by landslide, people living in
vulnerable dwellings are advised to move to a safe
shelter if it is safe to do so. Other people are
advised to stay in the part of their buildings that is
highest and farthest away from slopes. Based on
experience learnt in the past landslide incidents,
fatalities may be minimised if the public respond
positively to these messages.
CONCLUSION
The Hong Kong Slope Safety System is world-
acclaimed and has successfully brought about a
significant reduction in landslide risk in Hong Kong.
However, as the city continues to expand, the
Government faces new challenges in combating
landslide risk. The Slope Safety System is
therefore subject to continuous improvement with
time to incorporate enhanced knowledge and
professional practice, as well as lessons learnt from
landslides and through benchmarking with the
latest international standards. It is only with a safe
urban environment that Hong Kong can sustain its
development as a world class city, business hub of
the region and the Pearl of the Orient.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This paper is published with the permission of
the Director of Civil Engineering and Development,
Government of the Hong Kong Special
Administrative Region.
REFERENCES
Chan, R.K.S. (2000). Hong Kong Slope Safety
Management System. Proceedings of the
Symposium on Slope Hazards and Their
Prevention, Hong Kong: 1-16.
Chan, R.K.S. (2011). Evolution of LPM policy in
the past thirty five years. Proceedings of the
2011 HKIE Geotechnical Division Annual
Seminar, Hong Kong: 10-23.
GCO (1984). Geotechnical Manual for Slopes, 2nd
Edition. Geotechnical Engineering Office,
Hong Kong, 300 p.
GEO (2003a). Guide to Slope Maintenance,
Geoguide 5, 3rd Edition. Geotechnical
Engineering Office, Hong Kong, 132 p.
GEO (2003b). Layman’s Guide to Slope
Maintenance, 3rd Edition. Geotechnical
Engineering Office, Hong Kong, 34 p.
GEO (2011a). Technical Guidelines on Landscape
Treatment for Slopes, GEO Publication No.
1/2011. Geotechnical Engineering Office,
Hong Kong, 217 p.
GEO (2012a). Layman’s Guide to Landscape
Treatment of Slopes, 3rd Edition. Geotechnical
Engineering Office, Hong Kong, 29 p.
GEO (2012b). Simple Guide to Dangerous Hillside
Orders. Geotechnical Engineering Office, Hong
Kong, 8 p.
GEO (2013). When hillsides collapse – a century of
landslides in Hong Kong, 2nd Edition.
Geotechnical Engineering Office, Hong Kong,
274 p.
GEO. GEO Information Kit, Hong Kong
http://hkss.cedd.gov.hk/hkss/eng/geoinfo_kit.aspx
Lumb, P. (1975). Slope failures in Hong Kong.
Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology (8):
21-65.
Tam, R.C.K. and Chang, M.M.K. (2014).
Achievements of and challenges to the Hong
Kong landslide risk management. Geotechnical.
Engineering Journal of the SEAGS & AGSSEA.
Wong, H.N. (2009). Holistic urban landslide risk
management – challenges and practice. Keynote
Lecture at the 7th Asian Regional Conference of
the International Association for Engineering
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Wong, H.N. (2013). Enhancing the resilience of
Slope Safety System against extreme events.
Proc. Int. Symposium on Shallow Sea and
Lowland, Institute of Lowland Technology,
Saga Univ. Saga: 102-108.

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 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

RESEARCH ON MUDFLOW BEHAVIOR

B. Widjaja 1

ABSTRACT: Research on mudflow, a type of mass movement, is very interesting. Mudflow is fine-grained soil
that flows on the soil surface with water content that is equal to or higher than the liquid limit. This research
investigates the process of determining appropriate rheological parameters through a new laboratory test (flow
box test) and verifying these parameters based on other previous research results. A simulation with these
parameters (yield stress and viscosity) is then conducted, and several actual mudflow cases in Indonesia and
Taiwan are compared. This research helps clarify the behavior of mudflow, especially during transportation.

Keywords: Mass movement, mudflow, rheology, liquid limit, yield stress, viscosity

INTRODUCTION strength/cohesion, cu) that is similar to y (O’Brien

Mass movement is of many types, such as
debris flow, rock fall, earth flow, and mudflow. In
this research, we attempt to understand mudflow
behavior, especially from a rheological perspective.
Several criteria are established to distinguish the
difference from other types.
DEFINITION
Several researchers have recommended mass
movement classifications (Cruden and Varnes
1996; Hungr at al. 2001; Abbot 2004; USGS 2010).
The mass movement terminology utilized in this
paper defines mudflow as a rapid fine-grained soil
movement with water content that is equal to or
higher than the liquid limit (LL). Hungr et al.
(2001) mentioned that the velocity of mudflow
could be higher than 0.05 m/s.
Rheology is applied in mudflow research
because soil flows on the soil surface (USGS 2010).
Rheology is a science dealing with how materials
flow. Materials can be classified into two main
types based on the number of parameters; these two
types are Newtonian and non-Newtonian. The
Newtonian type (e.g., water) involves one
parameter, namely, viscosity (), and yield stress
(y) is zero. This condition means that the material
cannot resist shear stress. The non-Newtonian type
involves both viscosity and yield stress.
Mudflow can be classified as a non-Newtonian
type because fine-grained soils (e.g., silt and clay)
have shear strength (i.e., undrained shear
et al. 1993). Once shear stress () exceeds y, soil
flows and is governed by . Viscosity refers to how
soil resists flow.
This research deals with soil in a viscous liquid
condition (function of water content, w) and flow
behavior (function of rheological parameters). The
following steps are implemented to understand
mudflow behavior.
1. A new laboratory tool called flow box test is
developed to derive rheology parameters for
mudflow, especially viscosity.
2. A method of yield stress measurement is
developed and compared with other methods
through several laboratory tests (vane shear test,
fall cone penetrometer, moving ball test, etc.).
3. Site visitation, soil sample collection for actual
landslides and mudflows, and a laboratory test
on rheological parameters are conducted.
4. A numerical simulation with Flo2d software is
conducted; and the transportation time in an
actual landslide/mudflow event and that in the
simulation are compared.
5. Comparison and verification of rheological
parameters are conducted.
New laboratory tools for mudflow rheological
parameters
Given the difficulty of identifying rheological
parameters with a conventional rheometer, a novel
tool called flow box test (FBT) was developed. This
test was developed based on Terzaghi’s trap door
theory and the Bingham model (Widjaja and Lee
2013, Lee and Widjaja 2013).

1
Lecturer, Parahyangan Catholic University, email: geotek@gmail.com, Jl. Ciumbuleuit 94, Bandung, INDONESIA

E1-1
 The Bingham model is a simplified rheology
model that is useful for soil with a very high shear
strain rate (i.e., first derivation of shear strain). This
condition implies that soil has two constant
rheological parameters. For real soil, increasing the
shear strain rate could cause a change in viscosity.
The laboratory test consists of a door below a
soil sample (Figure 1). Springs are attached below
the door, and displacement is measured during
observation time. From the FBT governing
equation, one can calculate viscosity through the
graphical matching curve procedure.
Figure 1. (a) Schematic of the flow box setup and
(b) general view at the end of the test
(Widjaja and Lee 2013)
The typical FBT result and its verification with
other previous research results are shown in Figure
2. If the liquidity index (LI) is equal to one, then the
range of viscosity for mudflow from FBT is in the
range of 0.1 Pa•s to 2 Pa•s (circle number 5 and 12
in Figure 2). This result reveals how mudflow
changes its water content from plastic state to
viscous liquid state.
Figure 2. Verification with other previous results
Measurement to determine yield stress
In this research, yield stress is assumed to be
similar to undrained shear strength (cu). The cu
value was obtained through a vane shear test (VST)
and with a fall cone penetrometer (FCT), as shown
in Figure 3. A fall cone penetrometer is a tool for
E1-2
determining the liquid limit through the use of a
penetration cone. Cohesion was obtained from an
empirical equation (Houlsby 1982). The cu values
from VST and FCT differed slightly (Figure 3).
This difference implies that the value from FCT can
be employed as yield stress. It also shows that when
soil is within the liquid limit (LL = 68), the
undrained shear strength is approximately 2 kPa.
Another measurement method called moving
ball test was developed (Figure 4). This test
involves the use of a viscometer and can be applied
in viscous liquid state. The governing equation was
derived from ball equilibrium into viscous liquid
state of soil using Stoke’s formula. The result is
shown in Figure 2 (circle number 7 and 8).
Figure 3. Comparison of cohesion in VST and FCT
for kaolin (Widjaja et al. 2015; after Widjaja and
Setiabudi 2014)
Figure 4. . Moving ball test (left) and stress
rheometer SR-5 (right) (Lee et al. 2008)
As shown in Table 1, silty soil (MH and ML) is
more likely to become mudflow than CH. The
result of the flume channel test (Figure 5) shows
that the mode of failure for silt is in flow type (i.e.,
mudflow) and that for clay is in discontinuity (i.e.,
landslide) (Widjaja and Pratama 2015).
Table 1. Basic soil parameters in this research We found that basic soil parameters from the
Soil source and deposition area are relatively similar.
No. Sample LL PL Gs
type For instance, liquid limit (LL) and plastic limit (PL)
1 Kaolin 68 38 2.61 MH are 95 and 69, respectively, for the source area for
2 Bentonite 208 115 2.67 CH Pangalengan in 2015. For the deposition area, LL
and PL are 95 and 72, respectively. These values
3 Karanganyar (2007) 53 34 2.71 MH
are very close.
4 Maokong (2008) 33 26 2.66 ML

5 Ciwidey (2010) 45 32 2.63 ML Numerical simulation to determine transportation

time and comparison of actual landslide/mudflow
6 Sukaresmi, Cianjur (2013) 66 48 2.55 MH
and simulation results
7 Cililin (2013) 58 30 2.74 MH
One of the reasons FBT was developed is to
8 Parakan Muncang (2014) 67 29 2.60 CH
determine rheological parameters and input their
9 Karang Mukti (2014)* 88 29 2.67 CH values in a numerical software. The computer
10 Banjarnegara (2014) 65 40 2.73 MH program employed was Flo2d. Another important
input besides rheological parameters (yield stress
11 Parung Ponteng (2014) 63 51 2.64 MH
and viscosity) was the topography map. The
12 Pangalengan (2015) 95 68 2.76 MH outputs were predicted deposition area,
transportation time (including soil velocity), and
Note: LL is liquid limit; PL is plastic limit; Gs is specific gravity height of the deposition area. Then, the actual
deposition area, transportation time, and soil
deposition height were compared with those in the
simulation result. Generally, the comparison
showed that simulation with rheological parameters
from FBT is relatively close to the actual mudflow
event.
An example of this simulation is shown in
Figure 6. This simulation is for Banjarnegara
landslide and mudflow in 2014.

Figure 5. Type of failure of kaolin (left) and

parakan muncang (right) obtained through a flume
channel test (top view)
(Widjaja and Pratama, 2015)
Site visitation and soil sample collection for Figure 6. Example of Flo2d result for soil
landslide and mudflow deposition deposition for Banjarnegara mudflow (landslide is
not included in this case)
At least 11 locations from Java Island
(Indonesia) and 3 locations from Taiwan were PROPOSED CRITERIA FOR MUDFLOW
selected in 2013 (Table 1). Disturbed soil samples
After evaluating landslide and mudflow, several
were obtained from the source and deposition area.
criteria for mudflow were established as follows.
Affected individuals were interviewed. The main
a. Soil type: Fine-grained soil has a water content
question is about the transportation time from the
that is equal to or higher than the liquid limit
source area to the deposition area. A topography
b. Transportation velocity (v): v ≥ 5 cm/s (Cruden
map of the impact area was created and compared
and Varnes, 1996; Hungr et al., 2001)
with the map before the mass movement occurred.

E1-3
c. Ratio of width to transportation length is 0.05
to 0.3 (Liu and Mason, 2009)
d. Solid concentration volume (Cv) is in the range
of 0.45 to 0.55 55 (O’Brien and Julien, 1988).
Cv is defined as
1 of fine muds and their flow properties in a
Cv 
1  Gs.w
(1)
where Gs is specific gravity and w is water
content.
CONCLUSION
This research expounded the behavior of
mudflow and landslide by developing a new
laboratory test, creating a mass movement database,
conducting a numerical simulation, and comparing
an actual mudflow event and a simulated one. Soil
viscosity was compared to that in other studies. The
simulation result obtained with viscosity derived
from FBT is relatively close to the actual deposition
value
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors acknowledge the support provided
by Professor Shannon-Hsien Heng Lee from
National Taiwan University of Science and
Technology. Gratitude is also extended to the
Japanese government for its research funding
through the World Bank.
REFERENCES
Abbot, P.L. (2004). Natural disasters. 4th ed. Mc-
Graw Hill, New York, USA.
Cruden, D.M. and Varnes, D.J. (1996). Landslide
types and processes, Landslides: investigation
and mitigation. Transp. Res. Board., 36-75.
Houlsby, G.T. (1982). Theoretical analysis of the
fall cone test. Geotechnique Vol. 38(3), pp. 433-
438, 1982.
Hungr, O., Evans, S.G., Bovis, M.J. and
Hutchinson, J.N. (2001). A review of the
classification of landslides of the flow type.
Environ. and Eng. Geoscience, VII(3), 221-238.
Jeong, S.W. (2010). Grain Size Dependent
Rheology on the Mobility of Debris Flow.
Geoscience J., 14(4), pp. 359-369.
Lee, S.H.H. and Widjaja, B. (2013). Phase concept
for mudflow based on the influence of viscosity.
Soils and Foundations 53 (1), pp. 77-90.
Lee, S.H.H., Widjaja, B., Yao, J.H., and Du, Y.
(2008). A proposed method determining liquid
limit based on shear strength. Annual Scientific
E1-4
Meeting, Indonesia Society of Geotechnical
Eng., pp. III-1 – III-5.
Liu, J.G. and Mason, P.J. (2009). Essential image
processing and GIS for remotes sensing. Wiley-
Blackwell, West Sussex, UK.
Locat, J. (1997). Normalized rheological behavior
pseudoplastic regime. Proc. 1st Int. Conf. on
Debris Flow Hazards Mitigation, San Fransisco,
USA, pp. 260-269.
Locat, J. and Demers, D. (1988). Viscosity, yield
stress, remolded Strength, and liquidity index
relationships for sensitive clays. Canadian
Geotech. J., 25(4), pp. 799-806.
Mahajan, S.P. and Budhu, M. (2006). Viscous
effects on penetrating shafts in clays. Acta
Geotechnica, 1, 157–165.
Mahajan, S.P. and Budhu, M. (2008). Shear
viscosity of clays to compute viscous resistance.
Proc. 12th Int. Conf. of Int. Ass. for Computer
Methods and Advances in Geomechanics, Goa,
India, 1516-1523.
O’Brien, J.S., Julien, P.Y. and Fullerton, W.T.
(1993). Two-dimensional water flood and
mudflow simulation, J. Hydraul. Eng., 119(2),
pp. 244-259.
USGS (2010). Difference between slide and flow.
<http://www.profimedia.si/picture/landslides-
and-mud-flows/0088784198/> (Feb. 22, 2011).
Vallejo, L.E. and Scovazzo, V.A. (2003).
Determination of the shear strength parameters
associated with mudflows. Soils and
Foundations, 43(2), 129-133.
Widjaja, B., Andriani, D., Sutisna, R.A., and Fitri,
A.D. (2015) Alternative way for determination
of yield stress as rheology parameter for
mudflow. Int. Conf. on Adv. in Civil and
Structural Eng. Malaysia. Institute of Research
Engineers and Doctors, pp. 1-4.
Widjaja, B., and Setiabudi, D.W. (2014),
Determination of rheology parameter using
vane shear test for elucidating mudflow
transportation (in Indonesia), Proc. Seminar
Nasional Geoteknik, Universitas Gadjah Mada,
Yogyakarta, pp. 31-38.
Widjaja, B. and Lee, S.H.H. (2013). Flow Box Test
for Viscosity of Soil in Plastic and Viscous
Liquid States. Soils and Foundations 53 (1), pp.
35-46.
Widjaja, B. and Pratama, I.T. (2015).
Determination of the viscosity value based on
the influence of the sliding plane by using flume
channel. Proc. Quality in Research, University
of Indonesia.
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

LARGE DEFORMATION ANALYSIS OF DEBRIS FLOW ON MT. UMYEONSAN

CONSIDERING ENTRAINMENT OF BED SEDIMENT

Sangseom Jeong 1, Kwangwoo Lee 2 and Hyunsung Lim3

ABSTRACT: In this study, the distribution and magnitude of debris flow were investigated by laboratory tests
and a numerical analysis. To consider the volume rate change of debris flow by entrainment of sediment, three-
dimensional finite element (FE) method is presented based on a Coupled Eulerian-Largrangian (CEL) method
which is large deformation analysis method (ABAQUS, 2013). This FE model consists of initial debris volume,
soil layer and bed rock. The soil and initial volume are modeled using Eulerian element, while bedrock is
modeled using Lagrangian element, which are assumed to obey the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion. Especially,
strain softening model is used for simulating the soil layer entrainment. For the numerical purpose of application
to the real case, 3D numerical analysis was implemented, of which Mt. Umyeonsan at Seoul, Korea, the large
debris flow occurred. The numerical results showed that the total volume of eroded soil is 42,840 m3. It can be
seen that 3D large deformation numerical method is capable of simulating the soil erosion in real mountainous
area due to initial debris flow, which leads to increase volume and speed of debris flow.

Keywords: Debris flows, Large deformation, Coupled Eulerian-Lagrangian (CEL), Soil Erosion, Entrainment

INTRODUCTION simulate the debris flow behavior. However, no

Debris flows represent a significant threat to
human life and infrastructure. It is expected to
occur more frequently due to an increasing number
of extreme weather events. In general, debris flows
can initiate from landslides that liquefy upon failure
(Iverson et al., 2000) and from direct failure of
saturated slope that cause rapid entrainment of
sediment (Takahashi, 2000). Debris flows can
dramatically increase their volume by entraining
sediment. Therefore, they can travel with high flow
velocity, impact force and long run-out distance.
There is evidence that debris flows may grow
by several orders of magnitude after initiation as
they erode the material along the flow path (Fannin
and Wise, 2001; Jakob and Hunger, 2005), before
they start to deposit their load. To understand the
hazard potential of a debris flow, it is important to
investigate debris flow erosion and deposition
characteristics.
FLO-2D or RAMSS commercial software is
widely used in hydrological engineering field for
estimating the water flow under rainfall events. In
recent year, this software is, however, frequently
adopted in geotechnical engineering field to
rational results can be reported due to a lack of
information of the interaction with the stress-strain
relationship.
In this study, three-dimensional finite element
method is presented to consider the volume rate
change of debris flow by entrainment of sediment.
The 3D FE analysis is consist of rheological model
and strain softening model to evaluate the flow and
simulate the soil layer entrainment. It is based on
Coupled Eulerian-Largrangian (CEL) method
which is large deformation analysis method in
ABAQUS (2013).
For the numerical purpose of application to the
real case, 3D numerical analysis were implemented
the large debris flow occurred in Mt. Umyeonsan at
Seoul, Korea.
CHARACTERISTICS OF DEBRIS FLOW
Rheological property
Debris flows are gravity driven mixtures of soil,
rock and water that have properties intermediate
between water floods and dry rock avalanches
(Iverson, 1997). Debris flows are often classified on
the relative concentration of fine and coarse

1
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Yonsei University, soj9081@yonsei.ac.kr, Republic of Korea
2
Ph.D. Candidate, Department of Civil Engineering, Yonsei University, geokwoo@yonsei.ac.kr, Republic of Korea
3
Ph.D.Candidate, Department of Civil Engineering, Yonsei University, hyunsunglim85@gmail.com, Republic of Korea

E2-1
sediments that are used to characterize the main
 ⓔ
flow regime behavior (Takahashi, 2007). As shown
in Figure 1., the principal types of flow are consist ⓓ
of ⓐ Newtonian, ⓑ shear thinning (pseudoplastic), ⓑ
ⓒ shear thickening, ⓓ Bingham, ⓔ shear thinning ⓐ
(viscoplastic). Generally, the debris flow materials
0
0 ⓒ
behave like viscoplastic fluids as indicated in curve
ⓔ . The viscoplastic character of debris flow
materials has often been reported in 
literature(O’Brien and Julien, 1988; Phillips and (a) Flow curves
Davies, 1991; Major and Pierson, 1992; Coussot

and Piau, 1995; Contreras and Davies, 2000; Ancey ⓒ
and Jorrot, 2001; Schatzmann, 2005; Kaitna et al.,
2007). Bingham model or Herschel & Bulkley
model are usually used to describe the rheological
behavior of such materials (Major and Pierson, ⓐ
1992; Nguyen and Boger, 1992; Coussot, 1997). ⓔ
The Herschel & Bulkley model function is: ⓓ
ⓑ
     
y
n
(1) 
(b) Viscosity curves
In Eq. (1), τy is the yield stress,  is the shear Figure 1. Rheological models
rate, η is the consistent coefficient and n is the
pseudoplastic index. When the index n is equal to
the unity, the Eq. (1) becomes the Bingham model.
The rheological test were conducted to obtain
the properties which is have been collected from
the source area of debris flows, Korea.
In order to ensure the validity of rheometrical
measurements, the rotational rheometer AR2000ex
(TA Instruments) equipped with conical cylinder
rotor has been utilized (Figure 2).
Figure 2. Rheometer (TA Instruments)

The analyzed debris flow materials have been

tested in rate controlled mode at constant
temperature (20º). The flow curves are obtained by
applying a consecutive shear rate level, ranging
from 0.1 to 300 1/s. In order to consider a
significant range of the water contents, materials
were changed water contend from 50% to 80%.
As shown in Figure 3, the test soil have
characteristics of a pseudoplastic fluid, with a
decrease in viscosity as shear rate increases, but the
soil is getting closer to a Bingham fluid with
increase water contents. Herschel-Bulkley fitting
parameter is summarized in Table 1.

E2-2
 1200
CL40
1000 CL50
CL60
Shear stress, pa
800
600
400
200
0
0 50 100
Shear rate, 1/sec
Figure 3. Test result
Table 1. Herschel-Bulkley model parameters
Water Yield stress
content (%) (pa)
40 50
50 25
60 2 22
Entrainment mechanisms
Debris flows can dramatically increase their
volume by entrain sediment and hence debris flow
has destructive potential. Debris flow can initiate
from discrete landslides that liquefy upon failure
(Iverson, 1997) or from processes ranging from
brief, high-intensity rainstorms to crater lake
outburst floods that cause rapid entrainment of
sediment (Meyer and Wells, 1997; Cannon et al.,
2001; Coe et al., 2008; Breien et al., 2008; Procter
et al., 2010). The process of slope failure, run-out
and fluidization is accompanied by a change in soil
strength. This behavior may lead to the
development of progressive failure and transition
from intact soil to heavy fluid in problems
involving large strains.
The strength-strain relationship of soil shows a
peak strength followed by gradual reduction of
shear strength to a residual value at a relatively
large strain. In the geotechnical and structural
engineering fields, the concept of strain softening
model is widely adopted to capture the softening
characteristics of engineering materials. In this
study strain softening model to the debris flow
analysis is performed by employing an elasto-
plastic Mohr-Coulomb model, in which the
softening behavior of the soil is considered by
reduction of the strength parameters with the
accumulated deviatoric plastic strain resulting from
the initial volume flow.
The soil strength lied on flow path of initial
volume is reduced, and weakened soil may lead to
the development of progressive or rapid failure.
The strain softening behavior of the soil has been
considered by reducing the soil strength parameters
c and  with respect to water content. The
relationship between strength and strain is
schematically shown in Figure 4 and is expressed
by as follows:
   peak    peak
150 200  
   peak  ( peak )( peak   res )  peak     res
 res  
   res    res
Viscosity n Where, τ is the reduced or fluid strength
(pa·s) parameters with respect to water content, i.e., c and
250 0.26 . The material strength can be defined in terms of
a piecewise tri-linear function of the deviatoric
100 0.30 plastic strain. The process of strain softening begins
0.36 when ε exceeds the strain corresponding to the peak
deviatoric plastic strain εp, and then follows as the
strength parameters gradually decrease from a peak
value to its residual value.
Shear stress
strain
Figure 4. Strain softening models
UMYEONSAN DEFRI FLOW, SOUTH KOREA
Over view of MT. UMYEONSAN debris flow
Landslides and debris flows occurred around Mt.
Umyeonsan on July 27, 2011. Mt. Umyeonsan is
located in the central part of Seoul, Korea, resulting
in sixteen fatalities and extensive damage to houses,
roads and other properties. Consequently, 150 small
and large landslides occurred in 13 villages near Mt.
Umyeonsan. Especially, Raemian watershed had
These landslides significantly impacted society
because the mountain is located in the central part
of Seoul, Korea.
Debris flow volume and velocity
The Raemian watershed initial slope failure
volumes are approximately 6,000m3, but the total
E2-3
volume of debris flows deposited in the
downstream road and built-up areas was similarly
about 40,000 m3 (Figure 5). The velocities of the
debris flows were estimated based on the moving
distance measured in the field and the number of
frames that were needed for the debris flow head to
move cross the certain distances we measured at the
sites. The estimated results by using videos
captured at the sites reveal that the maximum
velocities of the debris flows captured at Raemian
watershed are 28.6 m/s (Yune et al., 2013). It is one
of the most fast-moving debris flows around the
world, which is presumably due to the low
sediment volume concentration of the flow.
Figure 5. Raemian watershed
(Korean geotechnical society, 2012)
DEBRIS FLOW ANALYSIS
Analysis procedure of Debris flow
In general, debris flow initiated by the
mobilization of slope failure. Debris flow analysis
consists of slope stability analysis and flow analysis
with entrainment of sediment. In this study, slope
stability analysis is conducted using GIS-based YS-
Slope program (Kim et al., 2014) to estimate of
failure location and volume. Debris flow analysis is
conducted using ABAQUS with large deformation
FE analysis. The result of analysis which is failure
location and volume is defined as initial condition
in debris flow analysis. An overall flow chart of the
analysis procedure is shown in Figure 6.
2. The Raemian watershed initial volume of debris
flow is assumed by preliminary study which can
simulate the rainfall-induced landslide based on a
physical-based GIS model.
Table 2. Properties used for FE analysis
Type Soil layer Bed rock
γt (kN/m3) 20 25
E(kPa) 20,000 100,000
C(kPa) 11 100
 (deg) 26.5 40
Large deformation analysis (CEL)
Debris flow is a large deformation problem
which is accompanied by soil movement and
settlement with erosion. In this section, the large
deformation finite element (FE) analysis is
employed to evaluate the post-failure of soil slopes
which is represented by debris flows. In order to
analyze debris flow the Coupled Eulerian-
Lagrangian method (CEL) came into consideration.
The CEL method has advantages both of the
Lagrangian and the Eulerian method is
implemented in ABAQUS (2013). In numerical
analyses using this CEL method, the Eulerian
material is tracked as it flows through the mesh by
computing its Eulerian volume fraction (EVF). In
this study, initial volume of debris flow and soil
layer are modeled using Eulerian element, while
bedrock is modeled using Lagrangian element,
which are assumed to obey the Mohr-Coulomb
failure criterion.

Initial volume of debris

In debris flow analysis, the initial volume of
debris flow is estimated by YS-Slope. YS-Slope is
considers the infiltration by rainfall and infinite
slope model was used. The safety factor for the
infinite slope (FS) is calculated from the ratio of the
resisting Coulomb friction and cohesion on a slip
surface to the gravitationally induced downward
slope driving stress.
The material properties used in FE analysis are
obtained from comprehensive field investigation
and laboratory test. Those are summarized in Table

E2-4
 Start Figure 8. shows a channel length of 632m, a width
of 30-40m. The upslope elevation of the gully is
Slope stability analysis
260m above sea level. As the elevation of the gully
Modeling : Analysis of terrain data from LiDAR decreases, the gradient gradually reduced from 40°
Material property : Field investigation and Lab. Test to 5°.
Figure 9 shows a 3D FE modelling for Raemian
Estimation of slope failure location
watershed with initial volume. The soil and initial
Estimation of slope failure volume
volume are modeled using Eulerian element, while
bedrock is modeled using Lagrangian element,
Debris flow analysis
which are assumed to obey the Mohr-Coulomb
Modeling, Material property
failure criterion. Especially rheological model is
Define of initial volume: From Slope stability analysis
used for the initial volume.
Initial volume flow  Plastic strain softening occurred on
soil layer  Decrease soil strength  Soil erosion and Landslide
A
entrainment

Result

Slope failure area

Slope failure volume

Debris flow speed

Debris flow travel direction and distance

End

Figure 6. Flow chart of debris flow analysis

0 0.2
km

Initial volume B
L2 AreaL1 = 1,425 m2
L1
VolumeL1 = 2,908 m3
Figure 8. General view of debris flows in Raemian
watershed
2.3m

ANALYSIS RESULT
3.0m
L3 AreaL2 = 1,350 m2 The result of debris flow analysis considering
VolumeL2 = 3,613 m3
soil erosion is shown in Figure 10. The numerical
L6 results of maximum debris flow velocity
L4 L5
(24.9m/sec) is similar to estimated results (28.6
Landslide in 2011
m/s) by using videos captures and also debris flow
Type of failure
volume (42,840 m3) is similar to the observed
failure on wetting
front volume (40,000 m3).
failure under the The analysis results from the debris flow
groundwater table
simulations, a reasonably good agreement with the
0 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 outflow velocity is obtained between the numerical
km analysis results and experiment results.
Figure 7. Estimation of initial volume It can be seen that 3D large deformation
(Kim, 2014) numerical method is capable of simulating the soil
erosion in real mountainous area due to initial
Debris flow modeling debris flow, which lead to increase volume and
speed of debris flow.
The multi-layered soil layers are modeled as a
homogeneous soil by using representative
properties and underlying bedrock is to be rigid and
impermeable. The geometry is obtained from
LiDAR data and analyzed data of the terrain in
Raemian watershed. A longitudinal profile of
Raemian watershed along the debris flow A-B in

E2-5

VolumeL1 = 2,940 m3
VolumeL2 = 3456 m3
4m
Figure 9. 3D FE modelling for Raemian watershed
with initial volume
Figure 10. Debris flow analysis with erosion and
entrainment
CONCLUSION
In this study, the large deformation FE model is
developed based on coupled Eulerian-Lagrangian
method. This model is capable of considering strain
softening behavior of soil layer resulting from
occurrence of plastic strain due to initial volume
flow.
For application to the real case debris flow
analysis are performed and their results are
discussed. Based on the findings of this study, the
following conclusions can be drawn.
1) The initial volume of debris flow is estimated by
preliminary landslide analysis and it is
represented by rheological model. In FE
analysis, strain softening and rheological model
are presented to characterize the debris flows
including erosion and entrainment behavior.
2) The soil strength gradually reduced so that
volume grows in size and speed increases as
E2-6
initial volume entrains eroded material from
their soil layer.
3) Based on the analysis results from the debris
flow simulations, a reasonably good agreement
with the outflow velocity is obtained between
the numerical analysis results (24.9m/sec) and
observed results (28.6m/sec). Moreover,
numerical result of debris flow volume (42,840
m3) is similar to the observed volume (40,000
m3).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by the National
Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded
by the Korea government (MSIP) (No. 2011-
0030040).
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Nevado-Del-Ruiz, Colombia, and consequent
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Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 41(1–4), 17–66.
Sassa, K. (1985). The mechanism of debris flows.
Proc. 11th Int. Conf. Soil Mech. Found. Engng,
San Francisco 1, 1173–1176.
Schatzmann, M. (2005) Rheometry of large particle
fluids and debris flows, PhD Dissertation No
16093, ETH, Z¨urich, Switzerland.
Takahashi, T. (2000) Initiation and flow of various
types of debris-flow. Proceeding of 2nd
International Conference on Debris-Flow Hazards
Mitigation: Mechanics, Prediction, and
Assessment, Taipei, Taiwan, edited by: Wieczorek,
GF and Naeser, ND, Balkema, Rotterdam, 15-25.
Takahashi, T. (2007) Debris flow Mechanics,
Prediction and Countermeasures, Taylor and
Francis Group, London, 35–38.
Yune, C. Y., Chae, Y. K., Paik, J. C., Kim, G. H.,
Lee, S. W., Seo, H. S. (2013) J.Mt.Sci 10(2)
199-206.

E2-7
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

LANDSLIDE AND DEBRIS FLOW AT KHAO PANOM BENJA, KRABI,

SOUTHERN THAILAND
N. Phienwej and A. Iyaruk

ABSTRACT: Investigation was made on the characteristics of catastrophic landslides of Khao Panom Benja,
Krabi, Thailand that occurred in 2011. The landslides on the slope faces of the high relief granitic mountain led
to devastating debris flows of large rock boulders that buried houses in the foothill area. The unfavorable
orientations of four major joint sets of the mountain created high kinematic instability of rock wedge slides along
the stream channel direction as well as rock wedge formation on the channel walls in the eastern sides of the
mountain. Weathering and joint opening in the areas of slopes and stream channels increase vulnerability of
rock slides in an event of prolonged heavy rainfall.

Keywords: Landslide, debris flow, granite, rock wedge failure

INTRODUCTION on the steep mountain slopes of granitic rocks led to

destructive debris flows along stream channels and
Geological condition, climate and human alluvial fan (Figure 1).
encroachment in tropical areas are the main factors
triggering landslides in mountainous terrains. The
most dangerous devastating landslide is debris flow
of which slope materials become saturated with rain
water resulting in slope failures and mass
movement by flowing water along streams towards
foot hills. In Southern Thailand Peninsula, the
reported incidents of catastrophic of landslides and
debris flows have increased significantly in recent
years owing to increased human settlement and
land use changes in hilly areas. Landslides and
debris flows occurred mostly after periods of heavy
rainfall, such as the debris flow event of Ban
Kratoon of Nakhon Si Thammarat Province in Figure 1. Debris flow looking downstream at outlet
1988 that claimed 373 lives and property damages
around US$ 280 million (Phienwej et al, 1993). Six people lost their lives in the foot hill area at
Widespread landslides in granitic mountain terrains Ban Thonharn on the eastern face of the mountain
in that incident mainly involved failures of soil where their houses were buried by debris made of
zones in weathered granite profiles of the mountain gravels and boulders of sizes as large as 3-4 m.
slopes. Subsequently, incidents of landslides in The characteristics of the debris materials
Southern Thailand were frequently reported and in suggested that the sources of the debris were
the summer of 2011, disastrous landslides and predominantly from rock slope failures rather than
debris flows occurred again. Exceptionally heavy soil slope failures as commonly reported in early
rainfalls late rainy season caused widespread slope cases of landslide in Southern Thailand. The
failures in neighbouring Surat Thani, Nakhon Si incident of the catastrophic 2011 debris flow at
Thammarat and Krabi provinces. Numerous Khao Panon Benja was not the first time. Similar
villages in affected areas in these provinces were incidents occurred in the past and the last one
damaged by debris flows with the most affected occurred 50 years ago in 1962. Because Karbi
area was around the Khao Panom Benja National Province has emerged as one of the world famous
Park of Krabi Province where a lot of slope failures beach resorts of Thailand, an in-depth investigation

E3-1
on the characteristics landslides and debris flows of
Khao Panom Benja Mountain. Field investigations
by the first author were made between August 2011
and March 2013. This paper presents the results of
the investigation in term of characteristics and
geological aspects of the landslides and debris
flows that occurred in this high relief mountain area.

Figure 3. Khao Panom Benja and Klong Maui Fault

Figure 2. Khao Panom Benja and Investigation

areas

INVESTIGATION AREA AND GEOLOGIC

SETTINGS
Khao Phanom Benja is a high relief mountain
that lies in north-south direction in central area of
Krabi province. The peak is at 1,397 m above msl.
The mountain is preserved as a national park thus
the mountain slopes are mostly covered with
tropical forest except for the upper zone near the
peak on the eastern side where steep rock cliffs of
granite exist with no vegetation cover. The
investigation area covered approximately 120 km2.
Field investigations were concentrated in two areas
that were worst affected by the 2011 debris flows
incidents, namely Tonharn Village on eastern side
of the mountain and Huynumkeaw village on the
northern side. On the western side of the mountain
where the office of the national park was located
although few locations of landslide occurred, they Figure 4. Geology map of Khao Panom Benja
did not develop into devastating debris flows.
The mountain was formed by the extrusion of
Cretaceous granitic rock through the Permian-
Carboniferous sedimentary rocks. A brittle strike
slip fault (strike N5°E) associated with the regional

E3-2
Klong Marui active fault traversing Khao Panom
Benja on its western side (Figures 3&4). The Klong
Marui fault which was a major strike slip ductile
fault zone (strike N35°E) associated with the
tectonic plate movement in the Indo-China area
resulting from the collision between the Indian and
Eurasian plates during the late Cretaceous to
Tertiary Periods. Therefore, rocks of the Khao
Panom Benja Mountain can be expected to consist
of numerous fractures and joints that promote
weathering process of the mountain slopes as well
as landslides. The center area of mountain consists
mostly of steep slopes (30-60 degrees) of granitic
rocks flanked by sedimentary rocks on eastern and
western sides. In foothill areas, colluviums of
granite debris exist. The granitic rocks consist
mainly of quartz, feldspars and hornblende. Dikes
and veins of pegmatite, apatite and quartz are also
encountered sparsely in the granitic and
sedimentary rock masses. The sedimentary rocks in
the area consist of chert, shale, sandstone,
mudstone and others. The rocks are mostly
fractured with several joint sets affected by granite
intrusion and subsequently regional tectonic fault
movement.
Figure 5. Major joint sets in granitic rocks
Mapping of geologic discontinuities along the
stream channels and landslide scars revealed
orientations of predominant joint sets in the granitic
rocks as summarized in stereonet plot in Figure 5.
as well as marked in geologic map in Figure 4. It
can be seen that there are four major joint sets of
moderate and steeply dipping orientations existing
in the mountain slopes. The two conjugated sets of
steeply dipping orientation (60-80° to east) strike
more or less in N-S direction. The two sets of
moderately dipping orientation (40-50°) toward
north and south directions strike in more or less E-
W direction. It is noted that the steeply dipping set
with strike of N5°E is of the same direction with
the major fault zone traversing Khao Panom Benja
Mountain and the steeply dipping cliff faces of the
mountain on the eastern slope are of the same
orientation of this set. It is further noted that the
steeply dipping geologic discontinuity system
existing in the granitic mountain at Khao Panom
Benja may be seen to be in line with those reported
along Klong Marui fault at Khao Panom area in
Phang Nga province (Figure 6). The orientations of
the four major joint sets promote the formation of
cliff face and plane slide of rock blocks toward the
east direction and formation of rock wedges along
the stream channels flowing eastward and on the
channel banks.
Figure 6. Discontinuities mapped at Klong Marui
fault at Khao Panom, Phang Nga
(after Morley et al 2011)
LANDSLIDE AND DEBRIS FLOWS
A satellite image of Thailand Earth Observation
System (THEOS) on 15 April 2011 revealed
numerous discrete landslide scars and debris flows
on slopes and along stream channels on the eastern
and northern of the mountain (Figure 7). Most
landslide scars were not very large but with long
flow paths down slope along stream channels.
E3-3

Figure 7. Images of landslide locations
Most of the landslides at Khao Panom Benja
occurred in granitic rocks in the higher areas and
developed into debris flows along stream channels
that flowed into sedimentary rocks in lower areas at
foot hills. The slope failures could be classified into
soil slide, surface erosion, and rock slide. It was
found that majority of slides on the eastern slopes
of the mountain was of rock slide modes while soil
slide and surface erosion are the predominant
modes of failure in the northern slopes. Several
joint planes and degree of weathering of granitic
rocks and sedimentary rock were inspected and
mapped. Evidence from the field inspection
indicated that landslides and debris flows were not
new phenomena in this area. Old debris sediments
along stream channel and foothill can be seen
everywhere. The mountain is vulnerable to
landslide and debris flows and threats were known
to local people. The previous event of devastating
incident occurred 50 years ago in October 1962.
To gain understanding on the controlling
morphology of debris-flow and travel distance, we
examined characteristics of topography and
drainage networks of the two debris flow affected
zones in 2011. On the outlet of Tonharn stream
channel in eastern slopes, a thick deposit of debris
flow materials was formed at the channel outlet to
the fan area. The area was covered with up to 3
meters of large boulders, mostly of granitic rocks
(90% of the sediments). Large boulders of granite
of up to 10 meter in size could be seen in the stream
channel at the outlet while size of sedimentary rock
debris was not larger than 1 meter. The debris flow
covered area was approximately 5 km2 in size. A
check dam at the outlet of the Ban Tonharn stream
channel was completely destroyed together with
few houses downstream. The drainage basin of Ban
Tonharn is approximately 6 km2 which consists of
several sub channels. From the site inspection it
could be seen that thick debris and colluvium of
granite exist along flanks of all stream channels.
E3-4
The travel distance of debris flows in the areas was
up to 3 km from the furthest starting point to the
stream outlet at Ban Tonharn Village. Most debris
flows began as rock slope failures on steep (greater
than 20°) slopes. The slope failures and debris
flows in Khao Panom Benja Mountain in 2011
incident occurred with slope faces of gradient
ranging from gentle up to 60-70 degrees. However,
the majority was with slopes of gradient 20-30
degrees.
There were several separate locations of main
landslide zone occurring on the eastern slope in
2011 (Figure 7). Rock wedge failures were the
predominant modes of landslide. The stream outlet
in northern side of the mountain at Ban
Huynumkhew was covered with up to 1 meter thick
of debris flow materials. Large granitic boulders up
to 1.5 meter in size were found while the sizes of
debris sedimentary rock were not larger than 0.5
meter. The affected area from debris flow was
approximately 1000 m2. The extent of landslide and
debris flows in the area was significantly less
pronounced than that occurring in the eastern slope.
Most of the landslides in the northern slope were
predominantly of soil slope failures. However,
along the stream channels, old and new beds of
debris and colluviums also exist with considerable
thickness
LANDSLIDES AND ROCK WEATHERING
Weathering of the granitic rocks and
sedimentary rocks at Khao Panom Benja was well
developed on most slopes. Numerous landslide
scars clearly revealed that most of landslides
occurred within the layer of residual soil to
moderately weathered rock. The weathering
process in the rocks is facilitated by fracturing
conditions of rocks. Weathering and ground water
pressure along joints opening appeared to be two
main factors that promoted rock slides in the area
from buildup of ground water pressure and
reduction in mechanical resistance along sliding
surfaces. The granitic joint spacing varied from
extremely wide spacing ( > 6 m ) in slightly
weathered granite to moderate spacing (0.2 - 0.6 m)
in moderately weathered granite, while most joint
spacing of sedimentary rock was moderate spacing
(0.2 - 0.6 m). The aperture of joint opening along
stream channels generally varied from very wide
open (10 - 100 cm) to closed fractures, without
significant relation with degree of weathering.
Slopes in most areas were covered by layers of soils
(residual soil and completely weathered materials)
with thickness range 0.25 - 2.0 m, depending on
slope gradient. On very steep slopes, moderately characteristics of landslides and debris flows of
weathered and slightly weathered granite were Khao Panom Benja were clearly influenced by the
exposed. A close investigation of the mountain discontinuities characteristics of the granitic rocks
slopes in eastern and northern sides revealed that that make the mountain. Landslide potentials are
the seats of landslide scars were on different different for different side of the mountain due to
weathering zones. In eastern side at Ban Tonharn different kinematic instability potential of the rock
the slides were located on steep to very steep slopes slopes.
and failure extending to bottom of moderately to
slightly weathered zones (Grade II-III) while
landslide scars in Ban Huynumkhew occurred on
moderate to moderately steep slope failure
extending to bottom of highly weathered zone
(Grade IV).

LANDSLIDE AND ROCK DISCONTINUITIES

The characteristics of landslides on the eastern
slopes of granitic rocks of Khao Panom Benja are
different from those occurred in other areas of the
country for which the slope failures commonly
involved soil sliding of weathered zones down to
completely to highly weathered rocks (Phienwej et Figure 7. Deep rock wedge failure along channel
al, 1993 and Soralum, 2010). While weathering of
granitic rocks had been well developed in the
mountain slopes, rock slope failures appeared to be
the predominant mode of landslides that occurred
on the eastern steep slopes of the mountain. The
major sets of geologic discontinuities that shaped
up the north south trending cliff face of the
mountain and the two conjugated sets oriented in a
more or less perpendicular direction (i.e. E-W
strike) – see Figure 5 promoted development of
deep rock wedges along the stream channels
flowing eastward down the east face of the
mountain (Figure 7) as well as rock wedges on the
weathered rock walls of the channels (Figure 8).
Figure 8. Rock wedges on stream channel wall
Moreover the north-south oriented steep
discontinuities created plane failure of rock blocks
in some areas of the slope faces (Figures 9&10).
Weathering along discontinuities and opening of
apertures in rocks in the vicinity of the stream
channels on the mountain slopes increased
vulnerability of rock slope failures upon heavy
rainfall. Numerous rock slope failures during the
prolonged heavy rainfall period of 2011 led to
devastating debris flow at ran into Ban Tonharn on
the eastern side of the mountain. On the other
hand while rock wedge failures occurred on the
walls of stream channel flowing northward of the
north slope of the mountain, rock slides along the
direction of the channel were not common due to Figure 9. Rock plane sliding on steep slope face
lacks of rock joint intersection. As a consequence,
the debris flows developed in the northern sides of
the mountain at Ban Huynumkaew was of less
significant than that in the eastern side. The

E3-5
 International Association of Engineering
Geology
Soralump, S. and Chotikasathien, W. (2007).
Integration of geotechnical engineering and
rainfall data into landslide hazard map in
Thailand. GEOTHAI’07 Intl. Conf. Geology of
Thailand : Towards Sustainable Development
and Sufficiency of Economy, 125-131.
Soralump (2010). Rainfall-Triggered Landslide :
from Research to mitigation practice in
Thailand, The 17th Southeast Asian
Geotechnical Conference Taipei, Taiwan.
.
Figure 10. Rock slope failure near the peak

CONCLUSION
Investigation on the characteristics of
catastrophic landslides and debris flows of Khao
Panom Benja leads to the following conclusions.
 Khao Panom Benja was a high relief
granitic mountain surrounded by older
sedimentary rocks. Rocks consist of
numerous fractures associated with the
regional tectonic plate movement of the
Indo-China block. A major brittle strike
fault of north-south strike traverses the
mountain on the western side.
 The unfavorable orientations of four major
joint sets of the mountain created high
kinematic instability potential of rock
wedge slides along the stream channel
direction as well as rock wedge formation
on the channel walls in the eastern sides of
the mountain.
 Weathering and joint opening in the areas
of slopes and stream channels increase
vulnerability of rock slides in an event of
prolonged heavy rainfall such as that
occurred in 2011.

REFERENCES
Deere, D.U. and Patton, F. (1971). Slope stability
in residual soils. Proceeding of 4th Pan-
American Conference on Soil Mechanics and
Foundation Engineering, Caracus, Venezuala,
pp 87-170.
Morely, C. K. , Charusir, P. and Watkinson, I.M.
(2011), Structure of Thailand during the
Cenozoic. The Geology of Thailand, Published
by The Geological Society of London, pp. 273-
333.
Phien-wej, N., Nutalaya, P., Zin Aug, and Tang Zhi
Bin, (1993), “Catastrophic and Landslides and
Debris Flows in Thailand”, Bulletin of the

E3-6
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

SIMULATION OF WHOLE LANDSLIDE PROCESS USING MOBLIZATION

CRITERION FOR UMYEON MOUNTAIN IN KOREA

Kang, Sinhang 1, Lee, Seung-Rae 2 and Vasu, N. N. 3

ABSTRACT: In Korea, damages induced by landslides have increased due to growing frequency of localized
torrential downpours occurrence. Especially, fast-flowing debris flow with large amounts of soil/rock materials
causes huge scale damages. More studies related to predicting the initiation areas of debris flows are necessary to
avert from landslide disasters more effectively. In Korea, most debris flows are mobilized from landslides. A
geomorphological approach among several studies of debris flow mobilization has advantages containing
simplicity of acquiring topographic data and applicability toward a large area. In this study, several types of GIS
based topographical data were acquired from landslide and debris flow initiation areas located in Gyeonggi and
Gangwon Provinces. Then, a relationship analysis was conducted among the topographic parameters to study
geomorphological characteristics, discerning landslides and debris flows. Considering the geomorphological
characteristics, a mobilization criterion integrated with the modified threshold, using a relationship between
slope and upslope contributing area, and other geomorphological thresholds, which could extract debris flow
initiation areas, was set up. Finally, a coupled analysis which consists of a combination of landslide analysis-
mobilization analysis-debris flow spread analysis was applied to Umyeon Mountain in order to check the
applicability of the mobilization criterion.

Keywords: Landslide, debris flow mobilization, geomorphological characteristics, mobilization criterion

INTRODUCTION research in relation to detecting debris flow

Recently, not only yearly rainfall but also
occurrence frequency of localized heavy rain,
which is higher than 50 mm per hour, have been
increasing progressively in Korea. Generally, the
localized heavy rain occurs in summer season from
June to September. These rainfall characteristics of
Korea can be a sort of direct causes of the increase
in landslide disasters. The cost each year in Korea
used up for restoration, which is caused by the
landslide disasters, has been also growing
continuously.
Slides (rotational and translational) and debris
flows are the most common types of landslide in
Korea (Park 2014). Compared with slides, debris
flows make destructive power due to more rapid
velocity and longer spread distance. Because of
these characteristics, debris flows cause more
enormous human and property damages. In order to
diminish and avert damages caused by landslide
disasters more efficiently, it is necessary to conduct
initiation.
In this study, a geomorphological approach,
which has some merits such as convenience of
acquiring topographic data and applicability toward
local scale area, has been applied in order to
analyze a mobilization condition from slope
failures into debris flows by considering
topographic properties.
The main objective of this study is to verify the
applicability of mobilization criterion combined
with geomorphological thresholds, which were
obtained through a comparison analysis for
topographic properties of slope failures and debris
flows initiation area, by adopting a coupled analysis
comprised of landslide analysis, mobilization
analysis and debris flow spread analysis to Umyoen
Mountain in the Seocho district of Seoul, South
Korea.

1
Student, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), iscream01@kaist.ac.kr, Republic of Korea
2
Professor, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), srlee@kaist.ac.kr, Republic of Korea
3
Student, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), nikhilnv@kaist.ac.kr, Republic of Korea

E4-1
METHODOLOGY
Topographic indices
In order to find out a relationship between each
geomorphological characteristic and debris flow
initiation, several topographic properties have been
considered in this study.
Slope is the most important parameter in the
mobilization analysis, and hence it has been applied
to analyze the influence on debris flow initiation.
Relative elevation is defined as the altitude
difference between elevation of specific point in a
watershed and elevation of exit point in the same
watershed (Kang et al. 2015). It is required because
failure materials should have enough potential
energy which will be transformed into kinetic
energy in order to flow down toward below the hill
country.
Upslope contributing area (UCA) is the index
which can be calculated by multiplying value of
flow accumulation and size of each cell and defined
as amounts of water which flow in each cell. It is
required to hold enough amounts of water at the
debris flow source area.
Topography has an influence on movement and
concentration of surface water and groundwater,
and then hydrological-topographic factors can be
used to analyze debris flow initiation area (Oh
2010). Sediment transport capacity index (STI)
based on the unit stream power theory (Moore and
Wilson 1992), can be formularized as Eq. 1. Stream
power index (SPI) can be used to estimate erosion
of slope caused by water flow (Eq. 2), and terrain
characterization index (TCI) indicating
transportation capability of sediment is defined as
Eq. 3 (Chen and Yu 2011).
STI=(1.4)(As/22.13)0.4(sinβ/0.0896)1.3 (1)
SPI=ln(As tanβ) (2)
TCI=κ ln As (3)
where As is the upslope contributing area, β is the
slope angle and κ is the curvature.
Acquisition of topographic data
In order to acquire topographic data, digital
maps based on a geographic information system
(GIS) were used for efficiency of collection and
analysis of data in a local scale area. Topographic
indices used in this study can be acquired from the
digital maps using any GIS program. Digital
elevation model (DEM) computed from digital map
produced by National Geographic Information
Institute is the most fundamental dataset. Slope,
E4-2
relative elevation, UCA, STI, SPI and TCI can be
obtained from DEM using the GIS programs.
Inventory map comprised of the location
information concerning source area of landslides,
which cannot be transformed into debris flow, and
debris flows is an essential ingredient in order to
obtain topographic dataset. Partial areas of
Gyeonggi and Gangwon provinces were determined
as study areas for collecting data. Through
comparing satellite images and aerial photographs
taken in the study areas before and after the
landslide events, location information concerning
source areas was built in a GIS format. After
constructing the inventory map, 240 topographic
data sets for landslide and debris flow events apiece
were acquired.
Coupled analysis
The applicability of geomorphological
thresholds was assessed through conducting a
coupled analysis, which can be used to simulate the
whole process of debris flow. The coupled analysis
combines the following three steps; i.e., landslide
analysis, mobilization analysis and debris flow
spread analysis. In the first step, landslide source
areas are analyzed, and then debris flow initiation
points are extracted among the predicted source
areas of landslide. As the last step, spread regions
of debris flows are analyzed with the extracted
debris flow source areas. TRIGRS developed by
Baum et al. (2002), a mobilization criterion
combined with geomorphological thresholds and
Flow-R (Horton et al. 2008) was applied for each
step, respectively.
An application target area for the coupled
analysis was selected to be Umyeon Mountain
located in the Seocho district of Seoul, South Korea.
On July 27, 2011, sixteen people were killed, and
property damages occurred due to debris flows
caused by localized heavy rain in which two days
accumulation was 470 mm.
RESULTS
Geomorphological thresholds
Rickenman and Zimmermann (1993),
Heinimann (1998) and Park (2014) suggested
thresholds using a relationship between UCA and
slope for detecting the debris flow source areas. As
a result of applying these thresholds with data sets
acquired in this study, many cases were not
included within the boundary of thresholds (Figure
1). In order to overcome the inaccuracy, existing
thresholds were modified (Figure 2), and other
geomorphological thresholds using relationships of
STI-relative elevation and SPI-TCI were proposed
(Figure 3 and Figure 4).
An equation of modified threshold can be
defined as β > 65.72e-0.03896As+14.67e-2.827E-07As. For
debris flow initiation, a high value of UCA is
required, if a value of slope is low. Otherwise, if a
value of UCA is low, a high value of slope is
required. Values of UCA and slope on the area,
where debris flow can be initiated, have to be
higher than 50 m2 and 14.320, respectively.
Figure 1. Existing thresholds using a
relationship between upslope contributing area and
slope
Figure 2. Modified threshold using a relationship
between upslope contributing area and slope
For occurrence of debris flow, values of STI
and relative elevation should be higher than 11 and
27, respectively. The higher STI is, the higher UCA
and slope become. If the relative elevation has a
high value, kinetic energy for spread of debris flow
increases after slope failures due to growth of the
potential energy. Hence, the higher STI and relative
elevation become, the higher probability of debris
flow initiation is.
The threshold using a relationship between SPI
and TCI can be given as SPI > 3 and TCI < 10 for
the debris flow initiation. Because the SPI is
defined as natural logarithm for the product of
UCA and slope, the probability of debris flow
initiation increases, if a value of SPI is high. The
TCI is defined as the product of curvature and
natural logarithm for UCA. Accordingly, if a value
of the TCI is low negative, the probability of debris
flow occurrence increases because of the
characteristics of curvature whose value is negative
in the debris flow occurrence point (Horton et al.
2008).
Figure 3. Proposed threshold using a relationship
between STI and relative elevation
Figure 4. Proposed threshold using a relationship
between SPI and TCI
Coupled analysis
Finally, a coupled analysis, using TRIGRS,
geomorphological thresholds suggested in this
study and Flow-R, was applied to the Umyeon
Mountain. It is required to collect rainfall and
geotechnical data in order to run the TRIGRS.
Amount of rainfall was 470 mm for two days, and
geotechnical data were obtained from the site
E4-3
investigation reports (Korean Geotechnical Society CONCLUSION
2011). As a result of the analysis, 86 initial slope
In this study, currently available thresholds
failure points were correctly predicted among 151
using a relationship between UCA and slope for
points (Figure 5(a)). It seems that this low
detecting debris flow source area were modified in
prediction rate was caused by using the
order to enhance the applicability, and two types of
geotechnical data which is obtained from only 13
thresholds using relationships of STI-relative
boreholes and cannot cover the whole mountain
elevation and SPT-TCI were proposed. Then a
area.
coupled analysis composed of landslide analysis,
The geomorphological thresholds were then
mobilization analysis and debris flow spread
applied to the predicted slope failure area in order
analysis was successfully applied for Umyeon
to detect debris flow initiation areas, and then
Mountain. As a result of coupled analysis, damaged
Flow-R was run with the result of mobilization
areas were predicted relatively well. The coupled
analysis (Figure 5(b) and (c)). From the analysis, 26
analysis combined with geomorphological
damaged areas, on which debris flows were
thresholds as a mobilization criterion can be useful
deposited, were predicted among actual 33 areas.
for prediction and prevention of debris flow events
Although the result of landslide analysis is
and contribute to the reduction of damages caused
unfavourable, final result shows a good agreement.
by debris flows.
If more suitable models for landslide analysis could
be conducted, higher prediction rate related to ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
damaged areas as well as exact paths of debris flow
spread could be obtained. The present work was supported by the Public
Welfare and Safety Research Program through the
National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF)
funded by the Ministry of Science, ICT & Future
Planning (NRF-2012M3A2A1050974) and Korea
Minister of Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and
Transport (MOLIT) as 「U-City Master and Doctor
Course Grant Program」.

REFERENCES
Baum, R. L., Savage, W. Z. and Godt, J. W. (2002).
TRIGRS – A FORTRAN program for transient
rainfall infiltration and grid-based regional
slope stability analysis. US Geological Survey
Open-File Report, 2008-1159: 75 pages.
Chen, C. Y. and Yu, F. C. (2011). Morphometric
analysis of debris flows and their source areas
using GIS. Geomorphology, 129: 387-397.
Heinimann, H. R. (1998). Method zur Analyse und
Bewertung von Naturgefahren. Bundesamt fur
Umwelt, Wald und Landschaft(BUWAL),
German: 247 pages.
Horton, P., Jaboyedoff, M. and Bardou, E. (2008).
Debris flow susceptibility mapping at a regional
scale. Proc. of the 4th Canadian Conference on
Geohazards, Quebec, Canada: 339-406.
Kang, S., Lee, S. R., Nikhil, N. V. and Park, J. Y.
(2015). Analysis of differences in
geomorphological characteristics on initiation of
landslides and debris flows. J. Korean Soc.
Hazard Mitig. 15(2): 249-258.
Korean Geotechnical Society (2011). Research
contract report: addition and complement causes
Figure 5. Results of coupled analysis

E4-4
 survey of Mt. Umyeon landslide, Korean
Geotechnical Society: 268 pages.
Moore, I. D. and Wilson, J. P. (1992). Length-slope
factors for the Revised Universal Soil Loss
Equation: simplified method of estimation.
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428.
Oh, H. J. (2011). Landslide detection and landslide
susceptibility mapping using aerial photos and
artificial neural networks. Korean journal of
remote sensing, 26 (1): 47-57.
Park, D. W. (2014). Simulation of landslides and
debris-flows at regional scale using coupled
model. M. S. Thesis, Korea Advanced Institute
of Science and Technology, Daejeon, Republic
of Korea: 84 pages.
Rickenmann, D. and Zimmermann, M. (1993). The
1987 debris flows in Switzerland:
documentation and analysis. Geomorphology,
8(2-3): 175-189.

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 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

SPATIAL STUDY ON SHALLOW LANDSLIDE WITH IMPLEMENTATION OF

INFINITE SLOPE ANALYSIS METHOD ON GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION
SYSTEM PLATFORM FOR KARANGKOBAR, BANJARNEGARA,
CENTRAL JAVA
Andriansyah 1,2 and Tommy Ilyas 1

ABSTRACT: Slope failure occurred when the force equilibrium in the earth mass is unstable due to the change
in internal cohesion and pore water pressure triggerred by rainfall or earthquake so the available shear strength
for stability is less than shear strength required. This thesis focused on shallow landslide or 3 meter maximum
depth landslide, analyzed on the geographical information system platform for regional scope in the 8 km x 6 km
rectangular in the Karangkobar, Banjarnegara. The deterministic scenario used with implementation of infinite
slope stability method from Jibson (2000). The soil parameters determined from study on geological formation,
the topographical base map used was the digital elevation model from SRTM 1 arc-second and the slope’s
saturation level assumed homogen for all the grid on the study area. The factor of safety analyzed for complete
dry and complete saturated condition. It was calculated that the factor of safety value on the slope that failure in
landslide event on December 2014 is 1.3, relatively stable factor of safety. This result in-line with hypothesis
that the low resolution topographical data drive to over-estimated factor of safety resulted. This thesis also
conduct an analysis for slope stablity due to earthquake load. Two set of peak ground acceleration (pga) data was
generated for earthquake from local fault near Karangkobar and for earthquake from subduction zone in the
south of Java. From the simulation, it was found that the slope on the study area are more vulnerable due to
effect from local earthquake compared to subduction earthquake since the pga generated from local earthquake is
higher than the yield acceleration of the slope in both dry and saturated condition.

Keywords: Earthquake induced landslide; geographical information system; infinite slope analysis;
Karangkobar; shallow landslide

INTRODUCTION complex if it has to do stability analysis for a large

The intensity of landslide occurrences in
Indonesia significantly rising in recent years. High
rainfall rate caused by the debatable climate change
is a crucial factor. The risk then doubled by bad
management of landuse and surface waterflow
system. Basically, slope stability is evaluated by
comparing the withstand force against driver force
of the slope due to mass movement. Among
internal and external factors, gravity and seepage
force are major factors that affects the imbalance in
the structure of the soil or rock of the slope.
For a spesific slope in the case of small and
limited area, usually in the construction phase of a
structure, slope stability analysis can be simply
performed in which the characteristics and
parameters of soil layer of the slope can be well.
However, the situation will be very different and
area.
The complexity of the slope and the uncertainty
of the factors that affect the stability of slopes in the
regional scope more substantial compared to the
single local slopes. Thus, the step of evaluating the
slope in a regional scope directed to the Geographic
Information System (GIS) which is capable of
analyzing the area based on the spatial distribution.
Implementation of slope stability analysis with
infinite slope method will be implemented through
a GIS platform to calculate the level of
vulnerability to shallow landslides, 3 meters depth
of slope surface. Safety factor value calculation will
be performed for each grid in the area observed.
Values such as soil properties, water levels were
normalized and other data that varies for each grid
will be attached. Soil properties data is using
typical data in accordance with the description of

1
Civil Enggineering Program, Universitas Indonesia
2
PT Reasuransi Maipark Indonesia

E5-1
geological maps and other information, not the
actual data from laboratory test results. Computing
process will be carried out entirely within the GIS
platform as the data is declared. The principle of
the calculation is deterministic because all
parameters are assumed to not move and doesn’t
have a statistical distribution, only represent a
certain condition.
Rainfall rate are defined to two level of upper
and lower extreme to see the slope stability at the
two extremes. The water factor is represented by a
certain parameter in the equations used where this
parameter represents the ratio of saturated to the
layer thickness of the overall slope. Apart from the
various definitions of shallow landslides, the depth
of rupturing surface applied in this study assumed
the same for all the grid, which is 3 meters and
parallel to the slope surface.
Vulnerability analysis also conducted due to
earthquake trigger with the use of two earthquake
scenarios with different seismic source and
mechanisms. Earthquake mechanisms used are
subduction earthquakes and the local fault
mechanism in which the maximum magnitude used
were obtained from the calculation formula of
surface rupture length. Seismicity analysis
conducted up to stage where we expecting
acceleration threshold of the slope when peak
ground acceleration due to earthquake affected the
slope. This analysis produce maps that show the
possibility of landslide due to each earthquake
scenario.
The aim of the research is to give a good
overview of the utilization of GIS platform for the
value of slope stability analysis for regional
coverage by using methods that are available. Some
assumptions have to be considered to simplifythe
process without neglecting the principles of
application.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Residual soil is a material formed in situ by The
formula used is the formula proposed by Jibson
et.al (2000) which is a simple equation in
calculating the value of the safety factor. This
equation is built on the basis of a simple model of
limit equilibrium in an infinite slope which the soil
of the slope is cohesive material with angle of
internal friction. Pore water pressure is represented
by a saturation index parameter (m). The m
parameter’s ideal index is calculated as ratio of the
thickness of the saturated water compared to the
total thickness of the slopes. The m value itself
must be in the range of 0 to the layer of dry soil to 1
E5-2
for the slopes highly saturated. Equation of Jibson
et.al (2000) is formulated as follows:
(1)
where FS is the safety factor, α is the angle of
slope, and γw is the unit weight of water, γ is the
unit weight of the soil on the slope, c'is effective
cohesion, φ' is the angle of internal friction, t is the
thickness of the failure surface of potential
landslides and m is the proportion of saturated layer
thickness to the overall thickness of the slope. This
formula following the general assumption of
infinite slope model which is the groundwater flow
is parallel to the slope surface. From the GIS point
of view, it can be said that the stability of each grid
are not interdependent with the surrounding grid.
The equation in such a way divided into three
parts wherein the first part took into account the
strength of cohesion, then the second part that takes
into account frictional component and a third
component that takes into account the reduction of
frictional component as a result of pore water
pressure. m on the third component values represent
the effect of groundwater level, is located right in
the field of surface landslides or mudslides in the
field with the slope surface. At the very dry
conditions, the value of m is equal to zero, so that
in these conditions the equation consists of only the
first two components.
RESEARCH AREA
Kecamatan Karangkobar in Central Java
province has a “hills and valleys” topography with
altitude ranges from 700 meters to almost 1,300
meters above sea level. Based on data from the
Meteorology, Climatology and Geophysics
(BMKG) Banjarnegara, before the occurrence of
landslides in the Dusun Jemblung, in December
2014, there were very high rainfall accumulation
reaching 349 mm in eleven days. The climax is on
the day when the large landslide occurred where
rainfall at that time was 101.8 mm. This figure is
above the monthly rainfall of this area during the
rainy season of the previous year which only 210
mm.
The landslides event at the end of 2014 in the
area Karangkobar occurred in six points and not
simultaneously (Kristianto, 2014), three points were
included in a rectangular area of research areas. The
first location, in the Dusun Jemblung, Desa
Sampang, (109 ° 43'15,3912 "BT; 7 ° 16 '52.5828"
LS). Second, in the Dusun Gintung, Desa Sampang
(109 ° 43'29,38 "BT; 7 ° 17'2,6808" LS) on the road.
While the third location in the Dusun Gintung,
Desa Binangun, (109 ° 42'30 "E; 7 ° 15'23,76" LS).
Figure 1. . Bird eye-viewon Karangkobar Study
Area. 1 arc second SRTMoverlaid on landsatimage
inGoogle EarthTM. White points are landslide sites
occurred in December 2014
Data and Assumptions
Refer to the description of the geological map
(Figure 2) and also the results of a field survey
from Badan Survei Geologi (2014), then we
categorizing types of weathered soil that covers the
slope in study area. The soil type and the
Figure 2. Geological map digitized from Badan Survei Geologi’s mapfor Pekalongan and Banjarnegara
(Condon, 1975)
parameters of shear strength it is assumed as in
Table 2.
In general, the study area is dominated by sand
and clay soil. It is the main character of area in
Indonesia which was formed from volcanic activity.
Argillaceous sandy soil is the result of physical and
chemical weathering of volcanic materials, where
the weathering process are highly supported by the
Indonesian climate. A small portion of the study
area are the result of the intrusion of rock
formations. The intrusive rocks classified to diorite,
so it is assumed for the geological unit weathered
soil layer is ground cover gravel mixed with clay
and sand.
Digital Elevation Model (DEM) used has a
resolution of 1 arc-second or 30 meters (Figure 1).
This data is owned by the project National
Aeronautics and Space Administration - Shuttle
Radar Topography Mission (SRTM NASA) and
distributed on US. Geological Survey website. 1
arc-second data for the study area was DEM data
taken on 23 September 2014 (NASA-SRTM, 2014),
this data is still considered good and very updated
data.
E5-3
 Tabel 1. Shear strength parameters derived from geological description and ground survey.
Kohesi (c' ) Sudut Friksi (ϕ’ ) gamma (γ )
Formasi geologi Simbol Umur Estimasi Jenis Tanah S S S
(kPa) (drj) (kN/m3)
kerikil berpasir
Formasi Rambatan 20 (i) 28 - 35 (i) 24.5 (iii)
Tmr Miosen berlempung

Formasi Halang Lempung 10 (i) 17 - 35 (i) 19.6 (iii)

Tmph Miosen
Anggota Breksi Formasi
Lempung 10 (i) 17 - 35 (i) 19.6 (iii)
Tapak Tptb Pliosen
Endapan Undak Formasi
Pasir lanauan 22 (i) 32 - 35 (i) 21.4 (iii)
Tapak Qt Plistosen

Batuan Gunung Api Dieng Lempung lanauan* 10 - 20 (ii) 18 - 32 (ii) 23.1 (iii)
Qj Plistosen
Batuan Gunung Api
Pasir lempungan* 5 (i) 30 - 40 (i) 21.4 (iii)
Jembangan Qd Plistosen
kerikil berpasir
Batuan Terobosan 20 (i) 28 - 35 (i) 24.5 (iii)
Tmd Miosen berlempung
* Badan Survei Geologi (Kristianto, 2014); (i) Swiss Standard SN 670 010b, Characteristic Coefficients of soils, Association of Swiss Road
and Traffic Engineers; (ii) Minnesota Department of Transportation, Pavement Design, 2007 (iii) NAVFAC 7.01

Failure surface ara parallel to the surface of the
slope assumed in accordance with the principle of
infinite slope analysis. While the depth is assumed
to be at a depth of 10 feet or 3 meters, according to
the definition of Caine (1980) and Elliot and Harty
(2010) for shallow landslides.
The rainfall in the study area is typical rainfall
in Indonesia, where in one year there are two
seasons, dry and rainy. Hydraulic data, water level
and a subsoil drainage system ideally dynamically
modeled in hydraulic modeling. In the process of
calculating this study, rainfall data can not be
implemented directly because of the limitations of
the hydrological model.
Because of those limitation, the value of m in
slope stability equation applied for two conditions
of saturation levels, ie very dry conditions and very
saturated condition. Influence of ground water is
represented by the variable m in equation (1), where
the variable is the proportion of the land mass of
the saturated thickness. This variable is assumed to
represent the level of rainfall in the study area.
Parameter m ideally calculated as the percentage
ratio of the thickness of the saturated water
compared to the total thickness of the slopes.
Two conditions were carried out in this analysis
is completely dry condition (completely dry) with
m = 0 and conditions are very saturated water
(completely saturated) with m = 1. Two processes
of this calculation assumes all area having a
uniform soil saturation level. This condition is
certainly not a realistic situation, but this
simplification should be made to take into account
and comparing the extreme circumstances that can
be anticipated at all locations. Especially on an
assumption of completely saturated soil which is
not a very common occurrence in the real situation,
however, assuming saturation of 60% or 80% will
not make much difference to the value of the safety
factor (Harp et.al, 2006).
In local tectonics, study area is located between
the North part and South part of Serayu mountain
path, the intramountain zone, where there are at
least four active thrust and normal faults that make
the block faulting system in the area. This tectonic
activity was expected to form the slopes in the
study area. These faults that cut across the middle
of the investigation area Southeast-Northwest
trending and East-West.
Not only that, there is also strike-slip fault
trending almost North-South direction, in the
southern part the study area but outside the
rectangle study area.This fault are estimated to
resulted a shift of distribution between Rambatan
Formation, Tapak Formation and Ligung Formation.
It also resulted a shift and overlap between thrust
fault and normal fault, which is expected to occur
as a result of tectonic activity around the Plio-
Pleistocene.
Two minor earthquakes occurred in 2013 at
about the same time. Epicenter located
approximately 20 kilometers in the east of area
study. Each of these occurred on 19 April 2013,
with a magnitude 4.4 Mw and on May 21, 2013
with a magnitude of 4.8 Mw with the same depth of
10 kilometers. On June 5, 2011 also recorded an
earthquake with a magnitude of 3.7 Mw at a depth
of 10 kilometers located 20 kilometers to the
Southwest of the study area. Three earthquakes
recorded in the last five years alone indicate that
local faults in the study area can be considered
active.
From the tectonic history, the scenario of
earthquake occurrence compiled from the
formulation of Wells and Coppersmith (1994).
Information from the geological map in the form of

E5-4
outcrop geological fault considered to be a
reference in determining the magnitude of the
earthquake. For the simulation, we take a local fault
that produce an earthquake with a magnitude of 4.8
Mw in 2013, of which can be said and it has been
proven that the fault is active fault. With a length of
fracture identified in geological map at 1:35
kilometer, then the magnitude of the quake for this
scenario is calculated using Formula Wells and
Coppersmith
Mw = 4.86 + 1.32 * (log(SRL)) (2)
With a length in the geological map where all
the identified SRL 1:35 km, the maximum
magnitude that can be generated from seismic
activity of this fault is 5.02 Mwwith an average
depth of local fault earthquake was 10 kilometers.
Another earthquake source considered in this
study is the subduction zone in the southern island
of Java. This zone is estimated to have a maximum
magnitude that can be released is an earthquake
with a magnitude 8.7 Mw (Badan Standardisasi
Nasional, 2012).
Significant earthquakes from this source activity
and are both Banyuwangi earthquake (Mw 7.9) in
1994 and Pangandaran earthquake (Mw 7.7) in
2007. Both of these earthquake followed by a
tsunami that swept coastal settlements.
The most common the simplest method is and
pseudostatic analysis, where the acceleration of
seismic waves acting on a mass of soil of the slope
is regarded as static and permanent style and can be
analyzed by the method of limit equilibrium. Safety
factor value calculated by taking into account the
force of acceleration of seismic waves in the
analysis.
Newmark (1965) on this matter expressed a
very simple formula that the acceleration threshold
is a function of the static safety factor and geometry
(slope) slope with the equation:
where ac is the yield acceleration in g, andg is
the acceleration due to gravity. FS is a static safety
factor and α is the angle of landslides movement
that can be roughly considered as the slope itself.
Step-by-step
Due to data and the hydraulic model limitations
for the study area, this study used a simplified
version safety factor equation as proposed by
Jibson et.al (2000). At this equation, the influence
of pore water pressure is represented by the value
of m as a proportion of the saturated layer thickness
of the slope.
The safety factor of a slope is evaluated for each
grid by first defining the soil shear strength
parameters based on regional geological maps.
Sequentially, the steps undertaken are:
(a)The calculation of slope to the study area
from DEM data.
(b)Using a reference on geological maps, soil
parameter are defined for each geological
unit.
(c)The calculation of the value of the safety
factor with the formula of equation (1).
(d)Calculation of acceleration threshold with
equation (3) of Newmark (1965).
(e)Calculation of peak acceleration due to the
earthquake by using Maipark Catastrophe
Model 2.1TM.
(f) Calculation of the slope area which exceeded
the yield acceleration of the earthquake
acceleration.
(g)Step (a) - (f) are performed twice for the
condition m = 0 and m = 1.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Safety factor map
The resulting map of the safety factor for the
condition completely dry (m = 0%) showed values
that have a stable safety factor of slope stability. All
parts of the slopes in the study area showed a figure
of more than one (> 1). The value of the lowest
safety factor for this condition revolves around the
value of 1 - 1.1. The distribution of the value of the
lowest safety factor is distributed in almost all types
of soil (geological formations).
In the completely saturated conditions (m =
100%) the value of the safety factor is decreased
compared to completely dry conditions. It would
have been appropriate estimationfor an area that
20% of it are area with an inclination of 20o - 70o.
as many as 6336 (12% of the study area) grid has a
safety factor value <1 indicating that shallow
landslides is estimated to occur at that point. The
value of the lowest safety factor in these conditions
is 0:49.
E5-5
Figure 3. Flow chart of calculation processes. Main output of this study are factor of safety map and earthquake
induced landslide map

The geological condition of study area are more
or predominantly composed of volcanic rock that
produce clay and sand weathered rock/ soil.
Meanwhile there are intrussion rock zone
(Formation TMD) which has a relatively strong
mechanical strength, but only a small part in the
study area. In general, it causes almost all the point
in the study area is relatively the same effect when
viewed from soil types the standpoint, so that it can
be said that the slope factor is the main factor
affecting the value of the safety factor.

E5-6
 Figure 4. factor of safety map for two conditions: completely dry (a) and completely saturated (b)
Distribution of shallow landslides presented in
safety factor map as presented in Figure 4.It can be
used as a tool to identify vulnerable zones.
However, when referring to a weakness in the use
of DEM data for the calculation of slope stability in
which the lower resolution DEM data could
produce an over-estimated safety factor value
(Stephenne et.al, 2014; Fujimoto et.al 2011 and
Haneberg, 2004).Then the value of the safety factor
here may be considered too optimistic that require
caution in implementation.
Assuming all landslide in Karangkobar in
December 2014 is shallow landslide, then the
landslide location can be identified from zonation
map with the condition of m = 100%.Each point has
a value of safety factor: 1.31 to point landslide
Jemblung-Sampang, where landslides Jemblung
this is a "major incident" in a series of landslides in
Karangkobar December 2014; 1.27 to landslides
point Gintung-Sampang; and 1.03 to landslides
Gintung-Binangun. Those points have experienced
landslides but the safety factor is turn out to be
over-estimated, it is inline with the studies
conducted earlier(Stephenne et.al, 2014; Fujimoto
et.al 2011 and Haneberg, 2004).
Jemblung landslide point is a good example, the
slopes are identified with an inclination of 30o in
the DEM models, while actually on the ground
slope is 50o (Kristianto et al, 2014). 30o slope
mathematically will provide safety factor value of
1.3 on a completely saturated conditions, while at
the same conditions as the actual slope is 50o, then
the safety factor value calculated at 0.97.
It can be said that the landslide in Dusun
Jemblung initiated by very high rainfall which has
increased the level of saturation of the soil on
slopes up to nearly 100%. By evaluating the value
at this point, the safety factor is 1.02 at 90%
saturation level and decrease to 0.97 on the
condition completely saturated. Attractive
conditions would arise at other points which,
despite being mapped to the value of the safety
factor is less than 1, but the slope failure is not
occurred. It could come from the sets of
assumptions used, primarily uniformity m values,
and remember that the model are not accounting
other factors such as vegetation cover and the local
drainage system.
Yield Acceleration of slope against earthquake.
By using the formula Newmark (1965), then
map the yield acceleration in g for each condition
of saturation can be seen in Figure 5a.For
completely dry conditions, 2.884 grid in the study
area has a vulnerability to earthquakes is marked by
the yield acceleration of less than 0.2 g, this number
is 6% of the total number of grid. Meanwhile, for
the condition completely saturated there are 10.418
grid or 20% of the area of research that has the
yield acceleration of less than 0.2 g. 0.2 g
acceleration is the maximum acceleration value that
can occur in the study area when referring to the
latest Indonesian earthquake zoning map (Badan
Standardisasi Nasional, 2012) for a return period of
500 years. 0.2 g acceleration could related to an
earthquake that produced the intensity of VII - VIII
on the Mercalli intensity scale.
With these data, the study area is considered to
have a high vulnerability to seismic acceleration
considering the possibility of earthquake
acceleration values can easily occur because of the
presence of the local seismic sources in the area and
also a source of subduction in the southern coast of
Java.
E5-7
 Figure 5. acceleration map for (a) completely dry (b) completely saturatedconditions

Local Fault Earthquake Scenario

Map of ground acceleration to 5.0 Mw
earthquake scenarios when run on the MCM2.1TM
(Andriansyah et.al, 2013)program can be seen in
Figure 6.

Figure 6. Peak ground acceleration – pga mapfor

earthquake scenario of local fault with magnitude
5.0 Mw. The study area experienced pga on the
range 0.05 – 0.15 g

Figure 7. Shallow landslide distribution caused by shallow local fault earthquake. On completely dry (a), several
points indicated slope failure, whereas on completely saturated (b), a lot of point-groups indicated the failure.

Referring to the yield acceleration in Figure 5,
then for completely dry conditions and completely
saturated condition, we can obtained maps of
potential landslide that may be triggered by an local
fault earthquake in figure 7. In completely dry
conditions, some slope failures occurred mainly in
the steep slopes, the numbers 134 grid or 0.25% of
the total study area. While the condition completely
saturated slope failure are massively occurred. In
this condition the 3.096 grid area of study, or 6% of
the total study area has a tendency to fail due to the
acceleration of the soil caused by this earthquake
were felt in the area of research is 0.05 to 0.15 g
while the yield acceleration for 20% of the area is
in the range of 0.01 to 0.15 g.
Subduction earthquake scenario
Another earthquake scenarionthat also very
likely to happen is an earthquake sourced from
Indian Ocean, precisely in the subduction zone
plate with a magnitude of 8.7 Mw at a depth of 30
kilometers. Distance from earthquake epicenter to

E5-8
research area is more than 300 kilometers.
Although the distance is more than 300 kilometers,
but the seismic waves that can be felt in the study
area is significant. The maximum acceleration in
the study area is the equivalent of 0.018 g or
intensity IV - V on the Mercalli scale.
Referring to ground acceleration map caused by
the earthquake, then the resulting map showing
potential shallow landslide in study areapresented
in figure 9. In completely dry conditions, very few
grid with yield acceleration under the acceleration
of earthquake waves, the amount is 78 grids or the
0.15%of area study. It can be estimated that the
failure occurred on very steep slopes with very low
yield acceleration value. While in the completely
saturated condition, majority of the grid
experienced slope failure. In this
condition,1.194grid or 2.3% of the study area has a
tendency to failure due to the yield acceleration has
been passed by the peak ground acceleration due to
subduction earthquake.

Figure 8. Peak ground acceleration – pgamap for

subduction earthquake with magnitude 8.7 Mw.
Study area experienced pga on the range 0.013 –
0.018 g

Figure 9. Shallow landslide distribution caused by subduction earthquake. On completely dry (a), several points
indicated slope failure, whereas on completely saturated (b), alot of point-groups indicated the failure. But if it
compare to local fault earthquake, the the amount of failure point-group much smaller.

CONCLUSION data. However, safety factor value also possible to

be under-estimated. So in general, the resolution
The study area in District Karangkobar have
DEM greatly affect the accuracy of the resulting
slopes that are relatively stable in the completely
value of the safety factor, the lower the resolution
dry condition. Analysis in this condition resulted
of DEM, the possibility of errors the higher value
that there is no slope with safety factor below one
of the safety factor.This support the same
(<1). Nevertheless, there are 6% of the study area
conclusions from research in other areas by
with the value of the safety factor between 1 – 1.25
Stephenne et.al (2014), Fujimoto et.al (2011) and
which can be categorized in a state boundary
Haneberg (2004). Beside that, the assumptions of
between stable and unstable. While in the
soil parameters should be considered also as a
completely saturated condition, 12% of the study
driving factor to factor of safety estimation.
area indicated a shallow slope failure because the
In earthquake simulation, it can be concluded
value of the safety factor <1.
that the slope in the study area has a very high
The point of Dusun Jemblung landslide in 2014
degree of vulnerability to earthquakes that occurred
had a stable safety factor value at 1.3 on the
from a local fault. As for subduction earthquake
condition completely saturated. In addition, two
from the Indian Ocean is not too
other landslide points are observed, the safety
threatening.Analysis with complete dry condition,
factor values obtained are also over-estimated. It is
there is no slope to the value of the safety factor
much influenced by the resolution factor of DEM
below one (<1). Nevertheless, there are 6% of the

E5-9
study area with the value of the safety factor (LP DAAC) located at USGS/ EROS, Sioux
between 1 – 1.25 which can be categorized in a Falls, SD. http://www.lpdaac.usgs.gov.
state boundary between stable and unstable. While NAVFAC. (1986). Design Manual 7.01. Soil
in the completely saturated condition, 12% of the mechanics. Alexandria, VA: Department of the.
study area experienced a slope failure indication Navy, Naval Facilities Engineering Command.
because the value of the safety factor <1. Newmark, N.M. (1965). Effects of earthquakes on
dams and embankments. Geotechnique Vol. 15:
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R. & Zen, M.T. (2013). Maipark Catastrophe of Transportation. Available at:
http://dot.state.mn.us.
Model for Earthquake. PT Reasuransi Maipark
Indonesia. Stephenne, N., Frippiat, C., Veschkens, M., Salmon,
Badan Standardisasi Nasional (2012). Tata cara M. & Pacyna, D. (2014). Use of LIDAR high
resolution digital elevation model for risk
perencanaan ketahanan gempa untuk struktur
bangunan gedung dan non-gedung. stability analysis. EARSeL proceedings. Special
Kementerian Pekerjaan Umum. SNI 1726:2012. Issue: 34th Earsel Symposium 2014: 24-29.
Swiss Standard SN 670 010b, Characteristic
Caine, N. (1980). The rainfall intensity-duration
control of shallow landslides and debris Flows. Coefficients of soils, Association of Swiss Road
Geografiska Annaler. Vol. 62A: 23-27. and Traffic Engineers.
Wells, D. L., & K. J. Coppersmith (1994). New
Condon, W.H., Pardyanto, L. & Ketner, K.B.
(1975). Geological map ofBanjarnegara and empirical relationships amongmagnitude,
Pekalongan. Bagian Publikasi Badan Survei rupture length, rupture width, rupture area, and
surface displacement. Bulletin of Seismology
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Elliot, A.H & Harty, K.M. (1991). Landslide map Society of America Vol. 84: 974-1002.
of Utah. Utah Geological Survey - Utah
Department of Natural Resources.
Fujimoto, M., Kosugi, F., Hayashi, Y., Tani, M. &
Mizuyama, T. (2011). The effect of resolution
of elevation model data on shallow landslide
analysis. Journal of the Japan Society of Erosion
Control Engineering, Vol.64, No.3.
Haneberg, W.C. (2004). Influence of digital
elevation model errors on the reliability of maps
depicting earthquake-triggered landslide
hazards: Report to the National Earthquake
Hazards Program for External Award
04HQGR0035. Haneberg Geoscience, Seattle,
Washington: 48 - 49.
Harp, E.L., Michael, J.A. & Laprade, W.T. (2006).
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Jibson, R.W., Harp, E.L., Michael, J.A. (2000). A
method for producing digital probabilistic
seismic landslide hazard maps. Engineering
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Kristianto, Triana, Y.D., & Nursalim, A. (2014).
Longsor besar Karangkobar. Geomagz: Majalah
Geologi Populer. Vol. 5, No.1: 76-79.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration -
Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (NASA –
SRTM). (2000). SRTM 1-arc second. Land
Processes Distributed Active Archive Center

E5-10
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

ASSESSMENT OF CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACT ON LANDSLIDE HAZARD IN

WEST JAVA
A. Tohari 1 and H. Santoso 1

ABSTRACT: General Climate Models (GCMs) predict the increase in temperature and rainfall in SouthEast
Asian countries, including Indonesia. This paper presents the results of modeling using geographical information
system (GSI)-based time dependent-areal slope stability linked to GCM data to assess such a change on the
frequency and magnitude of landslide activity in some landslide prone areas in West Java. The results of
modeling of climate change indicate the selected GCMs result in a dynamic change of precipitation during wet
months-period in West Java region, leading to the reduction in landslide hazard areas in the middle of wet-month
period over the next 80 years.

Keywords: Climate change, landslides hazard, precipitation, slope stability

INTRODUCTION soil permeability react to changes in moisture

balance at different time scales. Thus, it is timely
Global change is expected to result in
appropriate to perform a study to provide a
worldwide increases in temperature. As a
knowledge on how the climate change could
consequence, the evapotranspiraton-precipitation
modify the frequency and magnitude of landslide
balance will change. Changes in the balance and
events in this region.
the temporal distribution of evapotranspiration and
This paper describes the application of a geo-
precipitation affect the hydrological regime of
graphical information system (GIS)-based slope
landslides, thus influencing landslide movement.
stability model to general circulation models
Changes in climate would affect the
(GCMs) generated climate change scenarios in
hydrological environments governing slope
order to assess the impact of climate change on a
instability through, for example, changes in
landslide-prone region of Sukabumi District, West
antecedent pore-water pressures and alteration of
Java.
trigger event magnitudes. This in turn could lead to
a change in the frequency and magnitude of
CLIMATE CHANGE SCENARIO FOR WEST
landsliding.
JAVA
Landsliding of both natural and man-made
slopes presently has a significant impact on the Model of Global Temperature Change
built environment and infrastructure in Indonesia, The changes in mean global temperature for six
as many tens of thousands of people live in
emission scenarios, as shown in Figure 1, indicate
landslide prone areas. This includes many that the rate of increase in temperature is
population centers on inland slopes, especially in significantly varied. Based on this figure, the
West Java region, such as Sukabumi, Bogor,
global temperatures for all scenarios increase with
Cianjur, Bandung districts. In the past 10 years, a similar rate until 2030s, after which the
landslide occurrences have claimed untold number temperature increase depends on the rate of
of human lives and cause great economic losses in
emission. The maximum mean of global
this region. These losses are likely to increase temperature change is about 2.9°C for low
every year because the ongoing land-use changes emission scenarios, meanwhile, the increase in
have been taking place in hill-slope areas.
temperature for high emission scenarios is about
Forecasting the consequences of climate 3.8°C relative to the mean annual temperature of
change is made harder by the multi-causal nature 1990s.
of most landslides. Landslides of different size and

1
Researcher, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Research Center for Geotechnology, Jl. Sangkuriang, Bandung, INDONESIA

F1-1
Model of Change in Precipitation
Of twenty GCMs, the CCCMA-31 and
UKHADCM3 models are selected to produce the
changes in precipitation for Sukabumi region. The
CCCMA-31 model would represent the scenario of
the increase of the average of annual change in
pre-cipitation and the average of change in wet-
months precipation. Meanwhile, the UKHADCM3
would represent the scenario of the decrease in
both of the average of annual change in
precipitation and the average of change in
precipitation in wet-months period. This change in
monthly precipitation will be used to have the
predicted daily precipitation during wet month
period in 2020, 2050 and 2080, using the pertubed
method (Hulme et al. 2000; Kenny et al. 1995).
Figure 1. Changes in global temperature for six
emission scenarios
Figure 2 shows the change in precipitation (P)
based on CCCMA-31 model for Sukabumi region.
The figure indicates the dynamic change in
precipi-tation. The change in precipitation is likely
to decrease up to 23.8% in March 2080, and the
increase of change in precipitation up to 83.12% is
likely to occur in June 2080.
Figure 2. Changes in precipitation (P) for
Sukabumi region based on CCMA-31 model
F1-2
Figure 3 shows changes in precipitation for
Sukabumi region due to global change in
temperature based on the UKHADCM3 model.
The precipitation changes for wet-months period
are likely to decrease about 28.97% % in January
2080s with respect to 1990s. However, the change
in precipitation is likely to increase about 27.7% in
April 2080s with respect to 1990s.
Figure 3. Change in precipitation (P) for
Sukabumi region based on UKHADCM3 model
TIME-DEPENDENT AREAL SLOPE
STABILITY ANALYSIS
To evaluate the significance of predicted
change in precipitation to the change in landslide
hazard in Sukabumi region, a series of numerical
modeling analyses of time dependent areal slope
stability was performed, based on the predicted
change in precipitation (%) of wet-months period
for Sukabumi region for the next 80 years with
reference to 1990s. Topographic variables, such as
slope inclination, and direction, are set
automatically by DEM and assigned to each cell.
The DEM of 100 x 100 m resolution was
constructed from the 1:25000 topographical maps.
The slope stability analysis combines a
mechanistic infinite slope stability model with a
steady-unsteady hydrological model (Baum and
Savage 2008). Hence, a Mohr-Coulomb criterion
is applied on each cell and the hydrological model
accounts on its saturation. The latter is defined by
transient rainfall infiltration model calculated
based on Iversion’s solution (Iversion 2000).
The mechanical and hydrological property data
are given in Tohari et al. (2011). The initial
groundwater table is spatially varied and assumed
at the interface of soil and rock layer. The model
requires data of depth of groundwater table (h),
drainage area (A), soil diffusivity (D0), and
hydraulic conductivity (Ks).
The spatial soil Factor of safety is calculated
according to Equation 1. The degree of landslide
hazard classification is due to the classification by
Ward (1976) as shown in Table 1.
tan  ' c' ( Z , t ) w tan  '
FS   hazard areas would occur during wet-month period
tan   s Z sin  cos 
(1)
where, w is the unit weight of water, and t is time,
Z is vertical soil depth, s is soil unit weight, c’ is
effective soil cohesion, ’ is effective friction
angle, and is the the angle of sliding plane.
Table 1. Classification system of landslide hazard
based on Ward 1978
Factor of safety (FS) Degree of landslide
hazard
FS >2.0 Very low
1.7< FS <2.0 Low
1.2< FS <1.7 Medium
FS <1.2 High
IMPACT OF PREDICTED PRECIPITATION
CHANGE ON LANDSLIDE
SUSCEPYTIBILITY IN WEST JAVA
Figure 4 show the result of time-dependent
slope stability analysis for the base line rainfall of
January to June 1990. The histogram shows that
high landslide susceptible areas can increase up to
40% with the increase in rainfall days from
January to June, eventhough the rainfall intensity
decreased at the end of June 1990. This suggests
that rainfall patterns will contribute to the change
in landslide hazards in this region.
Figure 4. Histogram of change of landslide hazard
areas due to the baseline rainfall 1990
The impact of changes in maximum
precipitation for wet-months period in 1990s,
2020s, 2050s, and 2080s to the landslide hazard
for Sukabumi region based on the CCCMA-31 is
shown in Figure 5. The figure shows that the
increase of high landslide haz-ard areas would
likely to take place during January, and April to
June 2020s. Meanwhile, The reduction of high
of February and March in 2020s, 2050s, dan 2080s
with respect to landslide hazard areas in 1990s. In
2080s, the areas of high landslide hazard are likely
to decrease up to 2% with respect to the areas in
1990s.
In comparison, the UKHADCM3 model
(Figure 6), shows that the change in high landslide
hazard areas is likely to decrease in January due to
the decrease in precipitation in January 2020s,
2050s, dan 2080s with respect to the areas in
1990s. The increase of high landslide areas could
take place about 3.7% from March 2020s and
2050s.
Based on the selected GCMs, the global
climate change does not always result in the
increase of pre-cipitation in wet-months period.
The decrease of change in wet-months
precipitation is probably cor-responded to the
increase of evapotranspiration due to the increase
of global temperature. Therefore, the change in the
degree of landslide hazard is strongly influenced
by the characteristics of precipitation in the future.
One important consideration of the need to
understand the impact of climate change on
landslides is the influence of extreme climate on
the landslide hazard. The global climate change
could accelerate the hydrological cycle, thus,
influencing rainfall pattern and distribution as well
as the extreme climate event. A rainfall with high
intensity is a triggering mechanism for slope
instability. However, the projection of an extreme
climate is still difficult. Recently, the occurrences
of landslide in West Java almost take place every
month. This suggests that the temporal occurence
of landslide is unlikely to follow the wet-months
rainfall event.
The response of soil slope stability to climate
change can be explained by hydrological-
mechanical approaches. However, it is still
difficult to differentiate factors such climate and
human activity. For example, the reactivation of
active landslide could be caused not only by
human activity but also by the change in climate
which disturb the balance of moisture content in
the soil slope. There are some well correlations
between climate change and landslide mechanism:
 Beside soil textures, rainfall characteristics
control the types of landslide. Slow-moving or
deep landslide is likely to occur when the rainfall
causes the increase of groundwater table. On the
F1-3
 other hand, shallow landslides occur when pore- indicate that shallow landslide most frequently
water pressures develop near the slope surface occur in West Java, suggesting high intensity
associated with the development of a perched rainfall event become more frequently to occur
water tabel. A rainfall with high intenstiy and in many West Java regions.
short duration is the hydrologic condition
triggering this type of landslide. Field evidences

100 100
90 90
80 1990 2020 80 1990 2020

Landslie hazard Area(%)

Landslie hazard Area (%)

70 70
2050 2080 2050 2080
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
High Medium Low Very Low High Medium Low Very Low
(FS <1,2) (1,2<FS<1,7) (1,7<FS<2,0) (FS>2,0) (FS <1,2) (1,2<FS<1,7) (1,7<FS<2,0) (FS>2,0)

Degree of landslide hazard Degree of landslide hazard

(a) End of January (b) End of February

100 100
90 90
80 1990 2020 80 1990 2020
Landslie hazard Area(%)
Landslie hazard Area(%)

70 70
2050 2080 2050 2080
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
High Medium Low Very Low High Medium Low Very Low
(FS <1,2) (1,2<FS<1,7) (1,7<FS<2,0) (FS>2,0) (FS <1,2) (1,2<FS<1,7) (1,7<FS<2,0) (FS>2,0)

Degree of landslide hazard Degree of landslide hazard

(c) End of March (d) End of April

100 100
90 90
80 1990 2020 80 1990 2020
Landslie hazard Area(%)
Landslie hazard Area (%)

70 70
2050 2080 2050 2080
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
High Medium Low Very Low High Medium Low Very Low
(FS <1,2) (1,2<FS<1,7) (1,7<FS<2,0) (FS>2,0) (FS <1,2) (1,2<FS<1,7) (1,7<FS<2,0) (FS>2,0)

Degree of landslide hazard Degree of landslide hazard

(e) End of May (f) End of June

Figure 5. Change of landslide hazard area (in %) for Sukabumi region in 2020s, 2050s and 2080s, with respect to
the wet-months precipitation in 1990 due to the CCCMA-31 model

F1-4
 100 100
90 90
80 1990 2020 80 1990 2020

Landslide hazard area (%)

Landslide hazard area (%)

70 2050 2080 70 2050 2080

60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
High Medium Low Very Low High Medium Low Very Low
(FS <1.2) (1.2 <FS<1.7) (1.7<FS<2.0) (FS>2.0) (FS <1.2) (1.2 <FS<1.7) (1.7<FS<2.0) (FS>2.0)

Degree of landslide hazard Degree of landslide hazard

(a) End of January (b) End of February

100 100
90 90
80 1990 2020 80 1990 2020
Landslide hazard area (%)

Landslide hazard area (%)

70 2050 2080 70 2050 2080
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
High Medium Low Very Low High Medium Low Very Low
(FS <1.2) (1.2 <FS<1.7) (1.7<FS<2.0) (FS>2.0) (FS <1.2) (1.2 <FS<1.7) (1.7<FS<2.0) (FS>2.0)

Degree of landslide hazard Degree of landslide hazard

(c) End of March (d) End of April

100 100
90 90
1990 2020 1990 2020
Landslide hazard areas (%)

80 80
Landslide hazard Area (%)

70 2050 2080 70 2050 2080

60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
High Medium Low Very Low High Medium Low Very Low
(FS <1.2) (1.2 <FS<1.7) (1.7<FS<2.0) (FS>2.0) (FS <1.2) (1.2 <FS<1.7) (1.7<FS<2.0) (FS>2.0)

Degree of landslide hazard Degree of landslide hazard

(e) End of May (f) End of June

Figure 6. Change of landslide hazard area (in %) for Sukabumi region in 2020s, 2050s and 2080s, with respect to
the wet-months precipitation in 1990 due to the UKHADCM3 model

 A long-dry climate period can cause the soil in Therefore, the soil slopes become more prone to
hillslopes to experience shrinkage process. The failure.
development of cracking will disturb the
moisture balance in the soil. The ground cracking
also cause the rainwater to infiltrate deeper into
soil slopes at the beginning of rainfall period,
thus, soil in hillslopes is easily saturated.

F1-5
CONCLUSIONS Change on Landslide Susceptibility in West
Java, Final Report, Competitive Research, 116
The GCMs output for West Java suggest a
p (in Indonesian).
dynamic change in precipitation. The CCCMA-31
Ward, T.J. (1978). Factor safety approach to
model in-dicates that maximum increase in change
landslide potential delineation. Ph.D
in precipitation could reach up to 80% in June
Dissertation, Department of Civil Engineering,
2080. On the other hand, the decrease of change in
Colorado State University, Fort Collins,
preciptation could reach up to 23% in March 2080.
Colorado.
Meanwhile, based on the UKHADCM3 model, the
increase of precipitation change of 30% could
occur in April 2080, and the decrease in
precipitation of 30% could take place in May and
June 2080.
The modeling results suggest that climate
change is unlikely to have dramatic consequences
on the frequency of landslides in West Java region
during a wet-month period. Although the climate
change signal suggests some changes in periods of
instability, it is likely that factors such as land use
change and human activity will have a greater
impact on landslide frequency than climate change
over the next 80 years.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research is funded by the Competitive
Research Grant of Indonesian Institute of Sciences
(LIPI) 2009-2011.

REFERENCES
Baum, R.L., and Savage, W.Z. (2008). TRIGRS-A
fortran program for transient rainfall
infiltration and grid-based regional slope-
stability analysis. U.S. Geological Survey
Open-File Report 02-0424, 27 p.
Hulme, M., Wigley, T.M.L., Barrow, E.M., Raper,
S.C.B., Centella, A., Smith, S.J. and Chipanshi,
A.C. (2000). “Using a Climate Scenario
Generator for Vulnerability and Adaptation
Assessments: MAGICC and SCENGEN
Version 2.4 Workbook”. Climatic Research
Unit, Norwich UK, 52 pp.
Iversion, R.M. (2000). Landslide triggering by rain
infiltration. Water Resources Research
36:1897-1910.
Kenny, G.J., Warrick, R.A., Mitchell, N.D.,
Mullan, A.B., Salinger, M.J. (1995).
CLIMPACTS: An integrated model for
assessment of the effects of climate change on
the New Zealand environment. Journal of
Biogeography 22: 883-895.
NCAR (2003). MAGICC-SCENGEN version 4.1,
Colorado, USA.
Tohari, A., Santoso, H., Sukristiyanti, Sugianti, K..,
and. Rahayu, R., (2011) : Impact of Climate

F1-6
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

INCORPORATING CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION AND DISASTER RISK

REDUCTION ON LANDSLIDE INTO SPATIAL PLANNING
CASE STUDY: TARAKAN ISLAND
Setiawan B. 1 and Fad Z.G.2

ABSTRACT: In many cases of climate change risk, both of adaptation and disaster risk and reduction (DRR)
have evolved independently. However, Tarakan Island is integrating and introducing these agendas to spatial
planning in order to manage the climate change landslide risk. Assessment of landslide risk induced climate
change is increasing in Tarakan Island. Projection of previous study shows 0.72 km2 area is categorized as a
high risk, which is predicted on May and December. The high landslide risk area is spreading in the Tarakan
Island, including settlement area, road and public facilities. This study attempted to apply the landslide risk map
into spatial planning of Tarakan Island to validate the landslide risk area by referring to Guidance of Spatial
Planning on Landslide Disaster (Ministry of Public Work Regulation No. 22/PRT/M/2007). The evaluation of
result map is assessing by field and aerial imagery map survey. In order to reduce the losses and damage due to
the landslide, adaptation strategies is proposed by using 4 (four) engineering works by Landslide Risk
Assessment and Mitigation (LARAM-2000) and policy of development planning and landslide management
guideline in local and national level.
Keywords: Climate change, landslide risk, adaptation, disaster and risk reduction, spatial planning

INTRODUCTION landslide, slope, geology and ground water table

map as climatic driven factor, while the
Climate change and disaster risk reduction
vulnerability consists of indicators: population and
(DRR) could be synchronized in order to manage
land use as indicators of its exposure component;
climate change risk. Typically, in developing
role of infrastructure as indicator of its sensitivity
countries, adaptation and strategy have separate
components, and population welfare as indicator of
institutions and budget allocation, especially in
its adaptive capacity component (Budhi et al. 2011).
national level. Despite of that, Tarakan City
Figure 2 shows the framework to assess climate
Government initiated the integration of adaptation
change induced landslide risk map.
and DRR, successfully coordinating intersectoral
In this study, adaptation strategies are referring
group by sharing similar challenges and goals.
to Landslide Risk Assessment and Mitigation
Scientific and engineer analysis have been used
(LARAM-2000), by using 4 (four) engineering
in order to assess climate change risk and
works i.e. modified slope geometry, drainage,
adaptation of landslide in Tarakan Island. Using
retaining wall, internal reinforcement.
those of data, policy have been able to introduced
Projection of risk assessment are synchronized
landslide risk adaptation and DRR to the spatial
with the policy of development planning of Tarakan
planning.
Island i.e. land use and the spatial planning
guidance of landslide disaster (Regulation of Public
METHODOLOGY Ministry No. 22/PRT/M/2007).
Climate Change Induced Landslide
Geographical Information Systems (GIS)
environment has been employed to obtain landslide
risk projection map, using thematic layers of

1
Lecturer, Geological Engineering Department, University of Sriwijaya, Email: budhi@wgtt.org, INDONESIA
2
Research Assistant, Geotechnical Engineering Research Group, University of Sriwijaya, Email: giendhra@gmail.com,
INDONESIA

F2-1
 Figure 1. Framework of assessing climate change induced landslide risk
Adaptation and Disaster Risk Reduction Integratio
Climate change and disaster risk reduction
Adaptation and DRR have much in common, both
aim to reduce the impacts of shocks by anticipating
risks and addressing vulnerabilities (Mitchell et al.
2008). These two agendas have conceptual overlap,
sharing similar goals as seen in Figure 2. Main
convergence of adaptation and DRR is the
management of hydro-meteorological hazards,
where adaptation build resilience to their impact
and DRR take into account the changing of hazard.
However, both of them are evolving independently
and struggling to be mainstreamed into regular
development planning (Mitchell et al. 2008).
Figure 2. Convergence of adaptation and disaster
risk reduction
Climate change adaptation: An adjustment in
natural or human systems in response to actual or
expected climate stimuli or their effects, which
moderates harm or exploits benefit opportunities
(IPCC, 2007). Disaster risk reduction: The broad
development and application of policies, strategies
F2-2
and practices to minimize vulnerabilities and
disaster risks throughout society, through
prevention, mitigation and preparedness (Twigg J.,
2004)
DISCUSSION: INCORRPORATING
ADAPTATION AND DRR TO THE SPATIAL
PLANNING
Landslide risk projection analysis divide the risk
into 4 (four) levels, very low, low, moderate and
high risk. In 2030, high risk level projected on May
and December, with area 0.72 km2, spreading in
several district, Tarakan Barat District 241.61 m2,
Tarakan Tengah District 229.48 m2, Tarakan Timur
District 151.34 m2 and Tarakan Utara District 93.58
m2. Figure 3 shows landslide projection map on
May.
Figure 4 shows integration application of
landslide risk and policy and strategies of Tarakan
Island. Dark blue color is a strategic development
area which have requirement of reducing landslide
risk.
Those areas including housing, airport, social
and public facility, industrial, military,
governmental, service and commercial,
warehousing, fishery, farming and tourism. In total
3432 houses are affected to the high landslide risk
as represented by black color on the map and the
red color show high landslide risk. Based on the
adaptation and DRR analysis, 40 sites needs
management of landslide risk.
 Figure 3. Landslide risk map of Tarakan Island in
2030
Analysis of management sites are validated to
the actual conditions afterwards, before
incorporating to the spatial planning. Validation are
addressed to the ground checking using aerial photo,
surveys of slope stability, current counter measure,
and geological layer. Looking forward to the spatial
planning, high landslide risk area projected on road
facilities 9.530,95 m2, constructed area 55.804,71
m2, refinery 81,49 m2, recreational facilities 107,32
m2, social facilities 9.714,04 m2, sport facilities
0,06 m2 and fish ponds 1.851,31 m2.
Based on the projection, 40 sites are analyzed
by considering damage and loss of physical and
access to social facilities due to landslide. Design of
landslide risk management based on combination of
two or three engineering works that are objected to
moderate slope instability, while for high slope
instability, limitation of activities or relocation.
Limitation activities and relocation are carefully
examined considering it sensitivity to the social
aspect and development planning. Limitation such
as restriction of houses construction are assigned on
5 (five) sites. Meanwhile 9 (nine) sites are assigned
for the relocations, where these policy may require
further complimentary policies such as public
incentives stimulation. As the result consideration
among relocation, incentive and engineering should
be considered the economical aspect.
Figure 4. Application of adaptation and disaster risk
reduction
CONCLUSION
Both adaptation strategy and DRR can deal with
current climate change variability, but so far there
has been limited integration for both of them. It
cause duplication effort that leads to the
incoherence and ineffective use of resources. These
agenda do not converge due to several reason
ranging from lack of political will, different home
institutions, separated funding and more on the
technical level.
Government of Tarakan City has been
successfully integrated adaptation strategy and
DRR by coordinating intersectoral group by sharing
similar challenges and goals. Adaptation strategies
are referring to Landslide Risk Assessment and
Mitigation (LARAM-2000), then the integration
with the DRR has been synchronized with the
policy of development planning of Tarakan Island
i.e. land use and the spatial planning guidance of
landslide disaster (Regulation of Public Ministry
No. 22/PRT/M/2007).
F2-3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This paper was written based on study of
Landslide Risk Management of Tarakan Island. The
authors acknowledge and greatly appreciate the
Bappeda Kota Tarakan for granting the opportunity
to involve in this study.

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Balai Besar Litbang Sumberdaya Lahan Penelitian
dan Pengembangan Pertanian (2007). Petunjuk
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Penanggulangan Bencana Longor di Kota
Tarakan. Tarakan.
Bonnard Christophe (2007). Landslide and climate
change : a World Perspective, But a Complex
Question. LARRAM.
Bonnard Christophe (2007). Landslide Risk
Mitigation and Management. LARRAM.
Dardak. A. Hermanto (2006). Kebijakan Penataan
Ruang Dalam Pengelolaan Kawasan Rawan
Bencana Longsor, Lokakarya “Penataan Ruang
Sebagai Wahana Untuk Meminimalkan Potensi
Kejadian Bencana Longsor”, kerjasama Ditjen.
Penataan Ruang Dep. PU dengan Badan
Kejuruan Sipil PII, Jakarta.
Direktorat Jenderal Bina Marga, Buku Petunjuk
Teknis Perencanaan dan Penanganan Longsor,
Dinas Pekerjaan Umum
E.g., Twigg, J (2004). Disaster Risk Reduction.
Mitigation and Preparedness in development
and emergency programming. HPN Good
Practice Review number 9, ODI, London, UK.
Hadi, et al., (2010). Climate Change and Risk
Assessment Using Meso-Level Multi-Sectoral
Approach in The Tarakan Municipality, East
Kalimantan Province.
IPCC (2007) Climate change 2007. IPCC Fourth
Assessment Report. IPCC, Geneva,
Switzerland. (available on http://www.ipcc.ch)
Peraturan Menteri Pekerjaan Umum No.
22/PRT/M/2007 (2007). Tentang Pedoman
Penataan Ruang Kawasan Bencana Longsor.
Peraturan Pemerintah Nomor 47 Tahun 1997
(1997). Tentang Rencana Tata Ruang Wilayah
Nasional.
Setiawan, B. (2010). Climate Risk and Adaptation
Assessment on Water Sector in The Tarakan
Municipality, East Kalimantan Province
Sorbino Giuseppe (2007). Landslide Risk
Mitigation By Control Works. LARRAM.

F2-4
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

THE INFLUENCE OF RAINFALL PATTERNS ON SEEPAGE CHARACTERISTICS

AND STABILITY OF SLOPE

Yu Luo 1,2, Si-ming He 1,2, Jin-chuan He 3

ABSTRACT: In existing researches, there are few references about the effect of rainfall patterns on seepage
characteristics and stability of slope. In this study, The four representative rainfall patterns including uniform,
delayed, advanced and central ones were be taken as study objects to examine the influence of rainfall patter on
the seepage characteristics and the stability of slope. Based on the saturated-unsaturated seepage theory and
using the FEM method to examine the effect of different rainfall patterns on water content and pore water
pressure in the slope. And then, combined the transient infiltration field with the rigid equilibrium limit method
to examine the effect of the rainfall patterns on slope stability. The result show, when the rainfall and the rain
time is the same, different rainfall patterns result in different distribution of water content and pore water
pressure in the slope, and also the different value of safety factor of slope. The influence of rainfall patterns on
the transient infiltration field and slope stability weren’t be ignored.

Keyword: rainfall pattern, rainfall infiltration, saturated-unsaturated seepage, stability, slope

INTRODUCTION certain level, slope failure then results from a

It is well known that rainfall is the major factor
causing the slope failure. In China many slope
failure occur in the rainy season and usually result
in much financial losses (Li et al. 2004; Guo et al.
2005; Wei 2006). So, many researchers devote
themselves to research the relationship between
slope stability and rainfall, in order to make an
accurate assessment for the soil slope stability
under the rainfall, and then improve the rainfall-
induced landslide (or slope failure) prediction and
prevention, final to have the goal of reducing the
financial loss.
Research on the relationship between slope
stability and rainfall, lots of researchers do their
researches based on the mechanism that rainfall
infiltration destroyed the inner stress equilibrium
system in the slope. They all thought of when it
rains, rainwater percolates into the fissures, causing
the soil slope surface to swell and to be saturated
with a corresponding reduction in shear strength.
When the intensity and duration of rainfall exceed
reduction in shear strength due to saturation. Lumb
(1962) first presented a simple one-dimensional
vertical infiltration model to calculate the motion
velocity of wetting front and the distribution of
water content at the ending time of infiltration, then
according to the relationship of shear strength and
saturation to analysis the stability of the soil slope.
Afterwards, many researchers using numerical
simulation with improved infiltration model to
analysis the stability of the soil slope under the
rainfall infiltration (Fredlund, 1987; Sammon,
1991; Alonso, 1995; Ng, 1998 ). In recent years,
Feng (2009) analyzed the disadvantage of rainfalls
to the instability of highway slope, discussed the
instability mechanism of highway slope caused by
rainfalls in arid area, and then suggested the
analysis method for slope stability evaluation. Chen
(2008) using Finite Element Method to simulate
through the software ANSYS to analysis the
stability of loose landslide under rainfall owing to
the physical and intensive parameters of loose soil
with different saturation got from laboratory tests.

1
Research Associate, Institute of Mountain Hazards and Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, #.9, Block 4, Renming
nan Road, Chengdu, CHINA.
2
Fellowship, Institute of Mountain Hazards and Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, #.9, Block 4, Renming nan
Road, Chengdu, CHINA.
3
Engineer, Southwest Municipal Engineering Design & Research Institute of China, #. 13, Xinghui middle road, Chengdu,
CHINA

F3-1
Zhang (2011) evaluated the stability of Bazimen Rainfall patterns
landslide under the extreme rainfall events. First,
The demonstration of the effect of rainfall
the transit pore water pressures were simulated
patterns on the seepage characteristics and slope
adopted by SEEP/W software, and then by using
stability is first conducted. Four representative
SLOPE/W software, the computed transit pore
rainfall patterns including uniform, delayed,
water pressures were used for limit equilibrium
advanced and central rainfalls (Ng et. Al., 2001；
analysis of this landslide, then the landslide
Tsai, 2008) shown in Figure 2 were used.
stability factors of different work conditions
(different rainfall intensity) were decided and the
rainfall could be used to predict landslide at last.
However, almost all the existed researching
literatures hadn’t consider the effect of rainfall
pattern on the slope stability. So, this paper takes
four representative rainfall patterns including
uniform, delayed, advanced and central as the study
object to explore the effect of the rainfall patterns
on rainfall infiltration and slope stability. First, the
saturated-unsaturated seepage theory and the FEM
method were applied to calculate the variety of
Figure 2. Rainfall patterns (a) uniformed, (b)
water content and pore water pressure in the slope advanced, (c) centralized, (d) delayed.
to shown the effect of rainfall patterns on seepage
characteristics. And then, combined the transient EFFECT OF RAINFALL PATTERNS ON
infiltration field with the rigid equilibrium limit SEEPAGE CHARACTERISTICS
method to explore the effect of the rainfall patterns
on slope stability. Assumptions
Based on the FEM method, the finite element
METHOD AND MODEL mesh of the case slope has been divided. The total
Method and Model node is 496, and the element is 455, as shown in
Figure 3. Here, some assumptions were made:
To examine the effect of rainfall patterns on The two directions infiltration were been
seepage characteristics and slope stability, the FEM considered. Horizontal (parallel to X axis) and
software of GeoStudio has been use here. The vertical (parallel to Y axis), and the hydraulic
computing module SEEP/W of GeoStudio software conductivity are Kx and Ky, respectively. Here,
is used to calculate the variety of water content and Ky /Kx = 1.25/1.
pore water pressure in the slope. And then, Boundary condition: the flow of both side of the
combined the water head obtained by SEEP/W with model is zero; model surface and the slope surface
SLOPE/W to explore the effect of the rainfall were the infiltration surface for rainfall; at the
patterns on slope stability. In this paper, a case of bottom of the model is impermeable.
slope had been taken as the analysis object. The The suction in the whole model scope is -25kPa.
height of the case slope is 20m. The slope angle is
45°. It is shown in Figure1.

Figure 3. The model of finite element mesh for the

case slope

Figure 1. Sketch of the case slope

F3-2
Parameters ending. It can be observed that when the rainfall
and the time are constant, different rainfall types
In order to calculate the variety of water content
result in different relationship of volumetric water
and pore water pressure in the slope under different
content at node A versus rain time. The increasing
rainfall patterns. The parameters are shown in
of volumetric water content from the advanced
Table 1.
rainstorm is the fastest; next is the uniform, and
Table 1. Parameters for computation then is central, at last is the delayed. At the section
X = 15 m, any point that below the surface and
hydraulic time precipitation
Rainfall alone the elevation, the volumetric water content of
conductivity
patterns (h) (mm) central rainfall pattern had the maximum value,
(m/s)
2x10-5
uniform 2 50 next is the advanced, and then is uniform, at last is
the delayed. That we can calculation, the rainfall
2x10-5 delayed 2 50
patterns has the strongly effect on the volumetric
-5
2x10 advanced 2 50 water content.
-5
2x10 central 2 50

Simulated results
Figure 4 is the pore water pressure at the node A
(shown in Figure 3) on the slope surface from
different rainfall patterns. Figure 5 is the pore water
pressure on the section X = 15 m from different
rainfall patterns at the ending time of rainstorm. It
can be observed that when the rainfall and the time
are constant, different rainfall types result in
different relationship of water pore pressure at node
Figure 5. Pore water pressure at the section X=15m
A versus rain time. The increasing of water pore from different rainfall patterns
pressure from the advanced rainstrom is the fastest;
next is the uniform, and then is central, at last is the
delayed. At the section X = 15 m, any point that
below the surface and alone the elevation had the
maximum value of pore water pressure is the
rainfall pattern of central, next is the advanced, and
then is uniform, at last is the delayed. That we can
calculation, the rainfall patterns has the strongly
effect on the water pore pressure in the slope.

Figure 6. Volumetric water content at the node A

on the slope surface from different rainfall patterns

Figure 4. Pore water pressure at the node A on the

slope surface from different rainfall patterns

Figure 6 is volumetric water content at the node

A (shown in Figure 3) on the slope surface from
different rainfall patterns. Figure 7 is volumetric
water content on the section X = 15 m from Figure 7. Volumetric water content on the section
different rainfall patterns at the time of rainfall X=15m from different rainfall patterns

F3-3
EFFECT OF RAINFALL PATTERNS
SEEPAGE CHARACTERISTICS
Unsaturated shear strength
For a slope with large unsaturated area, the
mechanism of failure is that rainwater infiltration
causing the slope soil in the unsaturated area to
swell and to be saturated with a corresponding
growth in pore water pressure (suction force
reduction), And then, when the intensity and
duration of rainfall exceed certain level, slope
failure result from a reduction in shear strength due
to saturation. .
There are two representative theory of
unsaturated shear strength, presented by Bishop
(1960) and Fredlund (1978).
The unsaturated shear strength theory presented
by Bishop as follow:
 f  c'  u a    u a  u w  tan  '
where c', φ' is soil effective cohesion and soil
effective friction angle; χ is an empirical coefficient,
which is relevant to saturated、stress path and soil
type; ua, uw, σ are pore water pressure, pore air
pressure and total stress, respectively.
The unsaturated shear strength theory presented
by Fredlund as follow:
 f  c'  u a  tan  ' u a  u w  tan  b (2)
where φb is the friction angle which is varies to
suction force;（σ-ua ）is the normal stress on the
failure surface; (ua-uw )is the suction force on the
failure surface.
From the equation (1) and (2) we can see ，
when tanφb = χ tanφ', the unsaturated shear strength
presented by Bishop and Fredlund are the same.
The only difference is that they choose the different
parameter φb and χ.
Method
In this paper, combined the transient infiltration
field with the rigid equilibrium limit method to
evaluate the slope stability under the rainstorm.
SEEP/W and SLOPE/W are the different
computing module in the software GeoStudio, so
combination of them can be easily. Here the
concrete procedure is: put the transient infiltration
field obtained by the computing module SEEP/W
into the computing module SLOPE/W, and then the
computing module SLOPE/W using the water head
from transient infiltration field, using the rigid
equilibrium limit method of Bishop to search the
potential sliding surface and calculate the safety
factor for the slope. From the equation (3) the
F3-4
ON center water head at the bottom side of each soil
slices can be calculated from the water head from
transient infiltration field, and then computing
module SLOPE/W using the center water head to
analysis the stability of the slope.
h= N{H} (3)
where h is the center water head at the bottom side
of soil slices (m); N is the interpolation function;
{H} is the water head vector of node.
Results
Figure 8 is the safety factor of the slope form
various rainfall patterns, It can be observed that
When the rainfall and the time are constant,
different rainfall types result in different value of
safety factor of slope. At the ending time of
rainstorm, the rainfall pattern of central had the
(1) minimum value of the safety factor, next is the
advanced, and then is uniform, at last the delayed
rainfall pattern had the maximum value of the
safety factor. That we can calculation, the rainfall
patterns has the strongly effect on the slope stability.
Figure 8. The safety factor of the slope form
various rainfall patterns
CONCLUSION
Four representative rainfall patterns including
uniform, delayed, advanced and central has been
taken as the study object to explore the effect of the
rainfall patterns on rainfall infiltration and slope
stability. Based on the saturated-unsaturated
seepage theory and the FEM method to explore the
effect of rainfall patterns on seepage characteristics.
And then, based on the unsaturated shear strength
theory, combined the transient infiltration field with
the rigid equilibrium limit method to explore the
effect of the rainfall patterns on slope stability. And
the results as follows
1) When the rainfall and the rain time is the same,
different rainfall types result in different water
content and pore water pressure. The
increasing of pore water pressure or volumetric
 water content at the slope surface from the Li, Y., Meng, H., Dong, Y., et al. (2004). Main
advanced rainstorm was the fastest; next is the Types and characterisitics of geo-hazard in
uniform, and then is central, at last is the china——Based on the results of geo- hazard
delayed. survey in 290 counties. The Chinese Journal of
2) When the rainfall and the time are constant, Geological Hazard and Control, 15(2): 29-34.
different rainfall types result in different value Lumb (1962). Effect of rain storm on slope stability.
of safety factor of slope. At the ending time of Hong Kong soils. 73-87.
rainstorm, central rain had the minimum value, Ng C. W., Shi Q.(1998). A numerical investigation
next is the advanced, and then is uniform, the of the stability of unsaturated soil Slopes
delayed rainfall pattern had the maximum subjected to transient seepage. Computers and
value. Geotechnics. 22(l): l-28.
3) The rainfall patterns has the strongly effect on Ng C.W.W., Wang B., Tung Y. K. (2001). Three-
seepage characteristics and the slope stability. dimensional numerical investigations of
So, the effect of rainfall type on the transient groundwater responses in an unsaturated slope
infiltration field and slope stability analysis subjected to various rainfall patterns. Canadian
can’t be ignored. Geotechnical Journal. 38: 1049-1062.
Sammon T., Tsuboyama Y.(1991). Study on slope
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS stability with numerical simulation
This work was supported by the National inconsideration of seepage proeess. In: Proc. 6th.
Int. Syrup. On Landslide. Bell (ed.) Balkema.
Natural Science Foundation of China (41401004,
41472325), the West Light Foundation of the CAS Rotterdarn. 539-544.
(Y5R2060060), and the Key Laboratory of Tsai T.L.(2007).The influence of rainstorm pattern
on shallow landslide. Enviornmental Geology.
Mountain Hazards and Surface Process Chinese
Academy of Sciences project. 53(7):1563-1569.
Wei, N., Qian, P. Y., Fu, X. D.(2006). Effects of
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Alonso E., Gens A., Lioret A., Delahaye C.(1995). 786.
Effect of rain infiltration on the stability of Zhang G., Chen W.(2011). Stability prediction for
slopes unsaturated soils. 1:241-249. Bazimen landslide of Zigui County under the
Bishop A. W.，Alpan I., Bight G. E. (1960).Factor associative action of reservoir water lever
controlling the shear strength of partly saturated fluctuations and rainfall infiltration. Rock and
cohesive soil. In ASCE Research Camferen on Soil Mechanics.32 (supp.1)：476-482.
the Shear Strength of Cohesive Soils. Univ．of
Colorado.503-532．
Chen T., Tang H.(2008). Analysis on stability
evolvement of loose soil landslide in the case of
absorbing strength degradation. Journal of
Chong Qing Jiao Tong University (nature
science). 27(6)：1103-1107.
Feng S., Yan Q., Cui L.(2009). Instability
mechanism of highway slope in arid areas and
its stability analysis. Rock and Soil Mechanics.
30 (supp.):144-154.
Fredlund D. G.，Mongensten N.R., Widger R.A.
(1978). The shear strength of unsaturated soils.
Canadian Geotechnical Journal. 15：313-321
Fredlund D.G.(1987). Slope stability analysis
incorporating the effect of soil suction. Slope
Stability. 113-144.
Guo, X., Zhao, C. G., Yu, W. W.(2005). Stability
analysis of unsaturated soil slope and its
progress. China Safety Science Journal, 15(1):
14-18.

F3-5
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

THE ROLE OF RAINFALL RESOLUTION IN SLOPE FAILURE MECHANISMS

M. Suradi 1, A. Fourie 2 and A. Hasan 3

ABSTRACT: This paper examines how significant rainfall resolution affects slope failure mechanisms. Many
studies have indicated that rainfall-soil interaction plays an important role in determining the mechanisms of
rainfall-induced slope failure. However, rainfall itself has not received adequate attention with regard to its role
in the causal nature of slope failure mechanisms. Rainfall is often simplified in slope stability analyses by
considering daily recorded data (low resolution) or average intensity rainfall, which may produce conservative
results. Numerical modelling, utilising the commercial software SVFlux and SVSlope, was carried out for a
coupled analysis of rainfall-induced slope seepage and instability, with reference to the Jabiru shallow landslide
of 2007 in the Northern Territory (NT), Australia. In the analysis, rainfall events were varied in terms of
resolution. The results revealed that slopes are sensitive to rainfall resolution when rainfall intensity has a high
degree of fluctuation at about the same value as that of saturated hydraulic conductivity. The effect of rainfall
events on slope instability is shown to be strongly tied to the resolution of the rainfall data, demonstrating to the
drawbacks of current approaches that usually use average values.

Keywords: Rainfall resolution, intensity fluctuation, numerical modelling, slope failure, rainwater infiltration

INTRODUCTION results. Vanderborght et al. (2000) indicate that the

daily rainfall data can hide some important
Rainfall is widely known as a triggering factor
features of rainfall intensity, while rainwater
in many landslides at all over the world. It is
infiltration is very sensitive to rainfall intensity
generally accepted that rainfall-soil interaction
(Mertens et al., 2002). Bronstert and Plate (1997)
plays an important role in the mechanisms of
suggest that accurate prediction of rainwater
rainfall-induced slope instability (Vargas et al.,
infiltration can only be obtained when exact
1986; Pradel and Raad, 1993; Fourie, 1996; Au,
rainfall-soil interaction data including fine rainfall
1998; Tsaparas et al., 2002; Olivares and Picarelli,
resolution is available. The use of high rainfall
2003; Cai and Ugai, 2004; Chen et al., 2004;
resolution is most important for high rainfall
Collins and Znidarcic 2004; Calvello et al., 2007;
events but not for extreme events (Bronstert and
Rahardjo et al., 2007; Tohari et al., 2007; Govar et
Bardossy, 2003). Rainwater for small rainfall
al., 2008). Rainfall of extremely high intensity and
events (low intensity) may all infiltrate slopes,
short duration is usually disastrous for slopes with
while extreme events produce a high proportion of
high hydraulic conductivity, as has been indicated
infiltration excess, which will lead to long lasting
by slope failure mechanisms in Hong Kong (Brand
runoff generation consequently reducing variations
at al., 1984). In contrast, rainfall of low intensity
in total infiltration volume. Hearman and Hinz
and long duration usually causes instability in low-
(2007) indicate that infiltration prediction is
hydraulic conductivity slopes, as indicated by
greatly affected by rainfall resolution when the
many slope failures in Singapore (Tan et al., 1987;
surface runoff is dominated by infiltration excess
Rahardjo et al., 2008).
(higher average rainfall intensity) and when
However, the effect of a rainfall event itself on
saturated hydraulic conductivity is 1.5 times the
slope failure mechanisms has not received
average rainfall intensity. The use of time-
adequate attention. Rainfall data of highly
averaged rainfall data can lead to an over-
fluctuating intensity is often simplified by using an
prediction of infiltration. Reaney et al. (2007)
average value or daily recorded data (low
highlights the importance of rainfall resolution on
resolution) which diminishes intensity fluctuation

1
Lecturer, Ujung Pandang State Polytechnic, smr0221@yahoo.com, INDONESIA
2
Winthrop Professor, The University of Western Australia, andy.fourie@uwa.edu.au, AUSTRALIA
3
Lecturer, Universiti Malaysia Serawak, alsidqi_hasan@yahoo.com, MALAYSIA

F4-1
rainwater infiltration which may lead to slope
instability.
This paper investigated the role of rainfall
resolution in slope instability, with particular
reference to shallow failure mechanisms in the
Jabiru landslide following severe rainfall in
February 2007. Coupled numerical analyses of
seepage and slope stability, utilising the available
commercial software SV Flux and SV Slope were
performed to determine the slope failure
mechanisms. A parametric study with respect to
rainfall resolution was carried out to examine the
importance of rainfall resolution in the
mechanisms of rainfall-induced slope failure.
INFILTRATION MECHANISMS
RAINWATER INTO SOIL SLOPES
The effect of rainfall on slope failure
mechanisms is essentially governed by the amount
of rainwater infiltration into the slope. This
infiltration is directly proportional to the rainfall
volume. However, not all rainwater can percolate
(infiltrate) down into the slope. Some rainwater
may disappear through evaporation and/or runoff,
as shown in Equation 1 (Thode and Gitirana, 2008).
NP = P – Roff – AE (1)
where NP is net percolation, P is precipitation, Roff
is runoff, and AE is actual evaporation. The
evaporation factor can be neglected when
prolonged rainfall occurs continuously or
intermittently with relatively low temperatures
during interval periods of major rainfall, so
Equation 1 can be rewritten as follows:
NP = P – Roff (2)
Rainfall-soil interaction has been a primary
factor in determining the amount of rainwater
percolating into the slope and transferring to runoff.
Groundwater flow is affected by both rainfall
intensity and soil properties, particularly hydraulic
conductivity, as written in the following equation
(Fredlund and Rahardjo, 1993):
 For steady-state flow:
   ht     ht 
  k wx
     k wy q0
x  x  y   y 
F4-2
 For transient-state flow
 h    h  h
  kwx t     kwy t   q  mw2  w t (4)
x  x  y  y  t
where, mw = slope of the SWCC (soil-water
characteristic curve), γw = unit weight of water, ht =
total hydraulic head, t = elapsed time, kwx =
hydraulic conductivity in x direction, kwy =
hydraulic conductivity in y direction, and q =
applied boundary flux.
Furthermore, the characteristics of the rainfall
event itself also contribute to the amount of
rainwater infiltration, which then significantly
affects the stability of the slope. In general, the
OF intensity of rainfall in an actual event is subject to
great fluctuation. when it rains, high intensity and
very low intensity occur intermittently in relation
to the saturated hydraulic conductivity of the soil.
This occurrence produces fluctuations in rainwater
infiltration which are not truly proportional to the
amount of rainfall. Rainfall with an intensity much
higher than the saturated hydraulic conductivity
applied to slopes causes only a small portion of the
rainwater to percolate into the slope, while the
greatest portion of rainfall, if not all, infiltrates the
slope with a saturated hydraulic conductivity that
is higher than the rainfall intensity. Hence, by
considering an average value or a low resolution of
rainfall, the analysis of rainfall-induced slope
instability may produce a conservative result.
Hearman and Hinz (2007) suggest that in slope
failure caused by rainfall, the slope is most
sensitive to rainfall resolution when the intensity
of the rainfall ranges from 0.2 ks to 0.67 ks. Note
that ks is saturated hydraulic conductivity of soils
IN-SITU CONDITIONS
One of the study areas chosen was Jabiru,
where a landslide occurred in 2007. Jabiru is
located in the Northern Territory of Australia,
about 200 km east of Darwin. The landslide
produced 9825 m3 of eroded sediment with the
landslide area being approximately 2 m deep, 80-
90 m wide, and 70 m long (Saynor et. al, 2012), as
shown in Figure 1.
(3)
 (a)
A Soil-sampling and field tests were both
Slope = 19 ̊ 70 m
80 - 90 m
(b)
Figure 1. Landslide size at the Jabiru slope:
(a) front view and (b) side view
The geometry of the slope where the landslide
occurred has an angle of 19o and a height of 23 m,
as shown in Figure 2. Field observations indicated
that relatively thin surface soil with an average
thickness of 2 m overlies a less permeable layer.
Landslide sediments were predominantly sandy
clay. The failure plane was irregular but relatively
parallel to the ground slope surface as simplified in
the following figure.
Figure 2. Simplified geometry of the Jabiru slope
SOIL PROPERTIES
Field and laboratory investigations were
carried out to determine soil properties for the
analysis of rainfall-induced slope instability. There
were two main soil properties used in this analysis
i.e., hydraulic and shear strength properties, while
other properties such as basic and index soil
properties were required for a general assessment
of the soil characteristics and its classification. Soil
samples were taken at the site for laboratory
testing. Soil-sampling and field tests were carried
out at several positions on the site to achieve a
more accurate representation of soil properties.
Soil-sampling and Field Tests
conducted at the intact slope (next to a landslide
scar) and within the landslide scar. Undisturbed
and disturbed samples were taken from three
positions on the slope: at the slope surface, at
middle-depth (1 m deep), and at the base of the
landslide (2 m deep). Using sample rings,
undisturbed samples were extracted and used for
water retention tests, while disturbed samples were
used for basic, index, and direct shear tests. Figure
3 shows the sketch of the positions where the soil-
sampling and field tests were carried out. Eight
undisturbed samples were taken from four points:
S1 and S3 (at the slope surface), S4 (at the middle-
depth of the landslide), and S5 (at the landslide
base); hence two samples were taken from each
point. Likewise, disturbed samples were collected
from five points: S1, S2, and S7 (at the slope
surface), S4 (at the middle-depth of the landslide),
and S5 (at the landslide base). Field tests were also
conducted at these three positions: five points at
the slope surface (S1, S2, S3, S6, and S7), one point
at the middle-depth (S4), and one point at the
landslide base (S5) respectively.
Figure 3. Layout of soil sampling and field tests at
the Jabiru slope
Field tests were carried out using a tension
infiltrometer to measure the hydraulic conductivity
of the slope soil. A 1988 type CSIRO Disc
Permeameter (the CSIRO Centre for
Environmental Mechanics, 1988) was used. This
equipment is relatively easy to use in all field
conditions, including those with inclined surfaces
such as slope faces. The results obtained from
these tests indicate that the soils have low
saturated hydraulic conductivity, ranging over two
orders of magnitude from 1 x 10-8 m/s to 1 x 10-6
m/s. These values are presented in detail in Table 4.
F4-3
Laboratory Tests soil at the landslide base. From the particle size
distribution tests, it can be inferred that low-
Laboratory tests were performed to determine
hydraulic conductivity soils are generally available
the rest of the soil properties required for the slope
in the vicinity of the slope surface, and slightly
stability analysis. These tests covered basic and
higher-hydraulic conductivity soils exist at the
index tests, water retention tests, and shear
landslide base.
strength tests, as specifically described in the next
Figure 5 shows the plasticity condition of fine-
sections.
grained soils. All the soil samples located below
the A-line potentially contain effective engineering
Basic and index tests
properties (Wesley, 2010). Most of the samples
Basic and index tests are common tests carried have a liquid limit higher than 50% (LL > 50 %)
out in the soil laboratory for engineering purposes. which indicates that they are soils of high
Testing is carried out for: specific gravity, bulk plasticity with a high water storage capacity. The
density, particle size distribution, water content, overall basic and index soil properties and
liquid limits, and plastic limits. Specific gravity classifications are shown in Table 1.
and bulk density of the soil varied from 2.6 to 2.9
and from 1.4 to 1.5 gr/m3, respectively.
Wet sieving and hydrometer analysis were
carried out using the british standard (Lambe,
1951; Head, 1989) to identify the particle size
distribution. from five samples taken at the site,
almost all were indicated as sandy/gravelly si t/c a
ith i e artic es (< 75 μm) ranging from 39% to
72%. only one sample, which was obtained at the
landslide base, was identified as coarse soil (silty
sand).
Figure 4 shows the particle size distribution,
with a large variation clearly evident. All soil
samples taken from the site, except sample 5,
Figure 5. Plasticity of soil samples
showed a similar trend of particle size distribution,
with a range of 5 orders of magnitude (6E-5 to 30
Table 1. Basic and index soil properties and
mm) and they indicated well-graded soil (Craig, classification
1997). one sample, which was obtained at the SG ρ w LL PL PI
Smp Soil Type
landslide base, was identified as coarse soil (silty gr/c
No. % % % % (USCS)
m3
sand). Gravelly
S1 2.82 1.45 33 50 37 13
silt (MG)
Sandy silt
S2 2.68 32 54 35 19
(MS)
S4 2.86 1.42 26 56 30 26 Clay (C)
Sandy silt
S5 2.89 1.49 30 41 30 11
(MS)
Sandy silt
S7 2.75 32 53 37 16
(MS)
Note: SG = specific gravity; ρ = bulk density;
LL = liquid limit; w = natural water content;
PL = plastic limit; PI = plasticity index (PI = LL –
PL

Water retention test

Figure 4. Particle size distribution of the slope
soils at the Jabiru site
On the other hand, the particle size distribution
tests for sample 5 produced a relatively narrow
band indicating nearly uniform grain size of the
Water retention tests were conducted to
identify the relationship between the change in
water content and matric suction. This relationship
is usually illustrated as a curve called the soil-
water characteristic curve (SWCC) and is very
useful in investigating the behaviour of

F4-4
unsaturated soils. Water retention tests were was applied slowly enough to maintain the drained
performed using a pressure plate with applied conditions of the soil samples during the tests and
pressure of up to 800 kPa. The eight undisturbed to determine the effective shear strength
soil samples obtained from four points (S1, S3, S4, parameters c’ and ϕ’ as presented in Table 2.
and S5) were used to represent soil conditions at Controlling parameters used in subsequent
the site. Two samples were taken for each point analyses were based on the parameters listed in
and one of each sample pair was tested in two Table 3.
different pressure plates, as indicated by B for the
blue pressure plate and W for the white pressure Table 2. Shear strength parameters resulting from
plate. The SWCCs were plotted using data shear box tests
Parameter
collected from the water retention tests and then Sample No.
c' (kPa) ϕ' ( )
refined using the Fredlund and Xing method S1 0.0 39
(Fredlund and Xing, 1994), as shown in Figure 6. S2 6.6 25
S4 2.0 34
S5 4.7 32
S7 3.6 30
Average 3 32

Table 3. Summary of controlling parameters

obtained from field and laboratory tests
Rainfall
Sat.
volume Shear strength
hydraulic
Testing for 5 parameters
cndctivity
Points days
c’ ’
(mm) ks (mm/h)
(kPa) (o)
S1 800 0.27 0.0 39
S2 31.33 6.6 25
S3 4.24
Figure 6. Soil-water characteristic curve (SWCC) S4 8.98 2.0 34
S5 8.98 4.7 32
S6 0.22
The following formula was used to plot the
S7 0.25 3.6 30
best-fit curve of the SWCC which correlates Average value 8 3 32
matric suction (ψ) and volumetric water content
(θ). ANALYSIS MODELLING
m
 1  Coupled analyses of seepage and slope stability
  s 

 ln e   / a  
n 
(5)
were carried out utilising the available commercial
software SVFLUX (Thode and Gitirana, 2008) and
SVSLOPE (Fredlund et al., 2008; Thode and
where: θs is saturated volumetric water content; a,
Fredlund, 2008) to evaluate the role of controlling
m, and n are the parameters determining the shape
factors in the rainfall-induced slope failure of 2007
of the SWCC; and e is the natural number (e =
at the Jabiru site. Analysis modelling for both
2.71828). The average curve was also derived
analyses is briefly described in the following
from all collected data for the best representation
sections.
of the SWCC data used in this analysis. The
average SWCCs for the upper layer, base, and Seepage Analysis
entire layer were termed Avu, Avl, and Av
respectively. SVFLUX was utilised to model the seepage
analysis from rainfall at the Jabiru landslide site.
Shear box test Partial differential equation 4 was used to simulate
a two-dimensional transient water flow through the
Shear box tests were conducted to determine
slope in the see a e a a sis m e . ‘C imate’ i terms
shear strength parameters (c’ and ϕ’) used in the
precipitation and runoff was applied as a boundary
slope stability analysis. In these tests, soil samples
flux along the ground surface during rainfall, then
were compacted at dry field density, then saturated
this b u ar c iti as s itche t ‘revie b ressure’ a ter rai
and normally loaded to allow consolidation prior
a cease t a the r u ater to exit around the slope toe
to the application of the shear load. The shear load
and thus achieve consistent seepage conditions.

F4-5
Based on site observation, the slope geometry was
simplified to a homogeneous surface soil with a 2
m layer depth overlying a less permeable layer
(weathered rock). Thus, zero flux was applied at
the landslide base to confine groundwater
infiltration to the weathered r ck a er. ‘Revie b
ressure’ as a ie at the left and right boundaries to
allow the free flow of groundwater parallel to the
ground surface. Overall, boundary conditions are
illustrated in Figure 7. No groundwater table was
found during the site observation, hence suction
was set as an initial condition of the slope, based
on SWCC data. The SWCC data was applied using
the Fredlund and Xing Fit method to consider
unsaturated soil properties in this analysis. A
modified Campbell estimation was also applied to
take account of unsaturated hydraulic conductivity.
This seepage analysis model was solved by Flex
PDE (partial differential equation) and the results
can be visualised by using this application and
ACUMESH. A complete analysis model can be
created based on the SVFlux manual (Thode and
Gitirana, 2008).
Top
Mid
Toe
Figure 7. Slope geometry and boundary conditions
applied in the seepage analysis
Slope Stability Analysis
Unsaturated shear strength was utilised in the
slope stability analysis to include the contribution
of matric suction, as proposed by Fredlund et al.,
(1978):
  c '  ( n  u a ) tan  '  (u a  u w ) tan  b (6)
where τ = shear strength, c' = effective
cohesion,(σn – ua) = net normal stress, σn = total
normal stress, ua = pore-air pressure, ' = effective
angle of internal friction, (ua – uw) = matric suction,
uw = pore-water pressure, and b = angle indicating
the rate of increase in shear strength relative to the
matric suction. This equation is derived from
linear Mohr-Coulomb failure envelopes. The
F4-6
rigorous Morgestern-Price method was applied in
this analysis.
Parametric Study
A parametric study was performed to
investigate the effects of various rainfall events on
slope instability with reference to the Jabiru
landslide case. Rainfall data and simulated rainfall
in term of resolution were varied from high (1h)
resolution to lower resolutions, while the other
controlling parameters were kept constant. For
example, rainfall volume of 800 mm was
measured over a 5-day duration, with the average
soil parameters used presented in Table 3 (ks = 8
mm/h, c' = 3 kPa, ' = 32 , b = 160 , and ψi = 33
kPa). The slope geometry used in this study had an
angle of 190 and approximately 70 m in length, as
identified by field observations (Figure 2). The
average depth of the surficial soil layer was
approximately 2 m, based on estimations taken at
the landslide scar.
Variations of rainfall data along with the
simulated rainfall used in this study are described
as follows:
Rainfall data
Two sets of rainfall data were applied in this
study: rainfall data recorded at Jabiru Airport
Station 014198 in February 2007 (the closest
station to the landslide site), shown in Figure 8a,
and that recorded at Sembawang Station 80 in
Singapore in December 2006, as shown in Figure
8b. The first set of rainfall data is thought to be the
landslide trigger, while the second set shows
extreme rainfall which was used as a comparison.
Rainfall data typically has irregular patterns of
intensity, as illustrated in Figure 8.
Simulated rainfall
It is widely recognised from the data that
rainfall has highly fluctuating intensities. In this
study, the intensity fluctuation data was varied into
several patterns to investigate the effects of various
intensity fluctuations on the slope failure
mechanisms. Rainfall intensities were designed to
fluctuate between major rainfall (high intensity)
and minor rainfall (low intensity). The intensity of
rainfall in-between major and minor rainfall was
varied from high to low values. Thus time intervals
among consecutive major rainfall events during a
rainfall period would consequently be adjusted due
to the fixed amount of rainfall used in this study.
Three patterns of rainfall intensity fluctuation are
described as follows:
a) Simulated rainfall with constant intensity of
major rainfall (Ij = 64 mm/h) and 20 h-time
intervals between the major rainfall events
as plotted in Figure 9. The minor rainfall
events among the major rainfall events were
designed to fluctuate hourly with a range
from 0.2 ks to 0.67 ks with an average value
of 3.13 mm/h. This range of values is
Figure 9. Simulated rainfall with 64 mm/h major
considered the most sensitive to infiltration
events occurring every 20 h and various intensities
when used in the analysis of rainfall- of minor events with an average value of 3.13
induced slope instability (Hearman and mm/h between the major events
Hinz, 2007).
b) Simulated rainfall with major events (60
mm for 1h duration) at the beginning of the
5-day period of rainfall, then consistently
repeated every 10 hours except at t = 120 h
with 26 mm/h intensity to meet the
requirement for 800 mm of total rainfall
volume, as plotted in Figure 10. There was
minor rainfall with very small intensity (0.5
mm/h) among the major consecutive
rainfall events. Figure 10. Simulated rainfall with 60 mm/h major
events occurring every 10 h and constant intensity
for minor events (I = 0.5 mm/h, much lower than
ks) between the major intensities
(a)
c) Simulated rainfall data with a 24-h cyclic
pattern, as shown in Figure 11. The major
rainfall events with various intensities
repeatedly occurred every 2h. This intensity
varied from a higher value (3 ks) to a lower
value (0.125 ks) than ks. The average
intensity of the major rainfall events was 11
mm/h. There were very small intensities
with a constant value (0.5 mm/h) for minor
(b)
rainfall events among the major rainfall
events.

Figure 8. Hourly extreme rainfall data obtained

from: (a) Jabiru Airport Station 014198, 24 to 28
February 2007(Australian Government, 2012), (b)
Sembawang Station 80, December 2006
(Singaporean Government, 2011)

Figure 11. Simulated rainfall with 24-h cyclic

pattern and 11 mm/h average major intensity
occurring every 2 h and 0.5 mm/h minor intensity
occurring between the major intensities

F4-7
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In this study, two typical rainfall events were
taken into consideration: rainfall data with
irregular fluctuating intensities and simulated
rainfall with regular fluctuating intensities.
The Effect of Rainfall Resolution for Rainfall Data
on Slope Instability
The resolution of rainfall data and simulated
rainfall was varied from that of hourly to a lower
resolution (2h, 5h, 10h, and 20h) to investigate the
effect of rainfall resolution on slope instability,
indicated by the factor of safety (F). These
variations in rainfall resolution were applied in the
analysis of rainfall-induced slope instability, and
the results were divided into three stages, as
illustrated in Figure 12. The results showed: (i) a
decrease in F from the initial condition until
saturated conditions were reached at the base of
the surface soil layer, known as the 'initial stage'
and indicating a gradual decrease in F, (ii) a
decrease in F from the end of the initial stage
through to the saturated condition throughout the
surface soil layer, called the 'main stage' and
indicating a drastic decrease in F until achieving
Fmin, and (iii) no further decrease in F after
achieving Fmin, known as the 'final stage' and
indicating a relatively constant F.
Figure 12. Stages for the effect of rainfall on slope
instability
Figure 13 illustrates the effect of rainfall
resolution from two sets of rainfall data (Jabiru
and Singapore) on slope stability. The rates of
decrease in F, for all the rainfall resolutions, were
relatively the same during the initial stage.
However, the time taken to reach the end of the
initial stage varied with the rainfall resolution. The
higher the rainfall resolution, the slower the
rainwater infiltration which induced the slope to
reach the end of the initial stage. Consequently the
time taken for slope stability to reach critical
F4-8
condition (Fmin) was slower. On the other hand, the
rate of decrease in F for average rainfall intensity
was much higher than the rate for various rainfall
resolutions, although the rainfall did not lead to
reaching the earliest Fmin. These phenomena were
ascribed to very small intensities in the first day of
the rainfall period, compared with the average
rainfall intensity (Iav = 5 mm/h) which was close to
the average saturated hydraulic conductivity (ks = 8
mm/h). High resolution rainfall, such as that in
hourly rainfall data is also more likely to have
fluctuating intensities with greater intensities than
saturated hydraulic conductivity (I > ks). Therefore,
this causes less rainwater to become infiltration
water, in other words more rainwater disappears
through runoff leading to a slow eventual arrival at
Fmin. The effect of rainfall resolution can also be
attributed to the longer time taken to reach Fmin
between the low and high resolutions for the Jabiru
rainfall data than the time taken for the Singapore
rainfall, as rainfall intensities from the first set of
rainfall data fluctuate more so than those in the
second. From this analysis, it can be inferred that
the more the rainfall intensity fluctuates, the bigger
the time gap for the slopes to reach Fmin with
regard to different rainfall resolutions.
(a)
(b)
Figure 13. Variation of factor of safety for the
Jabiru slope using the application of two rainfall
data sets with various resolutions: (a) Jabiru
rainfall and (b) Singapore rainfall
The Effect of Rainfall Resolution for Simulated
Rainfall on Slope Instability (a)

Figure 14 illustrates the effect of rainfall

resolution on slope instability for three types of
simulated rainfall representing regular intensity
fluctuations from large to small discrepancies
between major and minor intensities. The results
showed the same trend during the initial and final
stages, but different trends during the main stage
for the three rainfall types with various resolutions.
The rates of decrease in F for simulated rainfall, (b)
with a large discrepancy between major and minor
intensities, vary distinctly with different
resolutions, as shown in Figure 9. The higher the
rainfall resolution, the lower the rate of decrease in
F, as shown by the analysis. The rates of decrease
in F for simulated rainfall with a medium
discrepancy between major and minor intensities
were only different for the highest resolution (1h
recorded time interval), as shown in Figure 10. (c)
The rate of decrease in F resulting from the highest
resolution was much lower than the rate for other
resolutions. However, the rates of decrease in F for
simulated rainfall with a small discrepancy
between major and minor intensities were
relatively the same for various resolutions
throughout all the three stages during rainfall, as Figure 14. Variation of factor of safety for the
shown in Figure 11. These phenomena confirm Jabiru slope with the application of three simulated
that rainfall resolution plays an important role in rainfall scenarios with various resolutions (dt): (a)
the analysis of rainfall-induced slope instability, rainfall pattern with high intensity fluctuation
particularly with regard to highly fluctuating presented in Figure 9, (b) rainfall pattern with
medium intensity fluctuation presented in Figure
rainfall intensities. 10, (c) rainfall pattern with slight intensity
It is clear that although the rates of decrease in fluctuation presented in Figure 11
F for rainfall data and simulated rainfall with
various resolutions are very similar during the
initial stage, the end of the initial stage for rainfall This study shows different sensitivities to
data with high resolution is reached later than that rainfall resolution between rainfall data and
for rainfall with lower resolutions (Figure 13). simulated rainfall for high intensity fluctuations.
Unlike simulated rainfall, the end of the initial Rainfall data is sensitive to resolution during the
stage for rainfall events of various resolutions is initial stage, but simulated rainfall is sensitive to
reached simultaneously. Then, reduction rates in F resolution during the main stage. This is attributed
during the main stage vary with rainfall resolutions to different amount of rainwater infiltration
for the high and medium intensity fluctuations associated with rainfall resolution. During the
(Figure 14a and 14b). However, they remain the initial stage, the amount of rainwater infiltration
same for slight intensity fluctuations with various varies among rainfall data with different
resolutions (Figure 14c), as described previously. resolutions because intensity fluctuations produce
It was found that the greater the fluctuations in various infiltration excess for different resolution
rainfall intensity between values higher and lower due to intensity fluctuation and high infiltration
than those of saturated hydraulic conductivity (ks) rate. On the other hand, during the main stage, the
the more significant the effect of rainfall resolution amount of rainwater infiltration varies among
on slope instability. simulated rainfall with different resolutions
because rainfall intensity varies distinctly for

F4-9
different resolutions leading to different infiltration ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
rate associated with slope failure mechanisms.
The first author gratefully acknowledges Ujung
This study highlights the importance of
Pandang State Polytechnic, Indonesia for giving
recording and incorporating hourly rainfall data
me opportunity to carry out this study. The authors
into analysis, rather than relying solely on daily
would also like to express our thanks to the
rainfall data. Hourly rainfall data can be used to
support of Environmental Research Institute of the
simulate fluctuations in rainfall intensity which is
Supervising Scientist Darwin, particularly M.J.
closer to real conditions. It has been proven that
Saynor for facilitation in field investigation and the
rainfall-induced slope instability results, which are
assistance of Soil Laboratory Staff, School of Civil
derived from hourly rainfall data (high resolution)
and Resource Engineering, UWA during the
analysis, are very different to those from daily
experiments and data collections.
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 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

STABILITY ANALYSIS OF A SHALLOW SLOPE FAILURE DURING RAINY

SEASON IN KULONPROGO, INDONESIA
Agus Setyo Muntohar 1 and Eko Soebowo 2

ABSTRACT: In Indonesia, landslides commonly occurred during the rainy season in December to March. In this
period, the rainfall intensities were very high and precipitated continuously. A case history of shallow landslide
type in Kulonprogo, Indonesia is presented in this paper. The slope experienced to shallow failure on 21
November 2001, and the after that slope is prone to movement during the wet season in December to February
every year. The aim of the paper is to evaluate the slope stability, in term of the probability of failure, during the
wet season from 2004 to 2012. A probabilistic model of stability analysis incorporating infiltration was
computed in this study. Direct Monte Carlo Simulation (MCS) method was performed to obtain the failure
probability. The results show that the failure probability of the slope ranges from 0.126 to 0.302. The lowest and
highest probability of failure was obtained for the rainfall period of December 2009 – March 2010 and
December 2005 – March 2006 respectively. The performance level of the studied slope can be classified as
“hazardous”. In general, the study concludes that the proposed model can be applied to the preliminary analysis
of slope stability during the wet season.

Keywords: slope stability, shallow landslide, rainfall, wet season, probability of failure

INTRODUCTION be simplified to obtain a simple but acceptable

analysis for the stability of the slope. The objective
In Indonesia, as a tropical country, the major
of the paper is to evaluate the slope stability during
climate is dry and wet season. This season was
the wet season. The stability analysis incorporating
marked by the precipitation occurred in whole the
simplified pore water distribution was investigated.
years. Figure 1a show the average monthly rainfall
The evaluated slope was an andesitic residual soil
in Indonesia. Indonesia receives significant rainfall
where is located in Kulonprogo, Yogyakarta. The
year-round but experiences a wet season that peaks
slope experienced to shallow failure on 21
in January and a dry season that peaks in August
November 2001, and the after that slope is prone to
(Hendon, 2003; Lee, 2015). Landslides commonly
movement during the wet season in December to
occurred during the wet season in December to
February every year. This paper is aimed to
February. In this period, the rainfall intensities
investigate the failure probability of the slope in
were very high and precipitated continuously. In
Kedungrong during the rain season after the first
Yogyakarta, the mean monthly rainfall is shown in
failure in 2001.
Figure1b.
Previous researchers have carried out the
A case history of shallow landslide type in
analysis of shallow slope instability under steady
Kulonprogo, Indonesia is presented in this paper.
and unsteady infiltration (Montgomery and
Muntohar and Ikhsan (2012) and Muntohar et al.
Dietrich, 1994; Xie et al., 2004; Muntohar and
(2013a) did a back analysis to investigate the
Liao, 2011; Tsai and Wang, 2011, Muntohar et al.,
strength properties and initial pore water pressure
2013b). Chen and Young (2006) applied the
of the slope at the failure. The seepage triggering
Green-Ampt model on sloping ground under
mechanism has shown that pore water pressure
steady-state rainfall infiltration. The Green-Ampt
distribution of rainfall affected the slope failure.
equation is the analytical solution available for the
The rigorous analysis of the seepage and pores
computation of wetting front location that only two
water pressure may result in a good prediction of
parameters required for characterizing the soil
slope failure. However, the distribution pattern can

1
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Universitas Muhammadiyah Yogyakarta, Jl. Lingkar Selatan Taman
Tirto, D.I. Yogyakarta, Indonesia. Email: muntohar@umy.ac.id
2
Geotechnology Research Center, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, JL. Sangkuriang, Kompleks LIPI, Bandung, Indonesia

F5-1
properties (Mishra et al., 2003; Ma et al., 2010). kP, while the water pressure at failure surface
Muntohar and Ikhsan (2013) developed slope range from -50 kPa to 7 kPa.
stability analysis incorporation with Green – Ampt
infiltration. The studies showed that the factor of Table 1. Properties of the soil
safety obtained from the proposed model was 5% Parameter Mean value
lower than the results obtained from the finite Natural moisture content (wN) 33.2 %
element model. Bulk unit weight (b) 17.7 kN/m3
300 Unit weight above water table (d) 13.4 kN/m3
250 Degree of saturation (Sr) 90.1%
Rainfall (mm)

200 Saturated volumetric water content 0.48

150 (s)
100 Saturated permeability coefficient, 1.19x10-4
50 (ksat) m/s
0 Peak cohesion (c’) 16 kPa
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Month Residual cohesion, (c’r) 12 kPa
Peak internal friction angle (’) 24o
(a) Residual internal friction angle (’r) 18 o
1400
1200
Infiltration and Slope Stability Analysis
Rainfall (mm)

1000
800
600
400
200
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May
(b)
Figure 1. (a) Average monthly rainfall in Indonesia
from 1900 – 2009 (World Meteorological
Organization, 2014), (b) Average monthly rainfall
in Yogyakarta from 2002-2011 (Muntohar &
Ikhsan, 2012)
SIMULATION AND ANALYSIS
Slope Geometry and Soil Properties
Data input for the slope stability modeling of
the studied area has been taken from topographic
and geotechnical investigations. The slope angle
() varied from 10o to 37o, in which the mean
value and standard deviation of the slope was 22o
and 9o respectively. The depth of bedrock (Hb) was
observed that range from 5 m to 11 m, which the
mean and standard deviation was 10 m and 2.6 m
respectively.
Soil geotechnical parameters were collected
from a series of in-situ and laboratory tests,
including grain size analysis, measurement of
Atterberg limits, and drained direct shear tests
(Soebowo et al. 2003). The geotechnical properties
of the soil is presented in Table 1. The values in
Table 1 are the mean (x) of the parameter. The
variability of the parameter is presented by the
coefficient of variance (cov) or x/x = 0.01.
Muntohar et al. (2013b) did back analysis to
determine the pore water pressure distribution. The
pressure at slope surface varied from -50 kPa to -1
Instability of unsaturated soil slopes after
rainfall is common in many countries, and these
failures are generally shallow and are usually
Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec parallel to the slope surface. The stability of these
Month
slopes can be analyzed by a simple infinite slope
analysis. The model slope stability analysis in
combination with infiltration analysis was
preformed from the model developed by Muntohar
and Ikhsan (2013). The model incorporated one-
dimensional infiltration analysis and infinite slope
stability analysis. The infiltration analysis was
developed from Green – Ampt infiltration model.
Time-varying and unsteady rainfall intensity was
considered in the model. The basic Green – Ampt
infiltration for sloping ground is written in
Equation (1) and Equation (2).
 f  F  t  cos  
F t   ln 1    k s cos   t (1)
cos    f 
  f 
f  t   k s  cos    (2)
 F  t  

Equation (1) and Equation (2) are the GA
equations for cumulative infiltration and
infiltration rate respectively for sloping ground.
For non-uniform rainfall with respect to time t,
those equations can be solved by iteration method.
The infiltration analysis determines the depth of
wetting front (zw*) and condition of the pore water
pressure (uw). Theses two variables are used for
calculation the factor of safety.
The slope stability can be expressed by
calculating the factor of safety as written in
Equation (3).

F5-2
 c '  t  z f  t  cos 2   uw  t   tan  ' (Muntohar and Ikhsan, 2013) The depth of failure-
FS  t   (3)
 t  z f  t   sin   cos  plane zf is determined from depth of wetting front
zw*. which is limited by the depth of impermeable
The water pressure (uw) is calculated in two layers or bedrock. In this case, the maximum zw* is
conditions. The pressure uw = f.w, if the ground the depth of bedrock Hb.
surface is unsaturated, but if the surface is
saturated the pore water pressure uw = zw*.w

200 1100 200 1200

Daily Rainfall
180 Daily Rainfall 990 180 1080
Accumulated Rainfall
Accumulated Rainfall
160 880 160 960
Rainfall Intensity (mm/day)

Rainfall Intensity (mm/day)

Cumulative Rainfall (mm)

Cumulative Rainfall (mm)

140 770 140 840

120 660 120 720

100 550 100 600

80 440 80 480

60 330 60 360

40 220 40 240

20 110 20 120

0 0 0 0
12/01/04 01/01/05 02/01/05 03/01/05 04/01/05 12/01/05 01/01/06 02/01/06 03/01/06 04/01/06
Date (month/day/year) Date (month/day/year)

(a) December 2004 – March 2005 (b) December 2005 – March 2006

200 1200 200 1200

Daily Rainfall Daily Rainfall
180 1080 180 1080
Accumulated Rainfall Accumulated Rainfall
160 960 160 960
Rainfall Intensity (mm/day)
Rainfall Intensity (mm/day)

Cumulative Rainfall (mm)

Cumulative Rainfall (mm)

140 840 140 840

120 720 120 720

100 600 100 600

80 480 80 480

60 360 60 360

40 240 40 240

20 120 20 120

0 0 0 0
12/01/06 01/01/07 02/01/07 03/01/07 04/01/07 12/01/07 01/01/08 02/01/08 03/01/08 04/01/08
Date (month/day/year) Date (month/day/year)

(c) December 2006 – March 2007 (d) December 2007 – March 2008

200 1000 200 1000

Daily Rainfall Daily Rainfall
180 900 180 900
Accumulated Rainfall Accumulated Rainfall
160 800 160 800
Rainfall Intensity (mm/day)

Rainfall Intensity (mm/day)

Cumulative Rainfall (mm)

140 700 140 700 Cumulative Rainfall (mm)

120 600 120 600

100 500 100 500

80 400 80 400

60 300 60 300

40 200 40 200

20 100 20 100

0 0 0 0
12/01/08 01/01/09 02/01/09 03/01/09 04/01/09 12/01/09 01/01/10 02/01/10 03/01/10 04/01/10
Date (month/day/year) Date (month/day/year)

(e) December 2008 – March 2009 (f) December 2009 – March 2010

200 1000 200 1000

Daily Rainfall Daily Rainfall
180 900 180 900
Accumulated Rainfall Accumulated Rainfall
160 800 160 800
Rainfall Intensity (mm/day)

Rainfall Intensity (mm/day)

Cumulative Rainfall (mm)

Cumulative Rainfall (mm)

140 700 140 700

120 600 120 600

100 500 100 500

80 400 80 400

60 300 60 300
40 200 40 200

20 100 20 100

0 0 0 0
12/01/10 01/01/11 02/01/11 03/01/11 04/01/11 12/01/11 01/01/12 02/01/12 03/01/12 04/01/12
Date (month/day/year) Date (month/day/year)

(g) December 2010 – March 2011 (h) December 2011 – March 2012
Figure 2. The rainfall hyetograph from December 2004 to March 2011

F5-3
Rainfall Record
The slope was evaluated during the rainy
season in December to March. The rainfall records
from 2004 to 2012 were used. The rainfall data
were collected from the nearest automatic rain-
gauge at rainfall station in Kalibawang catchment
area. Figure 2 presents the rainfall hyetograph of
the rainy season in December – March from 2004
to 2012.
Reliability and failure probability
Reliability is the probability of an object (item
or system) performing its required function
adequately for a specified period under stated
conditions (Harr, 1989). As it applies in the present
context, the reliability of a slope is the probability
that the slope will remain stable under specified
design conditions. In slope reliability analysis, the
performance function g(X) of slope stability can be
stated by a factor of safety equation in Equation
(3). The variables X = {x1…n} are n input uncertain
variables which impact the slope reliability. The
variables are Xi = {i,ci', 'i, t,i, Hb,i, ks,i, f,i, i.
The function FS(X,t) reflects the performance or
state of the slope as time dependent function. The
slope will be safe when FS(X,t) > 0; unsafe or
failure when FS(X,t) < 1; limit state when FS(X,t)
= 1, which is also called the limit state function of
slopes.
In this study, direct Monte Carlo Simulation
where,     is the standard normal cumulative
distribution function for the given .
RESULTS
Variation of the Probability of Failure
Figure 3 present the maximum probability of
failure during the rainfall period in December –
March for 2004 – 2012. The results show that the
failure probability of the slope ranges from 0.126
to 0.302. The lowest and highest probability of
failure was obtained for the rainfall period of
December 2009 – March 2010 and December 2005
– March 2006 respectively. Table 2 lists  and Pf
for representative geotechnical components and
systems and their expected performance levels
(U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1997). Hence, the
performance level of the studied slope can be
classified as “hazardous”. In practice, geotechnical
designs require a  value of at least 2 or Pf <
0.023) for an expected performance level better
than ‘‘poor’’. In general, a higher probability of
failure indicates the occurrence of failing is high,
whereas a lower probability of failure indicates the
slope close to a not-failure state. In fact based on
the field observation, the slope is remaining stable.
However, tilting trees to the downstream on the
slope was observed that indicated a light ground
movement took place.
0.35
Maximum Probability of Failure

0.30
(MCS) method was performed to obtain the failure
0.25
probability. Values of each uncertain variable were
0.20
randomly sampled as an identically-independent
0.15
distribution (i.i.d) from the probability distribution
0.10
function (PDF) for each N simulation cycles. The
0.05
number of simulation was 10000. The sample
0.00
distribution was approached by a lognormal PDF ar 2
005
ar 2
006
ar 2
007
ar 2
008
ar 2
009
ar 2
010
ar 2
011
ar 2
012
4-M 5-M 6-M 7-M 8-M 9-M 0-M 1-M
200 200 200 200 200 200 201 201
(Muntohar and Ikhsan, 2012). Each set of samples Dec Dec Dec Dec Dec Dec Dec Dec

Rainfall Period
and the resulting outcome from that sample was
recorded. Figure 3. Variation of the probability of failure
In reliability theory, the reliability index β of
Table 2. Relationship between reliability index and
the slope stability can be represented by Equation the probability of failure (U.S. Army Corps of
6 if the probability density function of safety factor Engineers, 1997)
is normally distributed.
 FS  X ,t   1 Reliability Probability of Performance
 (6) index,  failure, Pf = (–) level
 FS  X ,t 
1.0 0.16 Hazardous
where μFS(X,t) and σFS(X,t) are mean and standard 1.5 0.07 Unsatisfactory
deviation of the safety factor. Then, the probability 2.0 0.023 Poor
of failure can be calculated from the reliability 2.5 0.006 Below average
index by Equation (7), which is defined as the 3.0 0.001 Above average
probability that the minimum factor of safety (FS) 4.0 0.00003 Good
is less than unity i.e., Pf = P(FS < 1). 5.0 0.0000003 High
Pf  1      (7)

F5-4
 0.04 0.025

0.035
0.02
0.03

0.025 0.015
y y
it it
s 0.02 s
n n
e e
D D
0.01
0.015

0.01
0.005
0.005

0 0
12/01/04 01/01/05 02/01/05 03/01/05 04/01/05 12/01/05 01/01/06 02/01/06 03/01/06 04/01/06
Date (month/day/year) Date (month/day/year)

(a) December 2004 – March 2005 (b) December 2005 – March 2006
0.025 0.025

0.02 0.02

0.015 y 0.015
y
it it
s s
n n
e e
D D
0.01 0.01

0.005 0.005

0 0
12/01/06 01/01/07 02/01/07 03/01/07 04/01/07 12/01/07 01/01/08 02/01/08 03/01/08 04/01/08
Date (month/day/year) Date (month/day/year)

(c) December 2006 – March 2007 (d) December 2007 – March 2008
0.014 0.025

0.012
0.02
0.01

y y 0.015
it 0.008 it
s s
n n
e e
D0.006 D
0.01

0.004
0.005
0.002

0 0
12/01/08 01/01/09 02/01/09 03/01/09 04/01/09 12/01/09 01/01/10 02/01/10 03/01/10 04/01/10
Date (month/day/year) Date (month/day/year)

(e) December 2008 – March 2009 (f) December 2009 – March 2010
0.02 0.06

0.018
0.05
0.016
0.014
0.04
y 0.012 y
it it
s 0.01 s0.03
n n
e e
D D
0.008
0.02
0.006

0.004
0.01
0.002
0 0
12/01/10 01/01/11 02/01/11 03/01/11 04/01/11 12/01/11 01/01/12 02/01/12 03/01/12 04/01/12
Date (month/day/year) Date (month/day/year)

(g) December 2010 – March 2011 (h) December 2011 – March 2012
Figure 4. Distribution of the Probability of Failure

Estimation of failure occurrence direct MCS, the density count the amount of value
FS(X,t) < 1 out of the total samples (N = 10000).
The probability of failure has been calculated
The density is commonly known as frequency in
during the rain season from December to March
statistical theory. A higher-density, it indicates that
for 2004 to 2012. The probability distribution with
the occurrence of the time interval is more frequent
time is shown in Figure 4. The figures show the
density of the samples that have FS(X,t) < 1. In the

F5-5
to occur. Hence, the density can be applied to 0.35
estimate the occurrence of slope failure.
The relationship in Figure 4 shows that the 0.30
probability density is widely distributed with the

Probability of Density (PDF)

elapsed time. It is clearly shown that probability 0.25

density differed every year. In general, the

0.20
occurrence is concentrated within end of
December to February, but less in March.
0.15 Dec 2004-Mar 2005
Muntohar (2010) suggested that the failure
Dec 2005-Mar 2006
occurrence is presented in the monthly or daily Dec 2006-Mar 2007
0.10
Dec 2007-Mar 2008
time interval to obtain a good estimation. Dec 2008-Mar 2009
Dec 2009-Mar 2010
0.05
Dec 2010-Mar 2011
DISCUSSION Dec 2011-Mar 2012

The focus of this paper is to quantify the 0.00

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
uncertainty of the factor of safety due to
uncertainty in soil properties and fluctuation of Accumulated Rainfall (mm)

rainfall. In slope - probabilistic analysis, the (a)

establishment of the probability distribution of 0.06
every random variable is a fitting process based on Dec 2004-Mar 2005
Dec 2005-Mar 2006
the limited data from measurements or tests. 0.05 Dec 2006-Mar 2007
Therefore, there are three major sub-categories Dec 2007-Mar 2008
Probability of Density (PDF)

Dec 2008-Mar 2009

introduced: site characterization uncertainty, Dec 2009-Mar 2010
0.04
model uncertainty, and parameter uncertainty Dec 2010-Mar 2011
Dec 2011-Mar 2012
(Lumb, 1969; Lind, 1983; Malkawi et al., 2000).
0.03
In the calculation of reliability index (Equation 6),
a large variance of the factor of safety might result
0.02
in an overestimate the probability of failure since
the FS < 1 was located at the tail of the distribution.
0.01
It is important to note, however, that probabilistic
analyzes can be erroneous and misleading. El-
0.00
Ramly et al. (2002) mentioned that ignoring the
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
spatial variability of soil properties and assuming
Rainfall Intensity (mm/day)
perfect autocorrelations as in the simplified
analysis can significantly overestimate the (b)
performance level of the slope or probability of Figure 5. (a) Correlation between accumulated
unsatisfactory performance. rainfall and probability of slope failure (b)
It has been illustrated in Figure 4 that the Correlation between rainfall intensity and
probability density of slope failure
probability of slope failure varied and depended on
accumulated rainfall as shown in Figure 5a. A
Malkawi et al. (2000) suggested that the
linear correlation was shown between the
proposed model can be compared to the other
probability of failure and the accumulated rainfall.
slope stability or probability method to gain a more
A lower amount of rainfall, a lower probability of
reliable model. The variability of input parameter
failure was reached. It is true since the computed
was contributed by spatial variability of the soils.
factor of safety (Equation 3) was the function of
Buttt, less contribution was generated by the
accumulated infiltration (Equation 1) that depends
statistical sources of uncertainty such as sparse
on the input accumulated rainfall. While, the
data or the use of empirical correlations and factors
probability density of slope failure looks like to
(El-Ramly et al., 2005). The factor of safety
depend on the rainfall intensity. Figure 5b show
changed considerably because of the contribution
the correlation between rainfall intensity and
the greatest uncertainty in the probability
probability density of slope failure. The figure
distribution of the parameter. This condition is
clearly shows a linear correlation between rainfall
valid if the updated parameters are not correlated
intensity and probability density of slope failure.
in the prior distribution (Zhang et al., 2010).

F5-6
CONCLUSIONS
This paper outlines the evaluation of the
performance level of the slope during a wet season
in 2004 to 2012. A probabilistic analysis of slope
stability has been performed using direct Monte
Carlo simulation method. The results showed that
the failure probability of the slope varied from
0.126 to 0.302 that depend on the accumulated
rainfall. The lowest and highest probability of
failure was obtained for the rainfall period of
December 2009 – March 2010 and December 2005
– March 2006 respectively. This result concluded
that the performance level of the studied slope can
be classified as “hazardous”. Correlation of the
probability density and time indicated that the time
of failure can be estimated from the rainfall
intensity distribution for a time interval. The
conclusions of this study was limited for the
proposed model. I is suggested that the proposed
model can be compared to the other slope stability
or probability method to gain a more reliable
model.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work in this paper was substantially
supported by grants from the Ministry of Research,
Technology and Higher Education for the research
grant in 2015 under the research scheme
“Penelitian Hibah Kompetensi” (DIPA No.
023.04.1.673453/2015.
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SYMBOLS AND NOTATIONS

The following symbols are used in this paper
c’ = cohesion,
F(t) = cumulative infiltration at time t,
f(t) = infiltration rate at time t.
FS = factor of safety,
Hb = depth of impermeable layers or bedrock,
ks = saturated hydraulic conductivity,
Pf = probability of failure.
uw = pore water pressure,
zf = depth of sliding-plane,
zw*= depth of wetting front,
 = deficit soil moisture,
 = slope angle,
= reliability index,
’ = internal friction angle,
t = saturated unit weight of soil,
w = unit weight of water,
f = suction head at wetting front,
    = the standard normal cumulative
distribution function for the given 

F5-8
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

LANDSLIDES INDUCED BY THE YOGYAKARTA 2006 EARTHQUAKE

Eko Soebowo 1 and Dwi Sarah 1

ABSTRACT: The Yogyakarta earthquake (Mw 6.3) occurred on May 27, 2006 had induced damaging ground
movements such as landslides, liquefaction and settlements at the Opak fault zone and the eastern part, causing
damages to buildings and infrastructures. This paper aims to present the geological characteristics of the
landslides induced by the 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake based on post disaster field survey. Survey results
revealed that the earthquake induced landslides distribution were concentrated at the Opak fault zone forming
South West- North East pattern. The landslides occurred to slopes of volcanic rocks with steep to very steep
morphology at alternating beds of tuffaceous sandstone- tuffaceous claystone, andesitic breccias and limestone.
The types of landslides occurred were rockfall, debris fall/flow, sliding and slumping. The landslide prone
sediments were unconsolidated, intensively weathered and fractured. These findings are important for the
regional development purposes in the earthquake prone region of Yogyakarta.

Keywords: earthquake, landslide/ground movement, Opak fault

INTRODUCTION heavy vehicles and other activities causing changes

of slope loading and land use.
Large magnitude earthquake events occurring
in a seismic zone could cause an extensive damage
Historical records showed that earthquakes had
to settlements and infrastructure in the municipal
stricken Yogyakarta several times such as on
areas of Indonesia. Ground movements associated
January 4 ,1840; October 20, 1859; June 10,
with earthquake could take form as landslide,
1867; March 28, 1875 (New Comb and Mc Cann,
subsidence, collapse, crackings, liquefaction and
1987), July 23 1943; October 12, 1957; March 14,
tsunami. From the 1990 to 2010, several
1981 and the last one on May 27,2006 (Mw 6.2)
earthquake induced landslides had occurred due to
(USGS and BMKG, 2006). The May 27, 2006
the earthquakes in Sukabumi (2000), Majalengka
earthquake had claimed about 5,500 lives and
(2003), Garut (2005), Aceh (2004), Yogyakarta
caused buildings and infrastructure damages such
(2006), Solok (2007), Tasikmalaya (2009), Padang
as roads, bridges, housings, office buildings and
(2009).
airport runway.
The distribution of earthquake landslides
The earthquake induced landslide generally
depends on several factors such as type of
could occur in any area geologically seismic prone
lithology, slope inclination, land use, seismic
and medium to highly susceptible to landslide.
intensity, earthquake magnitude and the distance
Therefore the geological induced hazard
from the faults or earthquake source (Keefer 1984).
characteristics must be recognized and anticipated
Karnawati (2007) divided the causes of mass
in order to mitigate its impacts. This paper presents
movement (soil and rocks) into the controlling
the geological condition of earthquake induced
factors and triggering factors. The controlling
landslides triggered by the 2006 Yogyakarta
factors are related to the inherent state of the slope
earthquake based on post earthquake field survey.
(e.g. morphology, type of lithology and its relation
This information is valuable to understand the
to the surrounding rocks, geological structures,
impacts of earthquake induced landslides in the
slope hydrology and land use) which make the
study area particularly that it is likely the
slope vulnerable to move or being in a critical
earthquake could strike again in the near future.
condition. The triggering conditions are the factors
which could drive the vulnerable slope to slide,
such as rainfall infiltration, earthquake shakings,

1
Research Center for Geotechnology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI) Gd.70 Jl.Sangkuriang Bandung 40135Email:
soebowoeko@yahoo.com

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GEOLOGY AND EARTHQUAKE Wonosari Formation (reef limestone and
calcarenites), Kepek Formation (marl and
The area badly damaged by the May 27, 2006
limestone), Sentolo Formation (limestone, marl
Yogyakarta earthquake included Bantul-Klaten
sandstone). On top of them were sedimented
which extends from Opak River to the west Klaten.
unconformably the Quarternary volcanics material
According to Raharjo et.al (1977) the oldest rock
of Mount Merapi, alluvium and colluvium (Figure
outcrops are the Kebo-Butak Formation of Oligo-
1).
Miocene age consisting of tuffaceous breccia,
The geological structures in this area is the
andesit and aglomerates. Subsequently sedimented
strike slip fault wellknown as the Opak fault
was the Semilir Formation of Oligo-Miocene age
oriented to the northeast- southwest of N 235o
consisting of tuffaceous breccia and tuffaceus clay.
E/80o, where the east block relatively slips to the
Nglaran Formation was unconformably
north and the west block slips to the south. The
sedimented on top of Semilir Formation consisting
width of the fault zone is approximately 2.5 Km.
of volcanic breccia and tuff of early to middle
Besides the Opak fault, there is aso another fault
Miocene. Subsequently sedimented were the
trending almost east-west towards the Gantiwarno
Sambipitu Formation (tuff, shale, siltsone),
area.

Figure 1. Geological map of Bantul, Jogjakarta and the surroundings

Figure 2. (a) Map of earthquake distribution and tectonics of Jogjakarta (USGS, BMKG, 2006),
(b) Map of peak ground accelerations in Yogyakarta (Kirbani et.al, 2006)

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 The coastal area of South Java is part of the
fore arc which frequently experience earthquake
shocks. The earthquakes mostly has the magnitude
of Mw 4-6 and some of Mw >6 (Figure 2). The
seismic records revealed the occurrence of
structural lineaments trending northeast- southwest
and northwest- southeast. Generally the focal
mechanism indicates the occurrence of fault zone
and downward shearing at Opak Fault. The
seismicity of Yogyakarta is quite high and active
and the calculated peak ground acceleration varied
from 0.038 to 0.531 g (Kirbani et.al, 2006).
RESULTS
Distribution of earthquake induced landslide
Based on the field survey results, the
earthquake induced landslides is strongly related to
the local geology, distance from the earthquake
source and the local landslide potential.
Earthquake induced landslides at several locations
could be reactivated when an earthquake strike
again. The earthquake induced landslide
susceptibility indicators must be applied very
carefully to accurately predict its potential
occurrence, therefore the geological conditions and
seismicity must be well analyzed.
In order to correlate the landslide distribution
to the triggering earthquake, several steps must be
analyzed:
1) Relationship between the occurrence of
earthquake and the landslide impacted area.
2) Relationship between earthquake and
maximum landslide distance from earthquake
source
3) Relationship between earthquake and
maximum landslide distance from fault zone
4) Minimum shaking intensity where landslide
occurred.
Field survey results showed that the landslide
distribution is concentrated at the medium to high
susceptible zone adjacent to the fault zone and
earthquake source (Figure 3).
Type of earthquake induced landslide
The types of earthquake induced landslide
found could be identified as the following: 1) Rock
falls, soil sliding, slumping at fractured and fault
zone; 2). Slumping and sliding occurred at partly
saturated residual soils and sandy colluvial;
3).Rapid flows at saturated residual soil deposit
and saturated sensitive volcanic clays; 4). Creeping
at layered sedimentary deposits (Figure 4). The
main threat to the lives of people and damage of
buildings/infrastructures is due to the rock falls,
rapid flows and lateral spreadings.

Figure 3. Map of the distribution of earthquake induced mass movements (landslide, liquefaction, crackings,
lateral spreading) due to 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake

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 Figure 4. Map of the distribution of earthquake induced mass movements (landslide, liquefaction, crackings,
lateral spreading) due to 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake

CONCLUSION development planning and infrastructure

development.
The earthquake induced landslides in Yogyakarta
were identified to occur at medium to high
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
landslide susceptibility zone. The type of landslides
identified included rock falls and slide, soil sliding The authors would like to thank the Research
and slumping and creeping. The earthquake Center for Geotechnology LIPI for funding this
induced landslide distribution is concentrated at the project.
Opak fault zone trending northeast-southwest and
west to east. The potential of earthquake induced
landslide must be considered in the regional

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REFERENCES
Karnawati, D, 2007, Mekanisme gerakan massa
batuan akibat gempabumi : Tinjauan dan
analisis geologi teknik, Dinamika Teknik Sipil,
vol 7, no.2, Juli 2007, hal 179 – 190.
Keefer, D.K., 1984., Landslides caused by
earthquakes, Geological Society of America
Bulletin, v. 406 -421, April 1984.
Kirbani, S.B, Prasetya, T, Widigdo, F.M., 2006.
“Percepatan Getaran Tanah Maksimum Daerah
Istimewa Yogyakarta 1943 – 2006”, Jurnal
Geofisika, Himpunan Ahli Geofisika Indonesia,
Edisi 2006, No.1, hal. 19 – 22.
Newcomb, K.R., McCann, W.R., 1987. Seismic
history and seismotectonic of the Sunda arc,
J.Geophys.Res.92, 421 - 439.
Rib.H dan Ling.T., 1978, Recognition and
Identification. In: Schuster, R. dan Krizek, R.
(editor), Landslides: Analysis and Control,
Transportation Research Board Special Report
176, pp 34-80.
USGS [2006a] The website of USGS (United States
Geological Survey), Earthquake Hazards
Program,
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/eqcenter/eqinthenew
s/2006/usneb6/.
USGS [2006b] The website of USGS (United
States Geological Survey), Earthquake Hazards
Program,
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/eqcenter/eqinthenew
s/2006/usqgaf/ #details.
Varnes, D.J., 1978, Slope movement types and
processes, Special Report 176; Landslides;
Analysis and Control, Eds: R.L. Schuster dan
R.J. Krizek, Transport Research Board,
National Research Council, Washington , D.C.,
11-33.
Wartono, R., Sukandarrumidi., Rosidi, H.M.D.,
1977. Peta Geologi Lembar Yogyakarta, Jawa,
Direktorat Geologi, Departemen Pertambangan,
Bandung.

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 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

STUDY ON SEISMIC RESPONSE OF REINFORCED SLOPE USING SMALL

DIAMETER STEEL PILES

Y. Mochida 1, A. Takahashi 2 and M. Sawaishi 3

ABSTRACT: Japan has mountainous regions covering 70% of its land area with a high risk of slope disasters
such as landslides and slope failures. In addition, there are frequent heavy rains and large earthquakes, leading to
such slope disasters. Therefore, many researchers have focused on slope disasters, and a variety of reinforcement
methods against slope disasters have been proposed. Amongst the reinforcement methods, a preventive pile is
one of the major reinforcement methods for slope stabilization. Especially, small-diameter steel piles have
recently attracted attention because of their workability for the reinforcement of existing slopes. However, the
effects of reinforcement with preventive piles and the mechanisms have not been studied in detail. In order to
examine the effects, a series of slope-failure model tests using a shaking table on a centrifuge (30 G, 40 G) were
conducted. Test results demonstrated that the preventive piles could reduce the settlement at the shoulder of the
slope. The parametric studies suggested that the effects of the reinforcement with preventive piles were
improved by placing these piles at the upper part of the slope, and further improved by the use of piles with
facing plates. Finally, the mechanism of the reinforcement with piles was described based on the observation and
analysis of slope deformations in the centrifuge tests.

Keywords: slope failure, centrifuge test, preventive pile, shaking table test, seismic response, shear modul

INTRODUCTION examine reinforcement efficiency of preventive

piles, a series of slope-failure model tests were
Japan has mountainous regions covering 70% of
conducted using a shaking table on a centrifuge (30
its land area with a high risk of slope disasters such
G and 40 G)
as landslides and slope failures. In addition, there
This finding is expected to lead to the
are frequent heavy rains and large earthquakes
enhancement in the reinforcement method that can
leading to such slope disasters in Japan. Therefore,
control the extent of collapse or deformation of
the reinforcement of slopes is required in order to
slopes. This makes it possible to reinforce railways
protect lives from landslides. Amongst the
that require a quick recovery immediately after a
reinforcement methods, a preventive pile is one of
large-scale earthquake and helps a railway owner
the major reinforcement methods for slope
prepare reinforcement plans strategically.
stabilization. Especially, small-diameter steel pipe
piles have recently attracted attention because of
OUTLINES OF DYNAMIC CENTRIFUGE TEST
their workability for the reinforcement of existing
AND TEST CONDITIONS
slopes.
The effect of stiffness of small-diameter steel Outlines of dynamic centrifuge tests
pipe piles on reinforcement was evaluated using a A series of centrifuge tests were conducted
static shear test by Watanabe (2013)1). However,
using Mark-3 centrifuge of the Tokyo Institute of
the effects of reinforcement with preventive piles Technology. The model slope was built in a strong
and the mechanisms have not been studied in detail. box 600 mm in width, 250 mm in breadth, and 400
This paper addresses the mechanism of slope
mm in depth. Figure 1 schematically illustrates a
reinforcement against earthquakes and deformation side view of the model ground. This model slope
behavior of slope reinforced with small-diameter was designed as a typical railway embankment
steel pipe piles and facing plates. In this study, to

1
NIPPON STEEL & SUMITOMO METAL, mochida.8md.yuusuke@jp.nssmc.com, JAPAN
2
Professor, Tokyo Institute of Technology, takihiro@cv.titech.ac.jp, JAPAN
3
NIPPON STEEL & SUMIKIN ENGINEERING CO.,LTD., sawaishi.masamichi.nr8@eng.nssmc.com, JAPAN

G2-1
(half model) based on the railway structure design
standards2). According to the stability calculation
with the modified Fellenius method, safety factor in
the persistent situation was 1.26. The model slope
consists of two layers. One was the surface layer
that was expected to deform considerably when it
was subjected to earthquake motion, and another
was the stable could layer that hardly deform
during an earthquake.
A shaking table was used for applying
dynamic excitations, which can be mounted on the
centrifuge platform. A typical wave used in these
experiments is shown in Figure 2. This is the wave
for the seismic design of railway embankment
in Japan. This earthquake motion has two time
periods that show large acceleration. In this
study, the largest acceleration in the first time
period is defined as the 1st peak, and that in the
second time period is defined as the 2nd peak.
The measurement items were displacement of the
surface using potentiometer and laser
displacement meter, acceleration using
accelerometer, deformation during experiment
using CCD c amera, and movements of the
slope by taking picture before and after the
experiment.

Test Cases
Figure 1. Test setup and location sensors (unit: mm) In this study, the six test cases were conducted
to examine reinforcement mechanism of the
preventive piles.
Table 1 and Figure 3 show the details of the
experimental cases. Cases 1 and 1-b were non-
reinforcement case. In Cases 2 and 2-b, one row of
piles having a 50 mm interval were constructed at a
distance of 50 mm from the shoulder of the slope.
The b-series (Case1-b and 2-b) used the same
reinforcement method as that Case 1 and Case 2,
but the properties of the sand are different. Case 3
was similar to Case 2, but the piles were
Figure 2. Input wave (1st wave measured at a1) constructed at a distance of 150 mm from the
shoulder of the slope. By comparing Case 2 with
Table 1. Test cases Case 3, the influence of the pile location on the
Location of Facing Shape of reinforcement efficiency can be examined.
Case No. Furthermore, Case 4 can focus on effectiveness of
pile Plate pile
Case 1 - - - the facing plate on the slope reinforcement by
Case 2 Upper row - Straight comparing with Case 2
Case 3 Lower row - Straight Cases 1 to 4 had three input waves. The first
Case 4 Upper row ○ Straight two waves were given at 40 G, and the 2nd wave
Case 1-b - - - whose amplitude is 1.5 times that of the first was
Case 2-b Upper row - Straight given at 40 G. On the other hand, the 3rd wave was
given at 30 G, which had same amplitude as that of
Table 2. Acceleration at 1st peak the 2nd wave, in order to exaggerate the deformation.
The slope size and pile stiffness of the prototype
1st wave 2nd wave 3rd wave
scale in the 3rd wave was smaller compared to that
Case No. Acc of Acc of Acc of
at 40 G. Therefore the horizontal acceleration of the
1st peak 1st peak 1st peak
3rd wave was proportionally higher than that of the
Case 1 845gal 951gal 1366gal
2nd wave in prototype scale because of the lowering
Case 2 827gal 955gal 1359gal
Case 3 794gal 968gal 1290gal the centrifuge acceleration from 40 to 30 G. Hence,
Case 4 850gal 942gal 1239gal the data measured when the 3rd wave was used as
Case 1-b 798gal - - input was only used for the relative comparison of
Case 2-b 736gal 963gal - the displacement and deformation mode.

G2-2

Figure 3. Location of reinforcement
Table 3. Soil properties
Table 4. Properties of model pile
The other reinforcement effects are discussed by
the data measured when the 1st and 2nd waves
were used as input.
Table 2 summarizes the 1st peak acceleration of
the input motion, for all cases from 1st wave to 3rd
wave. Case 1-b was applied by 1st wave only
because this case reached the failure due to weak
soil. Case 2-b also reached the failure in 2nd wave
then no additional test was conducted.
Model slope preparation
To prepare the stable layer, the soil was placed
in the strong box and dynamically compacted by a
vibrator until the layer was compressed to a
thickness of 25 mm to achieve a degree of
compaction of 95%.
This process was repeated until the defined
height of 75 mm. Then, after the container was
mounted on the tilting table, the rest of the stable
layer was prepared. Next, to make the surface layer,
the soil was placed on the stable layer and
dynamically compacted until the layer was
compressed to 25 mm thickness to achieve a degree
of compaction of 85%. Then, the model ground was
cut off and formed the prescribed shape.
The side-front of the strong box is a metal frame
with a glass plate that enables us to observe the
deformation of the model ground in the container
during the experiment. After completion of
compaction by a vibrator, we placed noodles at 30
mm intervals for observation of the model ground
deformation. Then, the model ground was
preloaded under a centrifugal acceleration of 40 G.
In this study, there were two types of Edosaki
sand. The sand used in Case 1 to 4 was named
sand- a , of which the properties are shown in Table
3. In addition, additional two cases were prepared
in order to observe the failure mode of the slopes.
Case 1-b and 2-b were same as Case 1 and 2
respectively, where the sand-b used in Case 1-b and
2-b were relatively weak, as shown in Table 3. The
sand-a and sand-b with water content of 12.5% and
14.5% respectively was compacted for preparing
the model ground.
Pile and facing plate preparation
In this study, model piles were acrylic bars that
model the steel piles used in real reinforcement.
Table 4 shows the properties of pile. After the pre-
boring, the piles were constructed with pre- loading.
The pre-boring was performed with a stainless pipe
whose diameter is half of that of the model pile (2
mm).
Morikawa (2012)3) proved that inclining the pile
30° to the downslope direction improves the
reinforcing efficiency when a slope undergoes large
deformation. According to this finding, the model
pile was constructed having an angle of 30° to the
normal to the slope of the downslope direction.
After constructing the pile, facing plates were
set on the ground. Each facing plate was made of a
40 mm square aluminum plate and glued to the
model pile.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Deformation of slope in without reinforcement
Figure 4 shows cracks at the crown and
deformation observed from the side after Case 1.
The cracks were observed when the 2nd wave
occurred, and the large deformation was observed
when the 3rd wave was applied. As shown in Figure
G2-3
4, there were two cracks at the crown at positions stiffness and shear strength, and an increase in the
distant from the boundary between the surface and resistance against sliding is expected.
stable layers. It is considered that Crack A was
caused by surface sliding and Crack B by circular Stress-strain relation
slip in the stable layer.
To confirm the change of stiffness of the soil
around the pile, the stress-strain relation was
Effect of location of pile on reinforcement
calculated from the acceleration response measured
Cracks on crown and settlement at shoulder of slope by accelerometers. Stress-strain relations were
calculated in the mountain and valley sides of the
Figure 5 compares cracks appearing near the
pile using Eqn. (3.1) based on past research4).
shoulder of the slope for Cases 2 and 3. In Case 3,
Figure 8 shows the area of focused, and
there were two cracks, Crack A and Crack B
accelerometers are used for calculating the stress-
coinciding with Case 1. In Case 2, there was another
strain relation. Accelerometers a13 and a7 were
crack, Crack C. The cause of Crack A is surface
used for calculating the area above the pile; a12 and
slip along the interface between the surface and
a6 were used for calculating the area below the pile
stable layers, and the cause of Crack B is a small
(see Figure 8).
circular slip of stable layer due to the slip of the
surface layer. Crack C appears in Case 2 and is (3.1)
caused by a small circular slip due to the existence
of the piles near the shoulder of the slope.
From the perspective of operation and recovery
of the railway service after an earthquake,
appearance of cracks far from the shoulder of the
railway embankment (i.e. near the center) is not
preferred because the railway track is located at a
relatively distant position from the shoulder.
Therefore, it is preferred to avoid formation of
cracks at the location of Crack B (Case 3) and Case
2 may be preferable.
Figure 6 summarizes the settlement at the
shoulder of the slope in Case 1 to Case 3. It is very Figure 4. Cracks on crown in Case 1
clear that the large displacement occurred in Case
1 after the 3 rd wave. It can also be confirmed
the significance of reinfor cement to minimize
the settlement around shoulder.
Reinforcement mechanism
The reinforcement mechanism is discussed
through the results of the case with reinforced
piles at lower row. In order to clearly observe Figure 5. Cracks at the crown in Cases 2 and 3
the slope failure mode, Figure 7 shows
deformation around the pile in the case of weak
soil slope (Case 2-b), as substitute for Case 2.
From this figure, it can be recognized that there
is no clear slip along the interface between the
surface and stable layers just below the pile head.
On the other hand, a clear slip can be observed in
the area far from the pile.
The downslope movement of the surface layer
above the piles pushed the piles and caused them to
bend. As a result, the soil just below the pile
head area was confined. Because of this
confinement of the slope adjacent to the piles,
Figure 6. Settlement at the shoulder of the slope in
overburden pressure just below the pile head is Case 1 to Case 3
expected to increase. This leads to an increase in the

G2-4
 Figure 7. Deformation of ground pile (Case2-b)
Figure 8. Location of accelerometers used in
calculation
Figure 9. Calculation of shear stress and strain from
acceleration records
Figure 10. Acceleration response measured at a13
time period used in stiffness calculation
Figure 9 shows the stress-strain relations
calculated from the accelerometers. For comparison
of the shear stiffness, the cycle when a relatively
large deformation occurred in the earthquake was
selected (i.e. red wave in Figure 10). The calculated
secant shear stiffness at the cycle mentioned above
is shown in the Figure 11.
Figure 11. Stress-strain relations
The shear stiffness in the 1st wave is larger than
that in the 2nd wave at both locations. Reduction in
stiffness in the area above the pile is 60% or more,
while that in the area below the pile is about 40%.
This result supports that the reduction of stiffness
with strain is minimized in the area below the pile
due to the bending of the piles. This may have
helped the resistance against sliding maintain large
in the area below the pile.
Effect of facing plate on reinforcement
In order to confirm the earthquake-resistant
reinforcement effects of the facing plate,
settlements at the crown for Cases 2 and 4 are
compared. Figure 12 shows time histories of
settlement at the crown measured at p1 and p2 (see
Figure 1). In the case without the facing plates
(Case 4), the settlement at p1 is larger than that at
p2, even though p2 is closer to the shoulder of the
slope than p1. This is because p1 and p2 are in the
area of circular slip formed by the existence of the
piles; p1 is closer to the center of the circular slip
than p2. On the other hand, in the case with the
facing plates (Case 4), the settlements at p1 and p2
are almost the same. This indicates that the facing
plates have an influence on the control of circular
slip formation and the crack caused by circular slip.
From these results, when a railway requires a quick
recovery immediately after a large- scale
earthquake, it is suggested that reinforcement with
preventive piles should be performed on the
shoulder of the slope with the facing plates. An
overall reinforcement mechanism of the slope does
G2-5
not change much with or without the facing plate.
However, since the pile with the facing plate
confines the relatively large area in the surface
layer below the pile; this may be effective to
minimize the local failure around the pile, as
observed in Figure 13. As the mass of soil retained
by reinforcement increases with the facing plates,
the confinement due to the pile bending becomes
relatively large.
Figure 14 plots the stress-strain relations
obtained from accelerometer a13 and a7 in Cases 2
and 4. It can be confirmed that the shear stiffness in
the surface soil below the pile becomes larger with
the facing plates.
Figure 12. Displacement at crown (2nd wave)
Figure 13. Confinement of surface layer with facing
plate
Figure 14. Stress-strain relations
CONCLUSION
The purpose of this study is to elucidate the
mechanism of slope reinforcement against
earthquakes with small-diameter steel pipe piles. To
G2-6
examine reinforcement-effect efficiency of the
preventive pile, dynamic centrifuge model tests
were conducted by changing methods of
reinforcement parametrically. The following
conclusions are derived from this study:
1) By installing the preventive piles near the
shoulder of the slope, formation of the cracks
at the crown far from the shoulder can be
prevented. By using the facing plates in the
preventive piles, the width of the cracks at the
crown can be reduced and uneven settlement
can be minimized.
2) Marked effect of the preventive piles cannot be
seen when the slope deformation remains
small.
3) Downslope movement of the surface layer
above the piles pushes and bends the piles,
resulting in confining the surface layer below
the piles. This leads to an increase in the
stiffness and shear strength of the soil adjacent
to the piles and increases the resistance against
sliding.
REFERENCE
Morikawa, N., Seki, S., Takahashi, A., Wada,
M.(2012). Influence of pile angle to the slope
stiffening effect by hollow steel pipe, Annual
Meeting of The Japanese Geotechnical Society:
pp1637-1638. (in Japanese)
Railway Technical Research Institute (2004). The
railway structure design standard: pp. 46-48. (in
Japanese)
Takahashi, A., Takemura, J. (2001). Seismic
performance of reinforced earth wall with
geogrid. Proc. 15th Int. Conf. on soil mechanics
and geotechnical engineering, Istanbul: Vol.2,
pp1265- 1268.
Watanabe, N., Inoue, T., Okuno, M. (2013).
Response of Small Diameter steel Piles in Sand
under Lateral load. Annual Meeting of The
Japanese Geotechnical Society: pp1559-1560.
(in Japanese)
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

THE INFLUENCE OF DYNAMIC ACCELERATION OF SINUSOIDAL LOADS TO

THE LANDSLIDE SURFACE OF CANTILEVER RETAINING WALLS

Anissa M.Hidayati 1, Sri Prabandiyani RW 2 and I Wayan Redana 3

ABSTRACT: The dynamic acceleration is one of dynamic parameters will be taken into consideration in the
analysis of the safety of retaining wall construction due to dynamic loads beside other parameters such as: (1) the
dynamic frequency, (2) the density of soils and (3) the amplitude of vibration. This research aims to study the
role of dynamic acceleration to the landslide surface of retaining walls of cantilecer type due to dynamic load.
This study was done by a small scale model test of cantilever retaining wall type of 18 centimeters in height, 9
centimeters in width and loaded by using shaking table to simulate dynamic loads. The dynamic load was given
with the variation of the frequency and amplitude of vibration to obtain the acceleration of dynamic response.
The dynamic acceleration response was measured by using accelerometer. Dry sand with three densities
variations were used in this experiment. The movements of the sand grains were recorded during experiment to
be able to show the change of the sliding surface of the retaining wall. The results showed that there was the
difference in the dynamic acceleration response generated due to differences in the dynamic frequency and
amplitude of vibration. There was also a relationship between the value of dynamic acceleration response to the
shape of the landslide surface.

Keywords: dynamic acceleration response, landslide surface, soils density, cantilever type

INTRODUCTION braced walls. Each type of wall posses different

Landslides occur on a regular basis throughout
the world as part of the ongoing evolution of
landscapes. Many landslides occur in natural
slopes, but slides also occur in man-made slopes
from time to time. At any point in time, then,
slopes exist in states ranging from very stable to
marginally stable. When earthquake occur, the
effects of earthquake-induced ground shaking is
often sufficient to cause failure of slopes that were
marginally to moderately stable before the
earthquake. The resulting damage can range from
insignificant to catastrophic depending on the
geometric and material characteristics of the slope.
Construction of retaining wall construction is one
way to anticipate the slopes damage due to
earthquake load.
In the last two decades had developed
innovative system which was used to anticipate the
damage of slopes caused by the earthquake. In
general, ground anchoring system for seismic
design purposes can be divided into three main
categories: gravity walls, cantilever walls and
assumption in evaluating lateral soil pressure.
Retaining walls can fail in many difference
ways. Cantilever walls fail by sliding, overturning,
or gross instability also fail in bending. The
magnitude and distribution of dynamic wall
pressures were influenced by the mode of wall
movement, e.g., translation , rotation about the
base, or rotation about the top (Sherif, A. M., and
Fang, Y - S. 1984).
Okabe (1924) and Mononobe & Matsuo (1929)
developed the basis of pseudo-static analysis of
earth pressure on the wall of the load due to the
earthquake which was then known as Mononobe-
Okabe method. Mononobe-Okabe method is a
development of Coloumb theory that follows the
principle of equilibrium limit (limit equilibrium).
The problem of stability of retaining walls was
solved used a combination of rigid displacement-
based analytical solutions (walls are allowed to
experience the rotation at the top of the wall) and
the experimental method utilized shaking table to
determine the distribution of dynamic active
pressure on a gravity walls (Sherif and Fang 1984).

1
Student, Udayana University, anissamh@yahoo.com, INDONESIA
2
Professor, Diponegoro University, wardani_spr@yahoo.com, INDONESIA
3
Professor, Udayana University, iwayanredana@yahoo.com, INDONESIA

G3-1
The experimental results showed that the
distribution of dynamic active earth pressure as a
function of acceleration. Dynamic active ground
pressure distribution obtained from the value of
soil pressure of observe by using transducer, hence
pressure did not calculating by using the real
movement of soil particle of the experiment.
Dynamic active pressure increased with the
increased in acceleration. Ishibashi and Fang
(1987) completed the rigid retaining wall stability
issues using a combination of analytical methods
based on displacement and experimental methods.
The experiments carried out used a shaking table
with model of gravity wall. The experiments were
done on dry soils and non-cohesive, while the
walls were allowed to experience a variety of
movements such as translation, rotation of the
bottom wall, the rotation at the top of the wall, and
combinations thereof. When the rotation at the
base of the wall, the pressure distribution is not
linear. In the area near the base of the wall, there is
a high residual stress due to displacement of the
wall, hence the capture point of active pressure is
lower than a third of the wall height. When the
rotation at the top of the wall, the pressure
distribution is not linear. There are areas that had a
high stress near the top of the wall as a result of the
tapered land, and the area had a low voltage at the
base of the wall due to a shift in the wall.
Consequently, capture point total active dynamic
pressure was higher than a third of the wall height.
Dynamic lateral earth pressure distribution
obtained from observations on the value of soil
pressure transducer.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Construction of the building both inside or on
the surface of the ground, not only accepted static
load but also dynamic load. Dynamic load acting
on the land or building structures could be derived
from natural or man-made. If the dynamic loads
worked on the ground, it would caused the
movement of soil grain, consequently the structure
which was supported by the soil would
experienced instability.
Dynamic Response of retaining wall ranging
from even the simplest to quite complex.
Movement and pressure of the wall depends on the
response of the soil which underlying of walls, the
response of the back-fill, the response of inertia
and flexibility of the wall itself, and the nature of
the input motion (Kramer, Steven L. 1996).
The problem of retaining soil is one of the
oldest in geotechnical engineering; some of the
G3-2
earliest and most fundamental principles of soil
mechanics were developed to allow rational design
of retaining walls. Many different approaches to
soil retention have been developed and used
successfully.
Seismic design of retaining walls is generally
based on seismic pressure or allowable
displacement. In the former approach, pseudo-
static or pseudo-dynamic analysis are used to
estimate seismically induced wall pressure, and the
wall is designed to resist those pressure without
failing or causing failure of the surrounding soil.
The latter approach involves designing the wall
such that its seismically induced permanent
displacement does not exceed a predetermined
allowable displacement.
Modeling experiments in the laboratory can be
done with the aim to study the movement of sand
and retaining wall caused by vibration (dynamic
load) using cantilevered retaining wall models that
are supported by dry sand with provided dynamic
load (sinusoidal) with variations of the vibration
acceleration and the density of the sand.
The objects that perform accelerated uniformly
motion, has fixed acceleration, this means that the
object is always working with pattern that remains
both direction and magnitude. If it’s force is
always changing, the acceleration is olso changing.
Repetitive motion in the same time interval called
a periodic motion. This periodic motion occurs on
a regular basis and motive force is proportional to
the amplitude. Easy to understand that the smaller
the amplitude is also smaller the driving force. The
largest amplitude is called amplitude of vibration
(A). Periodic motion can be expressed in sine or
cosine function, therefore periodic motion is called
harmonic motion. The periodic motion that moves
back and forth through the same trajectory so-
called vibration or oscillation and is also known as
a simple harmonic motion. The time needed to
take the path back and forth is called the period,
while the number of vibrations per unit time is
called frequency. The relationship between the
period (T) and frequency (f) according to this
statement is expressed as the equation 1.
1
T  [sec] (1)
f
The frequency (f) or the amount of vibration in
each unit time is expressed in equation 2.
1
f  [ cps ] (2)
T
While the mathematical function from objects
called harmonic motion/vibration (Prakash, S.,
1981) and be expressed as equation 3.
 x  A sin ( t ) (3) By taking into account the movement of grain
movement graphic results, it can be calculated the
where x is the displacement of a trajectory in area of landslide behind the retaining wall
function of time (t); A is the amplitude (equal to construction due to the sinusoidal dynamic load
the maximum displacement); ω is the angular (see Figure 3).
frequency of the trajectory [radians/sec]; t is the
time [seconds]. The harmonic motion repeated
every 2π radians with fixed angular velocity and
maximum displacement is value of A, referred to
as amplitude (Figure 1).

Figure 2. Representation of displacement, velocity

and acceleration

Figure 1. Representation fo harmonic motion.

A cycle of motion is completed when the

movement reached one full rotation as described in
equation 4.
  2 f [ radians / sec] (4)

with f is frequency of vibration.

From equation 4., values of obtained f as defined
in equation 5.
 Figure 3. The area bounded by curve y1 = f(x), y2 =
f  cps  (5)
f(x), x = 0 dan x = x1
2

To determine the velocity of simple harmonic The area bounded by 2 (two) curves y1 and y2
motion, differentiate equation 3. with respect to which has function of x and x = 0 and x = x1, it
time (t) in order to obtain equation 6 (Prakash, S., might be calculated as follows:
and Puri, V. K., 1988). The area below of curve y1, x = 0 and x = x1 is
dx d expressed as equation 8.
x   ( A sin  t )   A cos ( t ) (6)
x1
dt dt
A1   y1 dx (8)
where x is the velocity of simple harmonic 0
motion equation. Then, to obtain the acceleration
of simple harmonic motion by differentiating The area below of curve y2, x = 0 and x = x1 is
equation 6. with respect to time (t) thus produce defined in equation 9.
x2
equation 7.
A1   y2 dx (9)
dx d
x   ( Acos( t))   A 2 sin(t )    2 x  a 0
dt dt
(7) So the area bounded by the intersection of the two
curves are expressed as equation 10.
where x is the acceleration of simple harmonic x1 x2
motion equation, also denoted as a. The A  A1  A2   y1 dx   y2 dx (10)
displacement path, velocity and acceleration of 0 0
motion was described in Figure 2.

G3-3
See the segment of y x dx. Then the centroid
segment against X-axis and Y-axis is C ( x; y ).
The of the coordinates of centroid C can be
obtained by using Equation 11 and Equation 12.

x2

 x. y dx
x 0
x2 (11)
 y dx
0

 y1  y 2 
x2

  2
. y dx

Figure 4. The equipment of retaining walls model
y 0
(12) test on sinusoidal dynamic load (not scaled)
x2
(Hidayati et al. 2015)
 y dx
0
DATA COLLECTION AND DISCUSSION
EXPERIMENT A model experiment was carried out as many
as 6 units with details of 2 experiments with low
The retaining wall model test was performed in
density DR 30%, 3 experiments with medium
The Laboratory of Soil Mechanics of Civil
density DR = 55% and an experiment with high
Engineering of Faculty of Engineering, Udayana
density Dr = 70%. The shaking table vibrated with
University, Bali, Indonesia. The model of retaining
speed variation. In the experiment of 30% in
wall was made of concrete placed on dry sand.
density of sand (DR = 30 %) with variations of the
Model test was performed using dry sand material
amplitude and frequency dynamic acceleration
with a grain size through No. 4 of sieve and
response graphics obtained from the tests is shown
retained No.100 sieve of loose sand density (DR =
in Figure 5 – Figure 7.
30 %), medium sand density (DR = 55 %) and
The Results of recorded of the shaking table
dense sand density (DR = 70 %). The model of
movement was obtained in the form of the
retaining wall was designed as a cantilever type of
dynamic acceleration response graphics. The graph
18 centimeters in height (H), 9 centimeters in
further idealized by using Equation 1. through
width (B). The model retaining wall was loaded by
Equation 7., also to obtain the value of the
sinusoidal speed and amplitude variations.
maximum dynamic acceleration response that
Dynamic response was recorded using recording
occured. The first experiments carried out of 0.005
devices vibration acceleration (accelerometer).
meter in the amplitude of vibration and one cicle
During experiment the movement of sand grains
per second in the frequency of vibration.
recorded.
The model tests was made in the glass box of 2
meters in length, 0.4 meter in width and 1 meter in
height. Thick of glass box was 10 millimeters. The
glass box was placed on a vibrating table (shaking
table) supported by four wheels. Shaking table was
driven by an electric motor through two pulleys
that drive the crank shaft that was connected to the
connecting rod that was prepared as shown in
Figure 4. Shaking table moved back and forward
horizontally with a given variant of speed
(inverter).
Figure 5. Dynamic acceleration response graph of
cantilever model of A= 0,005m, DR = 30 %

Figure 5 shows that of 0.005 meter in amplitude,

one cicle per second in frequency and DR = 30 %
in density gives of 0.19737 g in the maximum
dynamic acceleration. The second experiment
conducted by using the same density that DR =
30% and the results are shown in Figure 6.

G3-4
Figure 6. Dynamic acceleration response graph of
cantilever model of A= 0,0081m, DR = 30 %
Figure 6 shows that of 0.0081 meter in amplitude
and 0.83 cicle per second in frequency gives of
0.22029 g in the maximum dynamic acceleration.
It shows that the increase in the amplitude of
vibration with decrease in the frequency of
vibration can lead to a decrease in the maximum
dynamic acceleration vibration. Then next
experiments carried out additional of 15 percents
in frequency with 0.005 meter in amplitude and the
results are presented in Figure 7.
Figure 7. Acceleration response graph of cantilever
model of A= 0,005m, DR = 30 %
Figure 7 shows that if the results of the experiment
in Figure 5 compared to experimental results of
0.005 meter in amplitude and 1.15 cicles per
second in frequency as in Figure 7 with 0.26105 g
in maximum dynamic acceleration indicates that
the increase of 15 percent in frequency with the
same amplitude resulted an increase of maximum
dynamic acceleration about 32.32 percent. This
indicates that the maximum dynamic acceleration
is only influenced by the frequency of vibration.
The role of the vibration frequency and amplitude
of vibration to the dynamic acceleration response
presented in Figure 8.
Figure 8. The graph of the dynamic acceleration
response with amplitude, frequency variations to
density of DR = 30 %
Figure 8 shows that by increasing the amplitude of
vibration by 62 percent accompanied by lowering
the vibration frequency of about 17 percent then
the maximum dynamic acceleration increased
11.61 percent. Dynamic acceleration increased
18.5 percent if the vibration amplitude decreased
38.3 percent but the vibration frequency increased
38.5 percent. If the vibration frequency is
increased to 15 percent where the amplitude keep
remains the maximum dynamic acceleration
increased 32.26 percent.
Experiment with medium density DR = 55%,
with the amplitude and frequency variations gives
the dynamic acceleration response graph as shown
in Figure 9 – Figure 11.
Figure 9. Acceleration response graph of cantilever
model of A= 0,005m, DR = 55 %
Figure 9 shows that of 0.005 meter in the
amplitude of vibration, of 1.15 cicles per second in
frequency of vibration and DR = 55% in density
gives the maximum dynamic acceleration 0.26104
g. If the amplitude and frequency of each increased
then the maximum dynamic acceleration also
increases as shown in Figure 10.
G3-5

Figure 10. Acceleration response graph of
cantilever model of A= 0,0055 m, DR = 55 %
Figure 10 shows that the maximum dynamic
acceleration reached 0.35742 g with increased the
amplitude of vibration becomes 0.0055 meter and
the vibration frequency to 1.3 cicles per second.
In the next experiment with increasing the
amplitude becomes 0.0104 meters but the
frequency was reduced to 0.95 cicle per second
gives the maximum dynamic acceleration by
0.37767 g as shown in Figure 11.
Figure 12 shows that by increasing the amplitude
of vibration by 10 percent accompanied by
increasing the vibration frequency about 13
percent then the maximum dynamic acceleration
increased 36.54 percent. Dynamic acceleration
increased about 6 percent if the vibration
amplitude increased but the vibration frequency
decreased respectively about 27 percent. If the
vibration frequency is increased to 112 percent but
the amplitude decreased to about 17 percent then
the maximum dynamic acceleration increased
about 45 percent.
The last experiment with high density DR =
70 % had done of 0.0165 in the vibration
amplitude and 0.95 cicle per second in the
vibration frequency as shown in Figure 13.

Figure 13. Acceleration response graph of

cantilever model of A= 0,0165 m, DR = 70 %
Figure 13 shows that with gave of 0.0165
meter in amplitude of vibration and 0.95 cicle per
second in frequency of vibration to DR = 70 % in
Figure 11. Acceleration response graph of high density gives 0.56948 g in maximum
cantilever model of A= 0,0106 m, DR = 55 % dynamic acceleration. The maximum dynamic
The influence of vibration amplitude and acceleration values obtained from all of
frequency of vibration to the maximum dynamic experiments with density, amplitude and frequency
acceleration with a density of DR = 55% can be variations is shown in Table 1.
seen in Figure 12. Table 1. Dynamic acceleration response of the
tests
No of DR A [m] f [cps] amax [g]
test [%]
1 30 0.005 1 0.19737
2 30 0.0081 0.83 0.22029
3 30 0.005 1.15 0.26105
4 55 0.005 1.15 0.26104
5 55 0.0055 1.3 0.35642
6 55 0.0106 0.95 0.37767
7 70 0.0165 0.95 0.56948
The recorded result of the movement of sand
Figure 12. The graph of the dynamic acceleration
response with amplitude, frequency variations to grains during experiment were analyzed to further
density of DR = 55 % drawn landslide form. By using Equation 8 –
Equation 10, the areas of landslide to be obtained.

G3-6
Furthermore, Equation 11 is used to get the
centroid of the landslide areas.. The shape of
landslide and the centroid coordinates of landslide
to experiment of DR = 30 % in density is
presented in the Figure 14, DR = 55 % in density
in the Figure 15 and DR = 70 % in density in
Figure 16 respectively.
Figure 15 shows that increasing the maximum the
dynamic acceleration provides greater the
bandwidth due to landslide but smaller than the
density of DR = 30%. Centroid coordinates trends
tend to move toward vertical direction. Next, the
form of landslides areas and coordinates of
landslides areas to experiment with a density DR =
70% is presented in Figure 16.

Figure 14. The graph of shape and centroid of slide

surface, DR = 30 %
Figure 14 shows that increasing the maximum the
dynamic acceleration of 18.5% gives a result of the
greater bandwidth landslide five-times. Centroid
coordinates trends tend to move toward the
horizontal. Furthermore, the shape of coordinates
of landslides areas and the centroid of landslide
areas to experiment with DR = 55% in density is
presented in Figure 15.
Figure 16. The graph of shape and centroid of slide
surface, DR = 70 %
Figure 16 shows that by provides maximum
dynamic acceleration of 0.56948 g, the bandwidth
of landslide that occurs very small compared to
other experiments with the maximum dynamic
acceleration which is smaller.
The equation of landslides, the areas of
landslides, the height of landslides areas, the width
of landslides areas and the centroid of landslides
areas are presented in Table 2.

Figure 15. The graph of shape and centroid of slide

surface, DR = 55 %

Table 2. Area of landslides of the tests

No DR Slide function Area Height Width Centroid of slide
of [%] [cm2] [h] of [b] of [mm];
test slide slide (xc, yc)
(x H) (x H)
1 30 y = 181.9569 0 - - -
2 30 y =6E-07x3+0.001x2–0.057x +141.5 32.50 0.1407 0.9674 68.71; 155.38
3 30 y =0.168x +97.95 202.19 0.4091 2.3118 156.24; 153.08
4 55 y =0.002x2-0.135x +106.4 109.04 0.3878 1.2477 85.16; 144.29
5 55 y = 0.002x2-0.115x +48.31 249.45 0.7317 1.5069 106.52; 121.03
6 55 y =6E-10x4-3E-07x3+0.196x+0.156 564.01 1.0056 2.3656 187.3; 105.4
7 70 y =0.001x2–0.051x +111.5 146.58 0.4139 1.5661 110.9; 153.1

G3-7
CONCLUSION Ishibashi, I. and Fang, Y – S ., 1987. Dynamic
Earth Pressures with Different Wall Movement
Based on the data which obtained during this
Modes. Soils And Foundations, Vol. 27, N0. 4,
experiment, the following conclusions can be
11-22, Dec. 1987, Japanese Society Of Soil
drawn about the influence of dynamic acceleration
Mechanics And Foundation Engineering.
of sinusoidal loads to the landslide surface of
Kramer, Steven L. 1996. Geotechnicl Earthquake
cantilever retaining walls:
Engineering. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey
1. Dynamic Acceleration is a function of
07458: Prentice Hall, Inc.
vibration frequency and amplitude of
Mononobe, N., and Matsuo, H., 1929. On
vibration. So the value of dynamic
Determination of Earth Pressure during
acceleration is directly
Earthquake. Proccedings World Engineering
2. proportional to the frequency of vibration
Conference, Tokyo, Japan, Vol. 9.
and amplitude of vibration
Okabe, S., 1924. General Theory of Earth Pressure
3. Increasing the percentage of vibration
and seismic Stability of Retaining Wall and
frequency with fixed vibration amplitude
Dam. Journal of Japanese Soc. of Civil
resulting in increasing of the percentage of
Engineering, Vol. 10, No. 6.
the maximum dynamic acceleration in double
Prakash, S., 1981. Soil Dynamics. McGraw-Hill,
of the vibration frequency percentage
Inc.
4. Addition of the percentage of the amplitude
Prakash, S., and Puri, V. K., 1988. Foundations for
of vibration with remained in vibration
Machines : Analysis and Design. John Wiley &
frequency resulting in increasing of the
Sons, Inc.
maximum dynamic acceleration which equal
Sherif, A. M., and Fang, Y - S., 1984. Dynamic
to the percentage of increasing the amplitude
Earth Pressures On Walls Rotating About The
of vibration
Top, Soils And Foundation, Vol. 24, No. 4,
5. The size of landslides area that occurred
109-117, Japanese Society of Soil Mechanics
during experiment showing direct proportion
And Foundation Engineering (paper).
to the maximum dynamic acceleration which
is given at a certain density
6. The form of landslides area that occurred
showing direct proportion to the dynamic
acceleration which is given at a certain
density
7. Centroid coordinates followed the pattern of
landslides area
8. By increasing of 18.5% in the maximum the
dynamic acceleration with density of sands
DR = 30 %.gives a result of the greater area
of landslide five-times and centroid
coordinates trends tend to more flat
9. By increasing to DR = 55 % and by
increasing the maximum of the dynamic
acceleration provides greater of the size of
landslide, however the size of landslide is
smaller compere to the density of DR = 30 %
as expected. The centroid coordinates trends
tend to incline toward vertical.

REFERENCES
Hidayati, A. M., Prabandiyani, S. RW., and
Redana, I.W. Laboratory Tests on Failure of
Retaining Walls Caused by Sinusoidal Load.
Applied Mechanics and Materials Vol 776
(2015) pp 41-46, © (2015) Trans Tech
Publications, Switzerland,
doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net /AMM.776.41.

G3-8
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

SEISMIC STABILITY ANALYSIS OF EARTHEN DAM – A CASE STUDY OF THE

LEFT EMBANKMENT OF NAGARJUNA SAGAR DAM, INDIA
Sunu Cecil Edem 1, M. Padmavathi 2, V. Padmavathi 3 and P. N. Rao4

ABSTRACT: Safety and stability analysis of civil structures have become one of the most important research
areas in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering. In this research, a seismic stability analysis was carried out on
the Left Earthen embankment of Nagarjuna Sagar masonry dam. The analysis was done using 2D FEM based
software (Geo-Studio) to run numerical model of the earthen embankment of the dam. The main objective of the
present research is to determine the maximum vertical and horizontal permanent displacements at the crest,
middle and near the toe part of the earthen embankment section when the dam body is subjected to a peak
ground acceleration of an earthquake record. The initial conditions were established using Seep/W, Sigma/W
and Slope/W after which Quake/W was used to simulate the dynamic conditions and post-quake deformation and
displacements observed and analyzed. A conceptual model was made of the dam configuration and the
engineering properties of the materials modeled are by far large estimates which were refined by data reported
by various researchers. Mohr Coulomb linear elastic model was used for the dam materials in establishing the
static stress-strain conditions. The Equivalent elastic model was used to establish the stress-strain relationship in
the dynamic model. The scenario analysis presented a maximum permanent displacement near the toe of the dam
in response to the peak accelerations applied indicating the high risk region of the earth dam in an event of
earthquake.

Keywords: Seismic stability, earthquake, numerical modelling, Finite Elements, scenario analysis

INTRODUCTION northeastern India. Along the Himalayan belt, the

Indian and Eurasian plates converge at the rate of
Safety of dams is dependent on various factors
50 mm/year (Kumar et al. 2007).
which need to be analyzed constantly and measures
Study of the failure mechanism of dams will
evolved for ensuring the dam’s safety. There are
lead to better understanding of causes of failure to
number of different causes for failure of dams.
propose suitable modifications in dam engineering.
Natural causes like floods, rock slides, earthquakes
The dam engineering concept relating to dam
etc. and other factors such as seepage, foundation
safety is not limited to construction alone. The
failure, structural failure etc. can cause dam failures.
concept covers investigation, design, construction
Earthquakes have always been a significant
and continues during operation as well.
factor in the design and target safety of dams, since
With the advancement of technology in recent
they pose multiple hazards for the structure and its
years, especially the progress in numerical
foundation, surrounding structures and the available
modelling, analytical capabilities offered by the
reservoirs.
finite element method and advances in solution
A large number of devastating earthquakes have
techniques and material models; the science of dam
occurred in India and it is estimated that more than
engineering has developed to a considerable extent
50% of the country’s land area is vulnerable to
resulting in better and sound designs, use of new
earthquakes. The northern region of India, which is
construction materials as well as modern methods
along the plate boundary of Indian plate with
of construction.
Eurasian plate, is seismically very active. The
The most common method used in engineering
northeastern movement of Indian plate has caused
practice to assess the seismic stability of earth fill
deformation in the Himalayan region, Tibet and the

1
Graduate Student, JNTUH College of Engineering Hyderabad, India, cedem.sunu@gmail.com
2
Assistant Professor, JNTUH College of Engineering Hyderabad, India, mpadmace@gmail.com
3
Associate Professor, JNTUH College of Engineering Hyderabad, India, vpadma70@gmail.com
4
Professor, BITS Pilani Hyderabad Campus, India, pnrao.bits@gmail.com

G4-1
dams consists of a pseudo static approach where the
earthquake effect on a potential soil mass is
represented by means of equivalent static horizontal
force equal to the soil mass multiplied by a seismic
coefficient. This approach is based on several
simplified assumptions and also neglecting the soil
deformability, misestimating therefore of the
earthquake effects on dams. Several sophisticated
constitutive models such as bounding surface and
multi-surface plasticity models have been used to
predict failures in embankment dams.
For practical applications in general and
specifically for earthen dams, accuracy is
compromised via several assumptions and
approximations so as to obtain an economically
efficient but still reasonably representative
estimation of the actual response that is expected in
the case of an earthquake. This is done with the use
of more usable and simpler constitutive models,
which might not be able to describe the failure
phenomenon in its entirety, but they are able to give
reliable predictions that can be directly used in dam
design.
In this paper, one of these constitutive models;
GEOSTUDIO 2004, is utilized to predict
permanent displacements in the modeled earthen
dam subjected to an artificial earthquake.
METHODS OF SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS
The most commonly used slope stability
methods are the Limit Equilibrium and the Finite
Element methods.
Limit Equilibrium Methods
The limit equilibrium method has been the basis
for the development of the rigorous methods of
slope stability analysis and is still being used by
engineers in most basic cases of slope analysis.
These methods consist of cutting the slope into fine
slices so that their base can be comparable with a
straight line drawn to write the equilibrium
equations (equilibrium of the forces and/or
moments). According to the assumptions made on
the differences between the slices and the
equilibrium equations considered, many
alternatives were proposed as discussed briefly
below.
Ordinary Method of Slices
The ordinary method of slices (OMS) assumes
that the resultant of the interslice forces is inclined
at an angle that is parallel to the base of the slice.
G4-2
This assumption however fails to satisfy interslice
equilibrium where adjacent slices have different
base inclinations.
With reference to Figure 1, Wi is the weight of
the ith slice. Ni and Ti are resultant of the normal and
tangential forces acting on the ith slice base of
length bi and inclination αi with respect to the
horizontal.
bi
Vi
Hi Wi hi+dV
hi
Hi+dHi
αi
Ti
Ni
Figure 1. Circular failure surface and forces acting
on a single slice according to Bishop and Fellenius
methods
The equilibrium of slice i on the vertical is
expressed as:
(1)
where is the unit weight of slice i.
In the OMS, the assumption is made that dVi
and dHi are zero, hence the normal stress can be
calculated as:
(2)
We can then obtain the factor of safety equation as:
(3)
Bishop’s Method
The Bishops method also employs discretization
of the soil mass into slices to determine the factor
of safety. This method satisfies vertical force
equilibrium for each slice and overall moment
equilibrium about the center of the circular trial
surface.
Thus the assumption is made from Figure 1 that
dVi = 0. And by considering the total definition of
the safety factor, we obtain a closed form solution
as FBish = f (FBish) as in Eq. (4).

The general procedure involved in the method
of slices can be summarized as follows:
1. Assumption of the existence of at least one
slip surface;
2. Static analysis of normal and tangential
stresses on the slip surfaces;
3. Determination of the critical failure surface
with safety factor F minimum, among the
whole analyzed surface.
General Limit Equilibrium
The general limit equilibrium (GLE) procedure
incorporates all the assumptions and development
made by the latest LE methods. In fact, this is an
extension of Spencer and Morgenstern Price
methods where, the interslice slope, tanθ = λ. f(x) is
assigned to determine the interslice forces (Krahn
2004). In this way, the GLE procedure is good to
compare the most common methods in a FOS
versus λ diagram as shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Presentation of the most common
methods
The most likely inclinations of force
equilibrium FOS (Ff) and moment equilibrium FOS
(Fm) has been indicated particularly for circular Slip
Surface analysis. The plane slip surface analysis
may have reversed position of Ff and Fm (Krahn
2004).
When λ = 0, the FOS is obtained for Bishop’s
Simplified Method (BSM) and Janbu’s Simplified
Method (JSM), as indicated in Figure 2. Similarly,
the intersection point gives the FOS for Spencer’s
Method (SM) or Morgenstern Price’s Method (M-
PM).
According to Fredlund and Krahn (1977),
Janbu’s corrected and generalized methods are
close to the intersecting point (Figure 2). Thus, the
(4)
GLE procedure has an advantage of making
comparisons of FOS in the same diagram.
Finite Element Methods
Finite Element Method of analysis is based on
the elasto-plastic constitutive model of analysis and
requires fewer prior assumptions, especially,
regarding the failure mechanism. Slope failure in
the Finite Element model occurs ‘naturally’ through
the zones in which the shear strength of the soil is
insufficient to resist the shear stresses.
In general, linear problems such as the
prediction of settlements and deformations, the
calculation of flow quantities due to steady seepage
or the study of transient effects due to consolidation
are all highly amenable to solution by finite
elements.
The use of nonlinear analysis in routine
geotechnical practice is harder to justify, because
there is usually a significant increase in complexity.
Nonlinear analyses are inherently iterative in nature,
because the material properties and/ or the
geometry of the problem are themselves a function
of the ‘solution'. Objections to nonlinear analyses
on the grounds that they require excessive
computational power, however, have been largely
overtaken by developments in, and falling costs of,
computer hardware.
Duncan's review of finite element analysis
(Duncan et al 1987) of slopes concentrated mainly
on deformation rather than stability analysis of
slopes; however, attention was drawn to some
important early papers in which elasto-plastic soil
models were used to assess stability. Smith &
Hobbs (1974) reported results of ϕu = 0 slopes and
obtained reasonable agreement with Taylor's charts
(Zienkiewicz & Taylor 1989). Griffiths (1980)
extended this work to show reliable slope stability
results over a wide range of soil properties and
geometries as compared with charts of Bishop and
Morgenstern (1960). Subsequent use of the FE
method in slope stability analysis has added further
confidence in the method.
Duncan mentions the potential for improved
graphical results and reporting utilizing FE, but
cautions against artificial accuracy being assumed
when the input parameters themselves are so
variable.
G4-3
MODEL CASE STUDY: EARTHEN DAM Static Analysis
The model case study relates to the left earthen The SIGMA/W initial analysis type is
embankment of the Nagarjuna Sagar dam in the conducted to establish the initial, total and effective
Andhra Pradesh-Telangana states boundary over static stress distribution throughout the
the Krishna River in India. The top width of the embankment. This may also be done with a
dam is 9.14 m. QUAKE/W Static-type analysis. To compute the
The dam is composed of impervious core with a static stresses, it is necessary to specify Poisson’s
casing of semi pervious material. There is a cutoff ratio and the total unit weight of the soils. The
trench at the bottom of the front toe. Dumped rip previously computed SEEP/W steady seepage and
rap is on the front face laid over a filter. Rock toes pore-pressures were used in the static stress
are provided at both the front and rear toes. The analysis. The resulting total and effective vertical
foundation is resting on gneissic rocks with fissures stress contours are presented as in Figure 6 and
filled by grouting. Figure 7 respectively.
A conceptual model was made of the dam
configuration and the engineering properties of the Table 1. Geotechnical parameters for static analysis
materials modeled are by far large estimates which
were refined by data reported by various
researchers (Table 1 and Table 2). Mohr-Coulomb
linear elastic model was used for the dam materials
in establishing the static stress-strain conditions.
The Equivalent elastic model was used to establish
the stress-strain relationship in the dynamic model
For this analysis, the geometry is represented by
four GeoStudio regions; representing the
foundation, impervious core, partially pervious
shell and facing riprap with rock fill toes at both
ends. We adopted a plane-strain deformation model
of 33 nodes and 679 finite elements

Figure 4. Initial steady seepage contours with

arbitrary flow paths

Figure 3. Finite Element mesh adopted for the

analysis

The emphasis here is on QUAKE/W because

the cases involve earthquake shaking, but SEEP/W,
SLOPE/W and SIGMA/W are also used. SEEP/W
is used to establish the long-term steady-state
seepage conditions (Figure 4) and pore-pressures
(Figure 5). On the downstream side, the water table Figure 5. Initial pore-water pressure contours
is taken at the ground surface. A granular toe drain
was placed underneath the rock fill toe at
downstream side, assuming that the toe drain
functioned as intended, the piezometric line will
fall somewhere into the granular toe drain.

G4-4
 adopted as shown in Figure 10. In QUAKE/W,
selected points can be flagged where the results will
be saved for each and every time step while
integrating through the earthquake record which is
defined as History Nodes. Three History Nodes
marked as A, B and C have been specified in the
model as shown in Figure 10.

Figure 6. Sigma/W total vertical stress

Figure 10. History Nodes A, B and C

Figure 7. Sigma/W effective vertical stress
The embankment was subjected to a time-
Based on the SEEP/W pore-pressures and
history of an earthquake record as shown in Figure
SIGMA/W static stresses, the factor of safety is
11. The peak ground acceleration was set at 0.2 g
found by Morgenstern-Price’s method to be in
over a duration of 10 seconds. The input dynamic
almost safe range for both upstream (FOS 1.496)
properties are as presented in Table 2.
and downstream (FOS 1.760) slopes.
Table 2. Geotechnical properties for dynamic
analysis

Figure 8. Upstream factor of safety for static

analysis

Figure 11. Earthquake time-history record

Figure 9. Downstream factor of safety for static
analysis
Post-Earthquake Stability Analysis
Dynamic Analysis SLOPE/W has the ability to calculate the factor
of safety for each time step the data is saved to a
The purpose of the dynamic analysis is to
file during the analysis.
determine the excess pore-pressures that may
In this analysis, the integration along the
develop and the permanent displacements that may
earthquake record was set at an interval of 0.02
occur at selected points inside the embankment.
seconds. A total of 500 integration steps were
The Equivalent Linear Dynamic analysis type is
computed for the 10 second shaking and the results
used here with an impervious boundary condition

G4-5
were saved for every 5th time step resulting in 100
sets of output files for the analysis.
The resulting deformed mesh of the earthen
dam (Figure 12) and the permanent horizontal and
vertical displacements recorded at the history nodes
during the earthquake are presented in Figure 13
and Figure 14 respectively.
Figure 12. Deformed mesh at magnification of x45
Figure 13. Time-horizontal displacement at history
nodes
Figure 14. Time-vertical displacement at history
nodes
The post-earthquake factor of safety computed
by Morgenstern-Price method from post-earthquake
pore-water pressures and steady-state strengths in
zones of potential liquefaction are presented in
Figure 15 and Figure 16.
G4-6
Figure 15. Post-earthquake upstream factor of
safety
Figure 16. Post-earthquake downstream factor of
safety
CONCLUSION
The seismic zonation of the dam site is
designated as zone II with peak ground acceleration
between 0.1g to 0.2g (Bhatia et al. 1999). Hence the
input upper limit of 0.2g peak acceleration was
simulated.
The maximum horizontal displacement of
60mm occurs fairly same at both bottom (point B)
and near toe (point C) at 5 seconds into the shaking.
Maximum vertical displacement of 14mm was
observed at the near toe (point C) at 7 seconds into
the shake. The maximum displacements at point C
can largely be attributed to the pore-water pressure
at exit point into the underdrain in addition to the
seismic forces. Point C is therefore the probable
region of permanent displacement in the event of
an earthquake at the dam site.
It can also be observed that the factor of safety
of 1.496 at the upstream and 1.760 at the
downstream in the static analysis has decreased
significantly after the earthquake to 1.205 and
1.411 respectively but remain fairly stable above
unity.
REFERENCES
Bhatia et al (1999). “A Probabilistic Seismic
Hazard Map of India and Adjoining Regions”,
Annali di Geofisica, Vol. 42, No. 6, pp. 1153-
1166.
Bishop, A. W., and Morgenstern, N. R. (1960).
‘‘Stability coefficients for earth slopes.’’
Geotechnique, 10(4), 129–150.
Duncan et al (1987) “An Engineering Manual for
Slope Stability Studies,” Virginia Polytechnic
Institute, Blacksburg, pp. 47-53.
Fredlund, D. G. and Krahn, J. (1977). “Comparison
of slope stability methods of analysis.”
Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 14, pp.
429 39.
Griffiths, D. V. (1980). Finite element analyses of
walls, footings and slopes. PhD thesis,
University of Manchester.
Janbu, N. (1968). “Slope Stability Computations.”
(Geoteknikk NTH). Soil Mechanics and
Foundation Engineering, Technical University
of Norway.
Krahn, J. (2004). “Stability Modelling with
SLOPE/W. An Engineering Methodology,”
Published by GeoSlope International.
Kumar et al. (2007), “The rapid drift of Indian
tectonic plate.” Nature 449 894–897.
Morgenstern, N. R. and Price, V. E. (1965). “The
Analysis of the Stability of General Slip
Surfaces.” Geotechnique, Vol. 15, No. 1 pp.
77 93.
Smith, I. M. & Hobbs, R. (1974). “Finite element
analysis of centrifuged and built-up slopes.”
Geotechnique 24, No. 4, 531-559.
Spencer, E. (1967). “A method of Analysis of the
Stability of Embankments, Assuming Parallel
Interslice Forces.” Geotechnique, Vol. 17, pp.
11 26.
Zienkiewicz, O. C. & Taylor, R. L. (1989). The
Finite element method, Vol. 1, 4th edn. London,
New York: McGraw-Hill.

G4-7
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

INFLUENCE OF SEISMIC EFFECTIVE DURATION TO SLOPE SAFETY FACTOR

Anggun Mayang Sari 1 and Arifan Jaya Syahbana 1

ABSTRACT: Study of slope safety factor, which has high economic value, to dynamic loads effect such as
earthquakes need further attention. Correlation of earthquake effective duration to the slope safety factor will be
made in this research. The case study is carried out the slopes which have homogeneous soil parameters lies at
Cipularang Highway location. The assumption used is slope has homogeneous parameter soil until a depth of 30
meters below the surface. For dynamic loads modeling, there are three variations of seismic load used with
different effective duration of its. Acceleration in bedrock is 0.38 g (Irsyam, et al., 2010) by taking the time
variation based on historical earthquake PEER database. Using deterministic seismic hazard analysis performed
spectral matching method of response spectra obtained from the equation seismic attenuation based mechanism
to obtain the value of the acceleration of seismic waves at the bedrock. Dynamic load on the slopes modeled
using PLAXIS software. The result of this study is a lowering of safety factor comparable to the length of the
effective duration.

Keywords: effective duration, earthquake, safety factor, slope

BACKGROUND between the effective duration of the earthquake

obtained from the propagation of synthetic ground
Cipularang toll road construction has a positive
motion is supposed to influence the safe slope
impact on the cities which are connected, in
factor (Syahbana and Iqbal, 2014). For a basic
particular the city of Bandung. Infrastructure
seismic acceleration at bedrock used PGA 0.38 g
development builds along the 58 km at a cost of
(Irsyam, et al., 2010) obtained from the calculation
around 1.6 trillion dollars. Employment is also open
PSHA for the area Cipularang toll.
to the 50,000 workers who are generally coming
The location chosen was Cijengkol with UTM
from the local workforce. Not only in terms of the
coordinates 770 164 mE and 9248700 mS. The
availability of jobs, this project has a fairly high
reason is because of the location decision is
value consumer which can be seen from the use of
considered to represent the location of the safe
cement, concrete steel, sand and aggregate used as
areas of rainfall but is not yet known how the effect
concrete mix. Can be perceived that the further
of the earthquake to be simulated.
development of road infrastructure can improve
quality of life and well-being that includes an
GEOLOGY
increase in the value of consumption, increase labor
productivity and access to employment, as well as a Cijengkol
real increase in prosperity and the realization of Order physiographic regions Cisalak - Cijengkol -
macro-economic stability, namely fiscal Cinona, West Bandung transition zone is an area
sustainability, the development of credit markets,
surrounding South Mountain - Zone Bogor
and the effect on the labor market (Muljono, et al., (Bemmelen, 1949; Sampurno, 1975). This zone has
2010). geological characteristics with the series began
From the results of the review will sizeable
Tertiary marine sedimentary rocks, volcanic rocks
impact on the infrastructure of highways, the to precipitate product alluvium. This area has
research was developed to see how big an impact experienced a multiplicity mostly strong enough to
that would be caused by the earthquake dynamic
tilt the bedding reaches more> 25o and in some
loads to the effects of slope stability in Cipularang. places interrupted by horizontal fracturing, up and
Research carried out by doing a comparison down as well as intrusion desit. West Bandung

1
Research Center for Geotechnology – Indonesian Institute of Science Jl. Sangkuriang, Kompleks LIPI Gd. 70, Bandung
40135 Ph: 022 2503654, Fax: 022 2504593 anggunmayangsari@gmail.com

G5-1
 regency regional stratigraphy of the oldest rock
formations starting from Jatiluhur (Mdm) consists
of marl and sandstone Early Miocene, on it are
aligned carry the Subang Formation (Msc) in the
form of clay and marl stone. Formation towards the
top there Kaliwungu (Pk) is composed of
sandstones, conglomerates, and breccias.
Furthermore Citalang Formation (Pt) in the form
tuffaceous marl. In the southern part are not aligned
volcanic rocks deposited and sediment (Pb).
Subsequently deposited sediments rest on the
quarter results are not aligned in the form of an old
volcano as tuffaceous sandstones, conglomerates
(QoS), breccia tuffs, tuff (Qob), and irreducibly
volcanic products (Qvu). On it are not aligned the
product of such a young volcanic material
irreducibly young volcanic products (Qyu), pumice
tuff (Qyt), and tufa sand (Qyd). Subsequently
deposited sediments are not aligned in the form of
sediment surface Consist kolovium, lacustrine,
danaluvium consisting of clay, silt, sand, gravel and
gravel were found in the river valleys. In the area of
young volcanic deposits have a coherent nature,
porous and permeable.
In the area of testing CPT (Sondir) in Cisalak -
Cinona, lithologies at the bottom - the top is
characterized by breccia tuffs, tuff, silt clay with
varying thickness, which have the nature of
coherent, porous and permeable soil and water
conditions have depths ranging 3- 6 m there are
even more (Figure 1). Stratigraphy research area
starting from the oldest rock formations
Rajamandala consisting of clay, marl, sandstone
quartz (QMC) and limestone (QML) is not aligned
subsequently deposited rocks quarter product in the
form of proceeds old volcano Mount Burangrang
form of breccia tuffs, tuff (Qob) and tufa sand
(Qyd). The experiment was conducted on three
points that are on the territory of West Bandung
regency. (Figure 2). The locations were chosen
based on the administrative border district / city, the
history of avalanches and altitude slopes are located
on the side of the road (Table 1). (Syahbana, et.al,
2013)
Table 1. Parameter of soil properties :
Soil c’ φ’ (°) E γ γ sat
Type (kPa) (MPa) (kN/m3) (kN/m3)
(USCS)
MH 34.42 22.23 367.3 15.8 16.5
Earthquake Data
In modeling the dynamic loads on the slopes
used seismic load by looking at this area is an area
that could be affected by both the earthquake
G5-2
originating from the fault valley and Cimandiri as
well as the influence of subduction of the lower part
of western Java. Irsyam et al (2010) in a similar
study has been conducted research on the
acceleration of seismic waves to the area
Cipularang by using Probability Seismic Hazard
Analysis (PSHA) for a 10% probability of
exceedance (PE) in a design time period of 50 years
or corresponding to the return period of
approximately 500 years. PSHA results obtained
from the peak ground acceleration (PGA) in
bedrock at 0.38 g to 500 year return period.
Using PGA 0.38g modeled spectra response in
the bedrock. Having modeled the response spectra
in bedrock, spectral matching is done using three
variations of historical time. Time histories are
taken based on the time historical database PEER
Chi-Chi earthquake, earthquake Landers and
Nahanni earthquake. After spectral matching and
then obtained three kinds of variations of ground
motion at bedrock and inputted as dynamic loads
on the PLAXIS program.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
By using the original contour on the location
Cijengkol and homogeneous soil properties,
modeling of dynamic loads then be made as shown
in Figure 1. In Figure 1 shows that the slope is
composed of several levels of slope and the
provision of seismic load assumptions on the basis
of the model.
ν
0.35
Figure 1. Slope modeling and input earthquake:
Chi-Chi earthquake, Nahanni, and Landers
 The parameters used in this model are presented
in Table 1. The basic parameters was then to be
correlated to obtain soil dynamic parameters are
calculated automatically by the software PLAXIS.
Results of analysis of each earthquake are
shown in Table 2 it appears that the earthquake
simulation which have the same mechanism of the
earthquake and the similarity maximum
acceleration, the slope failure pattern was also
found to have a similar shape.
Based on PLAXIS analysis, the reduction of
slope safety factors is due to the formation of pore
water pressure on the slopes, followed by the
effective duration. Effective pore water pressure
analysis result can be seen in Table 3.
After analyzed with software PLAXIS, the
obtained results that the effective duration secure a
significant effect on the numbers slopes. Nahanni
earthquake have seen that the effective duration of
the shortest, ie 2.9 seconds, followed by Chi-chi
earthquake of 11.04 seconds and 28.25 seconds
Landers earthquake. The interesting thing is that
with a similar PGA did not significantly influence
the amount of decrease in the number safely, as
seen in the comparison PGA Nahanni earthquake
and Chi-chi are 0.367 and 0.365. Impairment safe
rate that occurs is 0.192; 0.192 and 0.194 for
Nahanni earthquake, Chi-chi and Landers.

Table 2. Patterns of landslides and slope safety Table 3. Analysis result of Pore Water Pressure, Effective
factor Duration (ED) and Safety Factors (SF)
Earth Safety
Quake Patterns of landslides
Factor Input ED
Input Pore Water Pressure SF
Data (s)

Chi-chi 1.789

Chi-
11.04 1.789
Chi

Maximum -200 kPa

Landers 1.794

Landers 28.25 1.794

Nahanni 1.795
Maximum -160 kPa

Nahanni 2.9 1.795

Maximum l -160 kPa

G5-3
 Figure 2. Effective duration of Nahanni earthquake,Landers and Chi-chi

CONCLUSION Jalan terhadap Pendapatan Faktor Intra dan Inter

Regional KBI – KTI. Jurnal Transportasi Vol.
Effective duration of the earthquake greatly
10 No. 2 Agustus 2010 . pp 99 – 110.
affect the slope of impairment safe rate, while the
Seno, T. 2000. The 21 September , 1999 Chi-Chi
earthquake with almost similar PGA and magnitude
Earthquake in Taiwan : Implication on Tsunami
did not have a significant effect. By simulation
Earthquake. Journal TAO, Vol. 1, No. 3
using Nahanni earthquake, Chi-chi and Landers
September 2000. pp 701 – 708.
obtained impairment safe rate Cijengkol slopes row
Syahbana, AJ dan Iqbal, P, 2014,
by 0.192; 0.192 and 0.194.
Perbandinganpemodelanresponspektramenggun
The effect of earthquake acceleration to
akananalisis discreet point
reduction of safety factor could be seen from the
denganstandarperencanaanketahanangempauntu
development of pore water pressure and further the
kbangunangedungdan non gedungtahun
effective duration of the earthquake. The longer
2010(StudikasusKecamatanCilacap Selatan,
period of effective duration is not necessarily
Kota Cilacap,ProvinsiJawa Tengah),
creates enlarged pore water pressure. From the
JurnalLingkungandanBencanaGeologi, Vol. 5
simulation results could be analyze that if the
No. 2 Agustus 2014: 129 -142
results obtained similar pore water pressure, as in
Syahbana, AJ, Tohari, A, Soebowo, E, Sarah, D
the case of Landers and Nahanni earthquake, then
and Sugianti, K, 2013, Desain cut slope chart
next step is determines the safety factor using the
untukevaluasikestabilanlereng di atasbadanjalan.
effective duration method. The longer of the
StudiKasus: Cinona, CisalakdanCijengkol,
effective duration then the bigger safety factor
Kabupaten Bandung Barat , Jawa Barat,
reduction on the slope surface.
JurnalLingkungandanBencanaGeologi, Vol. 4
REFERENCES No. 1 April 2013: 33 – 47
Widodo, P., 2012, Seismologi Teknik dan
Irsyam, M., Himawan, Agus., Susila, Endra., and Rekayasa Kegempaan, Pustaka Pelajar, ISBN:
Hendriawan. 2010. Bored Pile Solution for 978 602 229 110 7, Yogyakarta, pp.259 262
Embankment Failure on Clay Shale:Design and Youngs, RR., Silva, W.J., and Humphrey, J.R. 1997.
Analyses of Static and Earthquake Conditionsof Strong Ground Motion Attenuation
the KM 97+500 Cipularang Toll Road in Reliationship for Subduction Zone Earthquake.
Indonesia. The 17th Southeast Asian Seismological Research Letter. Volume 68 No.
Geotechnical Conference. Pp 109 – 112. 1. pp 58 – 73.
Muljono, S., Sinaga, B.M., Antameng, M.,
Daryanto, A. 2010. Dampak Pembangunan

G5-4
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

EARTHQUAKE INDUCED LANDSLIDE ON NEARLY SATURATED ZONE OF

SCORIA AT PADANG PARIAMAN, WEST SUMATRA

R. Karlinasari 1, D. K. Andiany 2
and P. Rahardjo 3

ABSTRACT: On September 2009, a 7.6 Richter scale earthquake struck part of West Sumatra, a massive
landslide occurred in Padang Pariaman region. The landslide caused more than 400 casualties, almost all
residents of a village were missing. On soil investigation after the landslide, it was found that the failure slope
was consisting of layers of scoriaceaous (pumice), the soil was a remnant of eruption from nearby Merapi Mount.
Since the layers of scoria were very porous and positioned high above water table, the slope was on unsaturated
zone. The earthquake induced landslide mechanisms were studied by laboratory and numerical method, based on
the profile of different grain size distribution of scoria layers, earthquake acceleration record and rainfall data. It
is found that the properties of the material and the degree of saturation play important role in the landslide
mechanism. The failures were also triggered by the liquefaction.

Keywords: earthquake induced landslides, scoria, unsaturated zone, landslide mechanism

INTRODUCTION Horenblenda Hipersten (Qhpt), the material

consists almost entirely of pumice lapilli,
2009 West Sumatra Earthquake
containing 3 – 10% horenblenda, hipersten, or
On 2009, two major earthquakes hit a part of biotite; rather compact. White or grayish yellow to
West Sumatra province in Indonesia, on September brownish in fresh and rotten.
30th and October 1st. It was a major earthquakes
with magnitudes of M.7.6 and M.6.6. The first one,
the September 30th earthquake induced a massive
landslide in Padang Pariaman region (directly
onshore next to the 9/30/2009 epicenters in West
Sumatra (Figure 1). The landslide caused more than
400 casualties, almost all residents of a village
(Lubuk Laweh village) were missing. It was found
at the soil investigation later that the failure slope
consisting of layers of scoriaceaous (pumice), the
soil was a remnant of eruption from nearby Merapi
Mount.
This paper is a back analysis attempt to explain
the mechanism of the earthquake induced landslide.
The back analysis begin with a soil investigation on
the site. A slope with a profile of different grain
size distribution of scoria layers were investigated.
Later a laboratory works and numerical method Figure 1. Location of the September 30 and
were conducted. October 1 earthquake epicenters on the Sunda
thrust fault and Sumatra strike-slip faults (Sieh
The area of landslide is about 10 km2. The slope
2009, EERI Special Earthquake Report —
of the hills is 25 to 30 m high. Based on the December 2009)
Regional Geology Map Sheet of Padang 1:250,000
scale, the landslide was on pumice tuff area

1
Lecture, Sultan Agung Islamic University Semarang , rkarlinasari@gmail.com, INDONESIA
2
Manager, Indonesian Ministry of Public Works, dinny.kusandiany@pusjatan.pu.go,id, dinnykaa@gmail.com,
INDONESIA
3
Lecturer, Parahyangan Catholic University Bandung, rahardjo.paulus@gmail.com, INDONESIA

G6-1
 Figure 3. The ground acceleration
(BMKG/USGS, 2009)
The grain size distribution
The scoria is layered tipically by 3 layers, with
the first upper layer is varied, from sandy size to 8
mm (the most well graded), than the second layers
is 1 to 5 mm size (poor graded), but booth has
similar average grain size D50 = 2 mm and the third
layer is from 1 to 8 mm (coarse scoria) with D50 = 6
mm. All this grain sizes fall into clean sands which
has potential to liquefy.

Figure 2. The hills and the landslide of Lubuk

Laweh (Indonesian Society for Geotechnical
Engineering Report, 2009)

BACK ANALYSIS
The Ground Acceleration
The shape of the ground motion is shown on
Figure 3, where the pressure wave and the shear
wave has 15 seconds interval on arrival.
The peak of ground acceleration of the
earthquake is 0.3 g, the major acceleration is on 15
to 28 seconds, lasting for about 50 seconds. Figure 4. The grain size distribution of the scoria

The Rainfall Data

The initial pore pressure condition
The rainfall data before the 30th of September at
nearby city of Padang, indicate that the From the research by Karlinasari, 2009, on the
precipitation is 3.6 mm/hour at 29th September (6 suction profile of a tropical residual soil of West
hour period of rain), NOAA, COD, 2009. There Java, due to the high rainfall intensity of Indonesia,
was a 4.0 mm/hour rain at 24th of September, but the matric suction is found around 30 kPa at the
from the 24th to 29th there is no precipitation slope surface. This will be considered as the value
recorded. The rainfall station actually is 1.5 hour of the initial pore pressure (suction) condition of
drive from the site, and the site is located below the slope.
mountains, so it was assume possible that the
precipitation is higher. The survival resident of the
village also reported that there was rain a day
before the earthquake. Hence, the slope might have
been at near saturation.

G6-2
THE MECHANISM The Cyclic Stress Ratio
The configuration of geometry is shown in Based on generated pore pressure effective
Figure 5 where soil layering with alternate more stress may be calculated and the cyclic stress ratio
permeable and less permeable layer. This geometry may be resulted as shown on Figure 8.
is used to calculated initial stresses as well as the The cyclic shear resistance is calculated based
steady state condition of seepage (Figure 6). on the estimate density or shear strength and then
78
the liquefaction zone is defined when the cyclic
76

74

72

70

68
stress ratio exceeded the cyclic resistance. Figure 9
66

64

62

60
shows the result.
58

56

54

78
52

50

48
73

46

44

68
42

40
Elevation (m)

38
63

36

34

32 58

30

28

53

26

24

22 48

20

18

43
16

14

Height (m)
12
38

10

33
6

2
28

-2
22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 100 102 104 106 108 110 112 114 116 118 120 122 124 126 128 130 132 134 136 138 140 142

Distance (m)
23

Figure 5. The seepage flow of the slope 18

13

78 3

-2
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140

Distance(m)

76

Figure 8. The Cyclic Stress Ratio Contour, with the

74
highest value at the foot of the slope.
72

70 The Liquifaction Zone

78

68
73

68

66
63

64 58

53

62 48

43

60
Height (m)

38

33

58
28

56 23

18

54 13

52

Figure 6. The detail of seepage flow at the left top

3

-2
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140

of the slope, and the material boundaries

Distance(m)

Figure 9. Liquifaction zone of the slope

(Rahardjo, 1989)
The pore pressure condition
The Safety Factor of Slope
Upon earthquake, the pore pressure condition
changes and for this particular slope in Lubuk The following figure shows the slope failures.
Leweh, the pore pressure distribution is shown on 1.090

Figure 7. 32

31
30
5

4
31

30
29

28
111
43 82
110
109
42 81
108
1 2 11 3 8

120 156
158

157
1 7 31 9 6

155
216
218

217
2 2 12 3 0

247
2 49

2 48
2 6 22 8 0

295
297

296
311 322
345

344
361

360
392

391
397 412
435

434
457

456
488

4 65
501 512

500
502 518
541
560

520 559
591

569 598
568
599 613

603 610
636

614 647
659
690

658 692
697 710

691 715
735
753

718 752
784

759 796
805

18
826

804 827
832 852
883

862 897
898

904
937

940
9 46 9 7 5
1021

1031 1063

9 7 41 0 2 6
1066
1 09 5

1130
1185
21

1200 1234
1262

1277
1 30 7
1329

1346 1387
1401

14311444
22

215 2 46 343 487 540 646 9 419 6 3 1129

390
294 342
389
433
4 8 54
86 539
590 635 689 734
758 797
828 861
903 1025 1065 1314 1345
9 1430 1468
27 107
154
2 45 293 341
432
484 537
538 589
634 17688
783 825 882
918 962 1131 1196 1233
1388
214 588 633 733 9 36 1020 19 1276 1350 1386 1423 1466
279 313 388 431 687 782 1064 1124 1171
483 732 824 881 935 1 31 3
26 351 536 781 1019 1219 1256
233 399 587 823
106 153 312 455 504
632 686 731 880 914 9 5 89 9 4 10391058 1123 1292 1349 1422
29 213 278 321 350 563 609 645 699 780
934
1018 1 0 5 71 11 0 1 1 3 2 1170 17 1333 1385 1465
1218 1369
25
105
2 44
281
320 358 398
454 644
16 698
736
745
1116 1163
1210
1241
1255
1291 1332
1407 1439 1473 1513
28 3 41 80 119 152 212
292 340 387 430
503 562 608 667 7 09
785
822 879
933
1050 1115
1162
1281
1 31 8
1354
1368
1406 8 20
24 243 482 619 1017 1 10 3 1209 1394 1438
104 151 291 535 586 1139 1240 1429 1472
211 2 42 339 666 7 08 744 1280 1317 1458 1512
103 386 821 1190 1 49 9
23
150
290 338
385
429 81 534
631 685 730 779
878 9 32
1047
1 1 0 51 1 3 8 1230 1266 1302
1353
1393
1532 18
66 85 131 4 8 04 1327 1428
10 168
210
2 41 289
337
428
479 532
533 585
630 15684
1016
1 10 4
1356
1396
1457 1498 1529
65
93
94 130 194 223 268 303 315 384 427
4 78
584 629
683
729
728
778
820
1052 1140
1165
1189 15 1229 1265 1 3 0 11 3 2 1
1427 1448 7 1489
1528
78 353 531 777 877 931 1118 1212 1549
12 59 135 164 396 410 445 583 819 1015 1244 1355 1 48 8
193 628 876 913 9 5 79 9 3 1286 1395 1519
92
170 222 267 298 314 496 511 556 682 930 10381051 1117 13 1320 1362 1424 1447
74 127 200 352 727 776 1 0 1 4 1 0 6 2 1164 1 3 9 8
11 597 612 6 5 4 1128 1 2 1 1 1484
227 265 306 325 394 409 443 696 714 757 818 875 1175 1243 1285 1433 1460 1518 1548
367 807 929 1013 1223 1319
73 126 169 198 1260 1361 1505
27 22
401
452 494 517 555 653 14 839 858 902 1061 1298
1338 1397 6 1534 1563 16
305 323 618 9 48 9 8 2 1127 1373 1432 1459
102 149 226 271 567 596 695 756 799 1174 1411 1 50 4
209 717 1 0 3 31 0 4 0 1 10 0 1222 1259 1443 1533
21 288 366 400 663 838 866 901 1144 1297 1331 1480 1562
101 2 40 451 499 516 7 07 750 9 43 981 1517 1552
26 2 40 79 118 148 208
336 383 426 566 602 616 803 830 856 910 1030 1202 1236 1284
1372 1580 14
20 2 3 9 4 7 7 9 5 29 7 0 1 0 4 4 1 09 9 1 4 1 0
100 147 287 530 662 1330 1442
207 2 38 335 582 7 06 749 9 0 9 9 50 1029 1143 1283 1479 1516
19 382 627 802 989 1112 1201 1235 1551
99 286 334 425 76 529 681 726 834 855 1300 1324
1376
1421
1579
146 381 775 906 1152 1194 1267
73
6 49 84 129 206
2 37 285
424 4 7 54
528 581
626 13 817 874 9 54 9 8 8 1 0 3 51 0 4 3 1232 1450 1 50 1 1538
1572
9
48 89 128
167 192
225 270
333
380 423
474 527 580 625
680
725 774
928 1012 1049
1 11 1
1149 11 1 2 6 91 2 9 9 1328 5 1606
304 317 679 816 1193 1231 1304
54 87 355 4 73 526 724 873 927 1114 1375
395 408 773 1011 1160 1268 1 50 0 1537
8 50 133 163 191 444 579 624 815
872 9 1 2 9 5 69 9 2 1 2 0 8 1239 1 3 3 9 1420
1449 1571
86 224 269 299 316 495 510 554 678 926 1 0 3 71 0 4 8 1113 9 1303 1521 1605
61 172 201 354 723 772 1010 1159 1279 1352 1545 1567
91 132 595 611 652 1056 1207 1316 1392 1487 1590
7 229 266 308 326 393 407 442 694 713 755 814 871 925 1122 1169 1238 1426
369 806 1009 1217 1278 1456
60 1520
25 18
88 134 171 199
307 324
403
450 493 515 553
617
651 12 837 857 900
9 47 9 8 0 1055 1121 1254
1290
1 31 5
1351
1391
1 49 7
1531
1544
1569 1589
1614

17
98 145
205
228 272
368 402
565 594
661
693 716 754 798
865 899
1032
1046
1 10 6 1142
1168
1216
1326
1367
1403
1425
1455
4 1556 1587 1625
97 2 36 284 449 498 514 7 05 748 836 9 42 979 1187 1437 1 49 6 1611
24 1 39 78 117 144
3 3 2 379 422 564 601 615 801 829 854 908 1028
1 2 5 3
1289 1325 1366 1 4 7 1
1511
1 5 3 0
1555 12
16 204 9 5 19 6 9 11071141 1225 1344 1402 1543 1586
96 143 235 283 472 525 660 1045 1 31 2 1384 1574 1610
203 331 578 7 04 747 9 0 7 9 49 1027 1186 1271 1436 1600 1 62 8
2 34 378 623 987 1 10 2 1620
68 282 330 421 71 677 800 833 853 1148 13431383 1414 1470
1510 1641 10
15 95 202 377 524 722 771 905 1199 1224 1542
4 7 04
142
190
232 420
469
523 577
622 11676
813 870 9 53 9 8 6 1 0 3 41 0 4 1
1 10 1 1147
1311 1342
1382 1413
1446
1483
1527
1573
1599 1619 1640
83 137
376 419
4 68
522 576 621
6 7 5
721 770
812
924 1008 1 0 5 4 1 1 2 0 1 1 9 8 7 1226 1270
13411381
3 1554
1582 1613 1627
13 231 300 329 521 720 869 923 1167 1 30 8
404 448 769 811 1007 1215 1246 1642
197 575 620 674 868 911 9 5 59 9 1 10361053
1288
1340 1412 1445
1482 1660
276 359
497 509
561 719 922
1006 1060
1119
1166 1 1323 1380 1526 1612 1 62 6
90 136 406 447 607 649 768 810 1126 1214
1245 1364 1400 1435
1464
1553
1581 1624 1639
7 01 867 1173 1221 1287 1507
181 453 492 508 558 743 795 1258 1322 1536 1609
64 841 921 1296 1363 1399 1565
1005 1059 1125 1335 1434 1596 1623 1638 1659
1 1 7 2 1 3 7 1
373
405
441 491 505
606 648 700
891
9 45 1 10 9
1220 1257
1409
1441
1 4 6 3
1 50 6 1535
2 1618 1 63 3 1656 1668
1146 1476 1564
63 4 60
557 742 794 835 1197
1228 1295 1515
1547 1595 8
641 7 03 1023 1042 1334 1370 1408 1578 1604
1617 1 63 2
519 574 1264 1475 1622 1655
63 2 75 746 789 890 1440 1514 1644 1667
183 840 1 10 8 1 30 6 1546 1663 6
1145 1195 1360 1 49 2 1672
1067 1227 1416 1451 1524 1577
1603 1621
4 5 9 944 1 1 3 6 1 2 6 1 1643
372 513 7 02 1662 1671
1550
640
741
788 831
892 973 1204
1491 1568 1593 1616 1 63 1 1675 5
62 592 1453 1523 1651 1670
177 302 1069 1359
665 761 1135 1305 1415 1509 1540
417 552 850 1263 1615 1629 1674
1203 1592 1669
972 1452 1570 1688
1068 1650 1695 1709
1337 1418 1539 1608
1137 1242 1635 1718 1731
1 50 8 1676
58 47 1192
1559
1666 1741 1756 1776
760 1469 1762 1781
673 849 1522 1 69 4 1704 1717 1729 4
1738 1774
176 1750 1759
416 551 971 1075 1133
301 1607 1 63 4 1807 1809 1826
791 1417 1780 1845
77 894 1237 1665 1794
1191 1336 1467
1673 1775 1813 1828
220 1558
1074 1525 1706 1716
1000 1157 1 73 0 1737
1583 1646 1 69 3 1758 1786 1799
672 1390 1751
319 415 1273
1 49 3 1847
76 571 1767
893 1678 1720 1815 1827
53 1073 1156 1697 1745
790
999
916 1831
219 842
75 712 1645
1585
418 1072 1798
318 1766 1784 1814
1004 1155
162 1389 1490 1719
570 1272
260 467 915 1744
44 844 1 09 4 1696
371 1677 1 83 0
1003 1206
48 9 39 1584
1654 1712 1733 1819
711 1348 1765
1495 1785 1797
161 1093 1753
843 1024 1838
69 2 59 593 1690
370 4 66 9 38
793
187 671
896 1002 1205
414 1098
68 545
277 349 1818
1588 1732 1771
1713
1494 1648 1783
1347 1803 1837
43 1001 1752
895 1097
67 186 792
413 1 68 9
1213 1825
2 63 357 670 1474 1566
544 984 1736
115 1405 1761
178 864 1846
32 1294 1711
765 1 09 6
4 62
Height (m)

573 657 1180

114 983 1782 1800
34 1647
182 264 356 1077 1824
38 863 1561 1682
123 1 48 1 1842
461 966 1404 1735 1 76 0
764
33 184 664 1179
1 09 2 1293 1710
122 254 375 572
845
1462 1820
740 1778
56 1374 1560 1802
166 507 1637
639 965 1728 1755 1841
1091 1188
1275 1681
33 55 165 10 1699
847
9 64
253 739
125 374 643 1 09 0
506 1821
36 1182 1836
1461
195 1557
1379
1 63 6
124 310 439
846
968
1086
1274 1 1727
1754 1777
1801

35 642 763
185 550 1 48 6 1679
113 1698
1181 1365 1812
1594
1835
28 967 1252 1740
14 1 08 5 1658 1793
1715 1764
888
112 180 438 1154
309 547 1692
656 762
53 998 1071

887 1358 1811 1 83 4

179 437 1251 1485
347 1153 1591
252 997 1 08 4
52 546 1739
650 920
767 1657
23 848 1691 1714
1 76 3 1792
1161
1022 1083 1248
51 160 1602 1833
440 919 1726 1747
346 543 1810
256 1357 1702
886
996 1478 1796
655 1 08 9 1158 1664 1683
766 1787
1772
38
159 2 55
348 436 995 1247
18 885 1832
542 1088
189 1817
72 1601
809 1184 1701
638 1 31 0 1725 1746
9 61
273 1685
328 4 64 1649 1795
1 08 7
1 47 7 1789
1770
1178 1840
71
188 1576 1703
251 960 1749
1722
1076
808 1816
327 637
13
70 1805
175 463 1177
261 1684
9 59 1 30 9 1653
1 08 2 1788
738 1773
364 860
1454 1839
1700
605
490
58 1183 1823
990 1081 1575 1721 1748
174 250 1378 1687
1250 1804
859
1652 1708 1769 1791 1844
8 57
363 737 978 1 08 0 1503
140 489 604 1151 1598 1 72 4 1743
258
851

37 549 669 787

446 977 1070
365
139 1150 1822
1686 1808
46 889
976 1079 1249 1377 1705 1768
1661 1790 1843
1 50 2
257 1597 1723 1742
3 141 548
668 786
1176
362 4 58
45 884 1680
985 1078 1282 1779 1 82 9
1419 1757
1541 1707 1806
274 600 751 1 63 0 1734
116 411 1134
917
23 2 3

Figure 10. Safety factor and slope failures

-2
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140

Distance(m)

Figure 7. The pore pressure condition at earthquake

G6-3
CONCLUSION
a. During an earthquake, a landslide could occur
due to increase of shear stress.
b. The earthquake induced landslide mechanisms
have been studied by laboratory and numerical
method, based on the profile of different grain
size distribution of scoria layers, earthquake
acceleration record and rainfall data.
c. It is found that the properties of the material
and the degree of saturation play important
role in the landslide mechanism. In this
particular study, liquefied layer has triggered
landslides in the Pariaman area.

REFERENCES
Andiany, D.K., 2012, Study On The Mechanism of
Scoria Material Flow Liquefaction Induced by
Earthquake at Lubuk Laweh, West Sumatra,
Post Graduate Thesis at Catholic University of
Parahyangan, Bandung.
EERI Special Earthquake Report — December
2009
Indonesian Society for Geotechnical Engineering,
2009. Sumatra September 30th , 2009
Earthquake: Preliminary Geotechnical
Assessment Report, 2009. Jakarta. ISGE.
Rahardjo, P. P., 1989, “Study of Liquefaction
Potential of Silty Sands based on Cone
Penetration Test.”, Ph.D. Dissertation, Virgina
Tech University, USA.
Karlinasari, R., 2009, Study Of Characteristics of
Tropical Volcanic Residual Soil from Older
Volcanic Products Formation (Qob) West Java.
PhD Theses, Catholic University of
Parahyangan, Bandung.

G6-4
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

A BACK STABILITY ANALYSIS OF AN EARTH DAM THAT FAILED AFTER THE

FIRST FILLING

Raúl Flores Berrones 1, Víctor Hugo Alcocer Yamanaka 2 and José Alfredo González Verdugo 3

ABSTRACT: This paper describes the method used to perform a back-analysis of the stability of a Mexican dam
that failed after its first filling. This small dam, located in the state of Guanajuato, Mexico, was built five years
ago to recharge an aquifer used for agriculture. The dam’s curtain, built from sandy silt, did not satisfy the
requirements of good design and construction practices. The flood caused by the dam’s failure resulted in the
evacuation of approximately 2000 people from a village downstream of the dam. This study includes hydraulic
and geotechnical analyses and provides alternatives for reconstructing the dam in a safe and economical way.

Keywords: Earth dam, flow nets, slope stability, dam failure

INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND
La Salitrera is a homogeneous earth dam built
The National Water Commission of Mexico
in 2009 in the municipality of San José Iturbide,
(CONAGUA), which is responsible for
Guanajuato, to be used to recharge an aquifer and
hydrological safety in national floodplains and
as a drinking trough by collecting rainwater and
river valleys, performs hydraulic, hydrological,
runoff water from the mountains. The curtain has a
structural, seismic, geotechnical, operational, and
height of 13.6 m and a length of 98.5 m and a
land management studies of dams in operation to
maximum extraordinary water level (MEWL;
determine if there is a safety risk and, if so, to find
NAME in Spanish) capacity of 0.290 hm3 (Elev.
a way to eliminate or at least mitigate the risk.
2,199.50 m.a.s.l.). The material with which the
The methods applied to revise each one of the
curtain was built was sandy silt with some gravel
possible causes of risk for some Mexican dams are
and small cobbles, which is susceptible to water
described in this article. It highlights field and
erosion. Downstream from the curtain, at a
laboratory geotechnical studies and their
distance of approximately 3.7 km, is the village El
relationships to other types of risks. In this way, a
Capulín, which has more than 3,300 inhabitants.
site’s geology, geotechnics, and seismicity are
As a result of the first fill in February 2010, the
analyzed, as are the stability of each curtain to
spillway failed completely. For this reason, it was
different seismic and hydraulic actions, the
necessary to evacuate more than 2,000 people from
hydraulic/hydrologic conditions, and the
El Capulín. The photographs of the curtain failure
delimitation of the downstream flood-risk zones.
during that extraordinary flood (Figure 1a &
A case study of an earth dam constructed five
Figure 1b) show eroded material that was placed
years ago is presented. The idea behind this
without being compacted. Moreover, there is
presentation is to highlight the relevance of
evidence that the contact between the curtain and
geotechnical factors to the type and degree of risk
the bedrock was not properly prepared during
based on the materials used to construct the curtain
construction. In addition, during the inspections
and the precautions that were (or were not) taken
that were performed after the failure, filtration was
with regard to its design and quality during its
observed through that contact zone.
construction.

1
Research Professor, Mexican Institute of Water Technology, rflores@tlaloc.imta.mx, Mexico
2
Head of the Hydraulic Department, Mexican Institute of Water Technology, yamanaka@tlaloc.imta.mx, Mexico
3
Head of Hydraulic Laboratory, Mexican Institute of Water Technology, jagonzal@tlaloc.imta.mx, Mexico

H1-1

Figure 1a. A view of the failure at “La Salitrera”
dam in February 2010, and a close view of a crack
in the embankment
Figure 1b. View of the slides upstream due to a
rapid drainage
After collecting the available information on
the design and construction of this dam, inspection
visits were performed, and the hydrology, curtain
stability, and infield and laboratory tests required
to establish the dam’s safety were reviewed to
propose solutions.
METHODS
The procedure followed for this study was as
follows (Murillo, 2014).
First, the background information documented
in the offices of those responsible for the
infrastructure, the Dam Safety Information System
(SISP in Spanish) (CONAGUA, 2014), and in
historical water records, was reviewed; in addition,
the following plans to complete the following
items were made: a) a detailed in situ revision to
corroborate and, if necessary, to enhance the
observations performed as a part of the National
Dam Safety Program (PNSP in Spanish) (IMTA,
2014); b) a revision of the drainage system (weirs,
intake works, and bottom outlet); c) a revision of
the instrument readings and diagnostics; d) a
revision of the reservoir, including topo-
bathymetry; e) a geotechnical study based on
samples to corroborate the properties established in
the original design, including a flow network
analysis under the maximum ordinary water level
(MOWL; NAMO in Spanish), at the MEWL, and
with rapid drainage, as well as a revision of the
slope’s stability under these conditions and with
seismic activity; f) a hydrological analysis under
the current basin conditions; and g) a revision of
hydraulic operation of the weir, intake works, and
downstream conditions as well as a determination
of the zones that may be affected by a weir
discharge causing floods with variable return
periods or by an eventual rupture of the curtain.
H1-2
From a geotechnical perspective, the flow
networks were determined based on the
stratigraphy and soil properties using the available
data, which was obtained from geotechnical
explorations and laboratory investigations of
materials. To analyze the flow of the water and the
stability of the earth and the rockfill curtains, a
numerical analysis of the flow in a porous medium
was conducted using the finite elements method to
solve the Richards equation for partially saturated
soil. The amount of water lost through the curtain
and, in some cases, through the foundation, was
determined.
To analyze the slope’s stability, the limit
equilibrium method, which takes into account the
pore pressure determined during an analysis of the
established flow and rapid drainage, was used. The
resulting Safety Factor (SF) was obtained using the
methods of Bishop (equilibrium of moments) and
Morgenstern-Price (equilibrium of forces and
moments).
To guarantee the curtain’s structural safety, the
safety criteria shown in Table 1 should be fulfilled.
In any case, the slope stability analyses were
performed for the upstream and downstream slopes.
Table 1. Acceptable SFs
Condition SF Slope Observations
Established Water level at
1.5 Downstream
flow MEWL
Rapid Water level from
1.2 Upstream
drainage MOWL to 0
Water level at
Earthquake 1.0 Downstream
MOWL
HYDROLOGICAL REVISION
The results of the hydrological study performed
for the maximum floods of different return periods,
including 10,000 years (IMTA, 2014), are reported
in Figure 2, where the MOWL level is represented
by a blue line and the MEWL and crest level are
represented by a red line. After a 50-year return
period, the curtain’s upper level is exceeded and
there are hydraulic loads that oscillate between
0.18 m and 1.91 m and can put the safety of the
structure at risk by causing erosion; consequently,
it can be claimed that the hydrological risk is high.

Figure 2. Approximate maximum elevations for
the different return periods
GEOTECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Six open pits were excavated (figure 3) to
conduct permeability tests at the site using the
Matsuo Akai method. A permeability coefficient
of k=5.475x10-4cm/seg was obtained, as were the
material samples used in granulometric, index, and
compaction tests in the geotechnics laboratory.
Some of the results of these tests are shown in the
soil profiles in a couple of transversal sections of
the curtain, marked in Figures 4 and 5 and referred
to as “Section 1” and “Section 2”, respectively.
Figure 3. The locations of the open pits (OPs)
along the curtain of the La Salitera dam
Figure 4. The profile of Section 1
Figure 5. The profile of Section 2
With regard to the stability analyses of the
upstream and downstream slopes under established
flow conditions at the MEWL level, Figures 6 and
7 show the critical slip surfaces and their SFs,
while Figure 7 – Figure 9 show the same
characteristics for flow conditions at the MOWL
level.
Figure 6. The SF and critical failure surface of the
upstream slope, established flow (MEWL), Section
1
Figure 7. The SF and critical failure surface of the
downstream slope, established flow (MEWL),
Section 1
Figure 8. The SF and critical failure surface of the
upstream slope, established flow
(MOWL),Section-1
Figure 9. The SF and critical failure surface of the
downstream slope, established flow (MOWL),
Section 1
Table 2 shows the SF determined by the slope
stability analysis under established flow conditions.
The downstream slope with the water level at the
MEWL is the most critical, with SF = 0.975 in
Section 1. Table 3 shows the SFs for Section 2; all
the values are greater than 1.
H1-3
Table 2. SFs determined by the slope stability Table 5. SFs determined by the slope stability
analysis under established flow conditions, Section analysis under rapid drainage conditions, upstream
1 and downstream, Section 2
SF, SF, Morgenstern-
SF, Bishop
Morgenstern- SF, Bishop Price Method
Method
Price Method Method Water (equilibrium of Notes
(equilibrium
Slope (equilibrium (equilibrium level forces and
of moments)
of forces and of moments) moments)
moments) MEWL to
1.020 0.991
Upstream 3.105 3.108 MEWL MOWL
Downstream 0.975 0.961 MEWL 1.301 1.287
MEWL to
Upstream 1.815 1.820 MOWL MOWL
Downstream 1.310 1.306 MOWL
The stability analysis was performed for the
Table 3. SFs determined by the slope stability response spectra corresponding to a seismic event
analysis under established flow conditions, Section with a return period of 475 years that was
2
determined probabilistically and deterministically.
SF,
Morgenstern- SF, Bishop In all cases, the seismic SFs were greater than
Price Method Method Water unity, which is the minimum value required for
Slope (equilibrium (equilibrium Level this circumstance; therefore, it can be concluded
of forces and of moments) that from this point of view, there was no problem
moments)
Upstream 3.712 3.716 MEWL
with the dam’s stability. Table 6 shows a summary
Downstream 1.225 1.209 MEWL of the SFs obtained for all of the situations
Upstream 2.092 2.090 MOWL analyzed.
Downstream 1.992 1.920 MOWL
Table 6. SFs obtained by the slope stability
From the previous analysis, which was analysis under normal, unusual, and extreme
performed for both slopes under normal operating operation conditions
conditions with established flows at the MEWL SF, Morgenstern-Price
Dam
Method (Satisfies the Water flow
and the MOWL, it is inferred that the minimum level
equilibrium of forces condition
value of 1.5 demanded by the CONAGUA to condition
and moments)
ensure stability has not been reached. 3.105 > 1.50 Ok Established
MEWL
Considering rapid drainage of the vessel in 0.975 < 1.50 X water flow
Section 1, Table 4 shows that applying the
0.861 < 1.20 X Rapid MEWL to
Morgenstern-Price and Bishop criteria yields SFs drainage MOWL
that are less than 1 for both slopes. In Section 2, 0.976 < 1.20 X
Established
Table 5 shows that rapid drainage on the upstream
water flow
slope leads to an SF = 1.02 using the Morgenstern- Design
1.724 > 1.00 Ok MOWL
Price criterion and 0.991 using the Bishop earthquake
criterion; for the downstream slope, the SF is Tr=475
years
approximately 1.3, according to both criteria.
These SFs for rapid drainage do not exceed the
DELIMITATION OF THE FLOOD RISK ZONES
minimum value of 1.2 demanded for the curtain to
be considered stable in this scenario; in addition, Flood risk zones are determined based on
during the incident of 2010, several localized maximum depths, maximum flow velocities, and
failures occurred in the upstream slope (Figure 1). the product of both, as produced by the floods in
the study. For that analysis, a computer program
Table 4. SFs determined by the slope stability that performs hydraulic calculations in rivers in
analysis under rapid drainage conditions, upstream one-dimension was used. It required the following
and downstream, Section 1
information:
SF, Morgenstern-
Price Method
SF, Bishop  A topographic survey, performed in transverse
Method sections of the riverbed.
(equilibrium of Notes
(equilibrium
forces and
of moments)  Upstream and downstream boundary
moments) conditions.
MEWL to
0.838 0.803
MOWL
 The assignment of Manning coefficients and
MEWL to calibration.
0.976 0.962
MOWL

H1-4
 The flood risk zones were determined based the
following threshold of water depth, flow velocity,
and the product of the two:
Depth ≥ 1.00 m
Velocity≥ 1.00 m/s
Product ≥ 0.5 m2/s
Based on the results of the one-dimensional
simulation, it was concluded that during the curtain
failure in February 2010, the dam discharged water
at a rate of 85 m3/s, equivalent to a flood with Tr =
500 years, which caused floods in El Capulín with
a water depth of close to one meter.
In contrast, the hydraulic analyses show that
under current conditions, the riverbed can only
conduct a design torment equivalent to one with Tr
= 10 years. It was also found that the maximum
water velocities exceed 4 m/s and the maximum
flood depth exceeds 1.5 meters.
RISK MITIGATION MEASURES
Two solution alternatives are presented:
1. Build a Creager-type weir with a crest length
of 16 m, an hydraulic head of 2.75 m, and a
capacity of 145 m3/s, which correspond to a
period of 10,000 years.
2. Lower the current height of the curtain by 3 m
and construct a channeling wall 3 m high from
the left bank; clean and excavate the
ignimbrite rock for a length of 10 m and up to
the level of 2,192 m.a.s.l. in the right bank,
where the weir is located.
An analysis of the operation of the two
alternatives for different return periods, and the
elevation-discharge curves with a 10-m weir, a
MOWL at an elevation of 2,192 m.a.s.l., the
curtain at the 2,196.5 m.a.s.l. level, and a reservoir
evaluation performed using a hydrograph input of
Tr = 10,000 years, show that the latter solution is
the best. Figure 10 shows that the curtain level is
not exceeded for any return period, ensuring the
integrity of the hydraulic work in the second
solution.
Solution 2 requires the addition of a broad-
crested weir (buddle) with a crest length of 10 m
and the reduction of the dam curtain height by 3 m
to stay at the level of 2,196.5 m.a.s.l., which is
considered the most feasible if the La Salitrera
dam continues to operate. The modification of the
MOWL to the 2,192 m.a.s.l. level will force the
water level to remain low in the reservoir, which
does not represent a risk; in addition, with the
modification of the weir, the MEWL is set at the
2,195.7 m.a.s.l. level; therefore, extreme events
will pass the dam more smoothly and with greater
safety, resulting in a functional aquifer recharge
and a good amount of drinking water through this
dam.
Figure 10. Maximum elevations for different
return periods
To mitigate the risk of flooding in the city, the
main riverbed will have to be rectified, cleaned,
and take out all the illegal huts set in the riverbed
in addition to the construction of required
structures such as bridges and sewers to allow
water to discharge freely during extreme events.
CONCLUSIONS
With regard to the analysis of the dam
presented here, it is observed that geotechnical
risks generally occur in dams with curtains made
of earth materials (and/or rockfill) using
inadequate design and construction procedures. If
this dam had been designed and built according to
current standards, the incident that was sadly
observed would not have occurred.
REFERENCES
Conagua (2014) Sistema Informático de Seguridad
de Presas, Subdirección General Técnica,
Gerencia del Consultivo Técnico, México.
IMTA (Instituto Mexicano de Tecnología del Agua
(2014) Estudios para la caracterización y
diagnóstico de la seguridad de 11 presas en los
estados de Guanajuato, San Luis Potosí y
Tamaulipas, clasificadas con alto riesgo, año
2014, Presa El Obraje y Presa La Salitrera, Gto.,
Informe Final. México.
Murillo Fernández R. (2014) Revisión de grandes
presas en operación. Sociedad Mexicana de
Ingeniería Geotécnica, XXVII Reunión
Nacional de Mecánica de Suelos e Ingeniería
Geotécnica, Puerto Vallarta, México.
H1-5
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

PREDICTION OF FAILURE OF SMALL EARTH-FILL DAMS BY HEAVY RAINS

A. Kobayashi 1, K. Yamamoto 2 and Y. Tsukada 3

ABSTRACT: The disaster induced by the failures of earth-fill dams occurred at Awaji Island in 2004. At that
time, 181 small earth-fill dams were failed by the typhoon. The factors of failure of embankment were
considered as the lack of capacity of spillway, lack of maintenance of embankment, debris flow of landslide in
watershed, and so on. In this study, the discriminant analysis was tried to predict the failure of small earth-fill
dam by using the data of the dam function, precipitation, DEM and multispectral image data of watershed at the
disaster of Awaji Island in 2004. As a result, the best prediction is obtained when the following data are used;
the width of crest, height and the angle of downstream slope of embankment, reservoir and the intake capacity of
dam, mean and standard deviation of the slope angle and NDVI of watershed and the72 hours half-life effective
rainfall. It was found that the ability of actual failure of small earth-fill dam became high when the predicted
failure probability exceeded 0.6.

Keywords: Earth-fill dam, heavy rain, DEM, NDVI, discriminant analysis

INTRODUCTION understanding the failure mechanism to accumulate

There are about 21 ten thousands small earth-fill
dams in Japan, which are used as an irrigation tank.
Most of the small earth-fill dam have the height
lower than 15 m and were constructed over 100
years ago. The function of the dam may not be
suitable for the actual cases. The inflow to the
reservoir by the torrential rain may become larger
than the discharge capacity. Actually, the typhoon
No. 23 in 2004 hit the Awaji Island in Japan and
181 small earth-fill dams were breached. The
mechanism of the dam failure is actually
complicated, and some factors about the dam
function and watershed conditions are related. Most
of the failed dams in 2004 were breached by the
flow over the top. The failure by overflow is the
progressive failure by erosion, of which mechanism
is not so simple. Therefore, it is difficult to predict
the failure by overflow with numerical simulation.
In this study, the discriminant analysis is tried to
predict the failure of small earth-fill dam by using
the data of the dam function, precipitation, DEM
and multispectral image data of watershed at the
disaster of Awaji Island in 2004. Although the
prediction by the discriminant analysis may include
the effects of the local condition, it is important for
the scientific knowledge.
DISCRIMINANT ANALSIS
Analysis with Database of Dams
Firstly, the disaster-prevention database of
irrigation tank is used to make a discriminant
analysis. Totally 1529 data about the irrigation tank
are used, of which 50 tanks are breached.
Table 1 shows 10 variables of database. The
maximum coefficient of correlation between
variables is 0.5, in which there is no relation having
multicollinearity. The variables are selected by
forward selection method, and then variables from
x1 to x5 shown in Table 1 are selected as the
explanatory variables. Table 2 shows the
discriminant analysis results using those 5 variables.
It is found from Table 2 that the misclassification
rate (number of misclassification divided by total
number) is 32.2% ( = 100 x (473 + 20) / 1529). In
the results, it should be noticed that the capacity of
spillway is not selected as an explanatory variable.
It is probably because the spillway was blocked
with debris and driftwood at the disaster, and did
not work enough. Moreover, the lack of
maintenance of spillway and the lack of allowance

1
Professor, Kansai University, koba5963@kansai-u.ac.jp, JAPAN
2
Associate Professor, Iwate University, yama3@iwate-u.ac.jp, JAPAN
3
Engineer, Hazama Ando Corporation, tsukada.yasuhiro@ad-hzm.co.jp, JAPAN

H2-1
height of bank are considered as the reason why the dairy rainfall intensity of the day was 309 mm/day
spillway capacity is not selected as an explanatory which was recorded from 6:00 to 18:00. 90 % of
variable. rain was precipitated from 11:00 to 17:00. Heavy
rain was concentrated for short period.
Table 1. Explanatory variables for prediction of To examine the effect of rainfall, the hourly,
failure of earth-fill dam dairy, 72 hour half-life and 1.5 hour half-life
Variables Selected References rainfall are used by adding to above 5 variables
variables from x1 to x5.
Width of crown (m) x1 The effective rainfall can be obtained by:
Height of bank (m) x2 RW (t )  R (t )   (0.5) i / T R (t  i ) (1)
Length of bank (m) i

Gradient of upstream slope

where Rw(t) is the effective rain at the time t, R(t) is
Gradient of downstream x3 Database of
the hourly rainfall at the time t (mm/h), R(t-i) is the
slope disaster
hourly rainfall at the time t-i, T is the half-life (h),
Storage capacity (m3) x4 prevention
which is 72 hours for groundwater movement and
Area of watershed (km2)
1.5 hour for surface water movement.
Area of pond (km2) Table 3 – Table 6 shows the results of
Capacity of spillway (m3/s) discriminant analysis using the variables of x1-x5
Intake capacity (m3/s) x5 and each rainfall data. The misclassification ratio of
Mean slope angle (deg.) x6 2.5 m mesh the case using the hourly rainfall data is 34.8%, that
SD of slope angle (deg.) x7 DEM of the case using the dairy rainfall data is 33.0%,
Mean NDVI x8 Multispectral that of the case using 72 hour half-life effective
image data rainfall is 33.3% and that of the case using 1.5 hour
Max. hourly rainfall half-life effective rainfall is 32.4%. As the
intensity (mm/h) misclassification ratio using the variables of x1-x5
Dairy rainfall intensity is 32.2%, the results becomes worse by adding the
(mm/day) Radar rainfall data. It is inferred that the rainfall dose not
72 hour half-life effective x9 AMeDAS directly effect on the behavior of the bank, but
rainfall (mm) effects on the recharge and surface water flow at
1.5 hour half-life effective the watershed. Therefore, the information about the
rainfall (mm) watershed may be necessary to reflect the effect of
rainfall.
Table 2. Result of discriminant analysis with
database of disaster prevention Analysis Adding Watershed Information
Prediction To include the information on the watershed as
Failure Non failure Sum. an explanatory variable, the 2.5 m resolution DEM
Failure 30 20 50 (Data Elevation Model) and multispectral image
Actual Non failure 473 1006 1479 data which is incorporated to 2.5 m resolution from
Sum. 503 1026 1529 10 m resolution (Tsutui, et, al. 2004) are used.
Figure 3 shows the area of satellite image of 5 km
Analysis Adding Precipitation Data square used for the analysis, and the circle stands
for the earth-fill dam and the cross is the breached
The hourly precipitation data by Radar
dam. While the number of earth-fill dams is 162
AMeDAS (Automated Meteorological Data
and that of breached ones is 20, the number of the
Acquisition System) are used to consider the effect
dams having the necessary data is 62 and among
of precipitation. Figure 1 shows the rainfall
them, 8 dams were breached. For the examination
intensity distribution by Radar AMeDAS at 15:30
including the information on the watershed, these
when the maximum hourly rainfall intensity was
limited data are used for the discriminant analysis.
recorded at Sumoto city in the island. Awaji Island
The watershed was extracted by using the
locates between Main Island and Shikoku Island.
Hydrology Modeling tool in ArcGIS. Figure 4
Figure 2 shows the rainfall distribution at Awaji
shows the example of the watershed of an earth-fill
Island. The resolution of AMeDAS is 2.5 km. The
dam of which location is indicated in Figure 3.
rainfall intensity at each earth-fill dam can be
identified by inputting the location of dam. The

H2-2
 NDVI (Normalized Difference Vegetation Table 4. Result of discriminant analysis with
Index) is obtained by the multispectral image value. variables from x1 to x5 and dairy rainfall
Figure 5 shows the example of NDVI distribution in Prediction
the watershed at the dam indicated in Figure 3 and Failure Non failure Sum.
Figure 4. The mean NDVI is calculated for the Failure 30 20 50
watershed. Actual Non failure 484 990 1479
As the information on the geography, the mean
Sum. 519 1010 1529
slope angle and the standard deviation of slope
angle in the watershed are used. Figure 6 shows the Table 5. Result of discriminant analysis with
example of the distribution of slope angle in the variables from x1 to x5 and 72 hour half-life rainfall
same watershed. From the distribution, the mean
and standard deviation of slope angle in the Prediction
watershed is obtained. Failure Non failure Sum.
Failure 30 20 50
Actual Non failure 489 990 1479
Sum. 519 1010 1529

Table 6. Result of discriminant analysis with

variables from x1 to x5 and 1.5 hour half-life rainfall
Prediction
Failure Non failure Sum.
Failure 30 20 50
Actual Non failure 475 1004 1479
Sum. 505 1024 1529

Figure 1. Rainfall intensity at Japan area at 15:30

Oct. 20, 2004

Figure 3. 5 km square used for the analysis with

watershed information

The mean NDVI, mean slope angle and standard

Figure 2. Hourly rainfall distribution on the island
deviation of slope angle are the index giving the
at 15:30 Oct. 20, 2004 (mm/h)
flow down velocity of rainfall to reservoir and the
stability of the slopes in the watershed. Actually,
Table 3. Result of discriminant analysis with
variables from x1 to x5 and hourly rainfall the overflow inducing the failure of dam occurred
by the inflow of debris into the reservoir. The
Prediction failure of small slope in the watershed has a large
Failure Non failure Sum. effect on the stability of earth-fill dam existing at
Failure 31 19 50 downstream.
Actual Non failure 513 966 1479
Sum. 544 985 1529

H2-3

Figure 4. Example of watershed at an earth-fill dam
By adding 4 kinds of rainfall data mentioned
above to the explanatory variables from x1 to x8 in
Table 1, the discriminant analysis is carried out.
The results are shown in Table 7 – Table 10. The
mis-classification ratio becomes 27.4% when 72
hour half-life rainfall and 1.5 hour half-life rainfall
are used. The failure prediction ratio (the number of
predicted failed dam divided by that of actual failed
dam) is 88% when 72 hour half-life rainfall is used,
and 75% for 1.5 hour half-life rainfall.
Therefore, although the difference is very small,
it can be concluded that 72 hour half-life rainfall is
suitable for the failure prediction. The results does
not contradict the fact that the debris flowing into
the reservoir induced the overflow of the bank.

Table 7. Result of discriminant analysis with

variables from x1 to x8 and hourly rainfall
Prediction
Failure Non failure Sum.
Failure 6 2 8
Actual Non failure 16 38 54
Sum. 22 40 62

Table 8. Result of discriminant analysis with

variables from x1 to x8 and dairy rainfall
Prediction
Failure Non failure Sum.
Failure 6 2 8
Actual Non failure 16 38 54
Sum. 22 40 62

Figure 5. Example of NDVI distribution in the Table 9. Result of discriminant analysis with
watershed at an earth-fill dam variables from x1 to x8 and 72 hour half-life rainfall
Prediction
Failure Non failure Sum.
Failure 7 1 8
Actual Non failure 16 38 54
Sum. 23 39 62

Table 10. Result of discriminant analysis with

variables from x1 to x8 and 1.5 hour half-life rainfall
Prediction
Failure Non failure Sum.
Failure 6 2 8
Actual Non failure 15 39 54
Sum. 21 41 62

PREDICTION BY FAILURE PROBABILITY

Failure Probability
From the above results, the failure probability is
Figure 6. Example of slope angle distribution in the
examined with the explanatory variables from x1 to
watershed at an earth-fill dam

H2-4
x9 shown in Table 1. To examine the failure
probability, the Mahalanobis’ generalized distance
to the center of failure group, D1 and that to the
center of non-failure group, D2 are calculated. Then,
by assuming that the event probability of
Mahalanobis’ generalized distance follows the
standard normal distribution, the probability of
failure, f1 and that of non-failure, f2 is given by:
1 1
f1  exp( D1 ) (2)
(2 ) p/2
DT 2
Figure 7. Distribution ratio of failure probability of
1 1
f2  exp( D2 ) (3) 62 earth-fill dams
(2 ) p / 2 DT 2
Conditional probability of effective rainfall
where p is the number of variables, DT is the
determinant of covariance matrix of variables. To Although the failure probability of dams are
make the summation of f1 and f2 be 1, the following obtained as relatively high value of 0.7 or 0.8 as
ratios are considered, shown in Table 11, this is because of the condition
1 of typhoon No. 23 in 2004, which gave a very
exp( D1 ) heavy rain. Eq. (2) – (7) inducing the failure
f1 2
P1   (4) probability have the variables from x1 to x9, in
f1  f 2 1 1
exp( D1 )  exp( D 2 ) which the variables from x1 to x8 are related to the
2 2
dam configuration and the geography of the
In this study, the above P1 is defined as failure watershed, and so are the intrinsic value of the dam.
probability. The Mahalanobis’ generalized distance, Therefore, Eq. (4) can be rewritten by remaining a
D1 and D2 are given by variable, x9 and considering the other variables
n from x1 to x8 as a constant. The equation becomes
D1  D 0  b0   bi x i (5) the conditional failure probability of the effective
i 1
n
rainfall x9, which is called as Pc.
D2  D0  c 0   c i x i (6) 1
i 1 Pc  (8)
n i 1  exp(x9   )
D0  a xi x j (7)
c 9  b9  ,    1  c 0  b0  
8

 (c
ij
1
i 1 j 1
  i
 bi ) x i 
2 2 i 1 
where xi is the variable, aij, bi, ci are the coefficients
calculated from discriminant analysis. The failure As an example of conditional failure probability,
probability, P1 can be calculated by the coefficients Figure 8 shows the conditional failure probability
and variables from x1 to x9 in Table 1. Table 11 of the dam which was actually failed and not failed
shows the failure probability for the actually failed in 2004. It is found that the failure probability of
8 earth-fill dams. It is found from the table that 7 the dam actually failed has a high probability in
dams except for D dam have the failure probability comparison with that not failed. It can be said that
of over 0.5. Figure 7 shows the distribution ratio of the condition explained by the variables from x1 to
failure probability P1 of actually failed and not x8 gives the stability index of the dam for the heavy
failed dams. It is found that the earth-fill dam rain.
happens to be actually failed in the case when the If the annual probability of effective rainfall,
failure probability, P1 exceeds 0.6. f(x) is known, the annual failure probability of the
dam PY can be estimated by:
Table 11. Failure probability of actually failed 
earth-fill dams PY   PC ( x) f ( x)dx (9)
0

Dam A B C D To obtain the annual probability of the

P1 0.62 0.82 0.72 0.37 maximum effective rainfall in Awaji Island, Iwai’s
Dam E F G H method (Sato, 1982 and Ministry of Construction,
P1 0.64 0.51 0.51 0.86 1976) is applied to the data on the annual maximum
effective rainfall for 31 years. Figure 9 shows the

H2-5
event probability density of the maximum effective
rainfall for Awaji Island. By applying Eq. (9) to the
above two dams, the annual failure probability of
the dam failed in 2004 is 0.01193, and that of the
dam not failed in 2004 is 0.00414.
Moreover, the cumulative probability of dam
failure, PN can be estimated by:
N
PN   PY (1  PY ) i 1 (10)
i 1
If the present value of the loss is multiplied by
Eq. (10), the cumulative risk can be estimated.
Figure 10 shows the cumulative failure probability
of the above two dams as an example. The failed
dam in 2004 has much higher failure probability
after 100 years than the dam not failed.
Figure 8. Conditional failure probability of the dam
failed and not failed in 2004
Figure 9. Annual event probability density of the
maximum effective rainfall in Awaji Island
Figure 10. Cumulative failure probability of the
dams failed and not failed in 2004
H2-6
CONCLUSIONS
As it is difficult to predict the failure of the
small earth-fill dam by numerical simulation, the
probabilistic method is applied by using the data on
disaster in Awaji Island in 2004. The conclusions
are obtained as followings;
1) It was difficult to predict the dam failure by
separately using the rainfall data. When the
rainfall data were used with the information on
the watershed, the ability of prediction was
improved. It was, therefore, concluded that the
stability of the earth-fill dam was very
dependent on the condition of watershed.
2) It was found that 72 hour half-life rainfall was
suitable for the failure prediction, which rainfall
reflected the groundwater flow in the watershed.
It was inferred that the overflow of the bank
was caused by the debris and driftwood from
the watershed, which were induced by the uplift
of groundwater in the watershed.
3) The failure probability of the earth-fill dam was
tried to develop by the Mahalanobis’
generalized distance. It was found that when the
failure probability exceeded 0.6, the possibility
of actual failure became very high.
4) It was indicated that the cumulative probability
of the dam failure could be estimated by the
proposed method. This would be very effective
for the risk assessment of the dam and useful for
the asset management of the dam maintenance.
REFERENCES
Ministry of Construction River Bureau (1976).
Erosion Control Work Standard (Draft) (in
Japanese).
Sakai K. (1982). Flood Flow Calculation Method.
Snakai-do (in Japanese).
Tsuitui T., Nakagawa H., Shiraisi T. Miyazaki S.
and Rokukawa S. (2004). Application of terrain
elevation extraction method using satellite
images to slope disaster, Proceeding of
symposium on real time disaster information
detection and its use, JSCE, pp.43-48 (in
Japanese).
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

MODELING EROSION AND LANDSLIDES AS SEDIMENT SOURCES TO ASSESS

DAM SILTATION

D. Brambilla 1, L. Longoni 2 and M. Papini 3

ABSTRACT: Dams and water reservoirs represent key assets for water supply to people and electric power
generation, worldwide more than 16% of electric energy is produced via hydropower and this percentage is
going to raise in the next years. However, dams are vulnerable to degradation in capacity and safety due to the
deposition of solid material inside the reservoir; this process, called siltation, is well known but often not enough
considered in new projects design. Siltation affects both the functionality of dams, reducing the reservoir volume
for water storage, both their safety increasing pressure on the dam body, limiting the lamination capability and
the possibility to maneuver the deep drains. Thus, study and assessment of siltation arise as a crucial aspect of a
dam system management and should not only be focused on quantifying sediments reaching the reservoir but
mainly in understanding the causes and the processes feeding the river with solid material. Landslides hitting the
watersheds provide huge amount of sediments to the drainage networks, this contribution adds to the slopes
erosion due to rainfalls and build up, together with other minor processes, the total amount of solid material
moving in the basin. Authors present a study about an Alpine dam, in Italy, whose basin have been analyzed to
simulate the prevalent processes producing sediments. Slope erosion, active faults and diffuse landslides have
been separately modeled to assess their contribution to dam siltation; results are critically discussed thanks to the
exceptional availability of real data on annual sediment volume accumulated in the reservoir. This key
information allowed to test models ability to predict silting ratio of the dam as a function of annual climate and
thus to develop a tool for silting ratio estimate in reservoirs.

Keywords: Siltation, Erosion, Dams, drainage network

INTRODUCTION effectiveness of the plants, limiting the water

Sediment production, movement and storing
are key points in a watershed management and
analysis. The life cycle of sediment is linked to a
variety of processes, mainly natural, that take place
in a basin and deal with sediment being eroded and
transported along watercourses. Sediment yield is
therefore a natural process that cannot be arrested
or controlled but, anyway, its knowledge is crucial
for a smart management of dams and reservoirs. At
world scale dams are at the base of clean energy
production and water storing both for human and
agriculture purposes, more than 16% of electric
energy worldwide is produced via hydropower
(IEA, 2014). Moreover, sediment production and
transport is the cause of fertile soil loss and
pollutant transport. Sediment presence in
reservoirs not only affect the economical
storage, but also worsen the stability condition of
the dam, increasing the pressure on the upstream
side and in extreme cased preventing the
operability of drains and thus the safety of the
reservoir itself. All the material produced and
transported to the reservoir needs to be removed to
maintain the design functionality of the structure.
Removal of sediments poses different challenges
from economic, environmental and technical
points of view. Sediments can contain pollutants
washed from slopes by rain and thus many
countries force dam managing societies to treat
them as waste. This mean that there is need to
collect them and store them in dumps. Laws
generally forbid any possibility to discharge them
in the downstream river, at least for material that
has already settled in the reservoir; therefore
collection should be done mechanically and results

1
Research Assistant, Politecnico di Milano, davide.brambilla@polimi.it, ITALY
2
Assistant Professor, Politecnico di Milano, laura.longoni@polimi.it, ITALY
3
Professor, Politecnico di Milano, monica.papini@polimi.it, ITALY

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in enormous costs linked both to material transport
and to the out of service time of the dam.
All this facts want to highlight the
consequences of a process that is often neglected
or underestimated in reservoir design, to deeply
estimate the impact that sediments have on dam
management, the costs and losses related to them,
is necessary to understand the phenomena and
processed that produce and route sediments inside
the streams.
INTEGRATED MODELLING
Estimating the amount of sediments reaching a
reservoir is not a simple task. A variety of
processes are involved and have to be understood
and simulated separately and in their reciprocal
interactions. To accomplish this task an integrated
modeling is necessary and prior to it an accurate
investigations of the processes involved. Since
sediment life is being eroded, transported along
slopes and then entering the drainage system a
first attempt to create a model leads to a division
between sediment erosion, slope movements and
stream transport.
Sediment production is due to different sources
both concentrated and scattered in the basin, a
brief analysis of sources is necessary to introduce
their modeling; among scattered sources slope
erosion, little debris flows, fault zones and bank
erosion are the main ones. Concentrated sources
are mainly due to large or medium landslide that
are worth single modeling. The model integration
is the key to link slope erosion and landslide
movements to the solid transport in rivers.
Geological and hydraulic models work on
different scales, both temporal and spatial. If the
temporal coupling could appear quite complex also
spatial coupling poses different challenges. From a
spatial point of view geological models works at
basin scale for scattered processes and local scale
for concentrated sources. On the other hand
hydraulic models work on single stream reaches
and need input data at the model starting point.
Since geological model consider, in a simple way,
the routing of sediments towards the outlet of the
basin and the hydraulic models cannot work on too
large scales, due to numerical limitations, usually a
break point is introduced, as in Radice et al., 2012.
A break point is a carefully chosen point that is
assumed as the point where geological models
compute their output, immediately fed as input
data to hydraulic models. This hypothesis allows
for a simple and effective connection between the
two kinds of simulation.
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The second problem to be solved is due to
different time scales of models. Usually geological
models work at yearly scale, common for scattered
events, or events scale, common for single process
simulation. Hydraulic models work at event scale,
thus an integration is needed; different approaches
can be considered and all need to downscale yearly
production ratio to event scale volumes.
Geological processes and models
The main geological processes involved in
sediment production will be hereby described
along with their more diffuse models, to give a
general insight before focusing on a case study.
Slope erosion is the most scattered process,
since it takes place in every point of the basin.
Many models have been developed during years to
calculate the sediment yield due to erosion.
Basically, erosion is due to rain drops impacts on
the terrain that dethatch terrain particles, winning
bounding forces, and wash them away by water
flow. Models simulating erosion are usually
divided into two main groups: physically based
and empirical. Since physically based models are
developed for limited extents, where parameters
variability can be controlled, they have been
discarded for basin application: the amount of data
and time to gather them would be too large and
costly to be of any use. The focus is moved on
empirical and semi empirical models. The most
common empirical models are USLE (Universal
Soil Loss Equation) (Wischmeier and Smith, 1978)
and its derived models RUSLE (Revised USLE,
Renard et al, 1991) and MUSLE (Modified USLE).
All these models have been developed for
cultivated land, but can be easily applied also to
basins of medium extension, proved that they are
mainly devoted to agriculture. In 1976
Z.Gavrilovic developed a different method, called
EPM (Erosion Potential Method), that is more
suitable for mountain basins. The approach was
tested on Balkanic basins in Serbia and accounts
not only for sediment production but also for
sediment routing inside the basin. This method
will be explained in detail, since it is the chosen
one for case study presented.
Gavrilovic model is basically made up of two
components: an erosion evaluation equation, used
to compute W, and a sediment routing equation,
that determines the fraction of sediment actually
reaching the closing section through the routing
coefficient R. Required inputs are topographic and
hydrologic features of the basin and three
descriptive coefficients (land use , type and
extent of erosion , soil resistance to erosion )
used to describe land erosion susceptibility. To
improve accuracy of the method and to speed up
its application a GIS application has been used,
which allows for better zoning of the basin as
tested by the authors (Brambilla et al, 2011). The
following relationships allow to compute the total
mean annual discharge of eroded material G
[m3/year]:
G W  R
W   T  H  F  Z 2 3
l p  la  O  D
R
l p  10
t
T  0 .1 
10
Figure 1. Tartano Basin DEM and drainage network
Little debris flows and hyper-concentrated
flows are the second important source of sediment
inside a mountain basins. These phenomena are for
sure local but numerous in the whole basin and
extremely difficult to be modelled one by one; the
main difficulty is linked to the exact forecast of
when they will developed. Due to these features,
models that deals with them adopt a lumped
approach trying to estimate the annual rate of
sediments from this source for the whole basin.
The model proposed is called Pesera-L and was
Z     s 
where:
G yearly sediment yield [m3]
W gross erosion [m3]
R routing coefficient [-]
T temperature coefficient [-]
H annual rainfall depth [mm]
F area of catchments [km2]
Z erosion coefficient [-]
lp length of main water course [km]
la length of minor water courses [km] (1)
O perimeter of the catchments [km]
D average elevation [km] (2)
t annual average temperature [°C]

coefficient of soil cover [-]
 coefficient of soil resistance [-]

s
coefficient of type and extent of erosion [-]
average valley slope
(3)
developed by Borselli et al (2011). PESERA-L is
an addendum to PESERA, a soil erosion model
developed by Kirkby et al, 2008., modelling
sediment yield due to shallow mass movement and
debris flows in a watershed. Its objective is the
simulation of the shallow landslides, which can
contribute to the total sediment production.
PESERA-L bases its calculation on a preexisting
catalogue of shallow landslides, their distance
from the drainage network, the capacity of the
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terrain to brake and stop landslide material and
uses the infinite slope as safety factor calculation.
Bank erosion is due to the water stream in river
scouring the side of its channel, taking away debris
and sediments that enter the water flow.
Unfortunately, the scientific community has not
developed yet a valid and wide used model to
simulate the quantity of debris that is eroded from
banks and enter the drainage system. This process
happen on two different time scales, one very short,
when huge quantity of sediments are eroded by
high flow rates after heavy rains and one very long
and linked to geomorphological evolution of the
valley. Due to time scale of geological processes
compared to human activities, this second kind of
erosion has no real impact on reservoir silting.
Finally some sediments can be eroded by fault
zones; in mountain is common to find faults and
weak zones, due to the deformation linked to the
orogenesis, this layers of fractured rock are usually
weak and easily eroded by flowing water.
Similarly to bank erosion a comprehensive model
to evaluate the sediment yield from this processes
has not be developed and so case by case
evaluation is still needed.
At last, singular large landslides need to be studied
alone, using the traditional tools of engineering
geology to assess their possible contribution to
sediment yield.
The total yield in a reservoir is due to the sum
of all these contribution and the transport
capability of the streams. The need for a hydraulic
transport explicit modeling is linked to the need of
determining the quantity of solid material reaching
the reservoir over short spans of time for drain
operation purposes.
To show how the different contributions
combine their effect a case study is presented in
the following paragraph.
TARTANO VALLEY CASE STUDY
Tartano Valley is a medium basin (50 km2)
situated in the Italian Alps, approximately 100 km
north from Milan. It extends in height from 1,148
meters a.s.l. to 2,504 meters a.s.l., with a mean
altitude of 1861 meters a.s.l.. The main river
flowing in the valley, named Tartano, is blocked
by a dam and thus the basin is subdivided into two
parts, the area upstream of the dam is about 36.2
km2 and will be the investigate portion of the
basin. It is important to notice that the authors had
the opportunity to gather information about
sediment yield in the reservoir. A bathymetric
survey has been set up for several years providing
reliable data about loss of storage capacity of the
dam. Data are reported in Table 1, mean annual
sediment yield is 38,038 m3.

Figure 2. Landslide probability computed via Pesera-L model

Table 1. Measured sediment yield (SY) in dam Year 2000 2001 2002
Year 1991 1992 1993 SY (m3) 57,299 43,187 42,022
SY (m3) 34,073 43,504 53,605 Year 2003 2004 2005
Year 1994 1995 1996 SY (m3) 22,957 50,083 21,287
SY (m3) 36,737 26,264 39,749 Year 2006
Year 1997 1998 1999 SY (m3) 27,844
SY (m3) 35,314 32,800 41,876

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 Geology of the valley comprehends four based approach has been tested and the state of the
categories of outcropping rock formations: art data considered. Thanks to improved database
massive metamorphic rocks, schistose the result could be refined: a mean value of 29,000
metamorphic rocks, strongly fractured m3/year is obtained and represent the contribute of
metamorphic rocks and sedimentary rocks soil erosion. Geometrical data were gathered by
presenting both Paleozoic and Triassic lithological Regione Lombardia map database and reported in
features. Talus and debris cover rock basement. Table 2, the empirical coefficients ,  and
Main sediment sources in the basin are landslides were estimated using a use of soil map and a
and faults; to the former belong. pedological map.

Table 2. Key parameters for Gavrilovic model

Surface of the catchment area [km2] 36.2
Perimeter of the catchment area [km] 27.0
Length of the principal waterways [km] 28.4
Length of the secondary waterways [km] 92.6
Minimum altitude [m a.s.l.] 1,148
Mean altitude [m a.s.l.] 1,861
Maximum altitude [m a.s.l.] 2,504
Land use  0.29
Type and extent of erosion  1.55
Soil resistance to erosion  0.59

Shallow landslides
Other contributions need to be evaluated
separately: scattered debris and shallow
movements have been evaluated via Pesera-L
model. Table 3 reports input and output data of the
model.

Table 3. Pesera-L input and output data

Figure 3. Piscino valley Input data Output data
Monthly Climate Erosion (monthly)
“Pruna” landslide, (downstream of the Campo Land-use, Crops and
dam) and the “Foppa dell’Orso” shallow landslide Overland flow runoff
Planting date
(upstream of the Campo dam). To the latter Soil Hydrologic and
Soil water deficit
category belong two main systems: the first with a Erosive Parameters
NE-SW direction, the other one with WNW-ESE Percentage rainfall
Topography
direction (among them is important to recall interception
Piscino Valley). In July 1987 high rainfall Vegetation biomass
combined with other climatic conditions (e.g. Cover monthly
snowmelt), originated a flood that caused Soil organic matter biomass
destructions and upheavals overall the
hydrographic network. The valley is interested by The model has been applied at the Tartano
a variety of shallow landslides, fault zones and basin to simulate the contribution of shallow
accelerated soil erosion. The authors computed a landslide to total sediment yield. A map of the
mean rainfall height of 1,376 mm/year and a mean probability of landslide is hereby presented in
temperature of 3.0°. Figure 1, is possible to notice how landslide
probability is strongly linked to slope. Total
Slope erosion sediment yield due to shallow landslide
contribution is calculated in 10,800 m3/year.
First step was the application of the Gavrilovic
method to the basin upstream of the dam; a Gis

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Fault zones Tartano basin, using terrestrial laser scanning
techniques, to determine which is the impact of
Since a satisfying model to simulate sediment
bank scouring on the total sediment yield. The
production in fault zones is not available in
campaign started in January 2014 and is still going
literature authors chose to focus their attention on
on with monthly surveys; at the moment, since we
the most critical fault present in the basin, the
are in the early stage, is not possible to assess any
already named Piscino Valley. An evaluation of
kind of relationship between material eroded and
the amount of sediments supplied by Piscino
environmental parameters. First analysis on field
Valley can help in determining whether these
data shows how bank erosion can give a contribute
sources have a key role or not in Tartano basin
to the total sediment yield, even if probably the
sediment budget.
debris that enter streams in this way is less than the
The narrow valley lays on a fractured zone and
one from slope erosion and shallow landslides. An
starting from the top of the Piscino peak runs
image of an eroded bank spot is showed in Figure
straight downwards to the river featuring high
4.
slope angles. The area is approximately 300 meters
long and 20 meters wide and completely covered
with talus and boulders coming from the rock
walls surrounding the higher part of the valley
(Brambilla et al., 2011). A little stream flows in the
valley. All the material present in the valley can
surely represent a source of sediment of large
diameter. A survey for granulometry classification
was set up in the valley (Figure 2).
The d50 value, defined as the median
equivalent sediment diameter, was calculated and
ranges for all the sections between 67 cm and
88cm. The key point to be evaluated is if the
stream in the valley is strong enough to move a
significant quantity of this sediment downwards in Figure 4. Eroded bank in Tartano basin
the Tartano river, keeping in mind the mean slope
of 22° that can surely cause boulder movements CONCLUSION
even with little thrust by water stream. An This work deals with the estimation of a
application of the Schoklitsch formula, useful to mountain basin reservoir silting through the
define critical diameter of sediment transport on evaluation and modeling of sediment production.
steep slopes, was developed to search for Various processes that take place in the basin have
minimum discharge able to trigger some been studied and evaluated separately to assess
movements along the slope. The result show that sources and quantity of debris. From an accurate
even moderate events, with 1 year return time, simulation of sources emerged that slope erosion
could cause some evaluation sections debris supply and shallow landslides are the main contributors:
to the basin, due to the impressive slope angle. their summed sediment production is 39,800
An accurate analysis of the morphology of the m3/year. The value appear just slightly bigger than
valley highlights how the regular movements are real medium sediment yield; since fault zones and
slow and involve a little fraction of the boulders, bank erosion is not included in the calculation we
while some exceptional events can trigger mass can conclude that probably the models
movements like debris flows, which took place in overestimate the production a bit. Actually, seen
2005 in Piscino valley. Given these facts the the big uncertainties in parameters determination,
contribute of Piscino valley to the total amount of the result is good and the simulation can be
sediment yield is probably negligible for a single considered successful.
year yield and biased towards big diameters that The key objective this approach cannot reach is
will reach the reservoir only in long times. a temporal assessment of sediment flow inside the
drainage network; a task of this kind requires
Bank erosion
complex real time simulation both of erosion and
Similarly to fault zones also bank erosion sediment transport in rivers. Such an ambitious
modeling is nowadays still a challenge. Authors objective requires further studies and, although
have planned a long campaign of bank survey in

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appearing a possible goal for the future, still a long
way is needed to get it.
Finally is possible to state that the approach
presented is able to estimate with a good reliability
the total volumes involved but not is variability
through different years due to changing climate
conditions and natural variability of weather.
Anyway it is possible to apply it to life time
estimation of dams and to plan debris removal
intervention in long terms.

REFERENCES
Borselli L., Salvador Sanchism. P., Batolini D.,
Cassi P., Lollino P.. (2011).PESERA-L model:
an addendum to the PESERA model for
sediment yield due to shallow mass movement
in a watersheed. CNR-IRPI , Italy Report .n.82.
scientific report deliverable 5.2.1 DESIRE.
PROJECT. Pp.28
Brambilla, D., Longoni, L., Mazza, F., Papini, M.,
(2011). Sediment yield from mountain slopes:
a Gis based automation of classic Gavrilovic
method. Proceedings of River Basin
Management VI, Riverside, USA.
Brambilla, D., Longoni, L., Papini, M., Giorgetti,
E., & Radice, A. (2011). On analysis of
sediment sources toward proper
characterization of hydro-geological hazard for
mountain environments. International journal
of safety and security engineering, 1(4), 423-
437.
Gavrilovic, S. (1976), Bujieni tokovi i erozija.
Gradevinski calendar, Beograd, Serbia.
IEA (International Energy Agency) (2014), Key
World Energy Statistics 2014, p 19
Kirkby, M. J., Irvine, B. J., Jones, R. J., & Govers,
G. (2008). The PESERA coarse scale erosion
model for Europe. I.–Model rationale and
implementation. European Journal of Soil
Science, 59(6), 1293-1306.
Radice, A., Giorgetti, E., Brambilla, D., Longoni,
L., Papini, M., (2012). On integrated sediment
transport modelling for flash events in
mountain environments. Acta Geophys. 60,
191–213.
Renard, K. G., Foster, G. R., Weesies, G. A., &
Porter, J. P. (1991). RUSLE: Revised universal
soil loss equation. Journal of soil and Water
Conservation, 46(1), 30-33.
Wischmeier, W. H., & Smith, D. D. (1978).
Predicting rainfall erosion losses-A guide to
conservation planning. Predicting rainfall
erosion losses-A guide to conservation
planning.

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 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

REHABILITATION OF DOWNSTREAM SLOPE OF EARTH DAM

DUE TO WETTING
D. Djarwadi 1

ABSTRACT: Cacaban dam was an old homogenous earth fill dam built in 1957, located near by small town of
Slawi in Central Java Province. During the evaluation of the dam performance on its 50th anniversary, it found
some defects and one of them is the wetting on the downstream slopes due to seepage, especially when the
reservoir water level was high. Detailed investigation on the standpipe piezometers indicated that the excess pore
water pressure in the downstream slope were higher than estimated values. The blocking of the toe drain was
suspected as the caused. The safety factor against sliding was also decreased comparing with the normal
condition. Rehabilitation has been carried out by adding strip drains on the surface of the downstream slope.
Numerical analysis after installation of the strip drains indicated that the phreatic water line did not cut the
downstream slope of the dam, which mean that the seepage water will not appears in the downstream slopes,
while the safety factor against sliding was also increased

Keywords: homogenous earth fill dam, seepage, downstream slope, slope stability, factor of safety

INTRODUCTION

Cacaban dam was an old homogenous earth fill
dam built on Curug Agung River. The catchments
area of the watershed was 59.00 km2. The annual
rainfall was 1,892 mm. The maximum height of the
dam was 38.00 meter, while the length on its crest
was 170 meter. The effective volume of the
reservoir was 90 x 106 m3. The main purpose of the
Cacaban dam was for irrigation, where 26,700
hectares of paddy field will receives the water from
the dam. The embankment materials were silty clay
with medium plasticity. Figure 1 and Figure 2 had
shown the location map and typical cross section of
Cacaban dam and the cross section on its maximum
depth.

Figure 1. Location map of Cacaban dam

1
PT Pamapersada Nusantara, Jln Rawa Gelam 1. No. 9. Jakarta, INDONESIA

H4-1
 Figure 2. Cross section Cacaban dam on its maximum depth
During the evaluation of the dam performance
on its 50th anniversary, it found some defects on
spillway, irrigation outlet, and wetting on the
downstream slopes especially when the water level
in the reservoir was at high level. Wetting will
disappear when the water level in the reservoir was
at the bottom half of the reservoir depth. Twenty
nine (29) standpipe piezometer was installed at the
downstream slope of the dam, but half of them
were not in function. Additional standpipe
piezometer, 13 numbers in total was installed in the
year of 2000 in order to replace and enhanced the
seepage information at surroundings the dam.
Figure 3 shown the standpipe piezometer location
on the downstream slope of the dam and
surroundings. Since 2004 the piezometer readings
indicated that the phreatic line of the seepage cut
the slope at line A and B of the piezometer group as
Figure 3. The standpipe piezometer location on the downstream slope of Cacaban dam
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shown in Figure 4. The seepage analyses using
SEEP/W software at normal condition, where toe
drain was in full function indicated that the phreatic
water line did not cut the downstream of the slope
of the dam. Figure 5 shown predicted pressure head
of the seepage, while Figure 6 shown the
comparison between predicted and actual phreatic
line on the wetting slope. Slope stability analyses
using SLOPE/W software (Geoslope, 2010a), on
the normal and wetting conditions were made in
order to acknowledge the decrease of the safety
factor of the slope due to wetting. In a normal
condition the safety factor against sliding on the
downstream slope of the dam was 2. 402, while on
the wetting slope was 1.888. Figure 7 and Figure 8
showed the safety factor of the slope on the normal
and wetting conditions.
 Figure 4. The actual phreatic line obtained from piezomeeter readings

Figure 5. The predicted pressure head of the seepage

Figure 6. The predicted vs actual phreatic line on the wetting area of downstream slope Cacaban dam

Figure 7. Safety factor of the downstream slope in normal condition

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 Figure 8. Safety factor of the downstream slope on the wetting condition
REMEDIAL WORKS
The stability analyses on the downstream slope
of the Cacaban dam shows that the safety factor of
the slope will be decrease when the slope in the wet
condition, event still higher than the lowest
allowable value (1.5). In order to account the
unforeseen and uncertainty conditions of the
seepage development in the dam body, where
backward erosion and piping may occurred, the
Authority decided to carry out the remedial works
in order to avoid further wetting on the downstream
slope of the Cacaban dam.
Seepage analysis using finite element method
by SEEP/W software was adopted to model the
most probable caused of the wetting slope
(Geoslope 2010b). Three functions, there are soil-
water characteristic, hydraulic conductivity as well
as gradation functions are required by the software.
The soil-water characteristic function developed by
Fredlund and Xing (1994), and hydraulic
conductivity developed by Green and Corey (1971)
were used in this analysis, while the gradation
function was selected from the model provided by
the software.
Further evaluation by modeling the seepage and
condition of toe drain was carried out. Three toe
drain condition was modeled, they are;
- toe drain in the normal condition,
- toe drain partially blocked, and
- toe drain completely blocked
The water level was modeled on the highest
elevation of the reservoir (HWL), since wetting of
the downstream slope was only occurred when the
elevation of the reservoir was high. The ratio of
horizontal against vertical permeability of soils was
also adjusted to refine the location of wetting on the
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slope. The seepage analyses on three conditions
above are shown in Figure 9.
The analyses show that when toe drain was
completely blocked, and the water level in the
reservoir was at high elevation, wetting on the
downstream slope may occur. The remedial works
then can be done based on this analyses result. In
order to lowering the phreatic line in the dam body,
a strip drain which installed in the surface of the
downstream slope of the Cacaban dam was
introduced.
In this case strip drain was an excavated
drainage network in a rectangular shape on the
surface of downstream slope of the Cacaban dam
connected to the toe drain. Since the strip drain
connected to the toe drain, the contact area which
assumed completely blocked will be modeled in
normal function. In this case the original sand filter
on the toe drain will removed and replace by clean
sand. This condition lead to the condition that toe
drain will be partly in normal function. The
network of the strip drain was shown on Fig 10, and
the typical cross section of the strip drain was
shown on Figure 11.
The element discretization of the model was
shown on Fig 12. Seepage analyses result indicated
that introduction of the strip drainage network on
the surface of downstream slope of the Cacaban
dam may lowering the phreatic line, and the
seepage line did not cut the downstream slope as
shown on Figure 13.
The slope stability analysis was then evaluated
using SLOPE/W software, the similar model used
in the seepage analysis was adopted in this case.
The safety factor against sliding of the downstream
slope of the Cacaban dam increased to 2.554 as
shown in Figure 14.
 a. phreatic line on the dam in the condition toe drain in normal condition

b. phreatic line on the dam in the condition toe drain partly blocked

c. phreatic line on the dam in the condition toe drain completely blocked
Figure 9. Seepage analysis on the different condition of toe drain

The construction of the strip drain was started downstream slope of the dam, even the water level
on 2007, and finished within 3 months. The on the reservoir was in full. The downstream slope
performance of the downstream slope of the dam of the Cacaban dam with it’s strip drain after
was improved, and no wetting occurred on the remedial works shown on Figure 15.

Figure 10. Network arrangement of the strip drain on the downstream slope of Cacaban dam

H4-5
 Figure 11. Typical cross section of the strip drain

Figure 12. Element discretization of the continuum for seepage analysis

Figure 13. Phreatic line after installation of strip drain on the surface of the downstream slope Cacaban dam

Figure 14. Safety factor against sliding after installation strip drain

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 Figure 15. View of the downstream slope of Cacaban and aftre installation of strip drain

CONCLUSION
The rehabilitation works on the downstream
slope of Cacaban dam due to wetting was discussed,
and the following conclusion was made;
Wetting on the downstream slope of the
Cacaban dam was mainly caused by blocking on
the sand filter of toe drain
The introduction of strip drain on the surface of
the downstream slope of Cacaban dam, and
removal and replace the sand filter on the
connection with toe drain may effectively lowering
the phreatic line of the seepage.

REFERENCES
Addicon Mulya, P.T. (2006). Study and detail
design of Cacaban Dam Rehabilitation. (in
Indonesian).
Fredlund, D.G., and Xing, A. (1994) Equations for
the soil-water characteristic curve, Canadian
Geotechnical Journal, Vol 31, no.3, pp 521-532.
Geoslope. (2010a). SLOPE/W version 5. User’s
Guide for Slope Stability Analysis.
Geoslope. (2010b). SEEP/W version 5. User’s
Guide for Finite Element Seepage Analysis.
Green, R.E., and Corey, J.C. (1971). Calculation of
Hydraulic Conductivity: A Further Evaluation
of Some Predictive Methods, Proceedings Soil
Science Society of America, Vol.35, pp. 3-8.

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 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

RISKS OF HIGH EMBANKMENTS ON STEEP SLOPES

Dipl.-Ing. Andreas Brandner 1

ABSTRACT: In steep mountain areas embankments for infrastructure – roads, dams, and landfill sites – are
often necessary. Although they seem to be simple there are high risks in design, execution and operation. In
many cases these embankments bring high loads on slopes, which are already in a limited equilibrium and cause
slope failure due to different reasons. In addition water as a driving factor deteriorates the situation.
Stabilizing solutions are often expensive and not appropriate to the surrounding – accessibility, lack of
appropriate filling soil or material, suitability for the climatic conditions, execution requirements.
Based on several built examples – rehabilitation of a damaged embankment, high embankments in creeping
slopes including soil improvement - these risks are shown and solutions to minimize them in design, execution
and operation are discussed.

INTRODUCTION inhomogeneous in Alpine and can be characterized

Discussions of failure analysis of embankments
for roads in Alpine in Austria led to the topic I
would like to present.
Some of these failures occurred already during
fill of the embankment, some occurred after
several months after completion, some after one
year. Altogether these embankments were erected
on steep slopes.
The reasons of failure and influences cannot be
restricted to Alpine but are valid in general for
slopes in any surrounding and part of the world.
For reconstruction an expert opinion on the
reasons of failure was the demand of the clients
and led to a thorough analysis of the problem and
solution finding for a stable embankment.
ANALSYIS OF STEEP SLOPES
Long term monitoring of slopes in Austria
alongside traffic infrastructure as railway lines and
roads and also around reservoirs of hydroelectric
power stations brought an interesting result based
on surveillance and geotechnical soil testing. It
may be assumed that the results not only are valid
for Alpine but for any mountain area on the globe.
Overall Geological and Geotechnical Conditions
Mountain building formed during a long time a
system of mountain ridges and valleys, mountains
are or were covered with glaciers over several
thousand years. Soil conditions are very
in general as layer of more or less humous soil
overlying either weathered slope rock or moraine
or both. Sometimes highly prestressed sediments
cover the slopes. The thickness of these layers
varies very much and can reach even more than
100 meter. Soil conditions vary between clay, silt,
sand, gravel, boulders or a mixture of these.
From the geotechnical aspect tests show, that
frictions angle is more or less equal to slope angle
or even smaller. Cohesion or apparent cohesion
can be measured as well. Packing varies strongly
and reaches from loose to firm. Surveyed slope
angles vary between 10 up to 42-43 degrees.
The soil structure is very inhomogeneous and
shows in most cases different layers changing
within short distances. This makes geotechnical
modelling very difficult and unreliable.
From the hydrogeological aspect strata water is
always an issue in the Alpine and at least occurs on
rock surface. Permeability of soil is depending on
texture – clay, silt, sand and gravel – and also on
compaction of these layers and therefore varies a
lot.
Overall Environmental Conditions
Slopes are mostly covered with some sort of
vegetation – trees, grassland, heathland - and in
high alpine are not covered at all.
Grassland is sometimes cultivated sometimes
not, human impacts are infrastructure as roads and
railway lines, extensive touristic use e.g. ski slopes

1
IB-Brandner, office@ib-brandner.com, Austria

H5-1
and intensive development with all aspects
connected e.g. surface sealing.
Slopes in Alpine are situated from 150 m up to
2000 respectively 2500 meter above sea level and
therefore exposed to different climate situations
such as frost and thaw influences and also thawing
of permafrost soil in high alpine. Due to frost-
thaw-changes the affected layers show a loose
packing down to a depth of 1 to 2 meter. In
thawing permafrost soil the depth might be much
more.
Analysis results
Resuming all geological, geotechnical and
environmental conditions the monitoring and
surveillance of many slopes as well as soil test
reports and in homogeneity of soil structure
stability analysis – results of FE-modelling are
rarely better than results of conventional methods -
lead to the conclusion, that all slopes show a limit
state stability or even are creeping and show
movements.
INFLUENCES
Based on this conclusion the influences of
embankments on the stability of these limit state
slopes are analyzed and discussed.
Natural influences
Natural influences on slopes are first of all
water – heavy precipitation, surface water, melting
process of snow in springtime – temperature –
frost, thaw, heat – earthquakes and the natural
erosion process over millions of years.
Another influence occurring is due to warming
the thawing process of permafrost in Alpine or
cold areas.
Vegetation can either have a positive
stabilizing influence as well as it can have also
negative destabilizing influences.
Manmade influences
Embankments or landfill create a permanent
load of around 18 to 22 kN/m³, which means ten
meter of embankment height puts a pressure of 180
to 220 kN on the surface. This pressure is often
much higher than the pressure imposed on that
slope in former geological times through ice or
eroded soil.
Cuttings for infrastructure projects are also a
severe impact on slopes.
Manmade interference in vegetation is also an
influence not to be neglected.
H5-2
Influence on permeability
Manmade influences cause interferences in the
natural system of slope equilibrium.
The imposed load on the soil leads to
settlement and therefore will have an influence on
the permeability of the soil layers in the slope
system due to compression of these layers.
Manmade impacts like cuttings change the
subsurface waterways as well as concentrated
discharge of surface water have severe influence
on slopes.
SOLUTIONS
Experience as well as survey and analysis
shows that slopes are in an unstable equilibrium –
any disturbance will disrupt this equilibrium.
In order to keep the impacts as low as possible
the before mentioned items
 Soil layer system
 Geotechnical soil and rock parameters
 Water
 Vegetation
 Earthquake
 Desired embankment
have to be considered in searching a solution. The
design model should be as realistic as possible and
should be as simple as possible. The model should
describe all important facts – soil layers, water in
soil – and should be reverse analyzed on
compliance to nature.
Another most important item is the site
accessibility and the possibilities one has for
construction, which can mean a lot of restrictions.
Imposed loads
Due to embankment height it must be checked,
if the ground is able to bear those loads without
reducing the stability of the slope. Otherwise a
deep foundation can help. This deep foundation
can be combined with ground anchors to solve the
problem of earth pressure.
Due to the fact, that settlement of superposed
soil layers will affect permeability appropriate
drainage measures to reduce water in soil and to
lead the water in a planned way to secure receiving
streams are most important.
To show how a solution might look like the
following examples might help to understand the
criteria easier.
EXAMPLES
The first example shows repair of an
embankment in Alpine, which was constructed for
a comfortable skirun. The second example shows
the problems of high embankments and backfill
with “upgraded” soil for a road access to a
ropeway station in an unstable steep slope.
Example 1 – Repair works of a collapsed
embankment
To widen an existing skirun in a famous winter
resort an embankment 500 meter in length with a
height from 5 to 15 meter was erected but
collapsed after one year during snow melting in
April. Deformations at the top as well as the
bottom of the wall consisting of an anchored girder
and column system of precast concrete parts
announced the upcoming collapse. Anchors had
their bondage length in the adjoining rock but were
not prestressed.
Figure1. Picture of the collapsed wall
Water coming out at the bottom of the wall
weakened the soil layers superposing the rock
beneath. The columns were supported by a single
Micropile – GEWI 50 – and ground anchors at a
horizontal distance of approximately 2,50 m in
four heights should have secured the system.
Figure 2. System scheme
Backfill was done in layers with soil coming
from an excavation nearby and was superposed on
layers of hillside weathered rock, weak moraine
covering a layer of firm moraine above the rock.
Backfill material could be classified as silty
mixture of sandy gravel and cobbles. The surface
had an inclination towards hillside gathering
surface water and lading it to the downside end of
the embankment.
Analyzing the collapsed wall and embankment
the reason of the collapse could be found in one
major problem. Due to the imposed load of the
embankment the layer of hillside weathered rock
and weak moraine was compacted and therefore
the permeability decreased. Backfill and weak
moraine were soaked by the melting water and the
occurring water pressure at the back of the backfill
led to settlement of the footage, which caused the
rupture of the precast concrete parts and collapse.
Figure 3. Damaged concrete wall system
The collapsed embankment had to be
immediately removed in order not to cause further
damage and slope slide.
After discussion of the reasons for the collapse
a system was found, which could bear the weight
of the embankment fill and was secured with
prestressed anchors bonded in the adjoining rock
layer.
Figure 4. Solution found for repair
H5-3
 A reinforced concrete pile grille supported by
Micropiles and anchored with a prestressed anchor
took the loads from the backfill, and massive
drainage layers at the bottom as well as drainage
layers spread within the embankment secured a
functioning water discharge. Drainage material
was gathered from the concrete parts crushed on
site for reuse. 5 months after construction and
repair works started the new embankments –
reinforced soil on a deep foundation – were
finished right at beginning of winter season. 2
years after completion the repair works fit neatly
into nature.
Figure 5. Damaged concrete wall system
Example 2 – High embankment on an unstable
steep slope with “upgraded” soil
In another famous ski resort in western Austria
an access road as well as widening of an existing
skirun had to be planned. The site was 700 meter
long and planned embankment heights up to 30
meters had to be constructed. The slope was
known as unstable and critical due to lots of small
gullies leading water during the whole year – full
during melting period and also when heavy rainfall
occurs.
Figure 6. Cross section planned embankment
H5-4
Soil conditions could be characterized as
weathered hillside rock with clay texture, which
was formerly preloaded by ice. Laboratory testing
showed a friction angle of 38 degrees, no cohesion,
which overlaid a rock surface in varying thickness.
Backfill material also was tested and proved
suitable for use with reinforced soil. The
parameters were crosschecked by a backwards
analysis proofing the actual situation – unstable
equilibrium.
With these parameters stability analysis was
carried out for the chosen system – pile grille on
micropiles, reinforced soil - and under a live load
of 30 kN/m² and horizontal acceleration of 0,1g as
the region lies in an earthquake zone.
Figure 7. Graphic result stability analysis
Works started in late June after snow melting
season finished but when earthworks started in
August it came out that due to bad weather
conditions nearly every day rain – the excavated
material was to wet to be compacted at all. As
there was no choice of getting an appropriate
backfill the soil was “upgraded” by adding 2
percent of lime to it. This proved after some site
compaction tests with various percentages the right
dose to get the demanded compaction. Test were
carried out with a static plate load test and the
result was the deformation modulus Ev2 > 80
MN/m².
Figure 8. Mixing unit – lime powder in silo
 Figure 9.Embankment construction

CONCLUSIONS
Thorough analysis of the site in combination
with sufficient laboratory testing of soil and rock
as well as critical consideration of test results gives
a base for solving the complex problems of high
embankments in steep slopes. It can be stated that
the major items – soil, conditions, unstable slopes
in general, water, climate influences – have to be
considered all over the world in the same way.
Design models should be simple but they
should cover all the influences possible. Results of
FE-Analysis are in most cases not better than of
conventional design methods due to very complex
systems and inhomogeneous soil and surface
conditions. It might be of scientific interest to try
an approach by using FE-analysis. More important
is survey and deformation testing as well as site
quality control. This provides not only the
accordance to the design assumptions but also
gives the opportunity to react on changes quickly.
Solutions should be appropriate to site
conditions – often heavy equipment is not possible,
available backfill is not appropriate but cannot be
changed. It proved that “flexible” solutions work
much better than rigid structures.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to say thank you to my two clients
Silvretta Seilbahnen and Arlberger Bergbahnen,
who gave the opportunity to do sufficient testing
and were willing to try an innovative solution.

REFERENCES
Hanisch, J., Katzenbach, R., König, G. (2002)
Kombinierte Pfahl- Plattengründungen
H.-G. Kempfert et al.. (2007)
Empfehlungen des Arbeitskreises „Pfähle“
Schultze E.,Muhs H. (1967) Bodenuntersuchungen
für Ingenieurbauten, Springer-Verlag

H5-5
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

SEEPAGE ANALYSIS OF PT. FREEPORT INDONESIA TAILING EMBANKMENT

Ratna Dewi 1, Yulia Hastuti 2 and Danar Kharisma Utama 3

ABSTRACT: Failure of embankment can be caused by seepage piping, fondation instability, deformation and
deterioration, and from earthquakes. However, most of the recorded failures around the world are related to
seepage problem. In this study, four kind of embankment located in Modified deposition Area (Mod-Ada), PT.
Freeport Indonesia, Timika Papua were studied. The Performance of embankment against seepage were studied
through the analysis of simulated phreatic surface. Simulations of seepage rate and phreatic surface through the
embankment were conducted using a student version available numerical model, SEEP/W. The study showed
that the SEEP/W model was able to predict (simulate) both seepage rates and phreatic surface of the
embankment. From this study show that the maksimum seepage rate value is 7,1312xE-08 m3/s with tailing
level 8,688 m at zona 3 MA 150.

Keywords: Seepage, flownet, SEEP/W, phreatic surface, water table

INTRODUCTION Problems
Background The stability of embankment becomes the first
priority in the embankment’s operation system, to
In the operation system of the rest mine
accomplish that, the seepage pattern of the
embankment located in lowland, stability factor has
embankment and the discharge’s magnitude
become the important priority in implementation
flowing at the embankment are required.
process. Therefore, the periodical research is
By observing the seepage pattern it is expected
needed about the seepage pattern occurred at the
to have the ability to correct the planned and built
embankment. By observing the seepage pattern, it
embankment, so it can prevent the embankment
is expected to have the ability to correct the planned
failure to occur. Along with the advancement of
and built embankment, so it can prevent the
technology in geotechnical field, then to observe
embankment failure to occur. This research
the seepage pattern at the west embankment of
conducted at the west embankment of PT Freeport
Modified Deposition Area (Mod-Ada), PT Freeport
Indonesia which is divided to 4 zones consisting of
Indonesia, Timika Papua, the numerical modeling
some Modified Ajkwa Deposition Area (Mod-Ada),
by SEEP/W is being used with the data input
where the site plan of this research shown by Figure
needed consisting of the embankment dimension,
1.
the level of tailing and soil permeability value.

Research Purpose
The purpose of this research are to make the
water flow model and to determine the seepage
discharge in flownet analysis by using numerical
modelling SEEP/W. The location of west
embankment located at Modified Deposition Area
(Mod-Ada), PT Freeport Indonesia, Timika Papua.
Figure 1. Site plan of Modified Ajkwa Deposition
Area Levee (Mod-ADA)

1
Lecturer at Civil Engineering Major, Sriwijaya University, dewirds@yahoo.com, Indonesia
2
Lecturer at Civil Engineering Major, Sriwijaya University, keisyi96@yahoo.com, Indonesia
3
Lecturer at Civil Engineering Major, Sriwijaya University, danarkharisma@yahoo.com, Indonesia

H6-1
Research Scope
The scope of the region at the research’s area is
the west embankment located at Modified
Deposition Area (Mod-Ada), PT Freeport Indonesia,
Timika Papua.
Meanwhile, the scopes of research are:
1. Performed the evaluation and the data process
which are the soil data thus the soil parameter,
the soil permeability coefficient used as the
program input for SEEP/W could be obtainable. Figure 2. Definition of flow line and equipotential
2. Simulating the seepage pattern by using the line (Source : Soil Mechanical Books The
SEEP/W program with the actual input Principal of Geotechnical Engineering)
parameter of the research’s result and the data
used by PT Freeport Indonesia in the meantime. The Illustration of Flow net
3. Determine the maximum value, the minimum The combination of some flow line and
value, the average value, the standard deviation equipotential line named with Flow net. In flow net
and the distribution of frequency at the making process, the flow lines and equipotential
discharge obtained from the research’s result. lines illustrated in certain way, thereby:
1. The eqipotential line is perpendicular with
LITERATURE REVIEW the flow line
The water flow in soil is the laminar flow or the 2. The flow elements were made roughly
regular flow where the Darcy law is applied: approaching the square shape
Figure 3 is an example of the complete flow net.
(1) The other example of flow net in isotropic
Where V = velocity; k = permeability coefficient; permeable soil is shown by Figure 4.
I = hydraulic gradient. The discharge value
(The volume of water flowing in each period of
time)

(2)
Where q = discharge (m3/s); A = the area of soil
surface flowing with water (m2); V = flow velocity

The Seepage Theory and Flow net

The flow line is a line along with the grains Figure 3. Illustration of the complete flow net
which will move by the permeable soil as the Source : Soil Mechanical Books The Principal of
medium. Equipotential line is a line along with the Geotechnical Engineering)
potential level at the whole points at the line is the
same.
So when the piezometer tools placed at some
different spot along an equipotential line, the water
in piezometer would increase at the same level. In
Figure 2, showing the definition of flow line and
equipotential line for the flow inside the permeable
soil layer around the pile range shown I the figure
(for kx=kz=k)

Figure 4. The flow net under the embankment

(Source : Soil Mechanical Books The Principal of
Geotechnical Engineering)

H6-2
 The illustration of a flow net usually requires
multiple times of attempting. During the illustration
process of flow net, it is an obligation to always
remember the limitation conditions. For the flow
net shown by Figure 4, the limit condition being
used is:
1. The surface of permeable layer at the
upstream and the downstream of river (ab
and de line) are equipotential lines.
2. Because ab line and de line are the
equipotential lines, all the flow lines are
perpendicular.
3. The limit of impermeable layer is fg line,
which is the flow line. Similar with the
surface of impermeable pile, and it is acd
line.
4. The equipotential lines are perpendicular
with acd line and fg line.
The Calculation of Seepage from a Flow net
In flow net, the area between two adjacent lines
named with flow channel. To comprehend the
seepage calculation passing through the flow
channel in each wide unit (perpendicular towards
the illustration plane) see Figure 4. By observing
the square with a x b, could be seen that the
hydraulic gradient is:
(3)
Where b=∆I; the potential drop between two
lines is ∆h=hL/Nd,; Nd is the sum of potential; and
hL is the total of energy loss in the system. From
the Darcy law, the sum of each flow channel could
be obtainable by:
(4)
And q for each depth is:
(5)
Where Nf = the total of flow channel in flow
net; Nd = the total of potential drop: k =
permeability coefficient; hL = the total of energy
loss; and q = the quantity of flowing water.
When illustrating the flow net, all the flow not
must be made in square shape. But the calculation
will be easier when the ratio of length and wide are
made equally (a=b).
METHODOLOGY
The methodology used in this research is
indirect research with conducted the analysis at the
data which will be used as the input. The collected
data then processed with program SEEP/W to
observing the seepage pattern and the seepage
discharge value.
Literature Study
The stage of literature study is collecting and
learning the materials related to the observed
problems. Those materials are the materials
acquired from science papers, handouts, books,
including the internet related to the observed
problems.
Collecting The Data
This stage is the stage to collect the data related
to the seepage pattern at an embankment, which
are:
a. Data of the soil parameter as the research result
b. Data of the water level at an embankment
c. Data of the west embankment dimension at
Modified Deposition Area (Mod-Ada), PT.
Freeport Indonesia, Timika Papua.
Data Processing by Using SEEP/W Program
After finishing the analysis of site plan data the
input data obtained to run the program. These data
are going used as the input for SEEP/W program
with elements model so the analysis result which is
the seepage pattern with the form of flow net. Thus,
the plotting performed towards the observed output
with the form of flow net, discharge value, and pore
water pressure.
Analysis and Discussion
After the output data from SEEP/W program is
acquired with the form of seepage’s discharge value
and pattern variation of phreatic line then the next
step is to sought the maximum discharge value,
average discharge value at the west embankment in
Modified Deposition Area (MOD-ADA), PT.
Freeport Indonesia, Timika Papua.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Data of Tailing Elevation
The conducted research of the seepage analysis
at the early stage of embankment is collecting the
data of tailing elevation consisting of hundreds
tailing elevation data at each Modified Deposition
Area (Mod-Ada) location where the records was
performed by PT. Freeport Indonesia. Thus, the
data then arranged into two parts which are the data
H6-3
of average tailing elevation and the data of Ada) along 52 km is obtainable. Based on the range
maximum tailing elevation and then the data on table then the k value, 1xE-07 m/s was obtained.
processed until the data in 2009. The simulation
towards tailing elevation is also applied at the Maximum Average Elevation until 2009
research, where the simulation conducted at each
The test conducted with the maximum average
embankment in each zone with 2 meters of data at 4 zones, which are MA 50 – MA 260.
precision. Based on the output of the test result,
The measurement of tailing level was conducted
embankment dimension with the angle of
at 4 zones consisting with some Modified Ajkwa downstream slope 18,43°, 2,4 m of tailing level
Deposition Area (Mod-Ada), the result of this then the value of seepage discharge with Q =
measurement then used as input of data processing
1,4115xE-08 m3/s was acquired.
for analyzing the seepage at embankment by using
SEEP/W program. Maximum Average Elevation until 2009
Data of Embankment
The embankment which will be analyzed The test conducted with the maximum average
divided into 4 zones, where each zone is: data at 4 zones, which are MA 50 – MA 260.
1. Zone 1 Based on the output of the test result,
Located at MA 50, has the design as follows: embankment dimension with the angle of
The wide base of an embankment is 70 m, wide downstream slope 18,43°, 6,14 m of tailing level
for the upper part of an embankment is 10 m, then the value of seepage discharge with Q =
the level of embankment is 6 m, with the angle 3,6067xE-08 m3/s was acquired.
of downstream slope is 11,3°.
2. Zone 2 Simulation at The Tailing Level
Located at MA 90 until MA 130, has the design Simulation performed at 4 zones consisting 4
as follows: The wide base of an embankment is types of embankment. This simulation performed
115 m, wide for the upper part of an with the change of tailing fluctuations from the top
embankment is 10 m, the level of embankment embankment until descend, with 2 m of precision.
is 10,5 m, with the angle of downstream slope is This simulation was performed to observe the
11,3°. influence value of tailing level towards the seepage
3. Zone 3 discharge. The example of an output from
Located at MA 135 until MA 190, has the embankment simulation at zone 4, with 22 m tailing
design as follows: The wide base of an level was shown in Figure 8.
embankment is 109 m, wide for the upper part
of an embankment is 10 m, the level of
embankment is 16,5 m, with the angle of
downstream slope is 18,43°.
4. Zone 4
Located at MA 195 until MA 260, has the
design as follows: The wide base of an
embankment is 142 m, wide for the upper part
of an embankment is 10 m, the level of
embankment is 22 m, with the angle of
Figure 5 The flow net under the the embankment
downstream slope is 18,43°. (Source : Soil Mechanical Books (The Principal of
Geotechnical Engineering)
Material Parameter of Embankment
The research to analyze the seepage of
embankment is also need the soil parameter, the
parameter used is permeability coefficient. The
permeability coefficient was determined based on
soil type contained in embankment that was being
tested before. Thus, the embankment material such
as dense sand contained in embankment at the
whole zone from MA 38 until M 270 at the west
embankment in Modified Deposition Area (Mod-

H6-4
 embankment dimension and the level of water
surface is different.
The maximum seepage discharge is in zone 3 at
MA 150 with Q = 7,1312xE-08 m3/s with tailing
level 8,688 m.
The minimum seepage discharge is in zone 4 at
MA 195 with Q = 7,813xE-10 m3/s with tailing level
0,234 m.
Based on the test, the changes of water level
have much influence towards the value of seepage
discharge.
Figure 6. Example of tailing level data at MA 230
(Source: PT. Freeport Indonesia, Timika Papua) REFERENCES
Bowles, Joseph E. (1993). Sifat-sifat Fisis dan
30

Geoteknis Tanah : Edisi kedua. Erlangga,

1.0004e-008 m³/sec

Jakarta.
Elevation

20

10
Das,Braja M. (1991). Mekanika Tanah Jilid 1.
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 Erlangga : Cetakan kedua. Jakarta.
Distance

Figure 7. Example of water movement output and Geo-Slope Office. SEEP/W for finite element
the seepage discharge at MA 215, Zone 4 with seepage analysis : version 5. (2004). Canada.
tailing level 2,44 m Mohammed, T. A. Huat, B. B. K., Azis, A. A., Mail,
30
O. S., Johari, M., dan Noor, M. M. (2006).
Seepage Through Homogenous and Non-
3.6307e-008 m³/sec
Elevation

20

Homogenous Earth Dams: Comparison

10

Between Observation and Simulation. Faculty

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Distance
80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
of Engineering University Putra Malaysia.
Figure 8. Example of water movement output and
the seepage discharge at MA 215, Zone 4 with
tailing level 6,14 m
3.7668e-007 m³/sec

30

20
Elevation

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150

Distance

Figure 9. Example of simulation output with tailing

level 22m at zone 4

Based on the test result, embankment with the

embankment dimension at zone 4, with the angle of
downstream slope is 18,43°, and 22 m of tailing
level, the seepage discharge value with Q =
3,7668xE-07 m3/s was observed.

CONCLUSION
Based on the test result, SEEP/W program can
be used to calculate the discharge at the seepage
and to simulate the phreatic line at an embankment.
Phreatic line or water table is the seepage line
at embankment when the pore water pressure value
is zero.
Phreatic line at each embankment has the
different shape. This happens because the

H6-5
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS OF PT FREEPORT TAILING EMBANKMENT

Yulia Hastuti 1, Ratna Dewi 2 and Paisal Al Raza 3

ABSTRACT: The operational system of PT Freeport Indonesia tailing embankment, the tailing elevation
condition and varibiality of soil properties have significantly effect the safety factor (SF) of slope embankment
and technically can make the failure of the slope. The effect of that to slope stability of embankment are
investigated by using slope stability SLOPE/W and the probability concept. This research is studied in west
levee ModADA Timika Papua Indonesia, at the 3rd and 4th zone. Based on the SLOPE/W and the SPSS 15
program result, on the average of tailing elevation since 2007 till 2009, the minimum SF by using Ordinary
Methods is 1. 215 and the probability of failure is 100% at the 3rd zone. The minimum SF of the maximum
tailing elevation since 2007 till 2009 is 1.186 with the probability of failure us 99.58%. The simulation elevation
tailing condition give 1.233 for the minimum SF and the proabability of failure is 62.63% at the 4th zone.

Keywords: Embankment, safety factor, soil properties, elevation tailing, SLOPE/W, probability of failure

INTRODUCTION scope which is at the embankment in west

embankment region Modified Ajkwa Deposition
Soil stability factor is the main thing to consider
Area (Mod-Ada) PT Freeport Indonesia and the
in operational system examination of the rest mine
research scopes which are as follow:
embankment PT Freeport Indonesia. At that
1. Perform the processing of data with an approach
embankment the soil parameter values and tailing
from soil investigation data by using the
level condition that varies give a large influence to
equations and tables from various source,
slope stability factor. The soil parameters were
namely Teng, 1962; Meyerhoff, 1956 and
obtained by an approach from soil investigation
Bowles, 1984. Thus, the estimation data of soil
data. Which are Conus Penetration Test (CPT) and
density, soil cohesion and shear angle parameter
Standard Penetration Test (SPT). Further, the soil
as the input for SLOPE/W program could be
parameter value and tailing level that varies at the
obtained.
embankment were used in slope stability analysis.
2. To obtain and compare the slope safety factor
In this research, the concept used were
value (SF) at the west embankment region
probability concept with the availability of average
Modified Ajkwa Deposition Area (Mod-Ada)
data and standard deviation from the embankment’s
PT Freeport Indonesia by using SLOPE/W
safety factor value. Then the percentage of unsafe
program student version with Bishop Simplified,
probability factor in technical at the rest mine
Janbu, and Ordinary methods.
embankment PT Freeport Indonesia could be
3. To obtain the unsafe probability value in
obtained.
technical at the west embankment region
The purposes of this research are to determine
Modified Ajkwa Deposition Area (Mod-Ada)
the soil parameter as the input of SLOPE/W
PT Freeport Indonesia from the average value
program based on the value from an approach of
and standard deviation value of the slope safety
soil investigation data, to analyze the slope stability
factor.
at the rest mine embankment PT Freeport Indonesia
by using SLOPE/W program, and to give the
estimation of unsafe probability factor in technical
at the embankment’s construction with probability
concept.
To restrict the discussion in this research then
the scope divided in two parts, namely the region

1
Lecturer at Civil Engineering Major, Sriwijaya University, keisyi96@yahoo.com, Indonesia
2
Lecturer at Civil Engineering Major, Sriwijaya University, dewirds@yahoo.com, Indonesia
3
College Student at Civil Engineering Major, Sriwijaya University, pa1sal_al_raza@yahoo.com, Indonesia

H7-1
 Figure 1. Site plan map, focused on the west embankment at Modified Ajkwa Deposition Area (Mod-ADA)
LITERATURE REVIEW
The Approach of Soil Investigation Data
Generally the soil parameters determined by
doing the laboratory test, but there is another way
to determine the soil parameter and that is an
approach from soil investigation data. In this
research an approach from soil investigation data
was obtained by the result from Conus Penetration
Test (CPT) and Standard Penetration Test (SPT) by
using equations and tables from various source,
namely as follows:
The value of Cu equation from conus
penetration test (CPT) result
(1)
Where:
Cu = Shear strength of undrained soil (soil
cohesion)
qc = Conus resistance value at the cone
penetration test (CPT)
Nk’ = 17-18 for weak normally consolidated
(n.c.) clays, e.g.Carse Clays
= 20 for overconsolidated (o.c.) clays, e.g.
Glacial Tills
Slope Stability Analysis
Slope stability analysis can be defined as an
illustration about stability level of a slope with
some purposes that will be analyzed and some
assumptions made in order to do the calculation.
The stability of a slope defined with a value namely
safety factor value or generally known as safety
H7-2
factor (SF). Failure condition generally assumed as
a condition where the pushing force is greater than
the resistance force.
According to Bowles, 1984 there are three
standard groups of slope safety factor and those
values can be seen in Table 1.
Meanwhile, the safety factor value that was
published by Ministry of Public Work (1986) were
based on shear strength and considered from the
risk of construction by using the parameters which
are shown in Table 2 and Table 3.
SLOPE/W Program
SLOPE/W is a program using the limit balance
method to calculate the safety factor value from a
slope. For the analysis SLOPE/W program is using
some methods which are: Bishopsimplified method,
Spencer method, Morgenstern-Price’s method,
Janbu simplified method, Ordinary (or Fellenius)
method, General Limit Equilibrium (GLE) method,
Lowe-Karafiath method, Corps of Engineers
method, and Finite Element Stress method.
SLOPE/W program covers three programs
which are DEFINE to define the model, SOLVE to
calculate the safety factor result and CONTOUR to
show the contour map.
There are three main parameters used as the
input in SLOPE/W program with Bishop, Ordinary,
and Janbu methods to find the slope stability.
Those parameters are:
a. Bulk density of soil
b. Cohesion
c. Angle of internal friction
Table 1. The Standard for Safety Factor of Slope of embankment is 6 meter and the slope of
embankment is 110
2. Zone 2
This zone has 115 meters of wide base, the wide
of the upper embankment is 10 meters, the height
of embankment is 10,5 meter and the slope of
embankment is 110
3. Zone 3
Table 2. Analysis of Slope Stability's Risk This zone has 109 meters of wide base, the wide
of the upper embankment is 10 meters, the height
of embankment is 16,5 meter and the slope of
embankment is 180
4. Zone 4
This zone has 142 meters of wide base, the wide
of the upper embankment is 10 meters, the height
of embankment is 22 meter and the slope of
embankment is 180

Table 4. Correlation of Undrained Shear Strength

of Clay (qu=2c)

Table 3. Minimum Safety Factor of Slope Stability

Table 5. An Approach of SPT Data in Non
Cohesive Soil

Table 6. An Approach of Soil Investigation Data

and Angle of Internal Friction in Non- Cohesive
Soil
METHODOLOGY
To obtain the soil parameter data is by using an
approach from soil investigation data’s result which
are the conus penetration test and standard
penetration test. This approach is using the
equations and tables from various resources that
can be seen at Equation (1) and Table 4 – Table 8.
Table 7.a An Approach of SPT Data in Non-
At the situation map, the embankment that will Cohesive Soil
be analyzed divided into four zones with each zone
has its own cross-section of the embankment design.
1. Zone 1
This zone has 70 meters of wide base, the wide
of the upper embankment is 10 meters, the height

H7-3
Table 7.b An Approach of SPT Data in Cohesive
Soil
Table 8. USCS Classification
Soil parameters data, cross section of the
embankment and tailing level data were used as the
input for SLOPE/W program in slope stability
analysis. In analyzing the slope stability, tailing
level data used are the average tailing data until
2009 and the maximum tailing level until 2009.
Besides using those data, the simulation of tailing
level to get the optimum result was also conducted.
The output that acquired from SLOPE/W
program are statistic value data of the slope’s safety
factor (SF), by using probability concept the level
of unsafe probability value in technicalat the rest
mine embankment PT Freeport Indonesia can be
obtained.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
The Process of Soil Parameters Data
To be able to performed numerical modeling in
this research, soil parameters data are required.
Those parameters can be determined by using an
approach from the result data of soil investigation
namely the conus penetration test (CPT) and
standard penetration test (SPT) according to tables
from various resources.
According to the data value of soil investigation
data in Table 9 and Table 10 at Equation (1), Table
1 – Table 5. Thus, the parameters that will be used
for SLOPE/W program were acquired and those
parameters are bulk density of soil, soil cohesion
and Angle of internal friction of soil as shown in
Table 13.
H7-4
Table 9. qc Average Value at Cone Penetration Test
(CPT)
Table 10. N-SPT Average Value at Standard
Penetration Test (SPT)
Slope Stability Analysis by Using SLOPE/W
Program
In this research to determine the safety factor of
an embankment is by doing the variation towards
tailing level at the west embankment region
Modified Ajkwa Deposition Area (Mod-ADA)
along 52 km. All the soil parameters that used in
the analysis were appropriated to Table 13 (on page
6).
Slope stability analysis with the condition of tailing
height until 2009
Based on Figure 2, when the average tailing
level is 2,88 m, the safety factor value or SF =
2,552 for Bishop method was acquired. Meanwhile
in Figure 3, shows that when the maximum tailing
level us 3,73 m then the safety factor value or SF =
2,611 with the same method was acquired. Those
examples conducted at the point of MA 50 for Zone
1 region.

Figure 2. The example of SLOPE/W program’s
result for average tailing level condition from 2007
until 2009
Slope stability analysis with tailing level simulation
The result from SLOPE/W program in Figure 4
shows that when doing the simulation with 2 m of
tailing level, the slope safety factor SF = 2,494 was
obtained for Bishop method. This simulation
example was conducted at MA 50 for Zone 1
region.
Figure 3. The example of SLOPE/W program’s
result for maximum tailing level condition from
2007 until 2009
Figure 4. The example of SLOPE/W program’s
result for the simulated tailing level condition
The Unsafe Probability Value in Technical at The
West Embankment Modified Ajkwa Deposition Area
(Mod-ADA)
The probability values can be seen in Table 11 –
Table 13 at the end of the manuscript.
Table 11. Minimum SF value and unsafe
probability factor value in technical at the condition
of average tailing level from 2007 until 2009
Table 12. Minimum SF value and unsafe
probability factor value in technical at the condition
of maximum tailing level from 2007 until 2009
Table 13. Minimum SF value and unsafe
probability factor value in technical at the
simulation condition of tailing level from 2007
until 2009
CONCLUSION
From the slope stability analysis at the west
embankment Modified Ajkwa Deposition Area
(Mod-ADA) along 52 km, the minimum SF value
and the unsafe probability value in technical were
obtain based on the standard value of safety factor
that published by Ministry of Public Work, 1986 for
each tailing level condition, namely as follows:
1. At the average tailing level condition from
2007 until 2009 the minimum safety factor
value is 1,215 and the unsafe probability
factor value in technical is 100% at Zone 3
with Ordinary method.
2. At the maximum tailing level condition
from 2007 until 2009 the minimum safety
factor value is 1,186 and the unsafe
probability factor value in technical is
99,58% at Zone 3 with Ordinary method.
3. At the tailing level condition that was not
simulated from 2007 until 2009 the
minimum safety factor value is 1,233 and
the unsafe probability factor value in
technical is 63,23% at Zone 4 with
Ordinary method.
H7-5
 The maximum value of unsafe probability factor
in technical from those three tailing level conditions,
the maximum value is in Zone 3.

GRATITUDE
The writers deliver their genuine gratitude to PT
Freeport Indonesia for the data given related in
order to conduct this research.

REFERENCES
Badan Litbang PU Departemen Pekerjaan Umum,
Pedoman Rekayasa Lereng Untuk Jalan.
Direktorat Bina Teknik, Jakarta, 2005.
Bowles, Joseph E, Physical and Geotechnical
Properties of Soil. McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Singapore, 1984.
Canonica Lucia, Memahami Pondasi. Penerbit PT
Gramedia Pustaka Umum, Jakarta, 2009.
Gui, Shenxiang, Renduo Zhang, John P. Turner,
and Xuzhang Xue, ProbabilisticSlope Stability
Analysis With Stochastic Soil Hydraulic
Conductivity. Journal of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Engineering, Vol. 126, No. 1,
Jan, 2000.
Hary Christiady H, Mekanika Tanah 2. Penerbit PT
Gramedia Pustaka Umum, Jakarta, 1994.
Ortigao, J.A.R., T.R.R. Loures, C. Nogueira., and
L.S. Alves, Slope Failures In Tertiary
Expansive OC Clays. Journal of Geotechnical
and Geoenvironmental Engineering, Vol. 123,
No. 9, Sept, 1997.
Pedoman penulisan laporan Kerja Praktek dan
Tugas Akhir (Skripsi). Jurusan Teknik Sipil
Fakultas Teknik Universitas Sriwijaya.
Indralaya, 2010.
Sari, Yulinda, Laporan Tugas Akhir “Studi
Mengenai Faktor-Faktor Yang Mempengaruhi
Stabilitas Lereng Alam Dengan Program
Slope/W”. Jurusan Teknik Sipil Fakultas Teknik
Universitas Sriwijaya, Indralaya, 2003.
Zdankus, Narimantas Titas, Gediminas
Stelmokaitis, Clay Slope Stability Computations.
Journal of Civil Engineering and Manajement,
Vol. 14, No. 3, Agt., 2008,pp. 207-212.

H7-6
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

A NEW PHYSICAL MODELING APPROACH TO ANALYZE SLOPE STABILITY

FOR SHALLOW LANDSLIDE ASSESSMENT
Z. Yousaf 1, T. Lebourg 2 and D. Provitolo 3

ABSTRACT: Slope failures are always catastrophic due to their large affected areas and great energy, generated
by collapsed soil or rock mass and high velocity run-out distance. Slope stability analysis is the most important
criteria to assess landslides leads to loss of life and have greater economic losses. The current study is conducted
in Bar-Sur-Loup located in south-east of France. The whole region is particularly vulnerable to climate change
and climate related geophysical hazards. Climate change driven due to interactions of oceanic-atmospheric and
hydrological process results into unpredictable heavy precipitations; the main trigger of shallow landslides. The
study area is continuously exposed to heavy rainfall events throughout the year. The recent variation in rainfall
frequency and intensities were found on 5 November, 2011 where > 450mm/24h and in June 2014 > 120mm/3h
were recorded. These extreme rainfall events are significant to trigger shallow slope failures. The objective of
this paper is to present factor of safety maps, developed by ALICE (Assessment of Landslide Events by climatic
Events) software developed by BRGM is based on Morgenstern-price method and includes mechanical approach
(model geotechnical) for which the main physical properties of medium are quantified and used a mathematical
model that calculates a safety factor (Aleotti & Chowdhury, 1999). This study involves the prediction of future
slope failures in response to climate change which impact on local ground water fluctuations as quick rise in
water table just after heavy precipitation is common phenomenon within this region. To analyze the impact of
ground water rise on slope stability we generated deferent scenarios of water table rise within vadose zone
between the depth -10m below ground surface and -1m close to ground surface. Reviewed geotechnical
properties of effective cohesion and effective angle of internal friction were used to analyse slope stability.
Results indicated that water table rise due to heavy precipitation can trigger shallow landslides predicting
reduction in FS values with increasing levels of water table (-3m) that accounts 5% increase in instability.

Keywords: Slope stability, gravitational hazards, extreme events, geotechnical and hydrological modeling

INTRODUCTION vulnerable to climate change and climate related

geophysical hazards as a result of extreme
Slope failures are always catastrophic due to
variation in mean temperature and precipitation,
their large affected areas and great energy,
where recent variation in rainfall frequency and
generated by collapsed soil or rock mass and high
intensities were found in the year 2000, 250mm/2
velocity run-out distance. Slope stability analysis
days (Lebourg et al., 2010), on 20 October 2008,
is the most important criteria to assess landslides
164mm and on 1st November 365mm/4hr
leads to loss of life and have greater economic
(Fresnay et al., 2012) while other rainfall events
losses. These slope failures usually have small to
occurred on 5 November, 2011 where >
medium dimensions and typically affect the soil
450mm/24h and in June 2014 > 120mm/3h was
mantle and upper regolith, tending to evolve into
recorded. These extreme rainfall events are
unconfined debris flows which can affect
significant to trigger shallow slope failures.
infrastructure, houses or cultivations (Begueria S.
Although a considerable amount of research
2006).
has been conducted to develop understanding of
The current study is conducted in Bar-Sur-
landslides initiation, dynamics and gravitational
Loup (BSL) located in south-east of France
instabilities within Alpes-Maritimes but few
officially bounded within department of Alpes-
studies are found to integrate the knowledge on
Maritimes. The whole region is particularly
ground water rise as a main triggering factor

1
University of Nice Sophia Antipolis, zahidayouasafyahoo.com, PAKISTAN
2
University of Nice Sophia Antipolis,Thomas.lebourg@geoazur.unice.fr,FRANCE
3
University of Nice Sophia Antipolis, provitolo2geoazur.unice.fr, FRANCE

I1-1
causing temporal and spatial evolution of shallow
landslides hazard within Bar-Sur-Loup (BSL).
This paper presented first results to simulate
ground water fluctuation after sudden and heavy
rainfall. Consequently different scenarios of
ground water rise in response to heavy and
extreme rainfall events leading to slope instability
causing potential shallow landslides were tested.
Slope stability analysis were employed by taking
into account geotechnical parameters as referenced
soil effective cohesion (c’) and effective angle of
internal friction (ø’) combined with hydrological
modeling where systematic rise in water table were
tested for constant geophysical parameters. The
objectives of the study were to determine:
1.To determine the impact of ground water rise
on slope stability by keeping constant effective
cohesion and effective angle of internal friction.
2.To determine shallow landslide evolution up to
10m landslide length within BSL.
3.To analyze the impact of dry and wet
conditions on slope stability
To model shallow landslides under above
stated objectives a new landslide physical
modeling software ALICE (Oliver et, al. 2011)
was used (Source: BRGM). This software uses
specific algorithm for computing factor of safety
maps based on limit equilibrium “Morgenstern –
Price method” to identify the areas more
susceptible for shallow landslides, and how
saturation of vadose zone increases the probability
of shallow landslides to occur.
This paper first explains the historical
landslides and their spatial distribution within
department of Alpe-Maritimes and the localized to
our study area (BSL). Then we have discussed
study area and explained our methodology to
assess landslides susceptibility. Last section
explains our results of factor of safety and shallow
landslide hazard mapping.
Historical Landslides
Historically this region is prone to different
types of geophysical hazards and gravitational
instabilities. To identify the special distribution of
historical landslides hazards we obtained data from
GeoRisque site (http://www.georisques.gouv.fr/).
Different types of mass movements are then
mapped and represented in Figure 1. This data
comprises from 619 total landsides events out of
which 186 are rock falls, 18 are flow type, 22
corresponding to collapse, 7 types are based on
river banks erosion while 386 are landslides (deep
seated, shallow etc).
I1-2
Our Study area (BSL) had experienced
devastating landslides back into the history (100
years). Unfortunately the date and volume of these
landslides are not available in the literature which
trace back into the history (Figure 1). Further it
was also noticed that the area is badly affected and
many signs of instability are present particularly
within human construct. Significant horizontal
stress can be observed along road D2210 where
deformed retaining walls determined shear stress-
strain behavior and impact of shear stress on
retaining walls within study area. The creeping
phenomenon also found dominant relevant to
deformation along the slopes ranges from 10 – 30
degree. Slow, distributed forms of mass movement
such as creep are generally not consider as
disruptive (Glade et al., 2005) as rainfall trigger
shallow landslides which are characterized by high
velocity and high impact energy (Giannecchini et
al., 2012). Consequently the urban expansion and
development of rural areas continuously generated
impermeable surfaces leading to excessive runoff
during wet season.
STUDY AREA
BSL is a small commune of district Grasse
located at southwestern part of department Alpes-
Maritimes. (Figure 1 ). This study area is situated
on the southern edge of the Arc de Castellane.
Stratigraphic land of the municipality formed from
Jurassic to Quaternary with a gap for the
Cretaceous Tertiary. From the west part of town
Jurrassique constitutes to a flat terrain ranging to
low slopes on average. Moderate to steep slopes
were found in the central and northern part of
study area where the major slope relief constitutes
to scree Quaternary and Triassic components.
Scree grouped into different forms of debris,
alluvium and colluviums deposits that form Valley
floor. Triassic is represented by outcrops of
Keuper and Rhaetian.
Keuper underwent dated back roughly 4
million years forming about 100m very thick layer
and heterogeneous, composed of colorful green
marl pastel burgundy, green marl mignonette,
plastic clays, dolomites well locally laminated
light tan or gray and gypsum lenses (Spini, 1978).
This sedimentary layer is dominated by urban
expansion; major human activities are found there
due to which it appears as fragmented and poorly
affected by flash floods and heavy rains. Many
signs of deformation and instability are visible
within this layer.
 Figure 1. Location of Study area and Historical Landslides within Department of Alpes-Maritimes
The Rhaetian underwent Triassic dated roughly
4 million years which is composed of green marl
and calcareous marl yellowish to gray at its base.
The flat relief Jurassic in the western part of the
town separate the slopes of central part and a cliff
line with strong to very strong slopes extends from
southern end to the north end of the town. The
eastern end is supported by Bajocian underlies
Dogger (Jurassic) composed hard red limestone
with flint; reveal a very rugged terrain with strong
slopes. The study location is presented in Figure 1.
METHODOLOGY
To analyze slope stability two types of
software were used. Geographic information
system ArcGIS 10.1 was used to create preparatory
layer that could be read by ALICE during
modeling stability. Primary data involves (DEM
5m, lithological layer and geological map of BSL)
was obtained by BRGM. Digital elevation model
was used to create input layers of slope, aspect,
flow accumulation and flow direction. The
conceptual framework shown in Figure 2 is used to
model shallow landslides triggered by extreme
climatic events (rainfall).
Figure 2. Conceptual model to quantify
gravitational instabilities and shallow landslide
hazard
Geotechnical parameters were introduced into
ALICE by means of probabilistic distribution
(normal, uniform, triangular, or trapezoid). A
distribution is attributed for each soil parameter
cohesion and angle of internal friction and unit
weight for each soil layer (Olivier et al, 2011).
Hydrological modeling was done by setting
piezometric minimum and maximum levels
corresponding between -10m below ground
surface and -1m close to ground surface along the
soil profile. We also tested dry and wet conditions
to analyze landslide initiation by setting
piezometric level at 0 (dry condition) 0.5
(moderately wet) and 1 (complete saturation)
which is used to define effective piezometric depth
and are kept constant throughout study area (Baills
et al. 2013). These piezometric levels were then
systematically tested for given geotechnical
parameters. Systematic rise in water table are
presented in Figure 3.
I1-3
Figure 3. Schematic Diagram for Water Table Rise From W-10m to W-1m; figure (a) depicts water table before
rainfall, while figure (b) showed rise in water table after heavy and frequent rainfalls
Giving input to ALICE the software
automatically creates soil profile based on 2D
topographic profile; by selecting one profile
software calculates stability for the whole study
area.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Our study area is mainly characterized by risk
of landslides, gravitational instabilities due to
natural as well as anthropogenic factors. This
paper identified susceptible areas where the
probability of shallow landslide occurrence is high.
It is common understanding that landslide may
trigger due to increase in stresses acting on a
hilslope than the soil shear-strength. Moreover the
causative factors may clearly be recognized as
bedrock geology, topography, lithology, seismicity,
climate change, geotechnical properties, rainfall
characteristics (intensity and duration), erosion,
soil-moisture conditions, water table position, and
land-use patterns. Rather than acknowledge to all
these factors human interferences is another
important consideration that have significant
impact to trigger landslides. The common
observation for shallow slope failures could be
drawn as the failure occurrence is ultimate cause
of rainfall that is directly related to alter slope
hydrology (Cappa et al., 2014, Godt et al., 2009,
Dehn et al, 2000, Rahardjo et al 2002). Slope
hydrology is changed with amount of rainfall it
receives. Changes in nature and natural process are
continuous due to which slope geology is
continuously affected by number of internal and
external forces.
Our study area (BSL) receives average annual
rainfall up to 843 mm and most rainfall events
occur from September to March. During this
period area is subjected to heavy precipitated and
flash floods accompanied by physical weathering
and erosion. Usually the slope failures account for
I1-4
heavy rainfalls involves infiltration through the
unsaturated zone above the ground water table
(Rahardjo et al.2002). These unsaturated zones
modify slope morphology after receiving high rain
infiltration. Consequently soil becomes saturated
through excess of an antecedent soil moisture
deficit, and the ongoing rainfall rate exceeds the
rate of ongoing subsurface flow and/or drainage
(Kusumastuti et al. 2007). This increase in rainfall
may thus affect hill slope stability reducing safety
factor through dynamic loads during high-intensity
rainstorms, slope undercutting, or redistributions
of topography-induced stresses in rock slopes
(Ballantyne, 2002,). Consequently rainfall
infiltration is a major cause to build pore water
pressure and therefore reduces the soil shear
strength. Excess seepage through ground surface
may influences groundwater conditions, therefore
in wet season consequent rise in piezometric level
was reported (Lebourg et al., 2010).
It was observed that the portion of soil above
ground water table where the pore water pressure
is negative are usually ignored (Fredlund 1989).
This portion has relevant importance in stability
analysis as consisting of unsaturated soil matrix
essential for slope stability. Perhaps rise in
negative pore pressure were usually found within
this portion. However consequent increase in pore
pressure causes reduction in shear strength at the
base of shear surface leading to increase shear
stresses on sliding mass.
More precisely, rapid response of pore pressure
to rainfall is due to rapid gravitational flow
through preferential flow paths of infiltrating water
to the depths like fissures or cracks made by
previous landslides (Van Asch and Buma, 1996;
Matsuura et al., 2008). Indeed, the response of
pore water pressure to rainfall infiltration could be
gradual or rapid depending on intensity of rainfall,
runoff and permeability of slope material at which
slope is composed. Corsini et al. (2005) described (0.5) conditions have shown exactly similar trends
that the movement on the shallower sliding where slightly higher percentages were found
surfaces has been more influenced by smaller when water table reached at W-3, W-2 and W-
water table fluctuations related to precipitation 1and predicted 3% instability within BSL. On the
pattern. other hand the change in climatic conditions to due
All of above mentioned factors particularly to extreme events as heavy precipitation etc the
rainfall infiltration and consequent rise in water piezometric level (1) determine consistency in
level interest us to formulate our work by results of FS from W-10 to W-4 but the probability
presenting different scenarios of ground water rise of slope failure is relatively higher than
and determine probability of shallow landslides to piezometric level 0 and 0.5. Similarly a significant
occur. Therefore hydrological and geotechnical increase were found when FS values were
modeling were used to predict shallow landslide calculated for water table rise from W-10 meter to
prone areas. We have tested 10 scenarios of W-4 meter within vadose zone, but as the negative
ground water rise by taking into account landslide pore-pressure increases up to the depth of W-3m a
length of 10meter deep. Results of these scenarios difference in safety factor was found with slightly
were obtained as factor of safety maps (FS) increased probabilities and lead to further
(Figure 4) and shallow landslides hazard maps increased when the level of ground surface
(Figure 6) using referenced effective cohesion and becomes completely saturated with water (W-1).
effective angle of internal friction values with These quantified instabilities could be assumed, as
systematic increase in ground water within vadose impact of heavy rains and groundwater fluctuation,
zone from -10 meter deep into ground to -1 meter developing negative pore water pressure that
close to ground surface. The aim behind testing causing significant reduction in resisting properties
different ground water fluctuations is to predict of slope material. Al these factors of destabilizing
impact of extreme climatic conditions on local slope could be correlated with recent increase in
gravitational instabilities. Three climatic temperature and precipitation anomalies.
conditions were tested initially to draw certain This baseline study provides us the opportunity
assumptions for further stability analysis. These to model extreme rainfall events due to climate
climatic scenarios were based on dry and wet change and predict impact on safety factor by
conditions as explained in previous section. Result rising water table within vadose zone (negative
of these scenarios is presented in Table 1 to pore pressure). Indeed, rising ground water level is
address the FS values for dry conditions, the main triggering and driving factor for
moderately wet or averaged condition and wet landslides (Cappa et al., 2013).
conditions leading to slope failure.
Developing Negative Pressure and Surface
Table 1. Ground water rise from W-10 to W-1 and Evolution
corresponding FS values (in percent) for three
climatic scenarios As we have discussed in previous section,
increasing water table within vadose zone can
Ground Piezometric Piezometric Piezometric
water rise Level (0) Level (0.5) Level (1) affectively destabilize slope. In this section we are
W-1 3.9 3.9 9.1 going to elaborate our understanding by taking into
W-2 2.1 2.1 5.1 account the selected maps based on initial
W-3 1.6 1.6 4.3 observation, those correspond to W- 4m to W-1m
W-4 1.5 1.5 4
W-5 1.4 1.4 4 (Figure 5) as quantification of instabilities are
W-6 1.4 1.4 4 presented in Table 1 determines same probabilities
W-7 1.5 1.5 4 up to W-4m. Therefore the results obtained in FS
W-8 1.4 1.5 4 maps corresponding to W-4m can be applicable for
W-9 1.5 1.5 4
W-10 1.5 1.5 4 rest of maps (W -10m to W -5m) to compare the
surface evolution.
The test results from three climatic scenarios To analyze and understand well we have
are presented in table here determine impact of defined active destabilized zones within BSL into
water table rise on slope stability. It was observed 2 zones as instability zone 1 and instability zone 2
that the percent FS values for dry (0) and averaged (Figure 5). The description of surface evolution
within these 2 zones is discussed below.

I1-5
Figure 4. Representation of FS maps simulated with different piezometric levels from depth of W -10m to W-1m

Figure 5. Represents the selected unstable zones corresponding to ground water fluctuations from W-4m to
W-1m

I1-6
 Figure 6. Represents the evolution trends in shallow landslides within Study Area based on wet climatic
conditions to predict impact of heavy rainfall on landslide evolution.

Instability zone 1 For example in instability zone 1 the green and

yellow area increased with reference to previous
Instability zone 1 is found at west of BSL near
maps and red area also follows the same evolution
industry Mane along D3 road.
pattern. But spots of red color found in the middle
of yellow area were previously absent, indicating
FS W-4m
high instabilities for this region. Here the
We can observe instability zone 1 in Figure 5
probabilities are quantification for FS W-2m map
corresponding to W-4m, the blue circle indicated
are 5.1%.
the area discussed under zoom W-4 map. We have
seen that majority of pixels corresponding to
FS W-1m
instability are presented in two colors, yellow FS
The map zoom W-1m represented water table
values ([0.9, 1]) and green (> 1). Where
close to ground surface. Here the probability of
proportion of instability in green is higher than
shallow landslide occurrence increases up to 9.1%.
yellow. While few pixels accounts for red color
Due to which the maps shows higher evolution for
indicates FS values (< 0.9). The total probability of
instability zone 1. In zoom W-1m most of green
FS quantification is 4% as described in Table 1.
area is replace by yellow pixels FS between 0.9 – 1
with increased red areas.
FS W-3m
The instability zone 1 in zoom W-3m indicated
Instability Zone 2
the presence of green and yellow area that were
initially absent in zoom W-4m. Another This zone is located on the road 2210. This
consideration is increased probabilities are found region is located at an altitude between 350 to 400
by converting some of green area into yellow and meters. At the foot of this mountain another
few yellow areas are directly converted into red chemical industry Mane is located.
color with increasing water table up to W -3m. The
total probability of FS quantification is 4.3%. FS W-4m
Probabilities of shallow landslides for
FS W-2m instability zone 2 in zoom W-4m have shown only
As the water table rises up to W -2 meter in two colors where spatial distribution classes seems
zoom W-2m the spatial evolution also predictable. to be equal and no signs of red area is found.

I1-7
FS W-3m
There is small or no significant difference
when water table rise reaches W-3m in instability
zone 2.
FS W-2m
The clear difference in probabilities of shallow
landslide occurrence is found with W-2. Red areas
correspond to spatial evolution that was absent
previous two maps with increase in yellow areas
previously accounted for green.
FS W-1m
As we have discussed earlier that probability of
shallow slope failure increases up to 9.1% when
subjected to water table close to ground level. Here
the surface evolution is presented in zoom W-1m
which indicated larger area contributed to
instabilities. Few green areas are visible because
most of green colored pixels is now indicated
instability class under yellow color. While the
higher instabilities under red color resulted in
surface evolution accounted from yellow area.
Prediction of Future Shallow Landslides
Simulation of future landslide activity was
model by keeping in mind the impact of climate
change on regional landslide problem. As
Mediterranean region is known to be one of the
most vulnerable place for climate change which
leads to natural variability of climate system.
Climate variability leads to long-term changes in
rainfall patterns due to day to day temperature
variability. For this reason it is important to model
shallow landslides simulations with increased
water table, because ground-water levels rose
mostly during and immediately prior to a wet cycle
(Ashland et al. 2006). In this view, to observe
impact of hydrological conditions on local geology
we have selected three water table depths (W-10m,
W-5m, and W-1 m) for wet climatic conditions
(Piezometric level 1). Although test for dry and
moderately wet conditions were also tested (Table
2).
Table 2. Ground water rise from W-10, W-5 and
W-1 (meter) and corresponding Hazard values (in
percent) for three climatic scenarios
I1-8
Geographic information system was then
employed to reclassify hazard maps into relatively
instable zones as hazard zones, medium hazard
zones and low hazard zones (Figure 6). The
general classification for landslide hazard zone
under red color considered being high hazard zone;
yellow color under medium hazard zone; while
green color corresponding to low landslide zones.
It is interesting to find the surface evolution and
spatial distribution of shallow landslides into red
color by comparing rest of maps.
The landslide high hazard zones presenting
very unstable zone where probability of landslides
are likely to occur. This degraded area involved
higher slopes along road cuts and some medium
slopes of valley. A number of remedial measure
has already been applied but due to high altitude
most of the area required further investigation
which can positively prevent recurrence of
landslide hazard. The landslides corresponding to
medium hazard are susceptible areas which may
trigger landslides. While low hazard zones
considered to less effecting in present conditions
but future climatic condition may have significant
impact if proper mitigation measures and drainage
adaptation are lacking in decision making. Another
aspect could be anthropogenic pressure and
erosion processes along temporal and spatial scale
may also needs specific attention as a controlling
factor in stabilizing slope.
CONCLUSION
Climate change and extreme weather
conditions within Mediterranean region have
significant impact on shallow slope failures. Bar-
Sur-Loup is small municipality but confronted to
higher probabilities of shallow landslide hazard.
Different scenarios of ground water rise help us to
determine future impacts of saturation as a result
of extreme rainfall during the month of September
to March. Study area is already susceptible to
structural deformations which indicated increase in
shear stress due to reduction in cohesion and angle
of internal friction. We have seen, probability of
shallow landslide increased with increasing pore
water pressure from W-3m to W-1m close to the
ground. Many factors may lead to shallow slope
failures such as building negative pore pressure,
increased infiltration as fluid are considered as one
of the most important triggering and increasing
factor to trigger landslide (Swan et al., 2010).
Other factors may include slope angle, local
geology and morphology of slopes, extent of
seasonal erosion and weathering and impact of
increased anthropogenic activities.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to acknowledge by the
mobility funded by EMMA in the Framework of
EU ERASMUS MUNDUA Action 2. We also
express our gratitude to BRGM for providing data
and ALICE software for the entire period of this
study.
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Bedoui, S., Jomard, H., & Fresia, B. (2010).
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I1-9
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

CENTRIFUGE MODEL TESTS AND NUMERICAL ANALYSES OF SLOPE

REINFORCED BY ROCK BOLT WITH FACING PLATE

S. Nakamoto 1 and J. Takemura 2

ABSTRACT: Rock bolt with facing plate is one of soil nailing method used on natural slope. By adding
prestress to the slope through the plate, it can be effectively applied to a slope with relatively small strength, such
as highly weathered rock. To study the mechanisms of this kind of reinforcement and the effects of the prestress
of facing plate, a centrifuge model test system which can simulate the preloading process of the rock bolt with
facing plate in a slope was developed and the static loading tests were performed to the reinforced slope by an
inclining table. Using the system, the centrifuge model tests were performed with different preloading forces.
From the tests, it was found that the larger the prestress is the better reinforcement effect. However the effect of
the prestress on the stability becomes smaller as the prestress increase. In addition to the model tests, Three-
dimensional finite element simulations also conducted on the centrifuge model. In the simulations, plastic
calculation and safety calculations were performed for mutual complement with the model test results.

Keywords: Centrifuge model test, soil nailing method, slope reinforcement, prestress

INTRODUCTION also conducted on the centrifuge model. In this

paper, the model test technique and the results of
Rock bolt with facing plate is one of soil nailing the model tests compare to that of finite element
method used on natural slope. As other simulations are reported.
conventional soil nailing methods, it is very useful
to suppress slope deformation without cutting tree. CENTRIFUGE MODEL TESTS
Furthermore, it also can be effectively applied to a
Loading System and Test Setup
slope with weak soils, such as highly weathered
rock by adding prestress to the slope through the In the tests, a relatively weak sand slope with 3
plate. To study the reinforcement mechanisms, m thickness resting on a stiff bottom slope was
many researches have been done on the slope modeled in a rigid box with inner dimension of 450
reinforced by this method using small scale 1g mm in length, 100 mm in width and 300 mm in
physical models and centrifuge models (Hayashi et depth.
450
al. 1986) (Tei et al. 1998).
From previous studies, as mentioned above, 0
0 B=40mm
1
reinforcing effects of soil nailing and facing plate
have been confirmed for various conditions. ：LDT
：Potentiometer
However, because of the difficulty in controlling Hoisting jack
：Load cell
the preloading to the facing plate, the effects of the Rigid box
prestress of facing plate on the stability of Facing plate

reinforced slope have not been well studied. In this

5
7
study, a centrifuge model test system which can 2

simulate the preloading process of the rock bolt

with facing plate in a slope was developed and the
static loading test were performed to the reinforced Tension of wire F
15° displacement markers Unit: mm
slope by an inclining table. In addition to the model
tests, three-dimensional finite element simulations Figure 1. Front and top views of model slope

1
Student, Tokyo Institute of Technology, zhao.s.aa@m.titech.ac.jp, JAPAN
2
Associate Professor, Tokyo Institute of Technology, jtakemur@cv.titech.ac.jp, JAPAN

I2-1
 The bottom slope is made of aluminum plate the slope (σpi). Average prestress of the two facing
with small holes 100 mm interval. Steel wire with plate varied from 54 kPa to 136 kPa, which is about
facing plate is pulled by hoisting jack through the 30% to 80% of the load intensity at the plate
hole and two wheels as shown in Figure 1. A settlement obtained from the pull-in loading test
miniature load cell placed on the facing plate to (Figure 4). Rp showed in Table 2 is the ratio of
measure the load applied to the plate from the wire prestress to overburden pressure at the bottom of
(Figure 2). The rigid box is mounted on the the sand slope (tγt).
inclination table, which can incline the model by
200. The inclination table has been used in Wire lock
load cell f =10mm
centrifuge model studies to impose the pseudo
static seismic force to model slopes (Saito et al.
1995) (Izawa et al. 2003). Equivalent seismic
intensity αh by the inclination angle Δθ is given by f =5mm
(1): Facing
plate wire
 h  tan    (1)
Figure 2. Load cell placed on the facing plate
Model Preparation and Testing Procedures
The weak sand slope was made of moist
Edosaki sand with the index and mechanical
properties shown in Table 1. The sand was prepared
on the stiff bottom slope with 150 inclination
(Figure 1). Edosaki sand was glued on the surface
of the bottom slope to create a rough surface. The
sand was statically compacted layer by layer using
loading plate while two wires inserted into the
holes on the bottom slope with 100 mm interval.
Figure 3. Inclination table
Having made 80 mm thick sand layer, white
soumen noodles with black dots are inserted in Table 1. Properties of compacted Edosaki-sand
front of the slope for visual observation of ground used in the test
deformation. 2 mm thick aluminum made model
facing plates with 40mm square were placed on the Specific gravity: Gs 2.72
slope surface and then the miniature load cells were Mean grain diameter: D50 0.29 mm
fixed to the wires (Figure 2). As the model box was Uniformity coefficient: UC 26.4
placed on the 150 inclined slope base which is fixed Maximum dry density: ρdmax 1.78 g/cm3
to the inclination table as shown in Figure 3, the Optimum water content wopt 15 %
initial angle of the model slope (θi) was 300. Bulk density of compacted sand: ρt 1.45 g/cm3
After centrifugal acceleration of 37 g was Water content of compacted sand:w 15 %
applied to the model, preloads were applied to the Degree of compaction: Dc 70 %
facing plate by pulling the wires in 37 g. The model Friction angle*: φ’ 29.4°
slope was inclined up to 500 from 300 after Cohesion*: c’ (kPa) 2.7
preloading process. In this study a relatively low *: strength parameters obtained from direct shear test
compaction degree of the sand, Dc = 70%, was
under vertical stresses from 9 to 41 kPa.
adopted in order to create reasonable amount of
deformation in the slope by this range of inclination. Table 2. Condition of test cases
Lateral displacement (δP-1, δP-2) and settlement (SP-1,
SP-2) of the facing plates, lateral displacements of Test case B/S Prestress: σpi Rp=σpi /tγt
the slope surface (δS-1, δS-2) and tensile forces CaseNR － － －
applied to the wires (TP-1, TP-2) were measured by Case1 0.4 (B = 40 mm) 54 kPa 1.3
lazar transducers (LDTs) and potentiometers. Case2 0.4 (B = 40 mm) 89 kPa 2.1
Deformation of the slope was also monitored by Case3 0.4 (B = 40 mm) 112 kPa 2.7
video camera during the inclining test. Case4 0.4 (B = 40 mm) 136 kPa 3.2
Table 2 shows the conditions for the five tests
presented in this paper. Parameter studied in the
tests is the prestress applied from the facing plate to

I2-2
 Plate contact pressure σp (kPa)
200 Pull-in loading test 12 12
δS-1

Displacement δ (mm)
Case4
150 Case2
10 CaseNR 10 δS-2
Case3
8 8 δP-1
100 δP-2
6 Case1 6
Case4
50 Upper Lower 4 4
Case3
Case1 2 Case2 2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
0 0
Settlement (mm) 30 40 50 30 40 50
Figure 4. Relationships between the contact Slope angle θ (degree)
pressure and settlement of facing plated observed in Figure 5. Observed displacement in the inclination
the pull-in loading test and preloading process tests
before the inclination test

(a) Case NR (b) Case 1 (c) Case 4

Δθ=20
Δθ=20
Δθ=14
Maximum Slope angle θmax=44 Maximum Slope angle θmax=50 Maximum Slope angle θmax=50

Figure 6. Observed slope deformations

TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS in the case with large prestress the movement of the
upper part of the slope is tend to be larger than that
Preloading Process
of lower part.
Figure 4 shows relationship between the contact Slope deformations observed in no-
pressure and settlement of the facing plate observed reinforcement case (CaseNR), small prestress case
in the preloading process. The relationships (Case1) and large prestress case (Case4) are shown
obtained in the pull-in loading tests are also shown in Figure 6. Broken line in the figures shows
in the figure. There were some scattering in the potential slip lines observed in the slope. Deep
relation. This could be partly attributed to deformation with clear slip line was observed in
heterogeneity of the slope and rotation of the facing CaseNR. In the case with large prestress (Case4),
plate. Due the space limitation the settlement and only shallow and local deformation occurred. While
lateral displacement were measured by one the cases with smaller prestress (Case1) showed
potentiometer and one LDT respectively, which deep and large deformation, but no clear slip
could not detect the rotation. None the less the surface.
preloading could be applied by the system
developed. In all cases, the pressures decreased to Effects of Reinforcement on the Slope Stability
some extent after the loading process and became
In Figure 7, tanΔθ-δ relationships measured at
constant. These constant values are considered as
the mid part of facing plate are shown on a log-log
the prestress in this study and shown in Table 2.
graph. tanΔθ is equivalent to the horizontal seismic
intensity when the increment of inclining angle is
Ground Deformation
Δθ. From the figure a rapid increase of the
θ-δ relationships in the inclining tests are shown displacement in the relationship can be obtained at
in Figure 5. From this figure, it can be confirmed very small δ, which is defined as onset of the
that displacement can be greatly reduced by the deformation and the increment of inclination at this
reinforcement. In the case with smaller prestress, point is denoted by Δθy. As discussed before, no
displacements at different locations were not so abrupt increase of displacement was observed,
much different as compared to those in the case 4mm displacement of slope measured between the
with larger prestress. In the former case, large plates (δS-1) is defined as a failure point, and the
displacement was measured at each location; while inclination increment at this point (Δθf) is employed

I2-3
as an index of the stability of the slope. 4mm 0.5
displacement at the surface corresponds to shear
0.4 Δθf δS-1
strain of 5% of the slope. The tanΔθf and the tanΔθy
measured at upper plate and mid part of facing plate

tanΔθ
0.3
are plotted to Rp in Figure 8. Some data points are
δP-1
missing because of the fault of measurements. The 0.2 Δθy
δS-1
larger the Rp, that is, the larger the prestress, the 0.1
larger the effects of reinforcement could be
obtained. However, the increase of tanΔθf becomes 0
0 1 2 3 4
smaller as Rp increases. It is also noted that the Rp
onsets of displacement are almost same between the Figure 8. Effect of the facing plate prestress on the
slope and the facing plate. movement of slope
150
Figure 9 shows the variation of face contact Onset of decreasing

Plate contact pressure σp

Case4
pressure σp measured at both facing plates during 120
Case3
the inclination test. In the figure, the points of the 90 Case2
onset of displacement (Δθy) and Δθf are also 60
indicated. In the cases with Rp greater than 2.1, the Case1 δS-1
30 δP-1 δP-2 δS-1
contact pressure started decreasing at some Δθ Δθy Onset of increasing Δθf
slightly larger than Δθy after and then turned to 0
0 5 10 15 20 25
increase. In the case of Rp = 1.3, the upper facing Inclination angle Δθ

plate contact pressure did not decrease but Figure 9. Variation of facing plate contact pressure
increased. Δθ values of the onsets of decreasing and by inclination
increasing of the contact pressure are smaller for
the case with increasing Rp (prestress of the facing
plate). This variation of facing plate contact Mobile layer

pressure could be a reason why the increase of

Facing plate
tanΔθf becomes smaller as Rp increases.
1
10

0
10
logδS-1 (mm)

CaseNR Case1
-1
10 75° 30° 50°
Case4
-2
10 Case2 Figure 10. Model slope for 3D simulation
-3
Δθy
10 -3 -2 -1 0
10 10 10 10
log(tanΔθ)
Figure 7. Relationship between logδ and
log(tanΔθ) and determination of Δθy

Table 3. The material properties of the soil

γ Material E φ c ψ
Materials Model ν
(kN/m3) Behavior (kN/m2) (°) (kN/m2) ( )
Mobile
Mohr-Coulomb 14.5 Drained 3000 0.35 29.4 7 0
layer
Immobile
Mohr-Coulomb 26.99 Undrained 7×109 0.33 - 5×107 0
layer

Table 4. The material properties of the facing plate THREE-DIMENSIONAL FINITE ELEMENT
SIMULATION
γ D E
Materials ν
(kN/m3) (m) (kN/m2) The three-dimensional finite element
Facing simulations were performed on the model slope
Plate
0 0.111 500000 0.345 with different slope angle θ (θ = 300 ~ 500) and

I2-4
prestress σpi (σpi = 10 kPa ~ 136 kPa) using the
program PLAXIS (Brinkgreve et al. 2006). The
basic soil elements are the 10-node tetrahedral
elements. In addition, 6-node plate and node to
node spring elements are also used to simulate
facing plates and rock bolts as shown in Figure 10.
In Figure 10, the finite element mesh in both
300-slope and 500-slope are given. The size of the
slope is same to the prototype of the model slope
used in the centrifuge model tests. The material
properties of the soil and structures are shown in
Table 3 and Table 4. The Mohr-Coulomb model
was used to simulate the model slope behavior
including mobile and immobile layer. Density γt
and friction angle φ of the mobile layer is the same
with Edosaki sand with 70% degree of compaction
used in centrifuge model tests, whereas the
cohesion c is larger than that in the model tests. For
the boundary condition, the vertical model
boundary with their normal direction is fixed and
the other directions are free. All of these
simulations were divided into two phases. In the
initial phase, the initial stress in the slope was
generated by gravity loading which is a type of
plastic calculation based on the weight of the
materials. In this phase, the prestress was also
applied as the anchor force. Unlike the model tests,
prestress is a constant value even after the slope
deformation occurs. In the second phase, safety
calculations were done. The cohesion (c) and the
tangent of the friction angle (tanφ) of the soil were
reduced gradually to confirm the safety factor (F =
available strength/ strength at failure) of the slope.
Simulation Result at the initial phase
Figure 11 shows the increment of the lateral
displacement δS-1 (the difference of lateral
displacement between the slope with 30° slope
angle and the slope with x° slope angle measured at
the mid part of the facing plates S-1) and slope
angle relationships calculated at the initial phase
compared with the relationships in the model test
(CaseNR). As shown in this figure, the calculated
lateral displacement is much smaller than that
observed in the model test, whereas the trend of the
lateral displacement to slope angle is very similar to
that in model test.
Figure 12 shows the relationships of the
prestress and the increment of the lateral
displacement at S-1 calculated at initial phase.
Lateral displacement decreased as prestress
increased and the decrement is larger on the slope
with larger slope angle. However, the decrement
becomes smaller as the prestress increases.
The horizontal displacement distribution of the
slope calculated at initial phase is given in Figure
13. As shown in this figure, larger horizontal
displacement occurs especially at the upper part of
the slope in the case without reinforcement. On the
other hand, horizontal displacement reduced
significantly in the case with reinforcement and
prestress, and the larger the prestress is the smaller
the horizontal displacement becomes. To compare
the case where prestress σpi is equal to 89 kPa and
the case prestress σpi is equal to 136 kPa, only the
displacement of the slope just under the facing
plates decreased clearly by the prestress increase.
Moreover, local deformation occurred at the upper
part of the slope and mid part of the facing plates in
the case with large prestress, which is very same to
that observed in the model test (Figure 6).
Simulation Result at the second phase
Figure 14 shows the relationship between ΣMsf
and lateral displacement at the mid part of facing
plates (S-1) on the slope with 300 slope angle. Here,
ΣMsf is the ratio of the input and reduced strength
value of the slope.
tan  input c input
 Msf  tan 
 (2)
reduced c reduced
As shown in this figure, a rapid increase of the
displacement in the relationship can be obtained at
certain ΣMsf value, which is defined as the safety
factor F in each case. The same safety factor can
also be defined at P-1, P-2 and S-2.
Safety factor F of each slope with different
slope angle is plotted against prestress in Figure 15.
For the slope with large slope angle, the safety
factor becomes larger as prestress increase. While
for the slope with small slope angle, the safety
factor shows a peak value at a small prestress.
Figure 16 shows the distribution of the relative
shear stress τrel at the initial of the second phase
(that is same to the result of initial phase). Relative
shear stress τrel is the ratio of the maximum value of
the mobilized shear stress τmob to the shear strength
τmax. In the case without reinforcement, large
relative shear stress τrel can be observed at the
bottom of the mobile layer. In the case with
reinforcement, relative shear stress τrel at the bottom
of the mobile layer decreased compare to the case
without reinforcement, while τrel at the part just
under the facing plate increased.
I2-5
 0.7 0.14 2.6
Simulation Model
0.6 test 0.12 2.4

Lateral Displacement
Lateral Displacement

P-1
in model test (m)

in simulation (m)
0.5 S-1 0.1 2.2
F
0.4 P-2 0.08 2

ΣMsf
S-2 1.8
0.3 0.06
0.2 0.04
1.6
1.4 NR 10kPa 54kPa
0.1 0.02
1.2 89kPa 112kPa 136kPa
0 0
30 40 50 1
Slope Angle (°) 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Lateral Displacement (m)
Figure 11. Increment of the lateral displacement
and slope angle relationships (CaseNR) Figure 14. ΣMsf and lateral displacement
relationships and determination of safety factor F
0.14 S-1 θ=35°
Lateral displacement (m)

2.5
0.12 θ=37°
0.1 θ=40° 2
0.08 θ=45°
1.5
0.06 θ=50°

F
0.04 1
0.02 0.5 θ=30° θ=35° θ=37°
0 θ=40° θ=45°
0
0 50 100 150
Prestress (kPa) 0 50 100 150
Prestress (kPa)
Figure 12. Increment of the lateral displacement
Figure 15. Relationships of prestress and F
and prestress relationships from simulation
1.00 0.90 0.80 0.70 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20 0.10 0.00
Minus Plus 0.046
No σpi=54kPa 0.036
Reinforcement No σpi=54kPa
0.026 Reinforcement

0.016
0.006
-0.004
-0.014 σpi=89kPa σpi=136kPa
σpi=89kPa σpi=136kPa
-0.024
-0.034
-0.044
-0.054
Figure 16. Distribution of the relative shear stress
-0.064 τrel at the initial of the second phase
Figure 13. Horizontal displacement distribution
Minus Plus 0.001
Figure 17 shows the horizontal displacement 0.000
No
distribution of the slope with 300 slope angle at the σpi=54kPa
Reinforcement -0.001
point that ΣMsf is equal to 1.2. In the case without -0.002
reinforcement, relatively large deformation is -0.003
shown at the upper part of the slope, while in the -0.004
case with reinforcement and prestress, deformation
-0.005
of the upper part of the slope decreased clearly. For
-0.006
the slope surface surrounding the facing plates, σpi=89kPa σpi=136kPa
-0.007
large displacement occur in the case with large -0.008
prestress. From Figure 16 and Figure 17, it can be
-0.009
said that the surface of the slope can be very critical -0.010
because of the large prestress which cause local
-0.011
deformation around the facing plates.
Figure 17. Horizontal displacement distribution
when ΣMsf = 1.2

I2-6
CONCLUSIONS
In this study, centrifuge model tests and three-
dimensional finite element simulations were carried
out to investigate the effects of prestress of rock
bolt with facing plate in slope with weak soils. The
following conclusions are reached.
1). Reinforcement of slope by rock bolts with
facing plate can effectively prevent the
deformation and failure.
2). The deformation of the slope depends on the
prestress. It is deeper and wider for the
reinforcement with smaller prestress, and
shallower and limited in local areas for the
reinforcement with larger prestress.
3). The larger the prestress is, the better the
reinforcement effect that can be obtained.
However the effect of the prestress on the
stability becomes smaller as the prestress
increases. This can be attributed to the
variation of face plate contact pressure as the
deformation of slope progresses and shallow
local failure caused by large prestress when
external force applied or the strength of the soil
decreased.

REFERENCES
Brinkgreve, R. B and Broere, W. (2006). Plaxis 3D
version 2013.01 Manual, PLAXIS bv,
Netherlands.
Hayashi, S., Ochiai, H., Tayama, S. and Sakai, A.
(1986). Effect of top-plates on mechanism of
soil-reinforcement cut-off slope with steel bars,
Proc. JSCE, No. 367/VI-3, pp. 62-70 (in
Japanese).
Izawa, J., Ishihama, Y., Kuwano, J. (2003). Effect
of Particle Size on Seismic Stability of the
Reinforced Soil Wall, Geosynthetics
Engineering Journal, Vol.19, pp.183-190 (in
Japanese).
Saito, K., Katagami, N., Ishii, T., Tanaka, M.,
Nomoto, K., Sugimoto, T. (1995). Centrifuge
model study on the seismic stability of high
embankment constructed by volcanic ash, Proc.
23th JSCE Earthquake Engineering Symposium,
Vol.23, pp.615-618 (in Japanese).
Tei, K., Taylor, R.N. and Milligan, W.E.G. (1998).
Centrifuge model tests of nailed soil slopes,
SOILS AND FOUNDATIONS, Vol.38, No.2,
165-177.

I2-7
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

FUNDAMENTAL STUDY ON APPLICATION OF CAPILLARY BARRIER

FOR SLOPE FAILURE PREVENTION

Shunya Kobashi 1, Keigo Koizumi 2, Keiji Sakuradani 3, Kazuhiro Oda 4, Masashi Takemoto 5
and Adrin Tohari 6

ABSTRACT: There are primarily three ways to prevent water penetration into the ground: drainage pipe,
vegetation, and capillary barrier. This paper focuses on capillary barrier, which can be constructed temporarily
and at low cost. A capillary barrier uses the mechanism of difference in the capillary force of the cover soil to
prevent water penetration into the ground. We consider adoption of this method for disaster mitigation
measures on slopes. Consequently, we performed unsaturated penetration style analysis and evaluated the
penetration prevention capability of capillary barrier in terms of the difference in the cover soil. Further, after
confirming the efficacy of the capillary barrier model, we investigated the influence of rain intensity on the
capillary barrier. Our results indicate that application of a capillary barrier to a slope delays water penetration
more than 40 min for a rain intensity of 50 mm/h.

Keywords: Capillary barrier, unsaturated penetration style analysis, slope disaster prevention

INTRODUCTION application of capillary barrier to slopes as a

Nowadays, many slope failures are caused by
heavy rain, resulting in much human suffering and
interrupting the smooth functioning of
transportation networks. Consequently, it is
rapidly becoming necessary to establish a
technique for preventing slope failures in Japan.
This study focused on rain as the cause of slope
failures and investigated whether reduction of the
volume of water penetrating into the ground by the
rain can prevent slope failures.
There are three main ways of preventing water
penetration to the ground: drainage pipe,
vegetation, and capillary barrier (Rahardjo et al.,
2012). Of these three methods, this paper focuses
on capillary barrier because it can be constructed
easily and cheaply. This method has been used to
protect internal radioactive materials from water at
waste disposal sites. Thus, we propose the
method for protecting against disasters caused by
rain. However, it is first necessary to understand
the mechanism and verify its efficacy against rain.
Consequently, this paper uses unsaturated
penetration style analysis with the objective of
clarifying the influence that a combination of
covering soils on the effect of capillary barrier and
the relation of rain to penetration and suppressing
its effect.
FEATURES OF CAPILLARY BARRIER
A capillary barrier prevents water from
penetrating into the ground by using the difference
in the capillary force of soils. In layered ground in
which fine materials (such as sand) are stacked on
coarse materials (such as gravel), the capillary
force of the fine materials is stronger than that of
the coarse materials. Consequently, water is

1
Student, Department of Civil Engineering, Osaka University, skobashi@civil.eng.osaka-u.ac.jp, JAPAN
2
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Osaka University, koizumi@civil.eng.osaka-u.ac.jp,
JAPAN
3
Deputy Manager, West Nippon Expressway Company Limited, k.sakuradani.aa@w-nexco.co.jp, JAPAN
4
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Osaka University, oda@civil.eng.osaka-u.ac.jp,
JAPAN
5
Deputy Manager, West Nippon Expressway Company Limited, m.takemoto.aa@w-nexco.co.jp, JAPAN
6
Senior Researcher, Research Center for Geotechnology, Indonesia Institute of Sciences (LIPI),
adrin@cbn.net.id, INDONESIA

I3-1
accumulated in the fine materials layer of the In HYDRUS-2D, water flow is calculated based
upper boundary layer. on Richards’ equation using a finite element
Figure 1 shows the capillary barrier’s method. Figure 2 shows the analysis model
mechanism in slant ground. As can be seen, the developed. This model was determined on the
mechanism is dynamic. As the gravity force of the presupposition that the slope experiment will be
water acts in the vertical downward direction, the conducted with a similar model later. The model
capillary force of the soils acts in all directions in comprises a stacked sand layer and a gravel layer
the ground. Further, in the vertical direction, when as covering soils on Masa soil—the ground
the capillary force of sand is greater than the surface. The points at which the water content
combined gravity force of water and the capillary volume is measured are located at the top, middle,
force of gravel, a capillary barrier is formed and and toe of the slope. Using this configuration,
the water accumulates in the sand layer. In quantitative evaluations were conducted into the
addition, the accumulated water flows down to the possibility of delay and how long the water would
lower slope from the region of the potential head. take to infiltrate the ground in the presence of a
On the other hand, when the combined gravity capillary barrier.
force of water and capillary force of gravel is
greater than the capillary force of sand, the 1cm
降雨境界
Rain Border
capillary barrier disappears. The horizontal length 排水境界
Drainage Border
from the top of the slope to this place is called the 非排水境界
Undrainage Border 2cm
No.3
divergence length of flow. This is defined by the Decomposed
10cm
砂
following equation (Steenhuis and Parlange, Granite
礫
Sand
1991): 真砂土
Gravel No.2

Observation Point
No.1
No.2
No.1 35°50cm No.3 10cm

Figure 2. Unsaturated penetration style analysis

model in HYDRUS-2D

RELATION BETWEEN COVERING SOIL

CHARACTERISTICS AND CAPILLARY
BARRIER

FV1
Covering Soils
When void ratio of the sand is small, the
FL1 FR1 capillary force is large and the hydraulic
conductivity is small. Conversely, when the void
ratio of the sand is large, the capillary force is
sand small, and the hydraulic conductivity is large.
gravel Consequently, the penetration suppressant effect
of the capillary barrier was verified by this balance
between capillary force and hydraulic conductivity.
FG1
Table 1 shows the parameters of the covering soils.
(FV, FR, FL：capillary force, FG：gravity force) The parameters of sand1 (Radcliffe and Simunek,
2011), sand4 (Mallants et al., 1999), and gravel
Figure 1. The capillary barrier’s mechanism in (Tojo et al., 2011) were selected based on the data
slant ground
used to simulate the effect of capillary barrier at
waste disposal sites. Sand2 and sand3 are based on
UNSATURATED PENETRATION STYLE
ANALYSIS sand1 and sand4, respectively. The only difference
in their data is the hydraulic conductivity
In our study, HYDRUS-2D (Simunek et al., parameters. Figure 3 shows the soil water
2006), a software package for conducting characteristic curve of sand and gravel.
unsaturated penetration style analysis, was used.

I3-2
 Soil Water Characteristic Curve
50
sand1&sand2 sand3&sand4 gravel
40
Matric Suction(cm)

30

20

10

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Volumetric Water Content(cm3/cm3)

Figure 3. Soil water characteristic curve of sand

and gravel
Figure 4. Changes in volumetric water content in
Table 1. Parameters of covering soils the top, middle, and toe of the slope

Sand1 Sand2 Sand3 Sand4 Gravel

θr 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.04 0.0402
θs 0.348 0.348 0.38 0.38 0.477
α 0.045 0.045 0.155 0.155 13.13
n 12.18 12.18 2.43 2.43 1.73
ks 0.179 6 0.179 6 480
hw 16.8 16.8 1.91 1.91 0.0145
3 3
θ: volumetric water content (cm /cm )
ks: hydraulic conductivity (cm/min)
hw: capillary force (cm)
α, n: parameters of the van Genuchten model
Figure 5. Contour map of the volumetric water
Influence of Covering Soil Characteristics on content at 70 min
Penetration Prevention Effect of Capillary Barrier
The influence of covering soil characteristics RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RAINFALL
INTENSITY AND PENETRATION
was investigated to know the relation of capillary
force and hydraulic conductivity, on the PREVENTION EFFECT OF CAPILLARY
penetration prevention effect. A rainfall intensity BARRIER
of 5 mm/h was selected. Further, we focused on In this section, the relationship between
the changes in the volumetric water content in the rainfall intensity and the penetration prevention
top, middle, and toe of the slope. Figure 4 shows effect is examined. The rainfall intensity over 10
the changes in the volumetric water content. The mm/h, 20 mm/h, 30 mm/h, 40 mm/h, and 50 mm/h
figure shows that when sand1 or sand3 was used, was varied. Figure 6 shows the relation between
the volumetric water content in the middle of the the volumetric water content and unsaturated
slope rose for approximately 60 min. Contour hydraulic conductivity in Masa soil. When the
maps of volumetric water content at 70 min are intensity exceeded 90–95%, unsaturated hydraulic
shown in Figure 5. It is clear that water conductivity significantly increased. Therefore, to
penetration occurred and capillary barrier has be on the safe side, the time intensity at 90% was
disappeared from the middle of the slope. On the defined as the time for the water to penetrate into
other hand, when sand2 or sand4 was used, the the ground surface (this is called the water
volumetric water content did not rise, indicating penetration time below) and examined their
that the capillary barrier had been effective. This relation.
result indicates that having a large soil hydraulic The value at the point where the water
conductivity is better than having a large capillary penetration time exceeded 100 min as the central
force for the covering soils. The analysis below value was plotted. Figure 7 shows the relationship
determines that the parameter of the sand of the between rainfall intensity and water penetration
covering soil should be sand4 when the capillary time for each point. The graph shows that the
barrier is modeled. rising water content volume of the top and middle

I3-3
was controlled for more than 100 min for all the inclination of approximately 40 degrees. Figure 8
rainfall intensity values analyzed. Next, the value shows a model of the target slope. Table 2 shows
of the toe was focused on. As the rain intensity the parameters for Masa soil that were used in the
increased, the water penetration time decreased. analysis. They were calculated by performing the
As a result, water penetration was prevented water-holding examination for the field soil.
especially in the top and middle for rain intensities
145cm 180cm 180cm
up to 50 mm/h, when the capillary barrier
functioned.
S1-3
We believe that the volumetric water content
of the toe rose for the following two reasons. First, 180cm
S1-2
water penetration occurred because the divergence
length of flow in the toe was exceeded. Second, it Ground
S1-1
occurred because the drainage was insufficient. In Surface
HYDRUS-2D, drainage is carried out when a state
40°
of saturation is reached. In the latter it is necessary
to improve the analysis model with a sufficient
Draining
drainage function. Trench 35° Foundation

Figure 8. Model of the target slope

7.E-03
6.E-03 Table 2. Parameters of Masa soil
5.E-03
4.E-03
3.E-03
2.E-03 Intensity
90%
1.E-03
0.E+00
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 Analysis Results
Reports state that, in general, the view of a
Figure 6. Relationship of volumetric water content driver is obstructed when rainfall intensity exceeds
to unsaturated hydraulic conductivity in Masa soil 50 mm/h. In this paper, the rainfall intensity used
is less than 50 mm/h, and is intended for
Water Penetration Time(minute)

Sand4+Gravel considering the slope along a road. Two models

120 are presented in Figure 9 to evaluate the effect of
100 penetration prevention using the capillary barrier.
80
The measurement points used to obtain the
volumetric water content were the top, middle,
60
and toe of the slope. In Figure 10, when the
40 intensity of the local Masa soil exceeds 90–95%,
20 the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity increases
significantly. Therefore, as in Section 5, we
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 defined the time for the intensity to reach 90% as
the water penetration time.
Figure 11 shows the relationship between
Figure 7. Relationship of rainfall intensity to water rainfall intensity and water penetration time for
penetration time each point. The value when the water penetration
time exceeded 200 min was plotted as the central
VERIFICATION OF THE PENETRATION
value. From Figure 11, in the capillary barrier
PREVENTION EFFECT FOR A SLOPE
model, it is clear that the time for a rain intensity
MODEL
of 30 mm/h at the top is greater than 200 min. For
Characteristics of the Target Slope a rainfall intensity of 50 mm/h, in the non-
capillary barrier model, the time is within 20 min,
The target slope used in the analysis was
whereas in the capillary barrier model, the time is
formed from Masa soil and had an angle of
over 60 min.

I3-4
 Observation Point
250
Rain Border
No.1 toe
Drainage Border

Water Penetration
No.2 200 middle
No.3

Time(minute)
Undrainage Border No.3 180cm
top
Decomposed
Granite
150

No.2 100

40° 50
No.1
0
35°
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
325cm 325cm 100cm
Hourly Rainfall(mm)

10cm
(a)Non-capillary barrier
Rain Border Observation Point
No.1
Drainage Border No.2 20cm
No.3 250
Undrainage Border No.3 180cm
toe

Water Penetration
Decomposed
200 middle

Time(minute)
Granite
Sand4 top
No.2
Gravel 150

40° 100
No.1
50
35°
325cm 325cm 100cm
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Figure 9. Model of non-capillary barrier and Hourly Rainfall(mm)
capillary barrier
(b)Capillary barrier
1.E-04

1.E-04 Figure 11. Relationship between rainfall intensity

and water penetration time
8.E-05

6.E-05

4.E-05 Intensity
90% CONCLUSIONS
2.E-05

0.E+00
0 0.1 0.2
Figure 10. Relationship between volumetric water
content and unsaturated hydraulic conductivity in
Masa soil
We confirmed for all rainfall intensities that
the time in the capillary barrier model is longer
than the time in the non-capillary barrier model.
We surmise that the effect of the capillary barrier
is different from that of the slope because the
divergence length of flow is different from the
characteristic of the ground, the length of slope,
and the incline of the slope. The results of the
analysis indicate that it is indeed possible to delay
water penetration in the ground if a capillary
barrier is applied to the slope.
In this paper, the following effects of the
0.3 0.4 0.5 capillary barrier were clarified:
1. The penetration prevention effect of the
capillary barrier is more dependent on the
hydraulic conductivity than the capillary force
in the soils.
2. When a combination of sand4 and gravel was
applied to covering soils, the water penetration
of the top and middle of the slope was delayed
for more than 100 min.
3. Application of the capillary barrier to a slope
showed that it is possible to delay water
penetration more than 40 min for a rain intensity
of 50 mm/h compared with the non-capillary
barrier.
REFERENCES
Mallants, D., Volckaert, G., and Marivoet J.
(1999). Sensitivity of protective barrier
performance to changes in rainfall rate.
Belgian Nuclear Research Centre. Boeretang
200. B-2400 Mol.

I3-5
Radcliffe, D.E., and Simunek, J. (2011). Soil
Physics with HYDRUS: Modeling and
Applications. Boca Raton, FL: CRC press:
228-230
Rahardjo, H., Satyanaga, A., and Leong, E.C.
(2012). Unsaturated soil mechanics for slope
stabilization. Unsaturated Soils: Theory and
Practice. Southeast Asian Geotech. J. 43(1):48-
58.
Simunek, J., van Genuchten, M.Th., and Senja, M.
(2006). The HYDRUS software package for
simulating the two- and three-dimensional
movement of water, heat, and multiple solutes
in variably-saturated media. Technical Manual,
PC Progress, Prague, Czech Republic
Steenhuis, T.S. and Parlange J. (1991). Comment
on “The Diversion Capacity of Capillary
Barriers” by Benjamin Ross. Water Resour.
Res. 27(8):2155-2156.
Tojo, Y., Tanaka, N., and Matsuto, T. (2011). An
application of capillary barrier as a leachate
drainage system at bottom of landfill –
numerical analysis-. Proceedings of JSCE,
692(21): 41–52.

I3-6
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

STABILITY ANALYSIS OF SLOPES IN NILGIRIS DISTRICT OF TAMILNADU,

INDIA USING STRENGTH REDUCTION TECHNIQUE
V. Senthilkumar1, S. S. Chandrasekaran2 and V. B. Maji3

ABSTRACT: Landslides are among the major natural hazards that affect large parts of India, especially in
Himalayas and Western Ghats. The Nilgiris district is a part of Western Ghats situated at the tri junction of
TamilNadu, Kerala and Karnataka states. The district is highly prone to landslide due to heavy rainfall during
both southwest and northeast monsoons. The landslides possess a serious threat to human population and various
other infrastructures like road, rail routes and buildings. In the present study, slope stability analysis was
performed on slopes along Kotagiri-Ooty state highway. Based on the various field geological and geotechnical
observations, landslide at Kattabettu along Kotagiri-Ooty road was identified for detailed study, including
laboratory investigation and numerical analysis. Strength reduction technique based on the finite element method
was used to analyse the slope and it provides a better understanding of the slope failure mechanisum and factor
of safety of slope. The results of the numerical analysis can be aided in identifying potentially vulnerable slopes
in Nilgiris district of Tamilnadu.

Keywords: Landslides, Rainfall, Slope stability, Strength reduction technique

INTRODUCTION and killed about 40 people (Chandrasekaran 2010,

Rainfall induced landslides are flow failures in
soils initiated by a reduction of confining stress as a
result of pore pressure rise during or following
periods of intense rainfall (Anderson and Sitar
1995). The Nilgiris district, in TamilNadu state of
India, is a part of Western Ghats and basically a
hilly region, located at an elevation of 900 to 2640
meters above Mean Sea Level (MSL) (Elayaraja et
al 2015). It’s latitudinal and longitudinal location is
(Lat 11 12’ N to 11 37’N) & (76 30’ E to 76
55’ E) (Figure 1). The district regularly receives
rain during both the southwest monsoon and the
northeast monsoon. The Nilgiris district is affected
by landslides historically but the frequency of
landslides has increased many folds in the recent
past. The road connecting the hilly district to
surrounding plains is often blocked due to
landslides causing total cut-off of transportation
and communication. Heavy intensive rainfall
during November 2009 triggered a series of
landslides in Ooty, Coonoor, and Kothagiri region
Ganapathy 2010). A slide has occurred along
Kothagiri – Ooty road at Madithurai near
Kattabettu during 2009 (Figure 2a). Improper
maintenance and blocking of surface drainage
system led to improper drainage of the water during
the heavy rain at that location (Chandrasekaran et al
2013 a). The rain water infiltrated into the subsoil
and led to buildup of pore pressure and reduction in
shear strength of the soil. Shear strength reduction
and flowing of water with high velocity during
heavy rain led to a rotational cum translational slide
of about 35m (Figur 2a). Mud flow of about 200m
down the slope was also observed during the slide
(Figure 2b). Sand bags were placed soon after the
slide as a temporary retaining measure for the
functioning of road (Figure 3). The stability of
slopes at Kattabettu is investigated by conducting
laboratory tests on soil samples from the landslide
site and numerical analysis using strength reduction
technique.

1
Research Scholar, Geotechnical Engineering, SMBS, VIT University, email- senthikumar.vadivel@vit.ac.in, Vellore, India
2
Associate professor, Corresponding author, Geotechnical Engineering, SMBS, VIT University, email-
chandrasekaran.ss@vit.ac.in, Vellore, India
3
Assistant Professor, Geotechnical Engineering, Dept. of Civil Engineering, IIT Madras, email- vbmaji@iitm.ac.in,
Chennai, India

I4-1
 Figure 1. Nilgiris district map showing Ooty-Kothagiri road network

(a) (b)
Figure 2. Kattabettu slide: (a) Damaged road network and (b) View of mud flow

Figure 3. Placing of sand bags for functioning of road

I4-2
 is automatically reduced step by step with an
PROPERTIES OF SOIL increment of multiplier (Msf) equal to 0.01 until
Soil samples were collected at Kattabettu failure (Fawaz et al 2014). The safety factor is then
landslide site. The samples have been subjected to defined as the value of multiplier at failure (Plaxis
2002).
laboratory investigations. Moisture content, sieve
analysis, specific gravity, liquid limit, plastic limit,
MODELING OF SLOPE GEOMETRY
permeability and undrained direct shear test of soil
samples were carried out as per relevant ASTM and A slope at Kattabettu has been modelled by two
Indian standards. The properties of soil samples dimensional plane strain model using Plaxis 2D
obtained from the laboratory tests are given in (Figure 4a). To produce high quality stress results
Table 1. fifteen node triangular elements are used for soil
Table 1. List of soil properties (Plaxis 2002). The standard fixities consist of fully
S.No Properties Values fixed base and roller conditions at sides have been
1 Specific gravity G 2.61 selected as boundary conditions (Sitharam 2009).
2 Liquid limit (%) 38
The soil parameters used for this analysis are given
3 Plastic limit (%) 25
in Table 1&2. The undrained material behaviour
4 Plasticity index (%) 13
has been selected for this analysis due to low
5 Saturated unit weight γsat (kN/m3) 18.1
6 Moisture content w (%) 17.8
permeability value (1.5x10-7 m/s) according to the
7 Dry unit weight γdry (kN/m3) 15.36 laboratory permeability test. Instead of using ko
8 Coefficient of permeability k (m/s) 1.5 × 10-7 procedure, the gravity loading procedure is
9 Soil classification as per USCS SM followed to calculate the initial stresses due to non-
horizontal geometry of soil surface (Plaxis 2002,
STABILITY ANALYSIS USING STRENGTH Chandrasekaran et al 2013 b). The Mohr-Coloumb
REDUCTION TECHNIQUE constitutive model is used in this analysis. The soil
The shear strength reduction technique is an parameters used for this model is listed in Table 2
alternative for limit equilibrium calculations and and the generated mesh is shown in (Figure 4b).
potentially more reliable for slope stability analysis
(Griftas and Lane 1999, Diederichs et al 2007,
Singh et al 2014). This method of analysis is
accurate, versatile and requires very few prior
assumptions regarding the failure mechanism
(Griftas and Lane 1999). A two dimensional finite
element programme Plaxis 2D has been used for
stability analysis of slope at Kattabettu. The
stability analysis is based on the calculation of
factor of safety and identification of sliding surface
(Fawaz et al 2014). Stability analysis using Plaxis
can be performed by reducing the shear strength
parameters of the soil. This process is called Phi-c
reduction technique (Plaxis 2002). In this technique (a) Slope geometry
the strength parameters cohesion and internal
friction angle of the soil are reduced until the
stability limit is reached (Diederichs et al 2007).
The ratio between the actual strength and reduced
strength at stability limit is the safety factor (Fawaz
et al 2014, Nian et al 2012, Tschuchnigg et al 2015)

= = Ʃ Msf (1)

The reduction of strength parameters are

controlled by the total multiplier Ʃ Msf. Total
multiplier is set to 1 at the initial stage of
calculation to set all materials strengths to their (b) Generated mesh
unreached values. Thereby the parameter of the soil Figure 4. Kattabettu site

I4-3
Table 2. Soil parameters used for strength reduction observation shows when the water level increases
analysis in the slope during heavy rain the factor of safety
S.No Parameters Values
2
value reduces. The slope becomes unstable when
1 Cohesion c’ (kN/m ) 13 the water table level reaches the depth 22.00m
2 Angle of internal friction (φ’) 35Ʃ below the ground level (8.00m from toe). The
3 Young’s Modulus E (kN/m2) 18000 results of factor of safety are presented in Table 3.
4 Poisson’s ratio (μ) 0.3
5 Dilatancy angle (ψ) 0 Table 3. Effect of depth of water table in terms of
factor of safety
Depth from GL FOS in PLAXIS
RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS 50.00 m 1.6437
The average rainfall in Nilgiris region varies 30.00 m 1.6230
29.00 m 1.3298
from place to place and is between 1500 mm to 28.00 m 1.3049
3000 mm. In November 2009, the district received 27.00 m 1.2702
a rainfall of about 600 mm, which is the highest 26.00 m 1.2402
rainfall recorded in a period of thirty years during 25.00 m 1.1966
this month (Chandrasekaran 2010). Initially the 24.00 m 1.1504
23.00 m 1.1109
water table is located below the toe end of the slope
22.00 m 1.0681
and it gradually increases during the heavy rain fall 21.00 m Slope fails
and reaches the toe of the slope. The heavy rain on
9th and 10th November 2014 recorded as 82 mm Pore pressure variation with increase in water level
produce a rapid raise in water table from the toe.
The effect of increase in water table level is To study the pore pressure variation, a point A
observed in this analysis. has been selected near the toe end of the slope as
shown in Figure 5. From the observation it is
Effect of increase of water table level noticed that, if the phreatic level is below the toe of
the slope, there is no pore pressure development at
Rainfall has been the dominant triggering factor point A. whereas if the water table level increases
for landslides in Nilgiris. The water table level above the toe, the pore pressure value at point A
increases during the heavy intense rainfall. To increases gradually due to saturation effect (Figure
represent the effect of rainfall in this stability 6). The moment when the water level reaches 8.00
analysis, the water table level has been increased m from the toe of the slope (the depth of water level
gradually (increased by 1.00m interval from the toe at which slope fails) the pore water pressure
end of the slope) with depth and represented using increase the driving force and reduce the shear
general phreatic level (Figure 5). The effect of resistance near the toe which led to slope instability
increase of water table in slope instability is at Kattabettu.
observed in terms of factor of safety. The

Figure 5. Slope geometry mentioning various water table levels

I4-4
 Figure 6. Pore pressure variation with different depth of water table

Reduction of effective shear stress with increase in clearly shows if the water table level increases,
pore water pressure effective stress at the toe of the slope decreases and
it becomes zero when it reaches 8.00 m depth from
When the water level reaches the depth about
the toe. Thus, the likely trigger of the failure is a
1/3 of the slope depth from the toe (about 8.00 m
combination of the accumulated pore pressure rise
from toe), the slope become fully saturated below
and loss of shear resistance of the slope mass to
the water table (Figure 7) and unsaturated soil zone
cause the total slope failure as observed at
with soil suction reduces which resulted in loss of
Kattabettu.
shear resistance and safety factor. Figure 8a & 8b

Figure 7. Degree of saturation below water table level

(a) when water table is at toe (b) when water table is at 8.00m depth from toe
Figure 8. Effective stress variation

I4-5
 The deformed mesh shown in Figure 9 clearly
indicates the failure pattern of the slope. The most
apropriate failure mechanisum, failure surface,
displaced position of slope and upword movement
of the slope at toe is clearly observed from the
Figure 10a and 10b. The failure surface passes
through the toe of the slope. The circular shape of
the slip surface and large displacement of
homogeneous soil deposit shows that the slide is
rotational (toe failure) and translational type failure.
It is well matched with the slide occurred at
Kattabettu, Ooty-Kothagiri road, Nilgiris in
November 2009. The total displacements from the
strength reduction analysis do not have any
physical meaning. The incremental displacement
gives an indication of the likely failure mechanism
but the magnitude of the displacement increment is
not relevant (PLAXIS 2002). To control the effect
of landslides in Nilgiris, retaining walls and gabion
walls have been constructed in many places of the
district particullarly in landslide prone areas. After
the slide at Kattabettu a massive retaining wall of
size about 200 m length and 40m depth has been
constructed with weep holes to drain out the rain
water during heavy rain. The current view of that
location is shown in Figure 11a and Figure 11b.

Figure 9. View of deformed mesh showing failure pattern

(a) Upward movement of slope at toe (b). View of failure mechanisum, failure surface
Figure 10. Kattabettu slope

(a) Front view (b) Side view

Figure 11. Current view of landslide location at Kattabetu aftr retaining wall

I4-6
CONCLUSIONS Chandrasekaran S.S., Elayaraja S., Renugadevi S (2013
a) Damages to transport facilities by rainfall induced
The stability analysis of slope using strength
landslides during November 2009 in Nilgiris, India.
reduction technique at Kattabettu has been carried
Landslide Science and Practice: Risk Assessment,
out in this study. Soil samples were collected from
Management and Mitigation Vol. 6:171-176 , 2nd
Kattabettu where the landslide occurred in
World Landslide Forum, WLF, Rome, Italy
November 2009. The soil samples were subjected
Chandrasekaran S.S., Sayed Owaise R., Ashwin S., Jain
to laboratory investigations to find its index and
R.M., Prasanth S., Venugopalan R.B (2013 b)
engineering properties. The test results show that
Investigation on infrastructural damages by rainfall-
the soil is silty sand and less permeable. To
induced landslides during November 2009 in Nilgiris
understand the failure mechanisum and factor of
India. Natural Hazards 65(3):1535-1557
safety of slope at Kattbettu, finite element strength
Dieaderichs M.S., Lato M (2007) Shear Strength
reduction analysis has been carried out using Plaxis
Reduction Approach for Slope Stability Analysis.
2D programme. From the analysis, it is observed
Proceedings of the 1st Canada-US Rock Mech.
that the slope became unstable due to a
Symposium- Vancouver 2007.
combination of the accumulated pore pressure rise
Elayaraja S., Chandrasekaran S.S.,Ganapathy G.P (2015)
and loss of shear resistance of the slope at toe. The
Evaluation of seismic hazard and potential of
critical depth of water table is found to be at
earthquake-induced landslides of Nilgiris, India.
22.00m below the ground level (8.00m from toe).
Natural Hazards, DOI 10.1007/s11069-015-1816-5
Effective stress reduces to the value of zero at toe
Fawaz A., Frrah E., Hagechehade F (2014). Slope
of the slope when the water level increses about
Stability Analysis Using Nummerical Modelling.
8.00m from the toe. The deformed mesh and
American Journal of Civil Engineering 2(3):60-67
incremental displacements clearly indicate the
Ganapathy G.P., and Hada C.L (2012) Landslide Hazard
most probable failure mechanisum, failure surface
Mitigation in the Nilgiris District, India–
and displaced position of slope. The failure surface
Environmental and Societal Issues. International
of the slope is rotational (toe failure) and
Journal of Environmental Science and Development,
translational type which matches with 2009
3(5) : 497-500
November, Kattabettu landslide. The findings of
Ganapathy G.P., Mahendran K., Sekar S.K (2010) Need
this finite element strength reduction analysis is
and Urgency of Landslide Risk Planning for Nilgiri
useful to obtain the critical slip surface and factor
District,Tamil Nadu State, India. International
of safety of the homogeneous as well as layerd soil
Journal Of Geomatics And Geosciences 1(1): 30-40
and rock slopes. This study can be extended to
Grifftas D.V and Lane P.A., (1999) Slope stability
identify the potentially vulnerable slopes in the
analysis by finite elements, Geotechnique 49 (3) :
Nilgiris district of TamilNadu.
387-403
Nian T.K.,Huang R.Q.,Wan S.S.,Chen G.Q (2012)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Three-dimension strength-reduction analysis of
The authors thank Department of Science and slopes: Geometric effects. Canadian Geotechnical
Technology (DST-NRDMS Division), Government journal 49 : 574-588
of India, New Delhi, for sponsoring the study PLAXIS 2D (2002) Finite element code for soil and rock
reported in this paper through the project analyses. Version 8. PLAXIS b.v. The Netherlands.
‘‘Geotechnical Investigation on Landslide in Singh R.,Umrao R.K., Singh T.N (2014) Stability
Nilgiris district of Tamilnadu’’ (Project sanction evaluation of road-cut slopes in the Lesser Himalaya
order NRDMS/11/2003/012 dt: 25/09/2014). of Uttrarakhand, India: conventional and numerical
approaches. Bull Eng Geol Environ 73:845-857
REFERENCES Sitharam T.G (2009) Equivalent continuum analyses of
Anderson A.S., Sitar N (1995) Analysis of Rainfall- jointed rockmass: Some case studies. International
Induced Debris Flows. Journal of Geotechnical journal of JCRM, 5(1): 39-51
Engineering, ASCE. 121(7) : 544-552 Tschuchnigg F., Schweiger H.F., Slown S.W, Lyamin
Chandrasekaran S.S (2010) Assessment of damages A.V and Raissakis (2015) Comparison of finite
induced by recent landslides in Ooty, Tamilnadu. element limit analysis and strength reduction
Proceedings of the Indian Geotechnical Conference techniques. Geotechnique 65(4): 249-257
(IGC -2010) GEOtrendz, IIT Bombay, Mumbai,
India, December 16-18, 2010, Vol. II, 687-688.

I4-7
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

AN ADVANCED TWO-DIMENSIONAL FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS APPLIED

IN PILE-STABILIZED SLOPES
I-Hsuan Ho 1

ABSTRACT: Stabilizing piles can be used as effective slope reinforcement to mitigate landslides. The optimal
location for a stabilizing pile within a slope has been discussed by numerous researchers; however, their
recommendations have been somewhat contradictory. Moreover, the effect of the length of the pile on the
stabilization of the slope has not been well documented. Thus, this paper investigates the location as well as the
length of the pile and presents the results of numerical analyses of pile-stabilized slopes using two-dimensional
finite element (2-D FE) method. An equivalent 2-D FE method can substitute the 3-D FE analysis. A
homogeneous slope stabilized using piles indicates no significant difference is shown. The results indicate that
the optimal location for a stabilizing pile is in the middle third of the slope. A stability improvement ratio (Npi) is
introduced to evaluate the effectiveness of the pile-stabilized slope. An appropriate pile length and length ratio
(Lz/L) also are suggested based on the effectiveness of the stabilizing pile. Moreover, the two different pile
conditions, fixed and free head conditions are also compared. Hence, the 2-D FE method proposed can reduce
the complexity of a 3-D FE model in computation.
.

Keywords: Stabilizing pile, optimal location, improvement ratio, pile-stabilized slope, finite element method

INTRODUCTION than the results from 3-D analysis with inaccurate

analyses such as the studies by Hovland (1977),
The stabilizing piles have been used as an
Chen and Chameau (1985) and Seed et al. (1990).
effective method to stabilize the failing slopes or
Hutchinson and Sharma (1985) also pointed out
those on the verge of failure. When a numerical
that 2-D and 3-D analyses should give the same
analysis conducted by Finite Element Method
factor of safety on cohesionless soils because the
(FEM), the three-dimensional (3-D) analysis has
slip surface is a shallow plane and parallel to the
been considered as an effective and reasonable
surface of the slope. Azzouz et al. (1981), also
methods to use. The majority slope stability
found that if the 3D effects are ignored in the
analysis was conducted using the two-dimensional
analyses to back calculate shear strengths, the
(2-D) FEM. Recently, the 3-D FE method became
results from back calculation will be too high.
more attractive due to the progress of the
Griffiths (2007) compares the results of analysis on
computational tools including the computer and
2D slope and 3D slope, 3D analysis is found to
computer programs. However, the 3-D analysis
result in a higher factor of safety.
using finite element method is usually time
Therefore, in this research, the assumptions
consuming and complex. Hence, if reasonable
were made in these numerical analyses for pile-
assumptions can be made and the different
slope systems: (1) the slope soils are cohesive and
outcomes from 2-D and 3-D FEM can be correlated.
saturated, (2) no ground water changes in the
The 2-D FEM can still be very valuable.
analyses, and (3) short term factor of safety is
The 2-D FEM applied to the slope stability
considered. (4) the results of analysis will only
analysis has been considered as more conservative
focus on the factor of safety resulted without
(Ho, 2014) compared to 3-D FEM for a slope
considering the pile response in 3-D FEM analysis.
according to Duncan (1996, 2005). Only few
(5) the slope is a clayey and homogeneous slope.
studies indicated factor of safety for 2-D is greater
The analysis for the pile-slope systems is based on

1
Assistant Professor Harold Hamm School of Geology and Geological Engineering, University of North Dakota
Email: ihsuan.ho@engr.und.edu

I5-1
coupled FEM with Strength Reduction Method
(SRM) which doesn’t have to assume a slip surface
prior the analysis in a pile-slope system.
In a pile-slope system, the optimal location for a
stabilizing pile in a slope has been discussed by a
number of researchers. However, the recommended
optimal location has been somewhat contradictory.
Ito et al. (1979, 1981) proposed that the optimal
pile location is the middle to upper part of the slope.
Hassiotis et al. (1997) concluded that the piles must
be placed in the upper part of a slope to reach the
maximum factor of safety. The pile’s closeness to
the crest depended upon the steepness of slopes.
The steeper the slope, the closer the pile should be
placed to the top of slope, referred to as the crest.
Lee et al. (1995) recommended that the piles be
placed either close to the toe or the top of slopes. It
was found that piles placed in the middle of the
slopes resulted in having little effect on increasing
the factor of safety due to the critical sliding surface
being close to the pile tip. Cai and Ugai (2000)
alternately recommended that piles have to be
placed in the middle of slopes. Moreover, similar
results were presented by Ho (2014) for a slope
containing a thin layer. However, when the same
authors applied the modified version of Bishop’s
method by using Ito-Matsui’s equation, the best
results are found to be when the pile was placed
Figure 1. Pile-slope system model in ABAQUS
Pile-Stabilized Slope Analyses
It is easier to simplify the pile-slope problem
into 2-D or plane strain problems if the stress
distribution on the soil and piles are not considered.
In a 3-D FE model for the pile-slope system, two
piles are placed symmetrically on the slope as
shown in Figure 1. The notation of each symbol:
H=height of the slope; X=the distance between toe
and crest of the slope; S=distance from center to
center of piles; Xp: the distance away from the toe.
I5-2
closer to the top. Ausilio et al. (2001) used the limit
analysis method to find that the optimal location of
the piles is near the toe. Besides determining the
optimal pile location, there is little research that
discusses the influence of the length of the piles in
the slopes. According to several cases presented by
Fukumoto (1972), the length penetrated below the
sliding surface is between 45-55% of pile length.
This paper presents the advantages of 2-D FEM
instead of using 3-D FEM in terms of FS resulted
using piles. The representative 2-D FE analysis was
conducted. A method using 2-D FE analysis for
design a stabilizing pile is presented in this paper.
The analysis results based on the influence of pile
location, pile length and pile head condition are
discussed herein.
Parametric Study
Parametric studies were conducted to determine
a critical ratio between 2-D and 3-D FE analyses by
conducting both 2-D and 3-D FE analyses.
Pile-Slope system
A 3-D homogeneous pile-slope system is shown
in Figure 1.
In the pile-slope system, both piles and soils are
modeled using the 2-D plane strain element. The
interaction properties between the piles and the
surrounding soil are defaulted as “penalty” and the
friction coefficient is 0.50, which is dependent on
the friction angle of the soil,  and the material of
the piles. The piles are assumed to be elastic
without plastic deformation. The Young’s modulus
of the pile is 6000 MPa and the Poisson’s ratio 0.28
is taken. Meanwhile, the Young’s modulus and
ratio (υ) of soils are 100 MPa and 0.45, respectively
for the undrained condition of a clay
Comparisons of 2-D and 3-D Analysis indicate that if the ratio (S/D) is less than 4.0, the 2-
D analysis is relatively conservative. Hence, the 2-
The results based on the comparisons of the 2-D
D FE analysis can be employed to model the 3-D
and 3-D analyses are shown in Figure 2. The ratio
analysis based the ratio (S/D) equal to 4.0. A
of spacing between piles to the diameter of the piles
critical spacing ratio between 2-D FEM and 3-D
is considered in the 3-D analysis. The results
FEM analysis was found to be 4.0.
2.2

2.0

1.8

1.6
Factor of Safety

No pile
1.4 2 D Analyses
3 D Analyses
1.2

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
S/D
Figure 2. Comparisons of the 2-D and 3-D analyses for pile spacing

Strength Reduction Method applications of increasing the strength reduction

In the conventional limit equilibrium method
(LEM) for slope stability analysis, the critical slip
surface has to be determined. The average shear
strength along the slip surface is assumed to be the
same along the entire slip surface. The factor of
safety (FS) used in the LEM is the ratio of the
average shear strength to the driving shear stress
along the potential slip surface. However, in the FE
analysis, the stress-strain relationship of the slope is
considered and the potential slip surface need not
be determined in advance. The analysis is based on
how the FE analysis is unable to directly output a
global factor of safety. In order to quantify an
equivalent factor of safety from the limit
equilibrium methods, the strength reduction method
(Zienkiewicz et. al. 1975; Ugai, 1989, Griffiths and
Marquez 2007, Nian et. al. 2012, Ho 2013) is
adopted. The strength reduction factor (SRF) is
applied to reduce the strength of the soil to the
point of failure. The SRF can be regarded as the
factor equivalent to the factor of safety in the limit
equilibrium analyses. If the strength parameters of
the soil are c and , the cf and f are the factors that
will bring the slope to failure, which can be defined
as:
(1)
(2)
In the application of the strength reduction
method in finite element analyses, successive
factor are applied to reduce the soil strength in the
model until the solution of the computation cannot
converge any more. In the ABAQUS FE model, a
field variable was created, which is the stress
reduction factor supported in ABAQUS/CAE. The
un-converged solution takes place whenever the
critical strength reduction factor is reached. This
ultimate strength reduction factor (SRF) is defined
as equivalent to the factor of safety (FS). The FS
concept is employed to illustrate the efficiency of
stabilizing piles, and in order to illustrate the
efficiency of the stabilizing pile to a slope, a
stability improvement ratio (Npi) is proposed to
quantify the improved pile slopes. Npi is defined as
follows:
(3)
Where Fp = the minimum factor of safety for the
pile-slope system, and Fs = the minimum factor of
safety for the slope stability problem without the
pile.
In the slope stability analysis, several 2- or 3-D
LE or FE solutions have been proposed. In certain
cases, however, the 2-D solutions are still
competitive if the limitations of the two-
dimensional model can be identified and
determined. This paper mainly presents the
advantages of a pile-stabilized slope using 2-D FE
technique. The outcomes presented are based on the
optimal pile location, pile head condition and pile
length.

I5-3
Slope Stability Analysis benchmark example and results presented by
Griffiths and Land (1999) is 1.37 and 1.38 by Ho
In a slope stability analysis, the Factor of Safety
(2009). The result is found without being given a
(FS) based on SRM was not found to have a
significant difference between 2-D and 3-D FE
significant difference between 2-D and 3-D
models in other studies (Duncan 1996; Hutchinson
analyses. The results come from the 2-D and 3-D
and Sarma 1985; Hungr 1987; Griffiths and
FE analysis of an unstabilized slope using
Marquez 2007).
ABAQUS are shown in Figure 3. A similar

Figure 3. 2-D and 3-D slope stability analysis using ABAQUS

Optimal Pile Location improvement when they are placed at the crest
(Xp/X=1.0), regardless of pile head conditions. The
The piles are placed in different locations along
FS are both 1.39, the same for the un-stabilized
the slope with a length of 20m, and the non-
slope. The piles placed at the position where the
dimensional factor, Xp/X is employed and the
ratio, Xp/X equal to 0.75 and 0.25 lead to similar FS
notations have been mentioned previously. The
in both fixed and free pile head conditions,
ratio of Xp/X=0 is corresponding to the toe, and
respectively. If the piles are placed in the middle
Xp/X=1.0 is corresponding to the crest. The FS
part of the slope (Xp/X=0.5), the factor of will
varies along with the location where the piles are
increase to 1.72 for fixed-head piles and 1.46 for
placed, according to Figure 4. The results indicate
free-head piles. The optimal pile location in a slope
that the highest FS for both free and fixed-head
can be concluded as the middle portion, where
piles takes place in the middle of portion of a slope
Xp/X=0.5. The results are shown in Figure 4 which
(Xp/X=0.5). The Xp/X=0.25, 0.50, 0.75 and 1.0 are
indicated the optimal pile location is in the middle
examined. The lowest FS are found at the crest for
of the slope regardless of the pile head conditions.
both pile head conditions. The stabilizing piles are
found to have little effect on the stability

Figure 4. Factor of safety versus Xp/X

I5-4
Pile Length Optimized rate of the FS is very limited, with only a 4.3%
difference. Based on the factor of safety, the length
The literature addressed that the appropriate
between 24 and 26 m in this case will result in
length of the pile based on the results of numerical
higher FS for all cases. The results can be
analysis is very limited. However, a number of case
compared with the un-stabilized case, which
studies presented can be observed regarding the pile
presents the potential slip surface. The analyses can
length used in engineering applications. Most of the
also support and validate that about half of the pile
pile length used can be concluded that the potential
length has to extend below the potential slip surface.
slip surface to the entire length of pile is around
The optimal length of the pile depends on the
0.45 to 0.55 (Fukumoto 1975). A ratio of the actual
dimension of a slope. A non-dimensional ratio, L/H,
pile length to the height of the slope, L/H, is used to
is introduced in this paper to illustrate the length of
investigate the effect of pile length. The actual
pile compared to its height. The ratio can help to
length of the pile rages from 20 to 38 m and the
choose an a proper length of piles to be used. In this
height of the slope is 40 m. The range of the ratio,
paper, the L/H ratio for the fixed-head pile is about
L/H, is from 0.5 to 0.95. Two results are presented
0.7, and no particular optimal pile length ratio can
in Figure 5 with respect to free and fixed pile heads.
be observed for free-head pile. The analytical
The FS jump from 1.56 to 1.73 when L/H is greater
results for the free-head pile indicate the FS
than 0.65, and then remain as 1.73 until L/H=0.95.
increases while the L/H ratio also increases.
Thus, between L/H =0.7 and 0.95, the FS does not
However, the increase is not significant, so in
increase along with the pile length any further. In
engineering application, the recommended L/H will
terms of the stability improvement ratio, Npi , the
not necessarily be the maximum value close to 1.0
Npi is between 8 to 24.5%. However, for the free-
for a homogeneous slope.
head piles, the FS increase from 1.41 to 1.47 when
the L/H increases from 0.5 to 0.95. But the increase
1.75

1.70

1.65
Factor of Safety (FS)

1.60
Free Head
1.55 Fixed Head

1.50

1.45

1.40

1.35
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
L/H
Figure 5. Factor of safety versus L/H

Spacing Reduction Ratio regarded as an unstabilized slope or the piles make

A Spacing Reduction Ratio (SRR) is introduced
to correct the 2-D FEM analysis when the ratio S/D
is between 4.0 and 8.0 for stabilizing a
homogeneous slope. The SRR is can be written as
equation (3). The corrected FS for design using 2-D
FE analysis is expressed using equation (4). The
FS for design a stabilized slope can be corrected
using equation (5). The analysis using 3-D FE
analysis makes very good agreement with the FS
corrected using the SRR based on the ratio of S/D
used. The ratio S/D greater than 8.0 should be
very little contribution in stabilization.
SRR=1.62+0.25×(4.0-S/D)/1.62 (4)
FS Design= FS2-D × SRR (5)
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The 3-D finite element method provides more
realistic solutions compared to the 2-D finite
element analysis. The 2-D FE analysis conducted in
this paper is also in favor of the more conservative
viewpoint. However, it does not show a significant
discrepancy. Hence, the designed FS based on S/D

I5-5
equal to 4.0 using 2-D FE analysis results is
presented. Through the numerical analyses, the
failure mechanism can be identified, and the
performance of the piles can be evaluated as well.
Several conclusions can be drawn as follows based
on this 2-D FEM proposed:
1) The optimal pile location to stabilize pile is
found to be in the middle portion of a
homogeneous slope.
2) The slip surface could change due to the
presence of the stabilizing piles. The type of
the piles’ head, their position, spacing and the
length will also alter the failure mechanism of
the piled slope. These changes result in the
change in FS.
3) The proposed stability improvement ratio (Npi)
can easily quantify the effectiveness of a
stabilizing pile in a slope.
4) The stabilizing piles will behave as a single
pile if the S/D ratio 4.0. In the analysis, the
pile deformed subjected to slope failure can be
simplified to a single pile instead of
considering a pile-row response.
5) The S/D ratio greater than 8.0 should be
regarded as an unstabilized slope because the
pile is found to make very little contribution in
the FE model.
6) The fixed-head pile has a higher effectiveness
to increase the stability of a slope when
compared to the free-head pile
7) The advantages of this proposed 2-D FE
analyses for the pile-slope can perform the
coupled analyses, which considered the slope
stability and the pile response, simultaneously.
The computation will give a maximum SRF if
the solution cannot converge any more after
several iterations.
8) The soil movement, the depth of the slip
surfaces, and the soil pressure distribution
along the pile between 2-D and 3-D FE
analyses should be further conducted and
compared to discuss the results based on the
failure mechanism resulted in the future
research.
REFERENCES
ABAQUS. (2012). ABAQUS Documentation,
Version 6.12: Abaqus /CAE User’s Manual.
Simlulia, Providence, RI.
Ausilio, E., Conte, E., and Dente, G. (2001).
“Stability analysis of slopes reinforced with
piles.” Computers and Geotechnics, 28(8), 591-
611.
I5-6
Azzouz, A.S., Baligh, M.M., and Ladd, C.C. (1981).
"Three-Dimensional Stability Analyses of Four
Embankment Failures" X Int. Conf. Soil Mech.
Found. Engrg, 3, 343-346, Stockholm.
Cai, F., and Ugai, K. (2000). “Numerical analysis
of the stability of a slope reinforced with piles.”
Soils and Foundation, 40(1), 73–84.
Chen, R.H., and Chameau, J.L. (1985).
“Discussion: three-dimensional limit
equilibrium analysis of slopes.” Géotechnique,
35(2), 215–216.
Duncan, J. M. and Wright, S. G. (2005). “Soil
Strength and Slope Stability.” Wiley, New
Jersey.
Duncan, J.M. (1996). “State of the art: limit
equilibrium and finite-element analysis of
slopes.” Journal of Geotechnical Engineering,
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Foundations, 12 (2), 61-73.
Griffiths, D. V., and Lane, P. A. (1999). “Slope
stability analysis by finite elements.”
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Griffiths, D.V. and Marquez, R.M. (2007).“Three-
dimensional slope stability analysis by elasto-
plastic finite elements.” Géotechnique , 57(6),
537-546.
Hassiotis, S., Chameau, J. L, Gunaratne, M. (1997).
“Design method for stabilization of slopes with
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Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE, 123(4),
314–323.
Ho, I. H. (2009). “Optimization of Pile Reinforced
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Ho, I. H. (2014). " Numerical Study of Slope
Stabilizing Piles in Undrained Clayey Slopes
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http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-
5622.0000445
Ho, I. H. (2014). "Parametric Studies of Slope
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"Evaluation of a Three-Dimensional Method of
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“Discussion of 3-D limit equilibrium by H. R.
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“Simplified pile-slope stability analysis.”
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I5-7
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

SLOPE STABLITY ANALYSIS REGARDING RAINFALL-INDUCED LANDSLIDES

BY COUPLING SATURATED-UNSATURATED SEEPAGE ANALYSIS AND RIGID
PLASTIC FINITE ELEMENT METHOD

Yu. Ando 1, Kentaro. Suda 2, Shinji. Konishi 3 and Hirokazu. Akagi 4

ABSTRACT: This paper presents a new slope stability analysis regarding rainfall-induced landslides by cou-
pling a saturated-unsaturated seepage analysis and a rigid plastic finite element method (RP-FEM). Currently, a
more valid and reliable disaster prevention system detecting the risk of slope instability due to sudden intense
rainfall is required in Japan. However, conventional slope stability methods often fail to predict this new type of
landslides. Therefore, the aim of this study is to propose the new slope stability analysis method in the context of
rainfall infiltration. This method introduces the effect of seepage force, an increase of unit weight and a reduc-
tion of apparent cohesion due to the change in soil suction to obtain the slope stability load factors and collapse
mechanisms. Consequently, this method can provide the relatively accurate and valid analysis results, which can
be well compared with experimental data. Moreover, it is ascertained that this method can evaluate the different
type of slope failure mechanisms: an initial small failure at the toe of the slope caused by the seepage forces and
a large-scale failure due to the degradation of the soil apparent cohesion.

Keywords: slope stability, numerical analysis, rainfall, infiltration

INTRODUCTION lems have been solved in detail at the slope collapse.

Rigid-plastic model can be used to demonstrate the
In recent years, landslides caused by heavy rain
plastic flow behavior at limit state. Moreover, in RP-
are reported in various parts of Japan. There have
FEM it is not necessary to assume a slip surface line
been reports of more than 1000 failure cases since
for a limit equilibrium method, and it only requires a
2009 to 2011 and 1043 cases only in year 2014. Em-
few parameters such as cohesion, internal friction
bankment and slope failure due to rainfall are mainly
angle, and water pressure. Three destabilization fac-
because of a reduction of the shear strength with de-
tors mentioned in the previous section can also be
crease of suction, increase in soil self weight, and the
taken into account.
change of the ground water level by the infiltration of
Methodology flowchart in this study is shown in
the rain water.
Figure 1. In order to confirm the validity of this anal-
This study aims to propose a new analytical
ysis, numerical simulation results are compared with
method which can evaluate the slope stability by
soil slope model test data by Kitamura et al., 2007.
considering the failure factors: an increase in soil self
weight by the infiltration of the water, a decrease in Seepage Analysis Rigid plastic FEM analysis
soil apparent cohesion due to the drop of soil suction
・Pressure head Seepage pressure ・Displacement velocity
and an influence of water seepage pressure.
The collapse shape
In this study, a seepage analysis has been done to ・Pressure head
Apparent cohesion ・Load factor
(Suction)
obtain ground water and pore water pressure distribu-
・Volumetric Judgment of the stability
tion in slope and investigate that destabilization fac- water content Unit weight
tors of slope due to the infiltration of the rain. These
Figure 1. Methodology flowchart in this study
factors are introduced into the Rigid Plastic FEM
(RP-FEM).
Slope stability analysis has been performed based
on the plasticity theory and large deformation prob-

1
Student, Waseda University, 3-4-1 Okubo, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, JAPAN
2
Student, Waseda University, 3-4-1 Okubo, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, JAPAN
3
Researcher, Tokyo Metro Co., Ltd., 3-19-6 Higashiueno, Daito-ku, Tokyo, JAPAN
4
Professor, Waseda University, 3-4-1 Okubo, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, JAPAN

I6-1
INTRODUCTION TO THE SLOPE DESTABLI- Sr  Sr0 (5)

ZATION FACTORS 100  S r 0
Pressure head and seepage pressure where Sr is the degree of saturation, Sr0 is the mini-
One of the major reasons for slope failures due to mum saturation. By substitution of Eq. (5) into Eq.
rainfall is the effect of seepage forces. In order to (4), cohesion and internal friction angle of unsatu-
introduce the effect of water seepage forces in RP- rated soil can be represented as follows.
FEM, seepage forces obtained by the pressure head
   '
distribution from a seepage analysis are converted  (6)
 Sr  Sr0
c  c' 100  S  (u a  u w )  tan  '
into equivalent nodal forces. Eq. (1) indicates the
relationship between the pressure head and the seep-  r0
age force at any points in the soil elements. Eq. (2) is
Van Genuchten model determines the relation be-
the Gaussian integrated to obtain the equivalent nodal
tween the degree of saturation (Se) and soil suction as
force in each element.
 
(7)
n m
 h   N j
 Se  1      m 

n
  hj 
 x  j 1 x 
{ w  i}   w   h    w    (1) where Se is the effective saturation, α, m and n are
n N j
 
 y 


 j 1 y
hj 

non-dimensional parameters.

 h

OUTLINE OF THE EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
 f x   N
T
w
d
x
 h (2) Soil slope model test
fy    N w d
T
 y Systematic experimental study has been carried
out by Kitamura et al., 2007. Figure 2 indicates the
where γw is a unit weight of water, i is a hydraulic schematic diagram of soil slope model test, where
gradient, h is a pressure head, N is a shape function, n water is injected from the bottom, back and top part
is the number of nodes ， fx and fy are equivalent of the slope respectively. Seepage and failure behav-
nodal forces, and Ω is the integral regime ior are observed during water infiltration by installed
tensiometers (No.1~15) and piezometers at the bot-
Relation among soil suction, saturation and the ap- tom observing pore water pressures. For simplicity,
parent cohesion the test condition for infiltration from the bottom is
The apparent cohesion is calculated by using the named as case 1, injection from the back named as
relation between Ψ: suction and θ: water content, as case 2, and injection from the top named as case 3,
shown by Karube2). The effective stress of unsatu- respectively.
rated soil is given by Eq. (3), in which soil suction is
incorporated into the relation between total stress and Injection from the top

effective stress, presented by Bishop et al., 1960. 600mm

(3)
   (  u w )    (u a  u w )
No.5
No.4 No.6 No.11
No.3 No.10 No.15
where σ is total stress, ua is an air pressure, uw is a No.2 No.7 No.12
pore water pressure, (ua-uw) is a suction and χ is an No.1
No.9 No.14 Injection 800mm
empirical constant. Eq. (3) is substitute into Mohr- 100mm No.8 No.13 from the back

Columb failure criterion, and by assuming a constant 250mm

internal friction angle, soil internal friction angle
and cohesion c are given as bellow. 400mm

Injection from the bottom

   '
 1400mm
c  c'   (u a  u w )  tan  '
’
where c is an apparent cohesion, c is a cohesion at
saturation, is an internal friction angle, ’ is an
effective internal angle. Karube2) has empirically
obtained the constant  : experiment constant as indi-
cated in Eq. (4).
(4)
Figure 2. Soil slope model test
Status of infiltration of water into model test
There are three water infiltration cases into the
model. In case 1, constant water head of h = 25cm is
introduced to the bottom of model as shown in Figure
2. After the phreatic line reached the toe of the slope,

I6-2
partial collapse happened at the toe after 120min, and Table 1. Soil properties
then collapse zone gradually expanded (progressive Condition 1 2 3
failure). Large-scale failure occurred after 260min. Water Unit waight
9.81 9.81 9.81 General
γw（kN/m3）
In case 2, constant water head (h = 25 cm) is Soil particle unit waight
24.04 24.00 24.00
γs（kN/m3）
given at the back of slope as shown in Figure 2. In Dry weight of the ground
9.35 9.72 9.34
this case, small failure occurred after 160 min, and γd（kN/m3）
Void ratio e 1.57 1.47 1.57 Experiment
after this initial collapse, collapsed zone expanded at Internal friction angle
38.0 38.0 38.0
some extent, however, large-scale failure did not φ（°）
Saturation permeability
5.75×10-5 1.87×10-5 4.83×10-5
happen. k（m/s）
Ratio retention
In case 3, the constant flow rate (4.0 liter/min) is coefficient 1.00×10-5 1.00×10-5 1.00×10-5
given from the top of the soil slope. In this case, wa- SS（1/mm） Estimate
Saturation cohesion
0.0 0.0 0.0
ter infiltrated and reached at the bottom of tank, and c（kN/m2）
then flowed into the toe while forming water table in
the slope. The collapse at the toe happened at 110 600mm
min, and the large scale collapse happened at 115 The boundary of flow rates
min.

SEEPAGE ANALYSIS
- 800mm
Numerical analysis model and soil properties
Table 1 indicates the soil properties used in the
analysis. The experimental values obtained by model
test have been used, and the remainder is assumed by The boundary of constant water level
using the general soil properties. Figure 3 shows the
1400mm
model used for analysis. It consists of 1881 rectangu-
lar elements. This model is used for the test condi- Figure 3. Analysis model
tions of case 1, 2 and 3.
1000 1

Analysis case details

Permeability coefficient k
100
For the test case 1, the constant water head is giv-
SuctionΨ (cm)

en at the bottom of the soil slope as shown in Figure

10 0.5
3. Initial pressure head at each element is constant experiment
Van Genuchten
and is -800 mm and the constant water head at the
analyis value
1
boundary is fixed at 250 mm. For the test case 2, the
constant water head is given at the back of the soil
slope shown in Figure 3 Initial pressure head in each 0.1 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6
element is constant and is -700 mm and constant wa- Volumatric water content (θ)
ter level at the boundary is fixed at 250 mm. For test Figure 4. Unsaturated soil hydraulic properties 1
case 3, constant infiltration at the boundary is given
at top of the soil slope as shown in Figure 3. Initial
pressure head in each element is constant at -800mm 1000 1
and flow rate at the boundary is fixed at
0.37mm/node. Figure 4 – Figure 6 indicate unsatu-
Permeability coefficient k

100
rated soil hydraulic properties for test cases 1, 2, and
SuctionΨ (cm)

3 respectively. Unsaturated soil hydraulic properties

10 0.5
are determined by fitting analysis values with ex- experiment
Van Genuchten
perimental data and the theoretical line by Van analyis value
1
Genuchten model.

0.1 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6
Volumatric water content (θ)

Figure 5. Unsaturated soil hydraulic properties 2

I6-3
 1000 1

Pore water pressure (kPa)

Permeability coefficient K
100
SuctionΨ (cm)

10 0.5
experiment
Van Genuchten
analyis value
1 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Time (min)

0.1 0 (a) Measured pore water pressure

0 0.2 0.4 0.6
Volumatric water content (θ) 0

Figure 6. Unsaturated soil hydraulic properties 3 -200

No.13
No.14

Pressure head(mm)
No.12
Analysis results -400
No.15
No.11
The changes of pore water pressure in soil are -600

measured by the tensiometers in Figure 2. Figure 7 -800

indicates the comparison between experimental data 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Time (min)
(a) and analyzed results (b) in test case 1. Figure 8
(b) Analyzed pressure head
and Figure 9 are the comparisons of the experimental
data with analyzed results for test case 2 and 3 re- Figure 8. Comparison of experiment with analysis
spectively. Based on Figure 7 – Figure 9, it can be case 2
seen that seepage analysis can successfully reproduce
the water infiltration into the soil and also the change
in pore water pressure in each test case.
Pore water pressure (kPa)
Pore water pressure (kPa)

0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (min)

(a) Measured pore water pressure

0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Time (min) 400
No.13
(a) Measured pore water pressure
200
Pressure head (mm)

No.14
0
0 No.12
No.13
-200 -200 No.15
Pressure head (mm)

No.14
-400 No.11
-400 No.12

No.15 -600
-600
No.11 -800
-800
-1000
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
-1000
Time (min)
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
(b) Analyzed pressure head
Time (min)
(b) Analyzed pressure head
Figure 9. Comparison of experiment with analysis
case 3
Figure 7. Comparison of experiment with analysis
case 1

I6-4
RIGID PLASTIC FE SLOPE STABILITY 5
4.5
ANALYSIS 4
3.5
Rigid plastic FE analysis

Load factor μ
3
2.5
Rigid plastic FE analysis is the method to obtain 2
collapse
the stress distribution, the displacement velocity and 1.5 collapse
1
the load factor μ when collapse occurs. It employs 0.5
the upper bound theorem to solve the equilibrium of 0
0 50 100 150 200 250
stress and the compatibility condition of strain veloc- Time (min)
ity. Time dependent seepage force, increased soil unit Figure 10. Time dependent variation of load factor μ
weight and soil apparent cohesion reduced by water in case 1
infiltration has been introduced into RP-FEM analy-
sis. The value of soil slope load factor μ has been
obtained to satisfy the force equilibrium of the whole
FE model at the specified time period. Yielding con-
9.16
dition is defined by the Mohr-Couomb failure crite-
rion and the plastic flow is given by the Drucker-
Prager yield criterion. Load factor μ is equivalent to a
safety factor of slope stability. Therefore, load factor
μ = 1 indicates ordinary gravitational field, while Figure 11. Distribution of seepage force at 100min in
case 1 (×10-3N)
μ 1 indicates that the soil slope is stable and μ < 1
indicates that the soil slope is unstable.

Analysis model and soil property

The analysis model and soil properties used in the
RP-FEM analysis are the same as in the seepage
analysis.

Analysis method 0.0 4.0

Displacement boundary conditions are given as
follows: the bottom nodes have been fixed vertically
and horizontally and the side nodes have been fixed
horizontally. Load factors of slope stability analysis
have been computed by introducing data of seepage
force, an apparent cohesion and a unit weight into
rigid plastic FEM.
Analysis results
Figure 10 indicates the time-dependent change of
load factor μ with infiltration of water from the bot-
tom (test case 1). It can be seen that the load factor μ
reaches at the value of 0.33 at 100 min and 0.02 at
200 min which indicates that the slope collapsed
twice. These collapses correspond to the initial fail-
ure at the toe at 120 min and large scale failure at 260
min in the experiment. In fact, the factor of safety has
already become smaller than μ =1 at 75 min in the
numerical simulation result. In terms of the time pe-
riods where the factor has become the minimum, the
seepage pressure acts on the toe of the slope at 100
min (Figure 11), and the majority part of the slope
loses its apparent cohesion at 200 min (Figure 12).
Figure 12. Distribution of cohesion at 200 min in
case 1 (kN/m2)
Figure 13 indicates the time-dependent change of
load factor μ by infiltration of water from the back
(test case 2). It can be seen, that the load factor μ
reaches at the value of 0.97 at 170 min in Figure 13.
Also, this collapses correspond to failure at the toe at
160 min in the experiment. In terms of the time pe-
riod where the factor has become the minimum, the
seepage pressure acts on the toe of the slope at
170min (Figure 14), and the majority part of the
slope loses its apparent cohesion at 170 min (Figure
15).
Figure 16 indicates the time-dependent change of
load factor μ by injection of water from the top (test
case 3). It can be seen that the load factor μ reaches
at the minimum of 0.81 at 110 min and 0.22 at 120
min in Figure 16. Also, these collapses correspond to
the initial failure at the toe at 110 min and large scale
failure at 115 min obtained in the experiment. In
terms of the time period where the load factor has
become the minimum, the seepage pressure acted on
the toe of the slope at 110 min (Figure 17), and the
majority part of the slope lost its apparent cohesion at
120 min (Figure 18).

I6-5
 2.5

collapse
Load factor μ

1.5

0.5
0.0 9.8
0 Figure 18. Distribution of cohesion at 120 min in
120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200
case 3 (kN/m2)
Time (min)

Figure 13. Time dependent variation of load factor μ CONCLUSIONS

in case 2
In this study, the stability of slope in the experi-
ment conducted by Kitamura et al., 2007 was evalu-
ated by using slope stability analysis by coupling
seepage analysis and rigid plastic FEM. The conclu-
2.1
sions obtained from this study are summarized as
follows.
1) The distribution of soil seepage forces, unit weight,
Figure 14. Distribution of seepage force at 170 min and soil apparent cohesion at failure was success-
in case 2 (×10-3N) fully simulated by the seepage analysis.
2) The validity of this slope stability analysis was
ascertained by the result that the time of failure in
analysis corresponds to the time of failure ob-
tained in the experiment. In addition, the destabi-
lization factors (seepage forces, unit weight, and
apparent cohesion) have been demonstrated to in-
fluence on the stability analysis by RP-FEM.
0.0 4.22 3) By using the proposed method, the progressive
failure (the initial failure at the toe of the slope
Figure 15. Distribution of cohesion at 170 min in
case 2 (kN/m2) and the gradual propagation of the failure area)
can also be explained based on the time-
3 dependent change of load factors.
2.5
REFERENCES
2
Load factor μ

1.5 collapse Karube, D., Kato, S., Hamada, K., Honda, M. (1996).
collapse
1
“The relationship between the mechanical behav-
ior and the state porewater in unsaturated soil”,
0.5
Journal of JSCE, No.554, pp83-92. (in Japanese)
0
60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 Kitamura, R., Sako, K., Kato, S., Mizushima, T.
Time （min）
(2005). “Soil tank test on seepage and failure be-
Figure 16. Time dependent variation of load factor μ haviors of Shirasu the slope during rainfall”,
in case 3
Journal of JGS, Vol.2, No 3, pp149-168. (in Japa-
nese)
Konishi, S., Nakayama, T., Tamura, T., Toyota, H.,
Matsunaga, T., Iura, T. (2013). “Evaluation of
2.1 tunnel face stability affected by ground water and
3
varying cohesion of sandy layer due to degree of
saturation”, Journal of JSCE, Vol.69, No. 1, pp1-
Figure 17. Distribution of seepage force of 110 min 9. (in Japanese)
in case 3 (×10-3N)

I6-6
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

EFFECT OF DEWATERING IN SLOPE STABILIZATION: OBSERVATION FROM

EARTHERN DYKE, SOFT ROCK SLOPE AND HARD ROCK SLOPE
Sukanya Chakraborti 1

ABSTRACT: Dewatering increases slope stability. Ground water generates pore water pressure or seepage
forces which promote slope failure reducing shear strength of soil or rock masses. Also within a rock-mass water
pressure acting within a discontinuity reduces the effective normal stress acting on the plane, thus reducing the
shear strength along that plane and resultes in failure along the plan. However dewatering may not show similar
effect for soil and rock slopes. Effect of dewatering has been studied for different types of slopes. Observations
and analysis based on case studies on an earthen engineered slope, a combined clay-sand-soft rock sequence
(lignite mine pit) and a hard rock slope with secondary aquifer are presented in the current work. For an earthen
engineered slope, partial dewatering increases factor of safety about 5-6 % with dewatering and lowering of
phreatic surface of about 2/3 ft for a 20 ft dyke, factor of safety increases from 0.85 to 0.90. For the lignite mine
pit factor of safety increases more than 40%, from 0.98 to 1.42 by dewatering/depressurization of aquifer and
keeping piezometric surface below the mine pit floor. For the rock slope the effect is about 10-15% increase of
factor of safety by pre-mining pumping. However dewatering and depressurization of secondary aquifer may not
reduce the risk completely, also it is difficult to model and analyze. For rock slopes the ground water condition
can be modeled using RMR parameter in limit equilibrium analytical method. However for slope stability
analysis for a hard rock sequence, consideration of the effect of groundwater stored in/flowing along prominent
discontinuities is important to ensure reliability of the analysis. Detail structural mapping for data collection on
character and orientation of discontinuities developed in the rock mass, estimation of hydrogeological properties
and geotechnical properties and numerical simulation modeling with those site specific data can only facilitate in
developing realistic analysis for rock slopes.

Keywords: Ground water, Slope stability analysis, Dewatering

INTRODUCTION In addition to pore-pressure increase in

Groundwater generates pore water pressure or
seepage force that reduces shear strength of soil
mass and disturb/weak/soft rock mass. Thus
reduces stability of slopes and often promotes
slope failure or landslide as explained by the
following expression, combining Mohr-Coulomb’s
failure criterion and Terzaghi´s expression for
effective stress:
FOS  c'(  u) tan( ' ) / (1)
Where Normal stress and Pore pressure are
denoted by  and u, respectively, and the strength
parameters: Friction angle, and Cohesion
(expressed in terms of effective stresses, i.e. for
drained situations) are denoted by,’ and c’,
respectively.
presence of groundwater, there are other natural
phenomena i.e., seepage, precipitation and
subsequent infiltration, degradation and/or
weathering which are potential promoter for
strength loss (Duncan and Write, 2005). Slope
stability may also get reduced by increased shear
stress due to water pressure in cracks at the top of
the slope, increased soil weight due to increased
water content, reduced resistant forces due to
removal of soil along the slope toe and drop in
water level at the slope base.
In a rock mass with well connected porosity,
pore fluid pressure reduces normal stress tensor
components acting on intact rocks and
discontinuity planes and may cause failure if water
pressure equals to the applied normal stress
(Terzaghi, 1929; Hubbert and Rubey, 1959).

1
Senior Manager, Geology ,TATA Consulting Engineers Limited, 5th Floor, Tecnopolis Building, Sector V, Saltlake,
Kolkata-700091, sukanyac@tce.co.in , INDIA

I7-1
 For a joint or other discontinuity plane Shear pressure causes upward pressure, depressurization
Strength is expressed as follows: was proposed before reaching the safe level for
extraction. The depressurization system consists of
  ( n  u) tan( ' ) (2)
construction of series of wells surrounding the
Usually for stability analysis of jointed / weak mine pit and pumping or dewatering of water from
rock-slope the nonlinear relationship between confined aquifer.
shear strength and normal stress, is approximated Geomining Parameters used for slope stability
by the straight line defined by the Coulomb analysis:
parameters ’ and c’: Maximum Ultimate mine pit depth: 77m
Bench height in Over Burden: 9 m
  c'( n  u) tan( ' ) (3)
Bench height in Lignite: maximum 1.5 m
However this approximation of the curved (depending on seam thickness)
strength envelope by a straight-line envelope can Bench slope angle: 60-70 degree
lead to errors unless the straight-line Overall pit slope angle (recommended): 28 degrees.
approximation corresponds closely to the curved Basic horizontal seismic coefficient, α0 = 0.02.
envelope in the range of the water pressures.
Slope dewatering and lowering of piezometric Slope Stability Analysis has been carried out
using Finite Element Method of analysis
surface is one of the most effective methods for
slope stabilization by reducing pore pressure. (Software: Phase 2D of Rocscience). Physic-
Dewatering can be achieved by simply rerouting mechanical properties used for the analysis are as
Table 1.
surface water away from the slope, by installing
horizontal drains in the slope face, or by lowering
Table 1. Physic-mechanical properties of litho-
the water table. units deduced by Geotechnical Investigation
Some observations on effect of dewatering for Lithology Unit Cohesion Angle Young Poison's
slope stabilization of earthen dyke, soft (with weight (Mpa) of Modulus Ratio
lignite-clay-sandstone rock assemblage) rock mine (kN/m3) internal (GPa)
friction
pit and hard rock mine pit are presented in the Top soil 17.00 0.03 0 20 0.3
current article to understand effectiveness of Clayey 20.97 1.78 42 20 0.3
“dewatering” as a potential slope stabilizing tool in sandstone
various type of material or geology. Shale 18.42 0.19 17 0.05 0.3
Fine 19.31 0.84 16 15 0.3
sandstone
OBSERVATIONS with clay
Effect of dewatering observed while Sandy 20.00 0.04 25 0.003 0.3
clay stone
developing slope stability analysis models for Loose - 17.00 0.005 30 1 0.3
some Greenfield and Brown field mining projects fine
are described below. sandstone
Medium 19.89 0.53 41 20 0.3
sandstone
Model 1: Soft Rock Mine Pit Clay 20.00 0.04 25 0.003 0.3
This Slope stability analysis model is Lignite 06.36 0.20 32 0.014 0.3
Carbonac- 20.00 0.04 25 0.003 0.3
developed for a soft rock (Lignite) mine in north- eous Clay
western India. The area shows Sub-tropical arid Sandstone 22.25 0.688 38 20 0.3
(desert) climate with scanty rainfall. (Base)
Mine pit lithology consists of Top soil, Sand &
Kankar, Clayey sandstone, Friable Sandstone, The analysis shows that if pumping/
Sandy clay, Grey clay, Carbonaceous clay, clay dewatering activity is not in place, the factor of
with fine lignite beds, Lignite, Clays beds with safety is 0.98, after dewatering and lowering of
lignite patches, Base-sandstone. Shaly sand stone piezometric surface factor of safety becomes 1.41
is also present in some cases as parting between (Figure 1).
lignite seams. No major faults or folds are reported The outcome of the analysis indicates that with
in the mine lease area. Overall bedding dip is continuous dewatering and lowering of
gentle with some local variations. piezometric surface below the lignite-clay beds
Lignite seams are underlain by a confined stability of the slope increases considerably, about
aquifer having piezometric surface at a level much 40%.
above the lignite seam. As this piezometric

I7-2
 Slope Stability Analysis has been carried out
using Limit Equilibrium Method of analysis
(Software: Galena 5.0 of Clover Technology),
Followed by Kinematic analysis.
From that Intact rock properties determined in
laboratory, Rock mass strength parameters were
determined and used for stability analysis
considering the heterogeneous and highly
disturbed/ anisotropic nature of rocks (Table 2).

Table 2 Physic-mechanical properties of litho-units

deduced by Geotechnical Investigation
Lithology Unit Cohesion Angle
weight (Mpa) of
(kN/m3) internal
friction
Granite 26.5 2.11 38.5
Schist 26.4 1.08 24.4
Figure 1. Factor of Safety and Total displacement BMQ 37.47 2.72 35.9
at the conditions without dewatering (top) and
after dewatering/ depressurization of aquifer up
to the bottom of the lignite seams 450
0.080
Phreatic Surface
400

Model 2: Hard Rock Mine Pit 350

This model is developed for an Iron Ore mine 300

in a western African country. The area has a 250

tropical climate with high temperatures and 200

Granite
abundant rainfall. 150

Granite, Gneissic rocks constituting the waste 100

Schist
rocks while mining, whereas the Ore body is made
BMQ
50

up of Banded Magnetite Quartzite (BMQ), Banded 0

Haematite Quartzite (BHQ), Massive semi -100 0 100 200 300 400 500

massive Magnetite (MM). Litho-units are highly
deformed with large scale faults and folds,
prominent sets of closely spaced medium to highly
dipping joints. For granite & BMQ of the area
RQD is varying between 70-100% and for schist
60-90%.
Semi-confined aquifer developed in fractured
bedrock is the groundwater source in the area.
Alignment of Phreatic surface along the pit is
found at a depth of about 20- 30m from the pit
boundary surface level. Presence of a large water
filled old mine pit adjacent to the new mine pit,
generates threat of mine flooding with sudden high
inflow due to propagation of fractures as an effect
of blasting and resulting connectivity of the aquifer
with the lake.
Geo-mining parameters used for analysis:
Maximum Ultimate mine pit depth: 405 m
Bench height: 12 m
Final Bench width: 5m
Bench slope angle: 80 degree
Overall pit slope angle (recommended): 52 degree
Basic horizontal seismic coefficient, α0 = 0.08.
Figure 3. Slope stability analysis model (LEM
model, Galena Software- Output) for the hard rock
mine pit. Resulted FOS 1.53
The analysis shows that Factor of safety
determined for the designed ultimate pit slope at
52o angle is 1.53. It is observed after 6 m lowering
of phreatic surface Factor of safety increases to
1.54.
Model 3: Earthen Dyke
The model described here is developed for an
earthen dyke within a Tailing Storage Facility, in a
mining and processing project area. The dyke is
separating two reservoirs: first one, filled up with
mud- slurry (tailings from process plant), second
one, with dried tailings. The dyke was constructed
in 1980s, to divide a large old reservoir and is
currently in bad heath due to high rate seepage at
places. Initial dyke height was about 4 m, which
further rose to about 6 m. To excavate dried up
tailings from the second reservoir, seepage control
and stabilization of the earthen dyke is required.

I7-3
 Slope Stability Analysis has been carried out
using Limit Equilibrium Method of analysis
(Software: Galena 5.0 of Clover Technology),
based on geotechnical and hydrogeological data
(Table 3) to estimate risk of excavation, effect of
dewatering and to determine safe excavation
distance (width of no excavation zone from dyke).

Table 3. Physic-mechanical properties of litho-

units deduced by Geotechnical Investigation
Lithology/ Unit Cohesion Angle Hydraulic Figure 4. Change in Factor of Safety of rock and
Material weight (Mpa) of Conductivity earthen slopes due to lowering of piezometric
type (kN/m3) internal surface by dewatering.
friction
Foundation
Soil 14.92 0.72 23 3.57E-11 For observation purpose Slope Stability
Bed rock Analysis has been carried out for every 1 m
(Clay
Stone) 19.64 95.76 30 3.34E-10 lowering of piezometric surface, up to an
Dyke optimistic number, 30m.
material 15.71 7.18 25 3.57E-11 As indicated by the graph above (Figure 4) for
Dyke
material soft rock slope, the rate of change in Factor of
along Safety with respect to lowering of piezometric
seepage
zone 14.92 3.59 15 3.57E-11 surface is quite high, but somewhat irregular in
Material nature indication variation of dewatering effect in
for raising 17.28 16.76 25 2.84E-11
Mud
different lithology characterized by different
/Tailings 12.57 4.79 15 1.32E-3 geotechnical properties.
For earthen dyke also rate of change in Factor
25 0.020
of Safety is on higher side however only effect of
successive 4 m lowering of phreatic surface could
20
be studied with the model.
15
Old Dyke
For hard rock slope the rate of change in Factor
Raised Dyke
10
of Safety is quite low, however gradual in nature.
Dry Tailings Here we may recall that the aquifer in soft rock
5
Wet Tailings
Soil slope is Confined type, whereas in hard rock slope
0
Bed Rock (Clay Stone) Distressed Dyke aquifer is fracture controlled semi-confined type.
In soil slopes, ground water generates pore
Figure 2. Slope stability analysis model (LEM
pressure and decreases frictional shear strength of
model, Galena Output) for the earthen dyke.
Resulted FOS 0.85 soil due to the buoyant effect. It also affects the
stability of soil slope by, modifying density of
The analysis shows that Factor of Safety is material and changing its mineral constituents.
0.85 after excavation of dried tailings. With Thus effect of dewatering in slope stabilization
dewatering and lowering of phreatic surface of depends on the martial’s physic-
about 1 m, Factor of safety reaches to 0.9. If chemical/geotechnical properties along with slope
dewatering is done to lower phreatic surface for configuration.
about 3m, Factor of Safety will reach to 0.98. In rock slopes, groundwater pressure reduces
However design consideration of dewatering of 1 the stability of rock slopes, by decreasing effective
m and keeping about 2 to 2.5 m “no excavation shear strength of discontinuities. Water filled in
zone” has been adopted considering operational discontinuities creates water column which
ease. generate water pressure equal to the length of
discontinuities. If fractures are not well connected
DISCUSSION AND RECCOMENDATION and discharge of water from the rock mass is slow,
hydraulic pressure enhances and reduces normal
It is observed that with dewatering and
pressure on the discontinuities as well as shear
lowering of piezometric surface Factor of Safety
strength. The presence of water may also lower the
increases in all the models. However the pattern of
shear strength of the infill material in
change in Factor of Safety is varying considerably
discontinuities.
(Figure 4).

I7-4
 In a fracture controlled secondary aquifer
dewatering and depressurization may not reduce
the water pressure completely, especially when
fractures network is not sufficiently connected.
Sudden opening of joints/ fractures as an effect of
water pressure can initiate sliding or reduces rock-
mass strength. Propagation of fractures in
consequence of blasting effect etc may also
increase water inflow and in tern cause slope
instability.
Thus for rock slopes, apart from geotechnical
properties of the rock mass, occurrences of
fractures including fracture density, orientation,
length, nature of surface, infiltration properties
play important role in slope stability. Major faults,
multiple joint/fracture sets often resulted in local
or bench scale failure under the influence of pore
water pressure. Reduction of shear strength along
discontinuities also reduces rock mass strength.
Therefore detail and systematic structural
geological mapping and data collection on
character and orientation of discontinuities
developed in the rock mass, estimation of
hydrogeological properties, along with
investigation for geotechnical properties are very
important to understand the effect of groundwater
in slopes stability and advantage of dewatering in
slope stabilization, especially in a complex
geological terrain.
Rock slopes in a deformed rock mass is
always difficult to model and analyze. Kinematic
analysis using detail structural data followed by
stability analysis by limit equilibrium analytical
method here, structural and hydrogeological
characteristics of the rock-mass is considered in
RMR parameter can give good outcome. However
numerical simulation modeling with the above said
site specific data is recommended for realistic
modeling of ground water condition, its effect on
discontinuities, possible mobility along the
discontinuities and a much accurate rock slope
stability analysis.

REFERENCES
Duncan, J.M. and Wright, S.G. (2005). Soil
Strength and Slope Stability, John Wiley and
Sons Inc.
Terzaghi, (1929). Effects of minor geologic details
on the safety of dams. American Institute of
Mining & Metallurgical Engineers. 215, 31-44.
Hubbert, M. K. and Rubey, W. W. (1959). Bull.
Geol. Soc. Am. 70, 115-166.

I7-5
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

2D AND 3D FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS AND GEOTECHNICAL MONITORING

FOR SLOPE STABILITY ASSESSMENT OF CIHERANG BRIDGE ABUTMENT

Santoso P. C. S. 2,3, Nandya D. 3, Wirawan A. 3, Sugianto A. 3 and Rahardjo P. P. 1

ABSTRACT: Condition of soil at bridge abutment location is very critical when the back fill is very high. In
some cases, the piles supporting the abutment failed. The case of Ciherang Bridge is one of the difficult situation
where the foundation soil is soft and the height of fill is significantly very high (9 m). This paper is a result of
investigation to the project considering risk of the abutment against failures. 2D and 3D analysis were conducted
to asses this risk. The result shows that 2D finite analysis may not be suitable due to modeling of the foundation
as plate element. The more accurate behavior is represented by 3D finite element analysis. Observation on the
inclinometer confirm the result of 3D finite element analysis.

Keyword: Abutment, slope stability, 2D and 3D finite element analysis, inclinometer.

INTRODUCTION SITE DESCRIPTION & SOIL CONDITION

Ciherang bridge is a part of Cikopo-Palimanan Soil investigation at abutment 1 consisted of

Toll Road consisting of 70 m long span across
Ciherang river to connect Cikopo with Subang.
Design elevation of bridge considered highway
elevation and freeboard on river flood, therefore,
the requirement of the embankment fill is about 9 m
from the existing level. Foundation system for
abutment used bored pile with dia. 1200 mm and 30
m in length. In this paper analysis particularly
concerning abutment 1 of Ciherang bridge.
with 3 boreholes, 2 CPT, and 2 CPTu data. The
results of geotechnical investigation shows the
surface layer dominated by reddish silty clay with
very soft to soft consistency 5-8m thick, second
layer is silty clay with medium to very stiff
consistency (average NSPT value is around 15),
very dense sand dominates the third layer with
NSPT value higher than 50 and interpreted as sand
lenses and the following layer is very stiff silty clay
until end of boring.

Figure 1. Long section Ciheurang Bridge

1
Professor, Parahyangan Catholic University, Jl. Ciumbuleuit No. 94 Bandung, Indonesia
2
Graduate Student, Parahyangan Catholic University, Jl. Ciumbuleuit No. 94 Bandung, Indonesia
3
Geotechnical Engineer, PT. Geotechnical Engineering Consultant, Bandung, Indonesia

I8-1
 Figure 2. Location of Soil Investigation

Figure 3. Soil Stratification Profile (Pot 1-1)

Figure 2 shows the location of soil investigation from correlation of clay to undrained shear strength
(i.e. borings and CPT or CPTu) and figure 3 is the (estimated from data recommended by Duncan and
cross section of abutment 1 derived from soil Buchignani, 1976) vs depth.
investigation. Soil laboratory tests were conducted
for undisturbed samples from variety of soil depth.
100
Soil design parameters such as soil index properties
90
and soil strength parameter. Figure 4 shows soil
80
plasticity plotted in Casagrande plasticity chart, 70
which is used to determine cohesive soil 60
characteristic based on liquid limit and plastic limit 50
of the material. 40
According to plasticity chart, soil around 30
Ciherang Bridge is inorganic silt (MH) and clay 20
material (CH) with high plasticity. The plot of 10
liquid limit (LL), plastic limit (PL), water content 0
(Wn) against depth which determine soil 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
characteristic along depth shown on Figure 5 (a).
Figure 5 (b) Shows distribution of shear strength vs Figure 4. Soil plasticity in Casagrande’s plasticity
depth from laboratory data and CPTu. Figure 6 chart (Casagrande ,1948 & Howard, 1977)
shows modulus E50 from triaxial CU and modulus

I8-2
 LL, PL, Wn (%) Su (kg/cm2)

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

0 0

2 2

4 4

6 6

Depth (m)
8

Depth (m)
10 10

12 12

14 14

16 16

18 18

20 20
LL (%) PL (%) Wn (%) Su Lab Su CPTU

(a) (b)
Figure 5. (a) Correlation between LL, PL, and Wn vs depth for Ciherang Bridge and Bailey Bridge area;
(b) Correlation between Su vs depth from laboratory data and CPTU.

Nspt (blow) Eu [kg/cm2]

0 20 40 60 80 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500

0 0

5 5

10 10

15 15

20 20
Depth [m]
Depth [m]

25 25

30 30

35 35

40 40

BH 01 Eu [Clay lower bound]

45 BH 02 45 Eu [Clay upper cound]
BH 03 E50 [TX UU]
BH 09 E50 ref [TX UU]
50 50

Figure 6. Shows modulus E50 from triaxial CU and modulus from correlation of clay to undrained shear strength
(estimated from data recommended by Duncan and Buchignani, 1976) vs depth.

Base on the above information, there exist soft clay ground level. For embankment work, the load is
with varying thickness of 5-8 m followed by supported with mini piles and combined with
medium to stiff consistency. Silty clay the upper concrete panel. The embankment supporting system
layer may cause a serious problem due to thick is proposed to use 200x200 mm2 of mini pile
embankment fill of 9 m behind the abutment. connected to concrete mattress with 13 cm in
thickness. The supporting area designed 30m away
DESIGN REQUIREMENT AND METHOD OF from abutment, so the effect of settlement due fill
CONSTRUCTION material can be reduced. The foundation of
Based on the design requirement, the elevation abutment used 50 bored piles at
of abutment will be ± 9 m higher from existing

I8-3
abutment 1 (A1). Dimension of bored piles are dia. pile foundation when construction progress until
1200 mm and 30 m in length. construction finish. Because, during embankment
Method of construction of Ciherang Bride is the loading, it may cause lateral movement.
first step pilling the foundation of abutment and
driving mini piles behind the abutment for first step.
Second step is construction box structure abutment.
Third step is fill material at embankment area until
design elevation. The embankment shall be
compacted layer per layer.

SOIL PARAMETERS AND MODELING

CONDITION OF ANALYSIS Figure 7. Design concept abutment A1

Design parameter for slope stability analysis is

determined from interpretation of soil tests (NSPT
and piezocone/CPTU) and laboratory result. Using
plastic perfect-plasticity condition, the Mohr-
Coulomb model was used to analyze geotechnical
problem and behavior of soil structure interaction.
The Mohr-Coulomb model which can be obtained
from basic tests on soil samples, and the design
parameter are listed below:
The analysis focused on the behavior the bore
pile with geotechnical instrument and result of Figure 8. Actual Abutment Ciherang Bride
analysis until construction finish. The design
analysis used program finite element 2D Plaxis for In this paper compare the value and pattern
construction the abutment. Beside analysis with 2D movement of the foundation bored pile from
model, analysis used program finite element 3D inclinometer reading due to construction of the
Midas for check the analysis more alike with actual. abutment with analysis result from Plaxis 2D and
Geotechnical monitoring is using inclinometer. Midas 3D. The location inclinometer installation
Two instruments for each abutment installed (IN-3) can be seen in Figure 9 and process reading
geotechnical instrumentation for monitoring inclinometer IN-3 in Figure 10.
behavior and measurement deflection of the bored

Table 1. Soil Parameters for Analysis

γunsat γsat n E c phi
ID Name Type
[kN/m^3] [kN/m^3] [-] [kN/m^2] [kN/m^2] [°]
1 Soft Clay Drained 15 17 0.30 1,500 8 15
2 Stiff Clay Drained 16 18 0.30 7,500 80 0
3 Cemented Sand Drained 14 15 0.22 14000 20 32
4 Very Stiff Clay Drained 16 18 0.30 100,000 200 0
5 Fill Drained 15 17 0.30 4,000 2 27
6 Concrete Drained 24 24 0.15 21,000,000 - -

Table 2. Structures element Parameter

EA EI w υ
ID Name Type
[kN/m] [kNm^2/m] [kN/m^2] [-]
1 Borpile Plastic 7,090,000 638,000 3.0 0.15
2 Cermaton Plastic 210,000 175 0.1 0.15

I8-4
 Inclinometer

Figure 10. Reading

Figure 9. Location of inclinometer at Abutment 1 inclinometer IN-3

ANALYSIS RESULT USING PLAXIS 2D, behind abutment and fill material from 2D and 3D
MIDAS 3D AND INCLINOMETER READING finite element analysis shows at Figure 18.
A A A

Result from Plaxis 2D with modeling soil

material and abutment are modeled as a cluster.
Bored piles and mini piles are modeled as a plate.
Figure 13 shows the finite element 2D model. The
analysis result, fill material behind the abutment
will cause settlement 50.8 cm at cross section A-A’
(elevation cross section behind the abutment). At y

borpile with inclinometer, the displacement bored

pile is 3 cm, shear force maximum -340 kN, and Figure 13. Finite element model Plaxis 2D
moment maximum -1791 kN.
Result from Midas 3D with modeling soil
material and abutment are modeled as a cluster.
A A'
Bored piles and mini piles are modeled as a beam
element. Figure 11 and Figure 12 shows the finite
element 3D model. From the analysis result, fill
material behind the abutment will cause settlement
56 cm at cross section B-B’ (elevation cross section
behind the abutment). At bored pile with Figure 14. Result of displacement using
inclinometer, the displacement of bored pile is 0.9 analysis Plaxis 2D
cm, shear force maximum -243.6 kN, and moment
maximum -1549.4 kNm. The pattern of settlement

Figure 15. Result of analysis Midas 3D

Figure 11. Finite element model Midas 3D (a)

B B’

Figure 16. Result of displacement using analysis

Figure 12. Finite element model Midas 3D (b) Midas 3D (longitudinal section)

I8-5
 Distance (m)
-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80
0.0

-10.0

Settlement (cm)
-20.0

-30.0

-40.0
Plaxis 2D (A-A')
-50.0
Midas 3D (B-B')
-60.0

Figure 17. Result of analysis Midas 3D Figure 18. Settlement pattern from 2D and 3D analysis
at the bored pile

Deflection (cm) Shear Force (kN) Moment (kN)

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 -400 -200 0 200 400 -2000 -1000 0 1000 2000
0 0 0

5 5 5

10 10 10

15 15 15
Depth (m)

Depth (m)
Depth (m)

20 20 20

25 25 25

30 30 30
Plaxis 2D Plaxis 2D Plaxis 2D
Midas 3D Midas 3D Midas 3D
Inclinometer Inclinometer Inclinometer
35 35 35

Figure 19. Summary of shear force, moment, and deflection from all analysis

During construction abutment in progress, sub- foundation, display on 3 chart (Figure 19):
contractor conducted measurements monitoring of deflection vs depth, shear force vs depth, and
inclinometer. Based on inclinometer IN-3 moment vs depth.
measurements result on abutment 1, deflection
inclinometer maximum 1.7 cm at pile top. The CONCLUSIONS
sliding plane is at depth ± 13 m. In 2D finite (1) 2D Finite element analysis yield unrealistic
element, this pile is assumed as plate, therefore the
result and can not be used. The reason is
shear force is very high (compared to 3D analysis). because the piles have been modeled as plate
Moment and shear force can be calculated from element.
derivative displacement along a bored pile. The
(2) From 2D analysis, shear force at depth 18m is
equations for calculating moment and not appropriate, the shear force from negative
shear force are M   EI [d 2 y dx 2 ] and to positive. Soldier pile at 2D analysis is
Q   EI [d 3 y dx 3 ] . The maximum moment is -
modeled as a plate, so when plate located at
990.7 kNm and shear force maximum is 241.8 kN. two significant different soil stiffness (soft and
Summary of analysis 2D and 3D result and hard), the plate behave receive all forces.
monitoring inclinometer at the bored pile

I8-6
(3) Inclinometer measurement gives value of
displacement, shear force and moment. Result
from 3D analysis more similar to inclinometer
measurement. Displacement at the top bored
pile from inclinometer is smaller compared to
3D analysis, possibility because the
measurement was influence by method of
construction. Some move went might occur
during concreting for the pile cap.
(4) Soldier pile at 3D model is modeled as a beam
element, the foundation bored pile received
force only surrounding the foundation bored
pile. The shear force obtained from 3D analysis
and inclinometer looks same pattern.
(5) From analysis result, analysis with 3D model
more similar with actual condition and analysis
with complex model in this study gives
accurate result. For cases where there exists
soil material with substantially different
stiffness modeling foundation as plate is not
appropriate, or in other word 2D analysis is not
recommended. On the other hand analysis by
3D model is better.

REFERENCES
Casagrande, A. (1948). “Classification and
Identification of Soil”. Transactions, ASCE, Vol.
113, pp. 901-930.
Duncan, J.M., and Buchignani, A.L. 1976. ”An
Engineering Manual for Settlement Studies”.
Geotechnical Enginnering Report, University of
California at Berkeley, pp. 94
Hetenyi . 1979. “Beam Elastic of Foundation”.
United States : John Wiley & Sons Canada, pp. 5
Holtz, Robert D. 1981. “An Introduction to
Geotechnical Engineering”. United States : Prentice-
Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J.
Howard, A.K. (1977). “Laboratory Classification
of Soil-Unified Soil Classification System”. Earth
Science Training Manual No. 4. U.S. Bureau of
Reclamation, Denver, pp. 56
PT. GEC. 2014. Final Report “Ciherang Bridge
Foundation and Geotechnical Design”. Bandung :
01/DST 14002/14-06/008-025/LP-04.
PT. GEC. 2014. Final Report “Soil Investigation
for Ciherang Bridge (Factual Report)”. Bandung :
01/14002DST/14-08/010-038/LP-04/GEC-2/140201.

I8-7
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

3D FINITE ELEMENT MODELING OF SLOPE FAILURES DUE TO FILL

PLACEMENT ON SOFT SOILS BEHIND BRIDGE ABUTMENT

Wirawan, A. 2, Handoko, A. 3, Rahardjo, P.P. 1

ABSTRACT: Slope failure causing damage of pile foundation and collapse of bridge abutments occurred in
particular road projects in East Kalimantan during embankment fill works. Piles endured excessive lateral
pressure and movement due to embankment backfill behind the abutments which is seated on very soft soil. The
fill embankment generated pore water pressure in the soft soil and initiated sliding plane prior to the failure.
Evaluation of foundation failure is conducted with field data collection of CPTu and using 3D finite element
analysis. 3D finite element analysis was conducted to simulate actual condition. Analysis using Finite Element
Method gives an overview of the mechanisms of lateral movement due to embankment fill and the magnitude of
forces at piles exceeded the capacity limit of pile and the connections to the pile cap.The study shows failure
occurred due to pressure of 2 m high embankment which generated excess pore water pressure in the soft soil.
The failure might be avoided if embankment has been constructed using proper monitoring and gradual fills.

Key words: excess pore water pressure, soft soil, lateral movement, CPTu, 3D finite element analysis

INTRODUCTION depth of about 27 m. Connections between piles to

the pile cap were failed causing severe tilt on the
A failure of abutment rested on piled foundation abutment. Figure 1 and figure 2 shows the failure of
was occurred after fill material being placed behind the embankment. Design of the bridge including
the abutment. Because lack of knowledge about pile and embankment seen on Figure 3.
sensitivity of soft soils the construction stage
applied on the field was wrong.
The bridge abutment is designed for particular
road in kalimantan. The abutment designed as a
twin that one of the abutment placed on the right
side of the river and the another on placed on the
left side. after construction of the embankment
finished, then started to contruct the fill
embankment on the right side of the river. While
the height of embankment is reach 2 m the Figure 1 Failure of connection between abutment &
Piles (Rahardjo et al., 2013)
embankment moved and after a while failed.
The construction stage applied in this project is
construction the abutment then placed fill material
behind the embankment. The fill material increased
the pore pressure and the deformation of the soft
soils. Deformation and excess pore pressure of the
soft soils due to fill embankment caused additional
lateral pressure to the pile. Additional lateral
pressure caused the capacity of the pile was
exceeded and the embankment which is sit on the Figure 2. Failure of the abutment
pile failed. The project is located on particular (Handoko et al., 2014)
Kalimantan site where soft soil was found to the

1
Professor, Parahyangan Catholic University, Jl. Ciumbuleuit No. 94, Bandung, Indonesia
2
PT Geotechnical Engineering Consultant, Bandung, currently graduate student at Parahyangan Catholic University
3
PT. Geotechical Engineering Consultant, Bandung

I9-1
 Figure 3 Bridge Design (based on shop drawing) (Handoko et al., 2014)

SOIL CONDITION AT SITE shown on the Figure 6 and Figure 7. This condition
were apparently not recognized by the designer and
Soil investigations were conducted in the field
no particular concern was put on this case.
consist of 2 deep boring and 2 Piezocone test
(CPTu). Deep boring was conducted to the depth of
40 m, and CPTu was conducted to the depth of 27
to 29 m.
From these soil investigations, soil layer can
divided into 5 layers in general. The first layer is a
fill material of sandy silt material to the depth of 2
m. The second layer to the depth of 23 m is very
soft clay layer. Sample of the clay layer shown in
the Figure 4. The third layer to the depth of 27 – 32
m is stiff clay layer. The fourth layer is very dense
sand layer form depth of 27 – 32 m to the end of
borings. Soil stratification shown in the Figure 5.
Figure 4 Example of typical clay on site
Using CPTu data, it is found that clay layer (Handoko et al., 2014)
from depth of 5 m to 27 m are under-consolidated
soil, which is identified from the pore pressure ratio
(Bq) ≥ 0.7 (Setionegoro, 2013). CPTu results
N-SPT
N-SPT
0 2 4 6
0 10 20
0 30 40 50 60 0 2 4 6
Fill material 0 1 0 10 0 20 30 40 50 60
2
3
0
1
2
Fill material
4 3
5 4
6 5
5 6
7 5 7
8
9 8
10 9
10
10 11
12 10 11

13
14
Clay, Very Soft 12
13
14
15
15 16
15
15
16
17
17
18
18
19
19
20
20
Depth (m)

20
Depth (m)

21 20 21
22
22
23
23
24

25 25 Clay, Soft 25
24
25
26 26
27 27
28 28

30
29
30
Clay, Stiff 30
29
30

35 35

Sand, Dense to Very Dense

40 40

Figure 5. Soil Stratification (Handoko et al., 2014)

I9-2
 Soil Behaviour Type Cone resistance,qc(MPa) Sleeve resistance,fs(MPa) Pore pressure,u2(MPa) Friction ratio,FR(%) Pore pressure ratio,Bq
after Robertson,1986
0 2 4 6 0 0.05 0.1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 2 4 6 8 10 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1
2 (3) Clays 2 2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3 3 3
(3) Clays
<- Depth in m to reference level

4 4 4 4 4 4
5 5 5 5 5 5
6 6 6 6 6 6
7 7 7 7 7 7
8 8 8 8 8 8
9 9 9 9 9 9
10 10 10 10 10 10
11 11 11 11 11 11
12 12 12 12 12 12
13 13 13 13 13 13
14 14
15
14
15
Underconsolidated Layer
14
15
14
15
14
15
15
16 16 16 16 16 16
17 17 17 17 17 17
18 (3) Clays 18 18 18 18 18
19 19 19 19 19 19
20 20 20 20 20 20
21 21 21 21 21 21
22 (3) Clays
22 22 22 22 22
23 23 23 23 23 23
(6) Sandy silt to clayey silt
24 (6) Sandy silt to clayey silt 24 24 24 24 24
25 25 25 25 25 25
(6) Sandy silt to clayey silt
26 26 26 26 26 26
(6) Sandy silt to clayey silt
27 27 27 27 27 27
28 28 28 28 28 28
29 29 29 29 29 29
30 30 30 30 30 30

Figure 6. Result of CPTu-01 (Handoko et al., 2014)

Soil Behaviour Type Cone resistance,qc(MPa) Sleeve resistance,fs(MPa) Pore pressure,u 2(MPa) Friction ratio,FR(%) Pore pressure ratio,Bq
after Robertson,1986

0 2 4 6 0 0.05 0.1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 2 4 6 8 10 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0 (8) Sand to silty sand 0 0 0 0 0
1 (7) Silty sand to sandy silt 1 1 1 1 1
(3) Clays
2 2 2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3 3 3
<- Depth in m to reference level

(3) Clays
4 4 4 4 4 4
5 5 5 5 5 5
6 6 6 6 6 6
7 7 7 7 7 7
8 8 8 8 8 8
9 9 9 9 9 9
10 10 10 10 10 10
11 11 11 11 11 11
12 12 12 12 12 12
13 13 13 13 13 13
14 14 14 14 14 14
15 15 15 Underconsolidated Layer
15 15 15
16 16 16 16 16 16
17 17 17 17 17 17
18 18 18 18 18 18
19 19 19 19 19 19
20 20 20 20 20 20
21 21 21 21 21 21
22 (3) Clays 22 22 22 22 22
23 23 23 23 23 23
(6) Sandy silt to clayey silt 24 24 24 24 24
24
25 25 25 25 25 25
26 26 26 26 26 26
27 27 27 27 27 27
28 28 28 28 28 28
29 29 29 29 29 29
30 30 30 30 30 30

Figure 7. Result of CPTu-02 (Handoko et al., 2014)

Figure 8. Finite element model

I9-3
COMPUTER SIMULATION
Modeling was performed using the finite
element method using Midas GTS NX 3D program.
Soil material is modeled as a cluster with the
parameters obtained from field test and laboratory
test. Pile and the abutments are modeled as a beam
element with interface to represent soil structure
interaction. Figure 8 and shows the finite element
model.
The analysis was performed based on the stages
of construction that are implemented on the field.
The first stage is to perform construction piles. The
second stage is construct the abutments. The third
stage is the construction of embankment to the
height of 2 m which is done in short time. Soil
parameter used for this analysis shown in this
following table. Figure 9. Analysis result for actual condition

Table 1. Parameter for analysis Using the same model, another scheme of stages
Name E (kPa) ν 3
γ (kN/m ) kx (m/s) ky (m/s) kz (m/s) c (kPa) φ (°) of construction is introduced in order to prevent the
failure of abutment on soft ground. Construction
Clay very soft, N = 1 700 0.3 15 1.00E-09 1.00E-09 1.00E-09 12.5 2
Clay soft, N = 4 2800 0.3 15.5 1.00E-05 1.00E-05 1.00E-05 50 5
stage is suggested by constructing fill embankment
Clay stiff, N = 28 19600 0.3 16 1.00E-07 1.00E-07 1.00E-07 175 5 and give waiting period, and then the abutment
Sand Dense, N = 50 50000 0.3 18 0.01 0.01 0.01 100 41 construction. Purposed of waiting period is to let
Fill 5000 0.3 16 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 50 8 consolidation of the soft soil. Consolidation of soil
can increase the shear strength of the soil. The
Analysis results showed large deformation on waiting time for consolidation can be accelerated
piles. Output Midas GTS NX 3D shown in Figure 9. by using the vertical drains. Figure 10 analysis
Figure 9 shows the deformation shape of the failure result for simulation of construction stage above.
slope due to embankment construction in short To compare the forces and bending moment
period. The analysis result showed patterns of acting on the piles between construction stage
deformation on the pile and the abutment that applied and suggested construction stage, Figure 12
resembles the field condition. Figure 9 also shows shows the forces on bending moment acting on the
the deformation shape of piles. Deformations of piles.
piles reach about 30 cm. Deformation of this
magnitude can cause damage to the pile and the
abutment.
The maximum bending moment of piles is 726
kNm and maximum shear force is 1200 kN. Based
on the bending moment acting on the pile, the
ultimate moment capacity of spun pile with 600
mm diameter around 638 kNm was exceeded and
causing connections between the pile to abutment
were failed (See Figure 1). Based on the site
condition and the analysis it was very harmful to
construct the embankment in short period above
soft soils, it will generate high pore pressure and
damages the structure. To make safety of the
construction it need right construction stages with
considering the pore pressure.

Figure 10. Analysis result for suggested

construction stage

I9-4
EVALUATION Simulation using finite element method also
shows the stage of construction have an important
Result of the analysis showed that 2 m height of
role in the construction safety over soft ground.
embankment placed behind the abutment in a short
Construct the embankment and allow soil to
duration was generating excess pore water pressure
consolidate prior to construct the structure will
and causing very high lateral pressure on piles. The
provide advantage where forces acting on the pile
pile capacity was exceeded and leads to abutment
are smaller.
failure.

Deformation (m) Bending Moment (kNm) Shear Forces (kN)

0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 -1000 -800 -600 -400 -200 0 200 400 600 -1500 -1000 -500 0 500 1000 1500 2000
0.00 0.00 0.00

-5.00 -5.00 -5.00

-10.00 -10.00 -10.00

L e n g th o f P ile (m )

L e n g th o f P ile (m )
-15.00 -15.00
L e n g th o f P ile (m )

-15.00
Deformation
Initial
-20.00 -20.00 -20.00

-25.00 -25.00 -25.00

-30.00 -30.00 -30.00

-35.00 -35.00 -35.00

-40.00 -40.00 -40.00

Figure 11. Pile forces with construction stages applied

Deformation (m) Bending Moment (kNm) Shear Forces (kN)

0.00 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20 -50.00 -30.00 -10.00 10.00 30.00 50.00 -50.00 -30.00 -10.00 10.00 30.00 50.00
0.00 0.00 0.00

-5.00 -5.00 -5.00

-10.00 -10.00 -10.00

Length of Pile (m)

Length of Pile (m)

-15.00 -15.00
Length of Pile (m)

-15.00
Defor
mation
-20.00 -20.00 -20.00

-25.00 -25.00 -25.00

-30.00 -30.00 -30.00

-35.00 -35.00 -35.00

-40.00 -40.00 -40.00

Figure 12. Pile forces with suggested construction stages

CONCLUSION construction, it is predicted that the abutment will

be safe.
Computer simulation shows 2 m fill
Stage of construction in any embankment works
embankment initiate pore water excess and lateral
on soft soil significantly influence the pressure
pressure to the pile foundation. Pile capacity were
induced, hence influencing the safety of
exceeded and causing the abutment failed.
construction.
Computer simulation by applying construction
Finishing the consolidation process due to
stage using embankment and consolidation process
staged emabankment works is recomended prior to
prior to the pile foundation produce lower lateral
foundation costruction.
pressure below the pile capacity. Using this stage of

I9-5
REFERENCES
Handoko, A., Rahardjo, P.P., Wirawan, A.,
Sugiarto, S., 2014, “Evaluation of Abutment
Failure due to Embankment Backfill, “ proceeding,
“Southeast Asia Conference on Soft Soils
Engineering and Groud Improvement,” Bandung –
Indonesia.
Robertson, P.K. (1990) “Soil classification
using the cone pentration test”. Canadian
geotechnical journal, 27 (1), [5] – 8.
Setionegoro, N., 2013 'Study For Site
Characterization of Under-Consolidating Soft Clay
Layers Using Piezocone Test Result', Desertation,
Parahyangan Catholic University, Bandung,
Indonesia.

I9-6
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

GEOENVIRONMENTAL AND BIOENGINEERING IMPACTS ON GROUND

TERRAIN MOVEMENTS

D.C.Wijeyesekera 1 and E.W.K.Loh 2

ABSTRACT: Ground terrain movements occur over a wide range of severity; soil creep to landslides. These are
generally initiated and driven by aggressive geo environmental factors of varying scales ranging from micro to
mega scale. The interface between the ground and the atmosphere is domineeringly impacted by environment
induced bioengineering activity. Very often, geotechnical engineers rush to evaluate nominal factors of safety
through slope stability analysis that are shrouded by many simplifying assumptions and unable to incorporate
these geo environmental factors as quantifiable parameters. Every major landslide event sheds fresh light on
thitherto unknown conceptual mechanisms, sometimes site specific, that are considered responsible for the
failure. Latent hydrogeological, structural geological features and seismological events interact with human built
environment activities to trigger instability. Such geo hazards usually lie hidden under ground cover. Many
investigators have confirmed evidence of the natural denudation impact of precipitation on slope movement. Post
genetic pore fluid substitutions that lead to formation of metastable soil micro structure has led to
catastrophically unstable ground movement failures. Post genetic subterranean movements are also often
indelibly embedded into the soil as ancient landslips that are only detected by vigilant ground investigations. In
the same vein some landslips can be traced back with hindsight to short sighted and poorly planned construction
practice. This paper is an overview of a series of international classical case studies as well as those that have
been studied with the principal author’s postgraduate research teams and associated site visits. Commonalities
are complemented through comparisons of very recent and past documentations of landslides. Series of
philosophical concepts are delineated to lead to reinforcing a proposal for soil microstructure / mineralogy based
explanation as probable mechanism to failures of slopes in tropical laterite soils.

Keywords: Bioengineering, failure mechanisms, ground movement, geo environment, landslides, soil
microstructure

INTRODUCTION rise in the rate of construction activity on high

Landslides have previously and popularly been
defined as “the downward and outward
movements of slope-forming geo materials (soils
and rocks)” but have been further redefined to
include falls, topple, slides, spreads, and flows.
The conventional or advanced slope stability
analysis methods are not directly applicable to
ground movements that are falls, flow, spread, or
topple. The geo environmental (geo material,
geology, topography, ground cover and climate)
factors interact to de-stabilize the ground and
cause landslides oblivious of the destined use,
ground investigation, or construction methods
proposed by the human environment. Escalated
occurrence of slope failures mirror the blatant
disregard to the mechanics of soil masses with the
ground and the increase in the number of
manmade cut and fill slopes. Environmental
factors further catalyze terrain movements
resulting from natural catastrophic hazards such as
earthquakes, hurricanes and floods. Consequently,
geomorphologies with significant differences can
result from the same geological materials but
found in different climatic zones. In an arid area,
limestone rock outcrops will occur as a cliff or
ridge, but on the other hand, can also form an
undulating plain in an area with a humid climate.
SURFACE & NEAR SURFACE MOVEMENTS
Unlike “stable” construction on level ground,
construction on natural / manmade sloping terrain
is prone to be unstable. Linear surface flows (soil
creep) or shallow slab / rotational slips may neither

1
Professor, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, Johor, dcwijey@gmail.com, MALAYSIA
2
Associate Dean, INTI International University, Negeri Sembilan, eric.loh@newinti.edu.my, MALAYSIA

J1-1
be fatal nor disruptive / hazardous to the environs
of the slope, but can cause considerable
inconvenience (back scars with associated slip
surfaces that invite progressive failure, slip debris
blocking toe ditches, and unsightly damaged fence
lines and the burden of slope repair costs). Soil
creep is the slow downward progression of rock
and soil along a low grade slope. In areas where
there are alternating periods of freezing and
thawing or of wetting and drying, particles of soil
and regolith are lifted up and set back down at a
different place than where it was lifted up from.
Gravity always causes the rocks and soil to settle
just a little farther downslope than where they
started from. Figure 1. illustrates this phenomenon
of soil creep with consequent effect of tilting the
telegraphic poles with the downward movement.
Gravitational forces on appropriately fractured
blocks of rocks do topple and the shallow ground
cover over the toppling rock blocks have been also
observed to give somewhat similar surface terrain
features (De Freitas & Watters, 1973) . Vegetation
improves the resistance of slopes to both surficial
erosion and mass wasting. Conversely, the
removal of vegetation from a slope tends to
accelerate or increase slope failures. Specific
hydro-mechanical mechanisms can be identified
through which vegetation affects stability.
Herbaceous vegetation, viz., grasses and forbs are
most effective for improving the resistance to
surficial erosion, whereas woody vegetation, viz.,
brush and trees, are more effective for the
prevention of shallow mass wasting.
Bioengineering efforts through vegetation affects
shallow mass stability through the one or more of
these separate effects viz.:
 Wind speed attenuation;
 Umbrella or shield effect;
 Surface flow retardation;
 Soil moisture content reduction by over
transpiration;
 Infiltration (this could be either adverse or
favourable depending on climatic and soil
conditions);
 Increase in the local shear strength of the
soil via root reinforcement. (Barker,
1986; Schiechtl, 1980)
The presence of vegetation modifies the
hydrologic regime by intercepting rainfall in the
foliage and by extracting and transpiring soil
moisture via the roots. The most effective restraint
is provided where roots penetrate across the soil
mantle into fractures or fissures in the underlying
bedrock or where roots penetrate into a residual
J1-2
soil or transition zone whose density and shear
strength increase with depth. The mechanical or
reinforcing effect of plant roots on the stability or
factor of safety of slopes can be and has been
described and accounted for in a systematic
manner.
Figure 1. Effects of soil creep causing instability
Buddoo (2014) highlighted the case of funding
of the repairs to a 2014 ground instability that
affected a former railway cutting on a land in
Shanklin, owned by the Isle of Wight Council, UK.
The site instability also affected an adjacent
private property development. Figures 2a and 2b
show views of the scarp face (near to the property
development) and the disturbance at the slope’s toe
(inconvenience and a hazard to users of a popular
tourist coastal walk). First sign of instability of
ground fissuring was reportedly observed in 2007.
Heavy rainfall in the winter of 2014 caused further
movements. The area was mapped by the
consultants, Mott MacDonald to comprise of sand
and clay, interspersed with layers of grit and
pebbles, with perhaps a typical geomorphology of
a coastal slope consisting of a number of benches
and steep scarp slope, both convex and concave in
shape. The ground investigations did not attribute
the ground movement to any one factor but a
combination of issues, including construction of
the property development, drainage, wet weather
and presence of large trees in the cutting. Two
potential engineering solutions for the site that was
proposed were either a retaining structure built
from rock-filled gabion baskets or bored piles
installed at the top of the cutting with a regraded
slope below. The total scheme cost including
investigations and permanent stabilization work
was estimated then at £ 1M. The legal advice
sought by the Council pointed to the Council not
being responsible for the instability, but was
advised to consider making a “modest
contribution” towards the cost of remedial works.
Authors direct the readers to publications such as
that of Yuasa et al (2009) on risk evaluation
method of countermeasure for slope failure and
rock fall with account of initial investment.
Figure 2(a) Scarp face of landslide at Shanklin, Isle
of Wight, UK ( after Buddoo, 2014)
Figure 2(b) View of disruption to public footpath by
toe damage at Shanklin landslide
(after Buddoo, 2014)
SHALLOW SLIPS IN OVER CONSOLIDATED
CLAY SLOPES
Misinformed highway engineers still foster the
concept that earthwork design using undrained
analysis will prove sufficient relying on the belief
that the soil will become stronger with time
assuming excess pore water pressure dissipation.
Scenery typified in Figure 3. has been a frequent
sight on the highway network within the M25,
outer circular road in London, UK. These highway
cuttings and embankments were constructed in and
of the over consolidated clay. Rapid developments
in the trunk road network in the South and East
England took place in the latter half of the 20th
century, meeting stringent environmental and
design criteria. Consequently a large number of
high embankments and deep cuttings were
constructed on a terrain with a geology that
comprised of over consolidated clay (Lias, Oxford,
Ampthill and Kimmeridge Clays (Jurassic), Gault
Clay (Cretaceous) and Woolwich and Reading and
London Clays (Eocene)). Many of these slopes
were graded to 1 in 2 with heights of about 10m.
Slope designs adopted undrained (φ = 0)
conditions. Many highway slopes failures as that
shown in Figure 3. (Hunt, 1995) occurred about 7
to 8 years after construction. There was no
obviously recognizable pattern of the slope aspect
impact for the failures to be exclusively confined
to the north and west facing slopes. This shallow
slip near the A406 / M11 intersection was repaired
with Tensar SS2 geogrid reinforcement that
replaced the excavated softened clay layers.
However, a conventional repair method adopted at
other sites was to excavate the slipped material and
replace it with coarse granular construction waste
fill that cost then about £ 25 per m3 of repair. Such
granular fills was not amenable to promote the
bioengineering techniques of top soiling, grassing
and tree planting. Accordingly, the consequent
outcome of such repairs was obtrusive scars on
otherwise lush green highway landscapes. The first
author gratefully acknowledges the close liaison
and personal communications with John
Greenwood, who was then the regional
geotechnical engineer, Department of Transport.
The over consolidated clays in the excavated
highway cuttings and the embankment fill
developed suction pressures that facilitated the
initial pseudo stability. The surface layers of these
clays subsequently softened with time depending
on the permeability and in particular the developed
suction pressures prevailing to drawing in water
from direct rainfall, tree planting holes, tension
cracks, and carriageway drainage channels etc.
These gave rise to positive pore water pressures
that decreased the factor of safety until failure
occurs.
Figure 2. View of shallow slips on highway
cuttings - A406 and M11 highway intersection UK
(after Hunt, 1995)
SOIL SOFTENING
Reference must necessarily be documented
here to the following points raised by Professor
J1-3
Alec Skempton, at the Fourth Rankine Lecture variations in factor of safety with depth for a
(Skempton, 1964). These noteworthy and shallow slip surface (Figure 4). The expression (1)
significant pointers add to the thought processes for the factor of safety was proposed by them. K in
that lead to the research hypothesis proposed in the expression represents the lateral earth pressure
this paper. coefficient and the other notations are clarified in
(a) After the occurrence of a slide, the shear Figure 4. This helps to demonstrate that the
strength on the slip surface is equal to the likelihood of deeper slips occurring is small as the
residual value. This residual strength is impact of the parameters is to contribute to a
associated with strong reorientation of the clay higher safety factor.
particles and represented by φ΄r, which in most
clay is smaller than the peak shear strength
angle of φ΄.
(b) First-time slides in non- fissured slopes
correspond to strengths marginally less than
the peak.
(c) However, first-time slides in fissured clays
correspond to strengths well below the peak.
(d) Some progressive failure must be operative to
take the clay past the peak. This could be
simply the result of a non-uniform ratio of
stress to strength along the potential slip
surface; but probably the fissures play an
important role as stress concentrators and in
leading to softening of the clay mass.
(e) The limiting strength of a progressive failure
mechanism can only be residual, and it is
therefore reasonable to express the actual
strength at the time of failure as a function of
the upper (peak) and lower (residual) limits,
i.e. by the residual factor.
(f) The shear strength in natural London Clay Figure 3. Simple analysis of shallow slip surfaces
slopes has fallen approximately to the residual – variations in factor of safety with depth. ( after
Greenwood et al, 1985)
value.
(g) The residual strength operates on pre-existing
shear surfaces, whether these are the result of
(1)
tectonic shearing or old landslides.
Land sliding in Castlehaven, Undercliff, a
Despite being very desirable, effective
nature conservation area and an extensive semi
laboratory modelling of the intricate micro
urban residential area in the southern-most point of
mechanisms within the soil softening process
the Isle of Wight, UK has been frequently affected
leading to failure are arduously inconvenient.
by coastal instability (Figure 5). Progressive and
Furthermore, very low stress levels (10 - 30
multiple land sliding, with loss of property, took
kN/m2) are deemed necessary to effectively
place above and below the Gault Clay as a result
simulate the field stress regime in a shallow slip.
of on-going coastal erosion of the base of the cliffs,
Conventional triaxial apparatus even with very
and worsened by the high ground water levels
intricate modifications may not meet the
following the severity of the1994 winter rainfalls
requirements, but creep testing under constant
and then again in the prolonged heavy rainfall
normal stress in a simple shear box may prove to
from October 2010 to April 2011. A close
be a possibility. It too will yet lack the inability to
association has been recognized between the
incorporate microstructural features such as
accelerated land sliding events in the Undercliff
fissures in stiff over consolidated clays or
and the prolonged periods of heavy rainfall (Lee
shrinkage cracks and non-uniform weathering
and Moore, 2007).
profiles in tropical lateritic soils.
Greenwood et al (1985) and Greenwood (1983)
presented a simple mathematical insight into the

J1-4
 Figure 4. Castlehaven landslide, Niton, Ventnoor
Undercliff, Isle of Wight, UK (after McInnes,
2014)
INTERACTION OF GEOLOGY AND CLIMATE
Microclimate variations resulting from altitude
differences, glacial activity, sunlight (solar
radiations), moisture-bearing winds, and
differences in rainfall hydrograph form the basis
for the different natural geomorphic processes,
which become further punctuated by human
engineered development projects. Terrain
containing granitic / igneous rock, in tropical and
humid regions is often weathered to large depths
of the order of 10 to 30 meters. Figure 6 and
Figure 7 attempt to illustrate the above fact. The
two sites shown are within 15km of each other and
located in Yong Peng and Parit Sulong, Johor
respectively. Figure 6. illustrates some of the non-
uniform, differential erosion features seen in the
weathered rock face particularly because it is void
of the ground cover, which would otherwise
prevent the rapid degradation of the slope through
erosion of the surface particles and causing the rill
and gully formation illustrated in Figure 6. If such
slope faces are left untreated, they will suffer
progressive failure (retreating and flattening as
spurs between the gullies collapse with each
consecutive cycle of erosion).
Figure 5. Laterite rock face (weatrhering grade IV),
Yong Peng, Johor, Malaysia
Figure 6. Engineered Slope – Parit Sulong, Johor,
Malaysia
Recently engineered, steeply inclined rock face
comprising of fresh rock at the base to
bioengineered residual soil at the cliff top is
illustrated in Figure 7. As long as the weathered
detrital material on the cliff top stays within its
angle of repose, it will remain stable and stationary.
Good vegetative cover, a small amount of moisture,
and a high amount of binding material such as clay
will increase the strength and stability of a slope,
preventing mass wasting. Rock faces adjacent to
this site are scarred with slides of the weathered
residual soil.
Granitic rocks are very sensitive to weathering
and are vulnerable to land sliding: exceptions are
the granites of North America and North Europe.
These granites are not generally associated with
landslides because most of the weathered granites
on these continents have been eroded by glaciation
(Chigira et al, 2011). Typical scenes (Figure 8)
from the Scottish Highlands show the scattered
relics of unweathered rock on otherwise water /
glacial worn hillsides interspersed with rock
massifs.
Contrarily, as a norm, the weathered profile of
granite in tropical and subtropical climates consist
of core stones formed through spheroidal
weathering in the lower part, and with saprolite
formation in the upper layers. The intensity of such
weathering can be graded in accordance with one
of the many weathering classifications (Hencher
and Martin, 1982) that range from a class I (fresh
J1-5
rock) to VI (residual soil). Zones of rock
corresponding to weathering grades IV to VI are
adversely affected during rainstorms to further
denude through weathering and deepening erosion
channels as seen in Figure 6. Rates of rock
weathering are influenced by its composition,
physical condition, the topography and the climatic
Figure 8. Range of latrerite colours and texture –
condition. While dry and cold climates promote
8cm specimens (after Sujeeth and Loh, 2015)
physical weathering, wet and humid tropical
climates promote chemical weathering. The
residual lateritic clays resulting from weathering
are enriched with insoluble deposits of hydroxides
of ferric and aluminum. Regional humid
conditions accentuate the leaching of the silica,
leaving hydrated forms of iron and aluminum
oxides. Iron oxides content contributes to the
distinctive reddish colour ranging from light red
through bright red and also brown shades (Figure
9). Bauxites (Figure 10) are those laterites that are
Figure 9. Aluminium rich Bauxite – approx. 8cm
poor in iron oxide but rich in aluminum oxide
specimen (after Sujeeth and Loh, 2015)
(Bell, 2007). Although laterite soils are commonly
associated with clay like fine grained particles, The authors consider these weathered
large nodules/ concretions with high iron oxide concretions / core stones of varying sizes
concentrations are contained therein with sizes encountered within these thick colluvium zones
ranging from pea sized gravel to 75 mm or larger are central to possible triggering mechanisms for
cemented masses. landslides. These occur when the weathered core
stones intercept the infiltrating water flow in the
erosion channels during heavy and persistent
rainstorm conditions inducing localized high water
pressures at the intercept points. These induce
further softening of the weathered soil around the
core stones. Such core stone intersections
strategically distributed locally will further
facilitate progressive and compounding failure,
leading to terrain movement. Thus the morphology
and the distribution of the core stone relics
together with the weathering grade of the matrix
contribute to the triggering of the landslides.

Effects from Unsaturated Soils

Sudden and heavy rainfalls and floods saturate
the soil and regolith, adversely affecting the
stability of unsaturated slopes. Effects of these can
be assessed with the knowledge of the matric
suction and from the shear strength parameters (c΄,
φ΄, φb). Soil suction is dependent on the amount of
water stored in the soil. A clearer understanding on
the issues relating to negative pore-water pressures
and the effects on the instability of the slopes is
Figure 7. Rock scree slides – Scottish highlands
best understood from the recently emerged work
on unsaturated soil mechanics in engineering
practice by Fredlund et al (2012). Shrinkage cracks
occur locally in fine grained soils when the
capillary pressures are larger than the tensile

J1-6
strength of the soil. These are caused by
evaporation of soil moisture from the surface,
lowering of the ground water table and desiccation
induced by vegetation. Authors believe cycles of
wetting and drying of lateritic soils cause further
changes in the particle size distribution as a result
of the loss of fines through erosion. Such effects
are reflected noticeably from the brown
colouration of the sediment borne surface run off.
Figure 10. Landslide disturbance in New Klang
Morgenstern and de Matos (1975) pointed to Valley Expressway (NKVE) near Bukit Lanjan
the occurrence of failure along the surface of
wetting front (of critical depth hc at failure) that HUMAN ENGINEERING IMPACTS
divides upper nearly saturated part of the sliding
Typically climatic factors such as rainfall and
mass with the lower material, still close to original
human negligence such as unregulated slopes
water regime. If the time for the wetting front to
development are often associated with landslide
reach the critical depth is larger than the duration
incidents. National Slope Master Plan (2009)
of rainfall, the landslide will not take place.
further rated Human causes (25%) as a factor
Rainfall of less than 60mm may not cause
second only to Geological/ground conditions
saturation below the root zone. Rainfall intensity
(43%) for the cause of landslides. This was based
higher than 2 - 3 times the coefficient of
on a worldwide literature survey. The increase in
permeability may not facilitate deeper penetration
areas affected by landslides may be a consequence
of the wetting front in a given duration usually
of the engineering achievements that spread an
accompanied with “peak” runoff (Bhandari and
ever growing population to the hitherto relatively
Thayalan, 1994)
inaccessible slopes, highways that cut into the toes
HYDROGEOLOGICAL IMPACTS of ancient landslides, construction being carried
out without due regard to locally sensitive
Landslides are tragedies, associated with geohazards.
unfavourable soil and rain interaction causing Professor Dave Petley in his personal
property damage and threat to human lives and www.landslideblog.org identified the 2010 failure
public security. on the Highway 3 landslide (Figure 12) in Taiwan
Based on selective worldwide literature, as a dip slope slide and that the Ministry of
National Slope Master Plan (2009) reported that Transportation were then investigating many more
Rainfall (57.5%) as the dominant landslide (20) dip slopes near major highways.
triggering factor followed closely by water level
change (35%). Intense and prolonged rainfall,
tectonic and volcanic uplift, marks out hydraulic
flow paths within sheared, jointed or fissured
material, changing the permeability and stiffness
of materials. Subterranean erosion, Freeze-thaw,
shrink-swell effects associated with weathering
further promotes failures in residual soil.
The (November 2003) Bukit Lanjan rock slope
failure (~ 35,000 m3) at kilometer 21.8 of the Bukit
Lanjan interchange on the New Klang Valley
Expressway (NKVE) was caused by a wedge
failure (Figure 11), bounded by a steeply dipping
fault plane and a more gently dipping but
dominant joint plane. Past rainfall records
evidenced that the triggering factor which reduced
the stability of the wedge was the unusually heavy Figure 11. 2010 Dip slope failure of Highway 3
landslide Taiwan (after www.landslideblog.org)
rainfall, being the highest recorded monthly
rainfall since 1966.
Post failure investigation of 1995 Malakasa,
Greece Landslide (Figures 13 and 14) emphasized
the need for planned ground investigations which

J1-7
would have forewarned the extent of the weathered
soil mantle, high water table and more
significantly the previopus landslide activity in the
area (Samurelli, 1995).
GREECE
Figure 12. Athens – Thessaloniki Highway,
Malakasa landslide 18th February 1995.
(Samurelli, 1995 from Ta Nea newspaper of 20th
February 1995)
Figure 13. Post failure explanation for the causes
of the Malakasa Landslide (Samurelli, 1995 from
Ta Nea newspaper of 20th February 1995)
Rahardjo (2014) cited the example of the
landslide disaster that occurred in the tailing
materials resulted from the gold mining at Cisoka,
Banten as one where some serious mistakes were
caused by the unwillingness to cover the cost of
safety.
McLean (2007) recalled the 1966 Aberfan
disaster in which 144 persons, nearly a generation
of children in a school were killed with the mud
slide of a colliery waste tip no.7. It was only
following this Aberfan colliery slip disaster, the
National Coal Board (NCB) established a
mandatory national procedure for the technical and
operational management of colliery spoil heaps
and lagoons (McKeknie Thomson and Rodin,
1972). The 150m high spoil tip stood above the
village of Aberfan, near Methyr Tydfil. It
J1-8
comprised of colliery waste, which were liquefied
by the springs underneath. The liquefied flow slide
of about 100,000 tons came too fast to outrun and
it hit a farm killing everybody in it and then
engulfed a school, killing 109 children and five
teachers. The disaster proved to be a “terrifying
tale of bungling ineptitude”.
In the same vein, Smith (2014) reporting on the
Oso landslide (Figure 15) in Washington State,
US, highlighted the importance of assessing and
managing risks from even natural slopes. US based
Geotechnical Extreme Events Report (GEER)
described the landslide as US’s deadliest landslide
disaster that killed 43 people and destroyed
sections of Highway 530 and more than 50 homes.
Heavy rainfall in the three weeks prior to the
landslide occurrence is believed to have triggered
the failure that occurred in glacial sediments
comprising of interbedded layers of clay, silt, sand,
gravel, cobbles and boulders.
Figure 14. 2014 Oso landslide in Washington State
(after Smith, 2014)
BIOENGINEERING CONTRIBUTIONS
Evaluation of soil moisture movements within
the interface between the ground water table and
the atmosphere is domineeringly impacted by
environment induced bioengineering activity. The
problem is compounded with the variability in soil
infiltration capacity as influenced by nature, type
and growth of vegetation. Non uniform mass
permeability characteristics will depend on the
relict landslides, relict soil structure consequent to
weathering, macro scale structures such as organic
matter, root tubes, fissures, cracks, channels.
The tree root reinforcement on slope stability
has been of interest to many researchers but it still
lacks a thorough mechanistic study to consider the
landslide displacement due to the reinforcement,
and the root tensile strength. The root profile and
growth characteristics of vetiver grass is becoming
popular for slope stabilization in the Asia Pacific
region (Truong et al, 2008)
 Often there are conflicting views between the
environmentalists and the engineers as in the cause
of the Harbury Tunnel landslip (Figure 16) that
occurred on 31 January 2015. Environmental
campaigner and Guardian journalist George
Monbiot has described tree work by UK Network
Rail in 2010 as a "spectacular act of folly; Trees on
steep slopes often prevent landslides by binding
the soil with their roots, anchoring it to the
bedrock and reducing the amount of water it
contains.". Network Rail contrarily commented
that there was "no truth in claims that the landslip
at Harbury was caused by a lack of vegetation on
the cutting's slopes. The vegetation on the slope
was destroyed during a previous landslip in 2007
and the depth of the 2015 failure in the cutting was
far greater than any tree root would have been able
to reach".
Figure 15. 2015 Harbury Tunnel land slip, UK
(after Smith, 2015)
Harbury tunnel is on a popular rail route used
by 130 passenger and freight trains per day
between Birmingham and London Marylebone, the
Thames Valley, the south coast and the port of
Southampton. The 350,000 tonne landslip
threatened to block this rail line. The steeply-sided
cutting had posed problems repetitively for over
150 years. The post failure investigations
discovered a vertical fault at the back of the cutting
and all the geological maps of the area, had not
shown this before
MICROMECHANIC INFLUENCES
In addition to rainfall intensity and duration,
pre storm soil wetness is a significant catalyst to
rainfall induced landslides. The observation that
landslides occur primarily during the rainy season
at times when the soil is relatively wet indicates
that an antecedent soil moisture threshold must be
exceeded. The month of June 1995 was
abnormally wet over the Genting Sempah area. A
total rainfall of 428.5 mm recorded for the month
of June was the highest in 20 years (2.5 times the
average rainfall) The high antecedent rainfall over
the catchment was responsible for the extreme
wetting of the soil prior to the 30th June storm and
failure.
Infiltration rates range from 4x10-6 m/s (Well
graded sand with trace of gravel) to 1x10-5 m/s
Very clayey sand with trace of gravel. Although
laterite soil is most commonly associated with clay
like fine particles, in reality the sizes can range
from clay size and even up to cobble size. The
coarse grained particles are nodules or concretions
especially in areas where high concentrations of
oxides occur, giving rise to laterite formation (Bell,
2007)
Be it the commonly known rainfall infiltration
or the less known underground spring activity
causes unusual increase of water content that
promotes mud flows.
Bjerrum (1967) hypothesized that in highly
plastic clays diagenetic bonds may form which
inhibit the development of high lateral pressures
during unloading, and result in considerable strain
energy being stored in them after unloading. This
stored energy would be subsequently released if
the bonds were destroyed as a result of weathering.
Gregerson(1981) described a major landslide
that took place in 1978 in a Norwegian farming
community area, Rissa, just north of the city of
Trondheim. This major landslide covered an area
of 330000 m2 and the volume of the slide debris
was of the order of 5 - 6 million m3. Seven farms
and five single family homes were affected. Safe
escape for forty persons was extremely dramatic
and one person was reported to be killed. The
sediment is a massive marine clay deposit that has
been leached in a zone along a mountain side. This
then formed quick clay, a metastable clay as a
consequence of the change in geochemical
environment. The slide was initiated at a site near
Lake Botnen, near the throat of the final slide area,
consequent to a poorly planned and sudden
placement of 700 m3 of earth fill. After the initial
slide stretching 70 – 90m of the shore line, a series
of retrogressive slides took place over a relatively
long period.
HYPOTHETICO-DEDUCTIVE CONCLUSIONS
Various land slips with differing causes for
failure have been presented in order to deduce the
following;
J1-9
 The most common landslide triggering factors By virtue of the stress relaxation through
are intensely prolonged rainfall, rapid snowmelt, shrinkage cracking, tropical residual soils in the
water level change, volcanic eruption, earthquake unsaturated zones can acquire overconsolidated
shaking and change of slope geometry. Landslide soil characteristics and have lateral destabilizing
mechanisms in weathered granites have not been stresses that may even exceed the overburden
fully understood as the weathering profiles are site pressure by 50% or more.
specific.
Barring cloud bursts, moderate showers of long
duration are more dangerous than high intensity
showers of short duration. Heavy showers (20
mm/hour) and cloud bursts (60 mm/hour)
providing rainfalls of in excess of 200 mm in a day
can often yield catastrophic landslides and mud
avalanches.
The effect of direct factors (storms, high
rainfall, soil in dry condition, opening of dry
cracks, scarps, changes in vegetation, lengthening
of the growing season for plants etc) and indirect
factors (negligent human activity, influence of
anthropogenic factors, land use patterns, rate of Figure 16. Pore water flow induced planes of
weakness
soil weathering etc) have substantial effects on the
stability of complex landslides such as that at
Undercliff.
Conventional laboratory scale testing may not
prove sufficiently representative to simulate the
presence of fissures and thereby overestimate the
mobilized shear strength characteristics. Open
fissures can increase the rate of swelling and
strength reduction under conditions of reduced
load. Drainage path is also reduced and effectively
the rate of strength reduction is speeded. Use of
full undrained strength values would not be
appropriate even for conditions immediately Figure 17. Planes of weaknesses around a coarse
grained particle in a matrix of fine grained
following excavation/ construction.
sediments.
The infiltrating rainwater, rising spring water,
perched water tables within the weathered soil ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
mass into defined flow paths following zones of
weakness (Figure 17) could be an initiating and The authors acknowledge the contributions
persisting mechanism to develop an emerging slip from their past students and the collaborating
surface with each dry and wetting or freeze and researchers.
thaw cycle. Open fissures may form a portion of a
failure surface across which there is no shear REFERENCES
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J1-10
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Chigira, M., Mohamad, Z., Lim, C.S., and Ibrahim,
K.. (2011). Landslides in weathered granitic
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De Freitas, M.H., and Watters R.J. (1973), Some
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(2012), Unsaturated soil mechanics in
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Greenwood, J.R. (1983), A simple approach to
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Greenwood, J.R., Holt, D.A., and Herrick, G.W.
(1985), Shallow slips in highway embankments
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cuttings, MPhil thesis, University of East
London, UK.
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Undercliff: Development of landslide scenarios
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Fairbank, H., and Mathie, E., Pubs Taylor &
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 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

FINITE ELEMENT MODELING OF LIGHT-WEIGHT SLOPE

BIO-STABILIZATION AND ITS EFFECT ON STABILITY OF HILL SLOPES
S. Gugan Vignesh 1 and Pradeep Kumar R 2

ABSTRACT: Indian sub-continent has nearly 8 principal mountain ranges, on which around 290 hill stations are
located. As a result of globalization, there is a significant change in infra-structure developments, in residential
as well as commercial sectors in these regions. During the on-set of monsoon season with heavy rain falls, these
hill slope canopies become highly unstable making the areas more prone to massive landslides causing economic
loss to the country, such as in Laiputlang landslide, Kedarnath landslide, Malin landslide, etc. In recent times, in
order to reduce the occurrence of such massive landslides, the use of slope bio-stabilization method is exercised
across various parts of the world. In order to understand the merits and demerits of the slope bio-stabilization, a
study on the effect of the light-weight slope bio-stabilization on hill slope stability is carried out using 2D-finite
element method (FEM), considering four different configurations and the results are presented. For the purpose
of study, numerical model comprising of linear Mohr-Coulomb soil model as the material model and
perpendicular root model as the vegetation root model are considered. The results are obtained for all four
different configurations by varying the angle of inclination of the slope and vegetative cover parameters. As a
result of this study, it is found that (1) any configuration with proper toe reinforcement improves the stability of
the slopes up to a significant percentage (say ~ 1 - 30%) (2) it improves cohesiveness of top soil cover by
providing dense root matrix, thereby increasing the strength significantly (3) it also improves the internal angle
of frictional resistance significantly (say ~ 1 – 10 %) (4) the deeper the penetration of the root of vegetation the
more significant is the increase in slope stability because of the formation of a denser root matrix.

Keywords: Slope bio-stabilization, finite element method, slope stability, landslides

INTRODUCTION
Since many decades, the Indian subcontinent is
facing significant number of landslides on hill slope
canopies (Hill stations). Most of these hill slope
canopies are found in one of the eight principle
mountain ranges namely Himalayan mountain
range, Karakoram range, Patkai hill range,
Vindhyas, Satpuras, Aravali mountain range,
Western ghats and Eastern ghats as shown in Figure
1. As a result of globalization, there is a significant
change in infrastructure developments, in
residential as well as commercial sectors in these
regions. These hill slope canopies not only serve as
homes for lakhs of people but also as attractive
tourist destinations. During the onset of monsoon
season, these hill slope canopies become highly
unstable, making the areas more prone to
Figure 1. Map of India showing 8 principle
landslides, floods, etc., causing economic loss to mountain ranges (Source: Wikipedia)
the country such as in Laiputlang landslide (11th
May, 2013), Kedarnath landslide (16th June, 2013),
Malin landslide (30th July, 2014), etc.

1
Research Scholar, IIIT - H (Earthquake Engineering Research Centre), guganvignesh.s@research.iiit.ac.in, INDIA
2
Professor, IIIT - H (Earthquake Engineering Research Centre), ramancharla@iiit.ac.in, INDIA

J2-1
 Therefore the stability of hill slope canopies has
become a major concern in the country. There is a
dire need of sustainable stabilization techniques
that are more economical and more effective in
stabilizing the hill slope canopies. In recent times,
in order to enhance the stability of slopes, the use of
slope bio-stabilization (also known as slope
bioengineering) is exercised across various part of
the world.
The slope bio-stabilization is one of the most
commonly used sustainable and best low-
maintenance option for hill slope stabilization
which utilizes different types of vegetation to
enhance the strength of the top soil cover. This
paper studies the merits and demerits of the slope
bio-stabilization and its effect on hill slope stability
using 2D Finite Element Analysis (FEA)
considering the numerical modeling and material
aspects of vegetation and soil.
HILL SLOPES AND ITS STABILITY
Existing hill slope canopies can be either
manmade (e.g. highways, railways, etc.) or
naturally formed (e.g. mountains, hills etc.) which
are inclined to various degrees from very gentle to
very steep angles. As per IS 14496 (Part 2): 1998,
these slopes are categorized based on the angular
variations which are presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Slope morphometry as per IS 14496
(Part 2)
In general, at all the sloped canopies, there
exists stabilizing and destabilizing forces which are
induced due to the earth’s gravity. Interaction
between these two forces plays an important role in
the stability of the hill slope canopies. There are
external (such environmental factors, external
loadings, geometry etc.) as a well as internal (such
as material properties and material characteristics
like stress variations, swelling, cracking, etc.) that
constantly influence these forces and sustain them
in a state of fluctuation within the soil bed.
The basic mechanics behind the stability of the
hill slope canopy lies in the equilibrium dynamics
J2-2
of the stabilizing and destabilizing forces i.e., slope
is stable when stabilizing forces are dominant and
unstable when destabilizing forces are dominant. In
order to understand the basic mechanics of the
stability of slopes, the slope stability analysis has
been in use since many decades. There are several
slope stability analysis methods that are available,
but recently, the numerical methods of analysis
became more popular among scientists and
researchers because of several benefits which are
discussed later.
SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS
Slope stability analysis involves the
determination of Factor of Safety (FOS) for a
particular slope with either homogenous or
heterogeneous soil layer that is inclined at a certain
angle from the flat surface.
Factor of Safety (FOS)
A quantitative parameter which is defined as the
ratio of average shear strength of soil (τd) to the
average shear stress developed along the potential
failure surface (τf).
(1)
Thus FOS helps in determining the stability of
the slope i.e., the slope is unstable if FOS is less
than unity and stable if it is more than or equal to
unity.
Slope stability analysis methods
Presently, there are a number of methods to
determine the FOS, which includes analytical
methods (such as infinite and finite slope methods),
and numerical methods (such as continuum and dis-
continuum methods).
Analytical methods: In finite/infinite slope
stability analysis methods, the determination of
FOS involves the following basic steps,
Step 1: Determination of potential slip surface
Step 2: Computation of de-stabilizing forces
Step 3: Computation of stabilizing forces
Step 4: Determination of critical FOS
All analytical methods are based on certain
assumptions for the inter slice normal (E) and shear
(T) forces and the basic difference among the
method is how these forces are determined or
assumed (Aryal 2006). In addition to this, the
process of determining FOS requires number of
trials to be performed, starting with an assumed
potential failure surface, in order to find the critical
potential failure surface and FOS of a slope. A
summary of analytical methods along with their
assumptions are presented in the Table 2.
Table 2. Summary of analytical methods
(Abramson et al 2002, Nash 1987)
C – Circular failure surface
NC – Non circular failure surface
C-NC – Both circular and non circular failure surface
M – Moment equilibrium
F – Force equilibrium
M-F – Both Moment and force equilibrium
Thus, the analytical methods have limited their
scope of application since they must be used within
the range of assumptions (Bobet 2010).
Numerical Methods: In these methods the
existing physical problem is conceptualized with
some simple approximations and then it is solved.
The better the approximation to the field problem
through the conceptualization process, the more
accurate the solution will be. Numerical methods
can be classified into continuum and dis-continuum
methods. The continuum methods may incorporate
the discontinuities in the medium, if present,
explicitly or implicitly while in dis-continuum,
discontinuities are incorporated explicitly (Bobet
2010).
There are a number of numerical methods that
are presented in various literatures to study the
behavior of geo-materials among which FEM is the
most widely used method in slope stability analysis.
The FEM is by far the method used the most for the
analysis of continuous or quasi continuous media
(Bobet 2010). For the purpose of the study, in this
paper, simple 2D FEA is used and the results are
presented.
FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF SLOPES
With the development of cheaper and powerful
computing devices, the FEM has become more
popular in slope stability analysis. The main
advantages of using FEM for slope stability
analysis are:
1. No presumptions are required in advance
about the potential slip surface, slice forces,
failure pattern, etc unlike other traditional
analytical methods.
2. The method can be applied easily for simple
to complex slope geometries with varying
soil layers in 2D as well as 3D models.
3. Any available soil material model (such as
Mohr-Coulomb, cam-clay, etc.) can be
employed.
4. The method can be extended to account for
seepage induced failures, brittle soil
behavior, engineering interventions (such as
geo-textiles, retaining walls, etc.), random
field properties, etc.
5. If realistic soil data is available the method
can give information about the deformation
at working stress levels and is capable of
monitoring progressive failure including
overall shear failure (Griffiths et al. 1999).
Finite Element Analysis
The FEA is based on the principle of virtual
displacements, which states that, for a body in
equilibrium, when any compatible, small virtual
displacements are applied to the body, the total
internal work associated with the virtual
displacement must be equal to the total virtual
external work (Bobet 2010). It consist of following
steps,
Step 1: Discretization of physical model into
number of elements.
J2-3
 Step 2: Obtaining elemental equations
Step 3: Computation of global stiffness matrix
Step 4: Application of boundary conditions
Step 5: Solving for nodal displacements
Step 6: Computation of stresses and strains
In general, the FEM is used to solve the
complex differential / integral equations that
represent a certain behavior of any given physical
system. The method relies on the assumption that,
through appropriately chosen interpolation
functions, displacements at any point within the
element can be accurately obtained from the
displacement of the nodes (Bobet 2010).
Slope stability analysis using FEM
Generally, slope stability analysis can be
performed using FEM in two different approaches
namely gravity increase method and shear strength
reduction (SSR) method which are described as
follows:
Gravity Increase Method: In this method, the
gravity component ‘g’ is iteratively increased by a
factor until the slope becomes unstable and an
equilibrium solution no longer exists. This method
is best suited for the constructed slopes where the
rate of construction can also be simulated with the
rate at which the gravity loading on the
embankment is increased.
Shear Strength Reduction Method: In this
method, the soil strength parameters (cohesion (c)
and angle of internal frictional resistance (ɸ)) are
iteratively reduced by a factor until the slope
becomes unstable and equilibrium solution no
longer exists. This method is best suited for the
natural slopes that already existing with active
natural seepage.
But, from the results obtained from the analyses,
it follows that the application of the traditional
Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion in the gravity
increase method leads to significant overestimation
of a FOS in comparison with the SSR method in the
case of relatively low slopes (Krzystof 2013). Thus,
in this study the strength reduction method of
stability analysis is preferred over gravity increase
method considering the Mohr-Coulomb material
model as the soil model.
Shear Strength Reduction Method (SSR)
As previously mentioned, in strength reduction
method of stability analysis, the soil strength
parameters (c and ) are reduced by a factor until
the slope becomes unstable and equilibrium
solutions no longer exist. The reciprocal of this
J2-4
reduction factor is identified as the FOS associated
with the with the soil model under investigation
(Chatterjee et al).Thus SSR method is useful when
several modes of failure are possible. The slope
stability analysis using SSR method involves
following steps:
Step 1: Standard static analysis of the FEM
model incorporating necessary inputs
(such as load, boundary conditions,
material properties etc.).
Step 2: Computation of reduced shear strength
parameters with factor FSn = FS0
(Where FS0=1 at initial iteration, and
subsequently increased by ΔFS i.e.
FS0=FS0+ ΔFS).
(2)
(3)
Step 3: Standard static analysis with the reduced
shear strength parameters.
Step 4: Check for the stability criterion (If
stable, Step 2 – 4 is repeated until the
model becomes unstable).
Step 5: Computation of FOS as per equation (1)
where
(4)
(5)
σ – Normal stress (kN/m2)
SLOPE BIO-STABILIZATION OF HILL SLOPE
CANOPIES
Slope bio-stabilization
Stabilizing hill slope canopies minimizes the
possibilities of slope instability during any geo-
environmental shift and encourages a thriving eco-
system. There are numerous ground improvement
techniques that can be used to improve the stability
of hill slopes, among which one of the most
commonly used low-maintenance sustainable
technique is slope bio-stabilization, which is also
known as slope bio engineering.
In general, slope bio-stabilization utilizes
different types of native vegetations ranging from
light weight shrubs to heavy weight trees, to
enhance the strength of the top soil cover thereby
improving the slope stability parameters such as
cohesion and internal angle of friction through
mechanical as well as hydrological effects provided
by the roots of the vegetation.
Slope bio-stabilization effects
The slope bio-stabilization influences the hill
slope stability in three possible ways as follows:
Vegetation surcharge effect: The vegetation that is
light in weight i.e., the vegetation that weighs less
than 10 kN or 1 tf such as shrubs, young forest
growths etc., has no significant effect on the FOS of
hill slope whereas heavy weight vegetation i.e., the
vegetation that weighs more than 10 kN such as old
forest growths, significantly reduces the FOS of hill
slope canopy by increasing the destabilizing force
due to heavy surcharge. Hydrological effect: It
induces the reduction of pore-water pressure by
removal of soil water through evapo-transpiration,
thereby increasing the soil suction near the root
matrix. This significantly increases the stabilizing
force which leads to increase in the stability of hill
slope canopy.
Figure 2. Slope bio-stabilization effects on hill
slope canopies
Mechanical effect: It induces significant
increase in the shear strength of the top soil cover
by providing a denser root matrix to a significant
depth. The tensile strength of the denser root matrix
increases the shearing resistance of the soil within
the root depth. This enhances the shear strength of
the top soil cover thereby improving the stability of
the hill slope canopy.
VEGETATION ROOT CHARACTERISTICS
The inclusion of plant roots with high tensile
strength increases the confining stress in the soil
mass by its closely spaced root matrix system(Chok
et al. 2004), by which the soil mass is bound
together by plant roots. Due to this effect, the shear
strength of the top soil cover is increased
significantly. Therefore, the rooting habit of
vegetation plays a major role in contributing
additional stability to hill slope canopies. But, the
development of tree root architecture is influenced
by both the tree species (Tourney 1929) and a range
of soil conditions (Peter 2005). However, to study
the effects of slope bio-stabilization on hill slope
canopies numerically, the more explicit parameters
that are considered are root distribution and root
depth.
Root Distribution
The rooting distribution of different type of
vegetation can be extensive which depends on
several influential factors such as type of soil,
vegetation species, age, health, environmental
stresses, vegetation density, etc.
Figure 3(a). The commonly held idea of a tree’s
root system (Peter 2005)
In general, most of vegetation (low rise as well
as high rise) have tap root, fibrous root, surface root,
or heart root systems in common. But in case of
high rise vegetations such as trees, a common
misconception regarding the tree root structure is
that the volume and distribution of roots is thought
to reflect that of the trunk and branches as shown in
Figure 3(a) (Dobson 1995). Typically, trees have
relatively shallow but widespread root systems
(Dobson 1995; Dobson et al. 1993); as shown in
Figure 3(b); which is primarily because of the high
mechanical resistance offered by dense layers of
soil (includes stony soils, bed rock, fine sands,
clays, etc.) .
J2-5
Root Depth
In case of low rise vegetations such as shrubs,
grass, bushes, etc. the root depths ranges from 7 to
45 cm deep from the surface. But in case of high
rise vegetations such as trees (young to old forest
growths); typically, 90% to 99% of tree’s total root
length occurs in the upper 1 m of soil. Tree roots
don’t occur in significant quantities at substantial
depths (i.e. > 2 m) in the soil profile. Because, it is
uncommon for roots to penetrate to a depth greater
than 2 m, with 80 - 90% found within the top 60 cm
of soil profile (Peter 2005). However, there are
cases where isolated roots have been found at
depths much greater than this in deep and loose
soils (Gilman 1990).
Figure 3(b). The more realistic representation of a
tree’s root system (Peter 2005).
A large dataset on root plate dimensions of wind
thrown trees following the October 1987 storm
(Gasson et al, 1990) showed that no trees had roots
deeper than 3 m and only 5 % had root depths
greater than 2 m (Peter 2005). Thus, for the purpose
of numerical modeling in this study, the vegetation
root depths are considered to be in the range
varying from 0 to 3 m.
PREVIOUS STUDIES
Biotechnical slope stabilization was put on a
more scientific basis with the work of Endo and
Tsuruta (1969) and Gray (1974). Other early
research can be found elsewhere e.g. Wu (1976),
Waldron (1977), Wu et al. (1979), Waldron et al.
(1981), Wu et al. (1988a and 1988b), and Wu et al.
(1998).The importance of a vegetative cover is
demonstrated by the effects of its removal as
pointed out by Ziemer et al. (1977), Ziemer (1978),
J2-6
and Wu et al. (1979). The influence of vegetation
can be divided into hydrological and mechanical
effects, which can be beneficial or adverse to slope
stability (Copping et al. 1990). The use of
vegetation for preventing and controlling erosion
and for slope stabilization has being practiced
throughout the world. Vegetation has other
advantages in addition to above mentioned, such as
self-repairing, regenerating and adaptive. This
approach to stabilizing slope offers numerous
advantages, including high bio-diversity, low
maintenance, self-sustainability as well as being
environment- friendly (Normaniza et al. 2006).
Documented use in the stabilization of dams in
china can be found dating back to the 16th century
(Collison et al. 1996).
Later, with the use of FEM it is found that, the
stability of slope is sensitive to both the apparent
root cohesion and depth of root zone. The stability
of slopes is improved with increase in apparent root
cohesion and depth of root zone (Chok et al. 2004).
In addition, the results showed that the
improvement in FOS for a slope with vegetation
cover over the entire ground surface is higher
compared with vegetation cover on the surface
alone (Chok et al. 2004).
With the use of limit equilibrium method of
stability analysis, tree contributes stability to
sloping ground both hydrologically and
mechanically, and best would be achieved only
when the tree is located at the toe of the slope (Ali
et al. 2012).
SCOPE OF PRESENT STUDY
This paper is aimed at understanding the effects of
light weight slope bio-stabilization on hill slope
canopies using the 2D-FEM.
NUMERICAL MODELING OF SLOPE BIO-
STABILIZATION
In this study, the homogeneous slope with angle
of inclination varying from 0 to 90° is used to study
the effects of vegetation on the stability of hill slope
canopies. The light weight vegetation is placed in
four different configurations on the slope, namely
Head-Face-Toe, Face-Toe, Face-Toe (Partial), Face
as shown in Figure 4 with the root depths varying
from 0 to 3 m.
Figure 4. Light weight vegetation configurations for Figure 5. Elastic-perfectly plastic assumption of
slope bio-stabilization of hill slopes Mohr-Coulomb model (Kok Sien Ti et al., 2009)

For the purpose of study, numerical models

consisting of Mohr-Coulomb model as the soil
model and perpendicular root model as the
vegetation root model are considered which are
elaborated in subsequent sections. In addition, the
geotechnical parameters considered and the finite
element model used for the study is also presented
at the end of this section.

Soil Model
The Mohr-Coulomb material model is a linear
elastic perfectly plastic model; Figure 5, which
needs basically six parameters as listed in Table 3. Figure 6. The Mohr-Coulomb yield surface in
principal stress space (C=0) (Source: PLAXIS
Table 3. Six parameter soil model Material Models Manual, 2015).

(6)

(7)

Therefore, the failure of soil model can be

The Mohr-Coulomb criterion relates the shear
strength of the material to cohesion (c), normal
stress (σ) and the angle of internal friction (),
which is given as in equation (4).
(4)
The failure criterion of the Mohr-Coulomb
model is given by six yield functions, six potential
functions (one of each function is given in equation
(6) & (7)) which are formulated in terms of
principal stresses that represent a fixed hexagonal
cone in principal stress space as shown in Figure 6.
interpreted as follows (Griffiths et al. 1999):
: Stresses inside failure envelop
(elastic)
: Stresses on failure envelope (yielding)
: Stresses outside failure envelope
(yielding, must be redistributed)
Root Reinforcement Model
To incorporate the effects of vegetation root
reinforcement, the perpendicular root model
proposed by Wu et al. (1979) is used. The model
assumes that the roots are perpendicular to the
shear plane as shown in the Figure 7, that the soil
reinforcement can be expressed in terms of
increments of soil shear strength which is due to the
tensile strength of the roots.

J2-7
 Table 4. Since, the slope stability analysis is
relatively unconfined; the choice of dilation angle is
less important (Griffiths et al. 1999). Thus, a
compromise value of ψ=0, corresponding to a non-
associated flow rule with zero volume change
during yield, has been used throughout this paper.
Therefore, only three parameters are considered in
the modeling of slope failure which is presented in
Table 4.

Figure 7. Schematic diagram of the perpendicular Table 4. Geotechnical properties of soil

root reinforcement model (Gray et al. 1996).

Therefore, the additional shear strength due to

vegetation root reinforcement is given by,

(8)
Where
ΔSr – Increased shear strength of soil due to root
The Vegetative cover parameters considered for
reinforcement
the study is presented in Table 5.
Ar/A – Root area (%)
 - Angle of internal friction Table 5. Vegetative cover parameters
θs – angle of intersection with shear zone
Thus, the contribution of root reinforcement to
the shear strength is considered to have the
characteristics of cohesion (Wu et al. 1979).
Therefore, the mechanical effect of plants root is to
The Finite Element Model
increase the cohesiveness of the soil mass, ΔSr
which can be considered as equivalent to an In this study, in order to model the light weight
apparent cohesion of soil, known as apparent root vegetation and study its effects on stability of
cohesion (cr) (Chok et al. 2004). The values of sloped canopies, PLAXIS (Version 8), a
apparent root cohesion depend on the vegetation geotechnical program which is based on FEM is
species and in-situ soil conditions. Typical values used. This program facilitates the user with
of cr ranges from 1kPa to 17.5 kPa which are automatic mesh generation, pore water pressure
obtained from different investigators using different generation, a robust non-linear elastic-plastic Mohr-
techniques (Coppin et al. 1990). Coulomb iterative solution algorithm and SSR
Therefore, by incorporating the effect of root procedure for calculation of safety factors.
reinforcement in Mohr-Coulomb’s shear strength of The finite elements model(s) used for the study
soil, the equation (4) becomes, assumes 2-D plane strain conditions with
homogenous soil whose properties are given in
(9) Table 4. As previously mentioned, the study was
The above vegetation root model has been conducted by (1) varying the angle of inclination of
employed in the present study to incorporate the slope (0 - 90°), (2) varying the configuration of
vegetation root reinforcement in the 2D FEM vegetation, (3) varying the depth of root zone. The
model. details of the model(s) used for investigation are
presented in Table 6.
Geotechnical Properties
The elastic parameters such as E and υ have
profound influence on the computed deformations
prior to failure, but they have little influence on the
predicted FOS in slope stability analysis (Griffiths
et al. 1999). Thus the values of E and υ are adopted
from Griffiths et al. (1999) which are listed in the

J2-8
Table 6. FEM model considerations
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Effect of element type
The FOS computed by slope stability analysis
using FEM has a significant effect due to the
influence of the type of the element that is used for
the analysis. So, in order to understand the effect of
the element type, a model (as shown in Figure 8)
was analyzed using the soil properties given by
Griffiths et al (1999) considering 6 node and 15
node Constant Strain Triangle (CST) element in
PLAXIS and results are compared with the existing
literatures which is presented in the Table 7.
Figure 8. Effect of element type on slope stability
analysis using FEM.
Table 7. Effect of type of element (Griffiths et al.
1999; Rocscience Inc. 2001)
Thus from the results in Table 7, it is found that
the FOS obtained from the PLAXIS model with 6
or 15 node CST element is more reliable and closer
to limit equilibrium results (Bishop’s method).
Therefore, the 15 node CST elements are preferred
for the analysis in the following sections.
Effect of vegetation surcharge
The weight of the vegetation has direct
influence on the stability of the slopes because of
increasing shear stress. Therefore, stability of slope
is analyzed with vegetations whose weights vary
from 0 to 50 kN/m.
Figure 9. Positions of vegetations on the slope
The vegetations are placed at head, face and toe
of the slope as shown in Figure 9, by varying the
angle of inclinations from 0° to 90° and the FOS is
calculated using SSR method for each of them. The
plot showing, the effect of vegetation surcharge at
all the three positions is shown in Figures 10-12.
Results show that there is a significant reduction
in the FOS of the very gentle to moderately steep
slopes due to an increase in the shear stress by
surcharge near the head and face of the slope. But
in the case of surcharge placed at toe region, there
is no reduction of the FOS because surcharge is
directly dissipated on to the base of the slope
thereby keeping the slope un-affected.
Also, it is found that vegetation surcharge
weighing more than 10 kN has significantly (>5%)
reduced the FOS of existing slope when it is placed
at head or face regions. Hence, the vegetation
weighing less than 10 kN is considered as light
weight vegetation and used in the following
sections.
J2-9

Figure 10. Effect of surcharge (at head) on stability
of the slope
Figure 11. Effect of surcharge (at face) on stability
of the slope
Figure 12. Effect of surcharge (at toe) on stability
of the slope
Stability of slope without vegetation
The stability of slope without vegetation was
analyzed using the FEM by varying the angle of
inclination from 0° to 90° and the FOS is calculated
using SSR method for each of them. The plot
showing, angle of inclination versus FOS for no
vegetation case is show in the Figure 13.
The results in Figure 13 shows that the slopes
up to 30° angle of inclination are stable with a FOS
J2-10
ranging from 8.22 to 1.00, which falls between very
gentle to moderately steep slope as per Table 1. and
the slopes beyond 30° are unstable with a FOS less
than 1.00, which falls between moderately steep to
very steep slope as per Table 1. It is clearly
observed that the stability of the slope decrease
with an increase in the angle of inclination. Because,
as angle of inclination increases, the stabilizing
component (normal stress) of gravity is reduced and
destabilizing component (shear stress) of gravity is
increased causing the slope to become unstable.
Figure 13. The stability of slope without vegetation
cover
But at the same time, due to the presence of soil
cohesion, there is a significant increase in the
inherent angle of internal frictional resistance,
which varies from 20° to 30°. Thus, soil cohesion
has profound influence on the stability of slopes.
Similarly, the change of soil cohesion also affects
the stability of slopes which is shown in Figure 14,
thereby affecting the internal angle of frictional
resistance as shown in Figure 15.
The results in Figure 14 and Figure 15 show
clearly that, a slope with soil cohesion of 1 kN/m2 is
stable up to 22° angle of inclination with a
maximum FOS of 5.36, whereas the same slope
with increased soil cohesion of 5 kN/m2 is stable up
to 30° angle of inclination with a maximum FOS of
8.22. Therefore, it is clearly seen that there is
significant change in FOS (Figure 14) of slopes as
well as angle of internal frictional resistance
(Figure 15) due to change in soil cohesion. Also, it
is noted that the significant change in FOS is
observed only on slopes whose steepness is in the
range of very gentle to moderate but not so in the
case of steep to very steep slopes as per Table 1.
This is mainly because of the stress reversal within
soil slope due to change in the inclination of slope.
Figure 14. Effect of soil cohesion on stability of the Figure 16. Effect of Head-Face-Toe Configuration
slope on stability of the slope

Figure 17. Effect of Face-Toe (Full) Configuration

on stability of the slope
Figure 15. Effect of soil cohesion on angle of
internal frictional resistance

Slope with vegetation

Similarly, the stability of slope with vegetation
was analyzed using the FEM for all four different
configurations with cr as 5 kN/m2. By varying the
angle of inclination from 0° to 90°, the FOS is
calculated using SSR method for each of them by
increasing the depth of root zone from 0 to 3m. The
plot showing, angle of inclination versus FOS for
all the vegetation configurations with varying root
depths is in the Figure 16 – Figure 19.
Figure 18. Effect of Face-Toe (Partial)
Configuration on stability of the slope

J2-11

Figure 19. Effect of Face (only) Configuration on
stability of the slope
Figure 20. Effect of root zone on angle of internal
frictional resistance in all the configurations
The results in Figure 16 – Figure 19 show
clearly that, a slope with H-F-T / F-T (Full) / F-
T(Partial) configurations increased the stability of
slopes significantly (say ~ 1 - 30%), whereas in
slope with F (only) configuration there is no effect
on the stability of slope. This is because; in a
homogenous soil slope the toe is the most critical
region where the failure initiates. Thus, in the case
of H-F-T / F-T (Full) / F-T(Partial) configurations,
the strength of the toe soil is increased significantly
due to the presence of vegetation root
reinforcement whereas in case of F (only)
configuration the strength of toe soil remains same
J2-12
as the case of slope without vegetation case because
of absence of root reinforcement at the toe region.
It can also be observed that the increase in depth
of the root zone also influences the stability of toe
reinforced configurations significantly because of
the development of the denser reinforcement matrix
to a significant depth. Due to this, the stability of
the slope is increased until the critical failure
surface resides within this root zone utilizing the
tensile strength of the root reinforcement. In this
case, there is a significant increase (say ~ 1 – 10 %)
in the angle of internal frictional resistance of toe
reinforced configurations (Figure 20) with an
increase in the depth of root zone from 0 to 3 m.
Parametric study
The parametric study was performed for range
of vegetation parameters to simulate the effect of
vegetation growth on the stability of the slopes. The
parameters considered are listed in the Table 5 and
the results are summarized in Figure 21 – Figure 22.
Figure 21. Variation of FOS with apparent root
cohesion
The results in Figure 21 show that when the toe
of the slope is protected with the root reinforcement,
FOS increases significantly with increase in the
apparent root cohesion when the vegetation grows.
But, in the case where the toe is not protected by
root reinforcement as in F (only) configuration,
there will not be any significant rise in FOS even if
the apparent root cohesion increases with the
vegetation growth.

Figure 22. Variation of FOS with apparent root
cohesion
Effects of slope bio-stabilization on different soils
Similarly, the stability analysis was also carried
out on the cohesion-less soil by assuming the value
of c~0. It is found that, in case of cohesion-less
slopes there is shift in the failure mechanism from
translational failure to circular failure when the
slope is provided with vegetation due to the
presence of root cohesion.
Figure 23. Change in failure mechanism due to
presence of vegetation root reinforcement
Also, in the case of cohesive friction soil, due to
the presence of vegetation the failure surface is
shifted much below the surface, thereby increasing
the stability of the slope with increased normal
forces. The results are summarized in the Figure 23.
CONCLUSIONS
The slope bio-stabilization is one of the most
commonly used sustainable and best low-
maintenance option for hill slope stabilization. The
use of light weight vegetations is the best choice for
effective stabilization, because of its negligible
surcharge effects. Incorporating root reinforcement
of the vegetative cover provides additional strength
to the top soil cover thereby improving the
cohesion. The stability of slope is increased
significantly with the toe reinforced configurations.
The strength of top soil cover is significantly
influenced by the apparent root cohesion and the
depth of the root zone. The stability of the top soil
cover increases further with increase in either depth
of root zone or apparent root cohesion. Also,
inclusion of vegetation reduces the shallow planar
failure in case of cohesion-less soils. In addition,
the slope bio-stabilization also provides several
other benefits such as reductions of pore pressure
by evapo-transpiration, increase in soil suction
within, adaptive, self repairable, and improves the
stability of slope through regeneration and growth.
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analysis: shear strength finite element technique.
Article prepared for RocNews.
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Volume 1, ed. Duggar B. M. George Banta,
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(1988a). Study of soil-root interactions.
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Wu T. H. (2007). Root reinforcement analysis and
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Norris J. E. and Cammeraat E.). Springer, The
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Ziemer R.R. and Swanston D.N. (1977). Root
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Ziemer R.R. (1978). An apparatus to measure the
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 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

LIVE POLE TECHNIQUE AS A SLOPE SAFETY PREPAREDNESS FOR EFFECTS

OF CLIMATE CHANGE

Bujang B. K. Huat 1, Afshin Asadi 2 and Mohammad Hamed Fasihnikoutalab 3

ABSTRACT: This article presents a viable technique that can be strategized to strengthen the slope due to
effects of climate change in Malaysia. The stability of the slope was increased over time through the benefits of
the live pole, i.e., in the establishment of the root system, the increase in soil suction, and the reduction in soil
moisture. Adopting a green solution such as the live pole for slope stabilization demonstrates an example of the
role that a geotechnical engineer can play in helping towards sustainable development and in fighting the climate
change in Malaysia.

Keywords: Slope safety, live pole, climate change, shear strength

INTRODUCTION annual rainfall intensity of over 2500 mm. Most of

the landslides in Malaysia’s two monsoon seasons
This report presents information on slope safety are caused by heavy rain falls (See-Sew & Siew-
preparedness for effects of climate change in Wai, 2007).
Malaysia. Malaysia, as many other countries
around the world, has been much affected by the
global climate change. According to the Ministry of
Science, Technology and Innovation of Malaysia
(MOSTI), global warming has affected Malaysia’s
climate in relation to its temperature, precipitation,
wind, lightning and thunderstorm. Figure 1 shows
mean annual maximum temperature trend ( °C/10
years ) in Malaysia from 1951 to 2012 (MOSTI,
2013).
One of the most important effects of climate
change not only in Malaysia but also all over the
world is increase in rainfall which has resulted in
more landslides (L. Huat, Haji, Mariappan, & Soon,
1999, Crozier, 2010). Landslides are a big problem
that geotechnical engineers are faced with around
the world, and especially so in Malaysia. The
increase in rainfall has also affected Malaysia’s
water level. Subsequently, the change in water level
has led to a very serious problem in slope stability
(Zhang, Jiao, & Yang, 2000, Rahardjo, Leong, &
Rezaur, 2002, Tsaparas, Rahardjo, Toll, & Leong, Figure 1. Mean annual maximum temperature trend
( °C/10 years ) in Malaysia (1951 – 2012)
2002, Alonso, Gens, & Delahaye, 2003, Pando,
Ruiz, & Larsen, 2005, Rahardjo & Ong, 2007).
The most common type of landslide in Malaysia
The climate condition in Malaysia is determined
is the shallow slide where the slide surface is
by a relatively uniform high temperature and
usually less than 4m deep and occurs during or
pressure, high humidity and high rainfall, with
immediately after an intense rainfall (Singh, Huat,

1
Professor, University Putra Malaysia, bbkhuat@gmail.com, MALAYSIA
2
Doctor, University Putra Malaysia, afshin.xxxdi@gmail.com, MALAYSIA
3
Ph.D. student, University Putra Malaysia, hfasih@gmail.com, MALAYSIA

J3-1
& Jamaludin, 2008). Six major landslides have
occurred in Bukit Antarabangsa since 1993, making
them significant milestones in the history of
landslide disasters in Malaysia, with more than 80
landslides occurring along the road from the main
highway to Genting Sempah. Most of these
landslides occurred within a few hours after
continuous rain for more than 72 hours on 30th
June 1995. A total of 21 historical rainfall-induced
landslides were reported in the Hulu Kelang area
from 1990 to 2011. In 2013, heavy rainfall caused
landslide hazards in Bukit Gasing and Paya
Terubong. Figure 2 shows an image of the landslide
in Paya Terubong.
Figure 2. Landslide in Paya Terubong
SLOPE SAFETY PREPAREDNESS
MALAYSIA
The use of certain species of woody plants to
enhance the stability of hill slopes against shallow-
seated failures is based primarily on their ability to
reinforce the soil they grow in by root binding
action and the reduction of soil moisture by
evapotranspiration. This particular technique is
called the Live Pole. Figure 3 shows the Live Pole
technique.
0.75-1.25m
centres
0.3-0.5m
2.0-2.5m
2.5-3.0m long
60-90mm dia.
live poles
Assumed
failure
Spade cut at
plane butt end of pole
Figure 3. Live Pole technique
The basic principle of the Live Pole technique is
that the benefits of trees which grow well on hill
slopes can be maximized by ‘engineering’ them. In
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other words, by planting selected hardy species
(short trees or shrubs) in close spacing and deep
into the slope, immediate and long term slope
stabilization can be achieved (B. Huat & Mafian,
2011).
We have reviewed and screened large live
cuttings obtained from branches of small trees and
shrubs species for their potential ability to
propagate vegetatively. The selected species were
then tested for root and stem growth in containers
under shade-house condition with irrigation. Ten
species were identified and planted in four
replicates in a standard medium consisting of
crushed well-graded sand and 10% organic matter
for about 8 weeks in a shade house. The ten species
are: Hibiscus tiliaceus, Cassia fistula, Dilleniaindica,
Pterocarpusindicus, Macaranga, Ficusbenjamina,
Dilleniasuffruticosa, Glyricidiasepium,
Pajanellalongifolia, Erythrinafusca. Based on
screening trials and observations of
distribution/location and the shape of growing roots,
three species were finally selected as thebest
candidates for the live pole: Hibiscus tiliaceus (Ht),
Dilleniaindica (Di) and Dilleniasuffruticosa (Ds).
Mechanical properties of these species were
determined based on BS 373 testing methods, for
their compressive, bending and shear properties.
Figure 4 shows the mechanical tests on the species.
IN
Oblique tip
of pole
Slope
surface
Figure 4. Mechanical tests on the species
Generally, the bending property of Ht was
almost 26% and 17% better than that of Di and Ds
respectively. Ds however had more strength in
compression (nearly 20% and 25% higher than Di
and Ht respectively). In terms of shear property, Di
appeared to be better than Ds and Ht (around 31%
and 49% more respectively). Figure 5 shows a
comparison of the mechanical properties of selected
live poles.
 30.00
25.00
S tr e s s (M P a )
20.00
15.00
10.00
5.00
Species 0.00
Ht Di
Bend. Strength (MPa) 28.925 22.951
Comp. Strength (MPa) 12.599 13.128
Shear Strength (MPa) 1.038 1.549
Figure 5. Comparison of mechanical properties of
selected live poles
For the purpose of the field trial, a meta-stable
slope in the vicinity of the Universiti Putra
Malaysia (UPM) campus was selected. The slope
had a general angle of inclination of about 30o, with
shallow failures (0.95-1.5m deep) at several
locations. Most of the failures were rotational
failures, but translational failure was also evident in
this slope. Two trial strips each of about 2.0 m wide
and 7.5 m long along and down the slope were
installed with a grid of live poles at 0.5 m and 0.75
m staggered centers across and down the slope.
Hibiscus tiliaceus and Dilleniasuffruticosa were
selected for the live poles. They were planted as
stem cuttings (50 – 80 mm in diameter) in alternate
rows, and to a depth of 1.5 m below the ground
surface. The first strip (1) was a re-graded section
of an already failed slope. Figure 6 shows the trial
step.
Figure 6. The trial step
The planting operation was done in 2 days. All
fresh cuttings of Ht and Ds had initial lengths of
2.10 – 2.30 m, diameters between 50 – 70 mm at
upper end and 50 – 80 mm at butt end; and were
almost straight, smoothly tapered, and with no
bends or branch points. The poles were installed for
most of their length into the slope; they were free of
bumps or angularity which might prevent or hinder
entry into the prepared holes. Each pole was placed
butt end first into the base of a pre-formed hole and
driven into the slope using a 14 lb hammer until
about 1.5 m of length. After installation, the
Ds
24.598
annulus between the pole and its preformed hole
15.696 was backfilled with fine dry sand to within 250 mm
1.179
of the surface of the slope. The final 250 mm was
then backfilled with the removed soil and topsoil.
On completion of driving, the exposed end of each
live pole was trimmed cleanly at an angle of about
600 to the longitudinal axis of the pole. After
completing the planting stage, the required details
and specification were recorded for each installed
pole. The field trial was monitored for the next
6 months. Bending strength of Ht poles was about
the same before and after planting. Figure 7 shows
the bending strength of the Ds poles which had
increased by about 25%.
Figure 7. Bending strength of Ds and Ht
According to the literature, the presence of roots
significantly improved the shear strength of the soil,
in particular its apparent cohesion (Greenwood,
Norris, & Wint, 2006, Osman & Barakbah, 2006,
Cammeraat, Beek, & Kooijman, 2007, Nakamura,
Nghiem, & Iwasa, 2007, Tosi, 2007, Mafian, 2009a,
Abdi, Majnounian, Genet, & Rahimi, 2010, Genet,
Stokes, Fourcaud, & Norris, 2010, Abdullah &
Osman, 2011, Cecconi, Pane, Napoli, & Cattoni,
2012). Table 1 shows the shear strength of the root
system. As a result of incorporating the effect of
(Ht)/(Ds) roots using construction industry research
and information association (CIRIA) method to
look at the use of vegetation in civil engineering
(Coppin & Richards, 1990). According to the study,
the influences of Ht/Ds roots on the slope FOS
(Equation 1) increased from 0.93 to 1.11 (20%)
(Figure 8) (Mafian, 2009b).
J3-3
Equation 1.

Figure 9. Live pole treated slope in 2014

Figure 8. The important parameters of vegetation
on the factor safety of slope
CONCLUSIONS
Table 1. Shear strength of root system Adopting a green solution such as the live pole
for slope stabilization demonstrates an example of
Sample Direct Shear Test
the role that a geotechnical engineer can play in
σn τ φ c helping towards sustainable development and in
(kPa) (kPa) (°) (kPa) fighting the climate change in Malaysia. This
article presented a viable technique that can be
Jln MARDI SP 306.59 121 17.6 11.2
strategized to stabilize the slope due to effects of
(Depth 30 to 50 459.88 131 climate change in Malaysia. The stability of the
cm) slope was increased over time through the benefits
613.17 218
from the live pole technique. The slope safety
Jln MARDI SP 306.59 139 16.0 56.5
improved by establishment of the root system,
+ Ds roots
459.88 199 increase in soil suction, and the reduction in soil
(Depth 30 to 50 moisture.
613.17 227
cm)
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+ Ht roots Abdi, E., Majnounian, B., Genet, M., & Rahimi, H.
459.88 220
(Depth 30 to 50 (2010). Quantifying the effects of root
613.17 240
cm) reinforcement of Persian Ironwood (Parrotia
persica) on slope stability; a case study:
Hillslope of Hyrcanian forests, northern Iran.
Figure 9 shows the most recent photo from the
Ecological Engineering, 36(10), 1409–1416.
site in 2014. The live poles provided a form of
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2010.06.020
vegetated soil nailing or dowelling which offered
Abdullah, M., & Osman, N. (2011). Soil-root Shear
improvement to slope stability and can be used in
Strength Properties of Some Slope Plants. Sains
the prevention and repair of shallow slips on
Malaysiana, 40(10), 1065–1073.
highway embankment and cut slopes, as well as
Alonso, E. E., Gens, a., & Delahaye, C. H. (2003).
natural slopes. The stability of the slope is
Influence of rainfall on the deformation and
increased over time through the benefits of the live
stability of a slope in overconsolidated clays: a
pole, i.e., in the establishment of the root system,
case study. Hydrogeology Journal, 11(1), 174–
the increase in soil suction, and the reduction in soil
192. http://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-002-0245-1
moisture. Adopting a green solution such as the live
Cammeraat, E., Beek, R. Van, & Kooijman, A.
pole for slope stabilization demonstrates an
(2007). Vegetation succession and its
example of the role that an engineer can play in
consequences for slope stability in SE Spain.
helping towards sustainable development and in
Plant and Soil, 278, 135–285.
fighting the climate change in Malaysia.

J3-4
Cecconi, M., Pane, V., Napoli, P., & Cattoni, E. Rahardjo, H., & Ong, T. (2007). Factors controlling
(2012). Deep Roots Planting for Surface Slope instability of homogeneous soil slopes under
Protection. Ejge.com. rainfall. Journal of Geotechnical and
Coppin, N., & Richards, I. (1990). Use of Geoenvironmental Engineering, (December),
vegetation in civil engineering. 1532–1543.
Crozier, M. J. (2010). Deciphering the effect of See-Sew, G., & Siew-Wai, C. (2007). Geotechnial
climate change on landslide activity: A review. Challenges in Slope Engineering of
Geomorphology, 124(3-4), 260–267. Infrastructures.. Gnpgeo.co, 1–20.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2010.04.009 Singh, H., Huat, B. K., & Jamaludin, S. (2008).
Genet, M., Stokes, A., Fourcaud, T., & Norris, J. E. Slope assessment systems: A review and
(2010). The influence of plant diversity on slope evaluation of current techniques used for cut
stability in a moist evergreen deciduous forest. slopes in the mountainous terrain of West
Ecological Engineering, 36(3), 265–275. Malaysia. Electronic Journal of ….
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2009.05.018 Tosi, M. (2007). Root tensile strength relationships
Greenwood, J., Norris, J., & Wint, J. (2006). Site and their slope stability implications of three
investigation for the effects of vegetation on shrub species in the Northern Apennines (Italy).
ground stability. Geotechnical & Geological Geomorphology, 87(4), 268–283.
Engineering, 203–212. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2006.09.019
Huat, B., & Mafian, S. (2011). Assessment of Tsaparas, I., Rahardjo, H., Toll, D. ., & Leong, E. .
Indigenous Plants for Live Pole Applications in (2002). Controlling parameters for rainfall-
Slope Stability of Malaysia. Australian Journal induced landslides. Computers and Geotechnics,
of …, 5(9), 22–27. 29(1), 1–27. http://doi.org/10.1016/S0266-
Huat, L., Haji, A. F., Mariappan, S., & Soon, P. 352X(01)00019-2
(1999). Effects of perched water table on slope Zhang, J., Jiao, J. J., & Yang, J. (2000). In situ
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Engineering. Province, China. Engineering Geology, 57(1-2),
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and Root Strength Properties in Slope Stability. 7952(99)00126-X.
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 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

LANDSLIDES IN THE PHILIPPINES: ASSESSING THE ROLE OF

BIOENGINEERING AS AN EFFECTIVE ALTERNATIVE MITIGATION
TECHNIQUE
A. Indelicato 1

ABSTRACT: In developing countries such as the Philippines, any means of preventing slope failures and
landslides is crucial. Tight budgets prohibit the building of more permanent structures and the securing of areas
that are becoming ever more populated. The relentless search for new land has pushed local residents to live in
places where slopes are unstable and can escalate into full-blown landslides during the typhoon season or after
an earthquake. This paper focuses on the Philippines’ particular geology and analyses the causes of the major
landslide events that have hit the country, resulting in incalculable tragedies in terms of human lives lost and
properties damaged. As bioengineering has been used in several other Southeast Asian countries, this paper will
consider the success of this method and its feasibility in the Philippines, a country prone to a variety of serious
natural disasters.

Keywords: Landslides, Philippines, Bioengineering, Slope Stabilization

INTRODUCTION Another important consideration is the

anthropogenic factor, which significantly changes
The Philippine archipelago consists of
the landscape, increasing landslide hazards. With a
approximately 7,100 islands and occupies an area
rapidly growing population and the inevitable
that stretches 1,850km from about the fifth to the
demand for new lands to live on, locals are exposed
twentieth parallel north (Figure 1). Despite a total
to high-risk landslide events.
land area of slightly more than 300,000km2, only
about 1,000 of its islands are populated (Gultiano S.
et al. 2003).
The islands are part of a western Pacific arc
system where several active volcanoes, such as the
Pinatubo and the Mayon, are present, along three
major tectonic plates: the Philippines Sea Plate, the
Eurasian Plate and the Philippine Fault.
The tropical marine climate is dominated by
rainy and dry seasons. Rainfall can be highly
variable in distribution, intensity and longevity. The
combination of warm temperatures and high
rainfall results in widespread deep tropical
weathering and the extensive development of
residual soil throughout the Philippines. As the
archipelago sits astride the typhoon belt, it can
experience damaging storms any month of the year.
As a norm, the most severe storms occur between
the months of July and October.
The particular geographic and geologic setting
of the archipelago makes it naturally prone to
landslides, which can be triggered by a single
volcanic, earthquake and hydro meteorological Figure 1. Map of the Philippines
event or by any combination of them. (Google Earth 2015)

1
Dragages HK ltd., angelo.indelicato@dragageshk.com, HONG KONG

J4-1
CAUSES OF LANDSLIDES
Landslides are commonly defined as down
slope movements of soil, sediment and rock. They
take many different forms and are common
everywhere around the world but there are certain
areas in which these kinds of events occur more
frequently.
Landslides usually start on steep hillsides as
shallow earth falls that liquefy and typically
accelerate to speeds of around 10 miles per hour,
but can exceed 35 miles per hour (Schuster R.L. et
al 2001). The slide becomes larger and heavier as it
gathers more mass on its way down slope. Besides
carrying soil, rock and water, the landslide can also
carry boulders, trees, cars and even buildings.
In 1950 Terzaghi classified the causes of
landslides into two main groups: internal causes
and external causes. External mechanisms are those
outside the mass involved that are responsible for
overcoming its internal shear strength, thereby
causing it to fail.
Gravity undeniably always comes into play but
other events can trigger landslides as well. Rainfall
is one of the main elements as it builds up the water
pressure inside the slope. The removal of
vegetation can also alter existing hydrogeological
and hydrological conditions, leading to run-off and
consequently, increasing erosion and the
probability of slides and debris flows occurring
(Bell F.G. 1999).
Other external factors include earthquakes as
they enlarge the external stresses on slope material
and reduce pore space, which in turn, increases the
pore pressure within the soil/rock mass.
Water is another major cause of mass
movements. As it penetrates the soil, it makes the
surface heavier and with the stronger gravitational
pull, the chances of landslides magnify. It also
reduces friction and consequently, the shear
strength of slopes (Horelli J.A. 2005).
Rainfall-triggered landslides are part of the
natural process of hill slope erosion and can result
in the catastrophic loss of life and expensive
property damage in densely populated areas.
Generally speaking, shallow slope movements are
induced by intense rainfall while deep-seated ones
require large volumes of water (Chigira M. 2011).
Terzaghi, however, dismisses the idea of slides
taking place solely on the basis of rainfall and
sudden excess water. He mentions a rather
important factor common in humid climates – the
naturally occurring moisture in the ground that can
act as a lubricant for movement.
J4-2
Topographic factors such as slope inclination
are also relevant. A study has been conducted on
the relationship between the slope and landslide
occurrences. With a slope angle of <12°, the ratio
was <1, indicating a low probability of an earth fall.
This is because gentle slopes have a lower stress.
As the angle increases, the shear stress in the soil or
other unconsolidated material normally rises,
creating a higher probability of landslide
occurrences (Lee S. et al. 2006).
Severe earthquakes too can induce numerous
mass movements of various sizes. Smaller
landslides are concentrated on steep slopes and
ridge tops because of the amplification of the
seismic shaking while large, deep-seated ones are
controlled by geological structure (Chigira M.
2011).
RECENT LANDSLIDES EVENTS IN THE
PHILIPPINE
Among the most destructive landslide events
was the 1999 one in Cherry Hills (Figure 2a). On
August 3rd, after three days of continuous rains and
500mm of rainfall, a slide occurred in an area
where a previously over-steepening slope was
undertaken during construction works. The
mudslide killed 59 people, injured 39 others and
destroyed 379 houses (Kuwano J. et al. 2009).
In July 2000 another landslide occurred in
Payatas in the northeastern section of Metro Manila,
within the boundaries of Quezon City (Figure 2b).
The municipal solid waste slide mobilized
16,1000m3 of material and caused 278 deaths and
650 cases of missing people after a total rainfall of
170mm in a single day. Inhomogeneous waste
composition, difficulties in determining waste
strength parameters and the lack of knowledge
about the principles of waste mechanics were all
challenges on soil stability.
Low-density waste due to a high portion of light
plastic is considered to be the main cause of the
landslide (Koelsch F. 2001).
In December 2003, a landslide caused by
700mm of rainfall over the course of three days
killed 200 people on Panaon Island. The landslip
originated from a moderately steep slope with thick
soil cover. The majority of mass movements
identified in the area were rotational slides and
debris flows according to the type of motion (Oh
H.-J. et al. 2010). The combination of very poor
ground conditions, awfully steep slopes, virtual
lack of vegetation and heavy precipitation resulted
in the landslide and flash floods in the area. The
water seeped into the weathered, faulted and
fractured agglomerate, penetrating deep down into a)
the unweathered rock surface, which became the
gliding surface of the landslide.
In 2004, 342mm of rainfall within six hours
caused a rotational landslide and consequently, a
debris flow and flood, causing serious damages in
Quezon province. Five bridges and numerous
houses were washed away by mudflows and flash
floods. Most of the landslides involved only the soil
mantle and were not deep-seated. There were also
minor rockslides and rock falls along the streams.
b)
Another landslide was recorded in Bohol
province in July 2005. Here, a large limestone
block slid along a steep northwest-trending scarp in
Mayana village. This initiated down slope
movement of debris to the east. The landslide was
characterized by observed movements as high as
29m/day despite the absence of heavy rainfall.
However, the March 2005 earthquake that hit close
by may have influenced the landslide event.
In 2006 another catastrophic event took place c)
on Leyte Island (Figure 2c). A rockslide avalanche
buried the entire village of Guinsaugon. It started as
a block slide that transformed into an avalanche,
claiming the lives of 1,119 people and destroying
millions’ worth of properties. The rock mass
consisted of sheared and brecciated volcanic,
sedimentary and volcanoclastic rocks (Evans S.G.
et al. 2007).
The two low magnitude earthquakes in the
d)
surrounding area from the day before may have
triggered the event. Active strike-slip movements
along the Philippine Fault resulted in tectonic
weakening of the failed rock mass. The rainfall was
initially considered to be the cause but the peak
groundwater level had depleted before the landslide
occurred (Sassa K. et al. 2010).
Two typhoons hit the Philippines in October
2009, with Typhoon Pepeng affecting the
developing area of Baguio City (Figure 2d). The
town is located on a mountainside and squatters had Figure 2. Landslides in the Philippines –
been settling on the steep incline. The heavy rain a) Cherry Hill, b) Payatas, c) Leyte, d) La Trinidad.
and lack of vegetation translated into both floods
TECHNIQUES CURRENTLY USED TO
and landslides, causing the disaster that left 501
MITIGATE LANDSLIDES
people dead (Inokuchi T. et al. 2011).
Field observation, especially from previous
earthquakes, provides a considerable amount of
information about the study area and its
geotechnical hazard. Geological mappings and
geomorphological studies can help estimate the
locations most at risk of earth movements.
The use of landslide susceptibility and hazard
maps, in conjunction with predictive modelling and
planning, can be relatively inexpensive and can

J4-3
diminish the loss of life and property. They do,
however, require political will for sustained
implementation (Larsen M.C. 2008).
Once the potentially dangerous area has been
identified, mitigation techniques such as soil
removal, benching, drainage and slope protection
using grating crib or vegetation gabion, piles, soil
nailing, rock anchoring, rock barrier or rockfall
shelter, can be used.
Altering slope geometry is often the most
efficient way of increasing safety. Unstable
material can be removed and replaced with stronger
matter. Benching, or dividing a slope into segments,
can also improve stability, as can drainage (Bell
F.G. 1999).
Retaining walls are often used where there is a
lack of space for the full development of a slope.
As retaining walls are subjected to unfavorable
loading, they need to be substantial.
Landslide warning systems provide a rapid
means of monitoring and communicating vital
information to vulnerable communities. Warning
systems are mainly used to protect lives by
indicating when landslides are likely to occur and
providing time for notification and evacuation. But
these systems do not prevent the loss of property
(Larsen M.C. 2008). Alert systems require three
basic components: 1) rainfall sensors and telemetry,
2) a rainfall threshold model, and 3) a mode to
transmit the warning to the public. Rainfall sensor
arrays are expensive to develop, install, maintain
and operate. They can also be problematic during
severe weather, which is when they are most
needed.
Bioengineering is the combination of biological,
mechanical and ecological methods that curtail or
control erosion and stabilize slopes. To reduce
landslide risks, techniques such as smoothing the
slope to a suitable gradient, diverting canals or
waterways, installing bamboo fencing or terracing
and planting bamboo, trees, shrubs and grass, are
used.
Plants play an important role in the
hydrogeological cycle. They cut down the soil
erosion caused by rain splash thanks to the
vegetation canopy they create. They physically bind
and restrain soil particles in the ground.
Furthermore, they absorb surface and ground water,
lowering the saturation level of the soil and the
concomitant risk of slope failure.
Soil bioengineering relies mainly on the use of
native plant materials, such as plant stems or
branches, rock, wood or soil. Appropriate
vegetation can be obtained from local sources of
J4-4
willow, alder and other native and easily
propagated varieties. Environmental compatibility
and requiring minimal access to equipment and
workers, these systems are visually non-intrusive
and blend naturally with the surroundings.
BIOENGINEERING METHODS AND THEIR
APPLICATION IN SOUTH EAST ASIA
There are several types of bioengineering
methods used for slope stabilization. Among them
are live crib walls, vegetated rock gabion and rock
wall and live staking.
Retaining structures such as cribwalls (Figure
3a) can be built from natural materials such as rock
and timber to enhance the potential for the re-
establishment of vegetation by mechanically
stabilizing the soil (Campbell S.D.G. et al. 2006).
A gabion is a rectangular, mesh basket
fabricated from triple-twisted galvanized steel wire.
It can also be made with natural fibers such as
bamboo. Gabions are then wired together and filled
with rock and soil (Figure 3b). Live branch cuttings
and rooted plants are placed on consecutive layers
between the rock-and-soil-filled baskets. Once the
live branch cuttings and rooted plants become
established, the plant roots consolidate the structure
and bind it to the slope (Campbell S.D.G. et al.
2006).
Living stakes such as live fascines, pole drains
and brushlayer are direct soil bioengineering
measures that utilise the stems or branches of living
plants. Live staking consists of inserting and
tamping live branch cuttings into holes reamed into
the ground (Figure 3c). Though it is not an
immediate solution, with time the live stakes create
a living root mat that binds together the soil
particles and lowers the possibility of shallow
failures. The plants also extract excess moisture
from the soil.
Another effective and environmentally-friendly
system is the use of particular types of plants whose
roots stabilise the soil. This is less expensive and it
does not require specialised training for workers.
Vetiver (Vetiveria zizanioides) is a bunchgrass that
has been used as an efficient form of biotechnology
for slope protection purpose in many countries. It
has deep roots of up to 4 metres (Kuwano J. et al.
2009), allowing for better uptake of water and
nutrients, as compared to other plant species. It also
has a high tolerance for extreme temperatures, soil
moisture, soil acidity and alkalinity conditions. The
root system is particularly important for slope
stabilisation as it interacts with the soil, reduces
rainwater infiltration and enhances its shear
strength (Rahardjo et al. 2014).
a)
b)
c)
d)
Figure 3. Bioengineering techniques for rock
stabilisation – a) natural cribwall, b) vegetated rock
gabion, c) living stake, d) vetiver grass
Among the advantages of using a vetiver system,
its low cost and longevity and its suitability for
remote areas where maintenance is difficult and
expensive, are worth mentioning. It is very
effective in poor and highly erodible and
dispersible soils [16].
The main disadvantage relates to its shade
intolerance. Partial shading stunts its growth, while
significant shading kills it in the long term, as
vetiver does not compete well with more shade-
tolerant species. The other issue is that vetiver is
only effective when the grass is well established,
after 9-10 months. The plant requires an initial
period of 2-3 months in warm weather and 4-6
months in cooler settings. Planting early and in the
dry season can accommodate this delay, while
protecting it from roaming livestock.
Measurements on vetiver grass root
reinforcement show a high mean tensile strength of
75MPa. Dense and massive root networks act
together with the same performance as soil nails
regularly used in civil engineering works
(Hengchaovanich D. et al 1996)
In Bangladesh a few trials have been conducted
using this type of grass. The results show a
sufficient capacity in stabilising the slope from rain
cut erosion and sliding (Islam M.S. et al 2013)
Vetiver is effective both on its own and
combined with traditional remedies such as rock
riprap and alongside other plants such as bamboo
(Truong P. et al. 2007). The use of vetiver grass for
natural disaster mitigation in Vietnam has become
very popular. The widest application focuses on
riverbanks, irrigational canals, river and sea dyke
erosion control and cut slope stabilisation along
highways.
The grass has also been planted in Hong Kong;
with planter holes formed on hard slope cover
(Figure 3d). As it is not a native species, it can
grow very quickly and may require more frequent
maintenance than previously thought (GEO 2011).
In the Philippines, drainages and riprap
retaining walls have been extensively used to
prevent slope movements. As vetiver became very
popular across South East Asia, it was also used in
a few sections of the archipelago to stabilise slopes.
Soil bioengineering measures have several
important limitations; they cannot be recommended
where erosion has removed the soil. In the case of
landslide scars where the rock surface is exposed,
these methods cannot be employed. Moreover,
deep-seated failures with high back-scars are also
beyond what most rooted plants can successfully
repair and stabilise. Steep slopes are both difficult
J4-5
to access and expensive to repair and
bioengineering techniques are not effective either.
CONCLUSIONS
Slope over steeping was, along with heavy rain,
the main cause of the landslides in Cherry Hills,
Panaon and the one that hit Baguio City. The
absence of vegetation, especially in the case of
Baguio City, did not help mitigate the hazard. The
bioengineering methods described above would
have been unable to protect the slopes, as they were
too steep. Only the use of concrete retaining walls
might have stopped the landslides in these
particular cases.
Bohol and Leyte were another two landslides
where the bioengineering systems would have not
been effective as the landslides were deep-seated
and involved the rock underneath. The use of
bioengineering techniques would not have
prevented the landslides from occurring.
The case of Payatas is slightly different in that
the landslide there was generated by the collapse of
the landfill. This danger could have been mitigated
by a different landfill design. Considering the type
of materials present in the slope, bioengineering
would not have helped.
The single landslide that probably could have
been avoided through bioengineering was the one
that occurred in Quezon because the event affected
only the superficial soil.
Bioengineering is normally integrated with
other forms of slope stabilization. It has been
successfully used on its own in a few places in
South East Asia, but it is clearly not suitable for the
type of terrain and the climatic and geological
settings of the Philippines. As the country struggles
with budgets and finding funds to stabilize the
territory, it becomes clear that the scarce resources
must be used to make local communities aware of
the potential dangers in living so close to those
areas prone to natural disasters. The hope is that in
the future, more capital will be invested to stabilize
the slopes and prevent the tragic losses of human
lives and properties.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to thank Miss Judy Wu for
her contribution in editing this paper.
REFERENCES
Bell F.G. (1999) Geological Hazards. Their
assessment, avoidance and mitigation. E & FN
Spon, London
J4-6
Campbell S.D.G., Shaw R., Sewell R.J., Wong
J.C.F. (2006) Guideline for Soil Bioengineering
Application on Natural Terrain Landslide Scars,
GEO Report No.227, Geotechnical Engineering
Office, Civil Engineering and Development
Department, The Government of Hong Kong
Special Administrative Region;
Chigira M. (2011) Geological and
Geomorphological Characteristics of Deep-
Seated Catastrophic Landslides Induced by Rain
and Earthquakes in Journal of Chinese Soil and
Water Conservation, 42 (4), pp.265-278;
Evans S.G., Guthrie R.H., Roberts N.J., Bishop N.F.
2007 – The disastrous 17 February 2006
rockslide-debris avalanche on Leyte Island,
Philippines: a catastrophic landslide in tropical
mountain terrain in Natural Hazard and Earth
System Sciences, vol.7, pp.89-101;
GEO (2011) Technical Guidelines on Landscape
Treatment for Slopes. GEO publication
No.1/2011, Geotechnical Engineering Office,
Civil Engineering and Development Department,
The Government of Hong Kong Special
Administrative Region;
Gultiano S., Balbarino E., Saz E., Urich P. (coord.)
(2003) Geography of the Philippines,
Population Dynamics, Land Availability and
Adapting Land Tenure Systems: Philippines, a
case Study, office of Population Studies
(University of San Carlos), Farm and
Agriculture Resource Management Institute and
Center for Social Research (Leyte State
University), CICRED, FAO, pp. 29-57
http://www.cicred.org/Eng/Publications/Books/
MonographiePhilippines/08MonoPhilippinesCh
ap3.pdf;
Hengchaovanich D., Nilaweera N. (1996) An
assessment of strength properties of vetiver
grass roots in relation to slope stabilization.
Proceedings of the First International
Conference on Vetiver. Office of the Royal
Development Project Board, Bangkok, pp.153-
158;
Horelli J.A. (2005) Landslides in Hong Kong.
University of Helsinki. Faculty of Agriculture
and Forestry. Department of Economics and
Managements, Master’s Thesis;
http://ncts.upd.edu.ph/jsps/pdf_files/presentations/g
roup%203/Pres_ADAJAR%20-
%20Geotechnical%20Hazards%20and%20Disa
ster%20Mitigation%20Technologies.pdf
Inokuchi T., Nakasu T., Sato T. (2011) Landslide
Disaster around Baguio City caused by
Typhoon Pepeng in 2009 in Natural Disaster
 Research Report of the National Research
Institute for Earth Science and Disaster
Prevention, n. 45, pp. 35-41;
Islam M.S., Shahriar B.A.M., Shahin H.M. (2013)
Study on Growth of Vetiver Grass in Tropical
Region for Slope Protection in International
Journal of Geomate, vol.5, no.2, pp: 729-734;
Koelsch F. (2001) Stability problems of landfills –
The Payatas landslide. 17th International
Conference Solid Waste Technology and
Management;
Kuwano J., Warakorn M., Zarco M., Adajar M.A.
(2009) Geotechnical Hazards and Disaster
Mitigation Technologies. 3rd JSPS-DOST
International Symposium on Environmental
Engineering;
Larsen M.C. (2008) Rainfall-triggered landslides,
anthropogenic hazards and mitigation strategies
in Advances in Geoscience, 14 pp. 147-15;
Lee S., Evangelista D.G. (2006) Earthquake-
induced landslide-susceptibility mapping using
an artificial neural network in Natural Hazard
Earth System Science, vol.6, pp. 687-695;
Oh H.-J., Lee S. (2010) Landslide susceptibility
mapping on Panaon Island, Philippines using a
geographic information system in
Environmental Earth Science, vol.62, pp.935-
951;
Rahardjo H.,Satyanaga A., Leong E.C., Santoso
V.A., Ng Y.S. (2014) Performance of an
instrumented slope covered with shrubs and
deep-rooted grass in Soils and Foundations
2014, vol. 54, no.3, pp:417-425;
Sassa K., Nagai O., Solidum R. Yamazaki Y. Ohta
H. (2010) An integrated model simulating the
initiation and motion of earthquake and rain
induced rapid landslides and its application to
the 2006 Leyte landslide;
Schuster R.L., Highland L.M. (2001) Impact of
Landslides and Innovative Landslide-Mitigation
Measures on the Natural Environment,
http://pubs.usgs.gov/op/HongKongJuly/HongKo
ngJuly21.pd;
Truong P., Van T.T., Pinners E. (2007) Vetiver
System Applications. Technical Reference
Manual.
http://www.betuco.be/coverfodder/Vetiver%20S
ystem%20%20-
Technical%20reference%20manual%202007.pdf

J4-7
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

CASE STUDY OF SLOPE PROTECTION MEASURES BY SHOTCRETE FRAME

AND GROUND ANCHOR IN INDONESIA

Hisashi Tanaka 1, Msahide Tanaka 2 and Susilarto 3

ABSTRACT: The case study of slope protection method by the shotcrete frame and the ground anchors as a
restoration of slope disaster occurred in Indonesia is introduced in this thesis. The slope failure had been
occurred in following slope conditions, average 45 degree, length 50 m, 35 m width and 3-5 m thickness of
strong weathered layer. The counter measures were designed with Japanese design standard considered the result
of ground survey but the value of design safety factor used in Indonesia was considered. The volume of counter
measure works are following, 862 sq m covered with the shotcrete frame (500 mm × 500 mm sectioned, 3m of
frame pitch), 80 of the ground anchors(L=7.0-18.5 m, Td= 310 kN, with φ12.7 mm×3 strands). The counter
measures construction was finished in five months in safety.

Keywords: Slope protection method, ground anchor, shotcrete frame, safety factor, Japanese design standard

INTRODUCTION
The case study of application of the Shotcrete
Frame and the Ground Anchors against slope
collapse in Indonesia is introduced in this thesis.
Methodology and standards of designing for
countermeasure work in Japan is introduced in
early chapter and execution of actual work is
introduced latter chapter.

CONDITIONS OF COLLAPSED SLOPE

Detail conditions of collapsed slope were average
45 degree, length 50m, 35m width of strong- Figure 1. Collapsed slope
weathered layer and thickness of failure was 3-5
meters (Figure 1). As the result of field
investigation and boring survey, upper half of the
slope seemed to have lost stabilization and
collapsed. There are some buildings on the top of
slope, thus further collapse must be prevented.
The concept of countermeasure was to improve the
stability of the slope along the plane. The
combination of the Ground Anchor and the
Shotcrete frame was planed as a countermeasure
and stabilization of the slope.

Figure 2. Plan figure and design survey lines

1
Assistant Section Manager , NITTOC Construction Co., Ltd. (International Dep.), hisashi.tanaka@nittoc.co.jp, JAPAN
2
Site Manager , NITTOC Construction Co., Ltd. (International Dep.), masahide.tanaka@nittoc.co.jp, JAPAN
3
Commissioner, PT. PANCA DUTA PRAKARSA, dsusilar@yahoo.com, INDONESIA

K1-1
DESIGN FOR SLOPE STABILIZATION occurrence of sliding surface was expected, same
value was used as the average among them.
Slope stability calculation
Slope stability was calculated initially. The Calculation of required prevention force
status on No.5-5 survey line was introduced for the
Required prevention force was calculated in
calculations and designing (Figure 2).
order to determine the scale of countermeasure.
The result of field investigation, required
Plan safety factor (Fsp), considering the impact of
information for the calculations like landscape or
the related disaster or economic performance, is
geological condition, was offered by local
usually determined 1.20 in Japan (It is generally
investigation company.
set the range 1.05-1.20 (Japan Road Association
(2009))). However, 1.25 was introduced as Fsp for
Determination of Parameters of the ground
this project according to the discussion with client
condition
and reflecting the consensus of designing in
Geological cross section was assumed by the Indonesia. Thus 476.5 kN/m of the maximum
result of the survey boring and used for the shearing force was led as the result of calculation
calculation of slope stability. Parameters of the raising Fs=0.99 of current safety factor to
ground were determined by the result of survey Fsp=1.25 of the design shearing force.
boring. In detail as written later, internal frictional
angle (φ, degree) of destabilized layers, silty clay Designing of Countermeasure
layer and sandy clay layer, was calculated by
The Ground Anchor
fixing their cohesion force (c, kPa) and inverse
operation with considering current safety factor The Ground Anchor was designed based on
(Fs) of the slope. Parameters of the ground used in “Ground Anchor Design and Construction
analysis of the slope stability are shown in Table 1. Standard, and Explanations (The Japanese
Geotechnical Society (2012))”. Condition for the
Table 1. Parameters of the ground calculation is shown in Table 2 and result of
γm c φ calculation is shown in Table 3.
Type of soil
kN/m3 kPa °
Silty Clay (N-SPT 4-5) 16.5 10.0 32.6
Special software developed to calculate result
Sandy Clay (N-SPT 12) 17.5 10.0 32.6 with both efficiency and economical advantage
Breccia Lyer (N-SPT >60) 20.0 5.0 45.0 was introduced with just imputing parameters.

Table 2. Calculation condition of the Ground

Anchor
Item Unit Value
Required prevention force (Pr) kN/m 476.5
Sliding surface average angle (θ) ° 35.54
Stressing +
Effect of anchor
Anchoring
PC steel strand
Materials and type of anchor (Permanent ground
anchor) φ12.7mm
Rank of anchor Rank A (Normally)
Allowable adhesive stress of tendon
N/mm2 0.80
and grout (τb)
2
Figure 3. Slope stability analysis Skin friction of fixed anchor (τ) N/mm 0.45
Design safety factor (Fs) - 2.5
（Cross section No.5-5）
Table 3. Calculation result of the Ground Anchor
“The Limit Equilibrium Concept”, generally
Item Unit Value
used in Japan, was used for the stability calculation
Inclination angle of anchor (α) ° 35.0
and “The Modified Fellenius Method” was applied Working load of anchor (Td) kN/pc. 310.1
as the formula for stability calculation (Figure 3). Tendon strand － φ12.7×4
Each parameters of the ground was calculated by Apparent circumference (U) mm 105.2
Borehole diameter (dA) mm 115
inverse operation with fixing current Fs=0.99, i.e. Free anchor length m 7.0 - 13.0
considered the slope as still unstable. For the Fixed anchor length m 5.0
inverse operation, c was fixed 10kPa then φ was Anchor total length m 12.0 - 18.0
Horizontal interval m 3.0
calculated 32.6° as the result. On c and φ in silty Tier step 5
clay layer and sandy clay layer, the possibility of

K1-2
The Shotcrete Frame Table 5. Calculation result of the working load on
the Shotcrete Frame
The Shotcrete Frame has a function as the Item Unit Value
pressure bearing plate for the Ground Anchors. Maximum bending moment (Mmax) kN･m 63.43
Maximum shearing force (Smax) kN 87.39
Therefore the size of cross section of frame, frame
pitch (both horizontal and vertical), and the
Table 6. Calculation of the required volume of
required volume of reinforcing bar was designed
reinforcement bar and evaluation to assumed stress
based on the calculation of the maximum bending Item Unit Value
moment and the maximum shearing force with Main Nominal diameter - D19
fixed working load of the ground anchor (Td). reinforcing Quantity (one side) nos 4
bar Reinforcing bar volume mm2 1,146.0
Spec of the Shotcrete Frame was designed by
Tension (σs) N/mm2 151.9
following “The Guideline of Concrete Frame Stress Compression (σc) N/mm2 5.10
Work Design and Construction (The Japan Slope intensity Shear (τc) N/mm2 0.480
Protection Association (1987))”. Calculation Adhesion (τo) N/mm2 0.500
conditions are shown in Table 4. Nominal diameter - D16
Stirrup
Interval mm 400
Evaluation OK
Table 4. Calculation condition of the Shotcrete
Frame
Item Unit Value Arrangement of the countermeasures
Working load of anchor (Td) kN/pc. 310.1
Based on the calculations for the design noted
Vertical beam span length (l1) m 3.0
Horizontal beam span length (l2) m 3.0 in the foregoing, arrangement of the Ground
Beam height(h) × beam width(b) mm 500 Anchors was determined as shown in Figure 4,
Design strength of mortar (σck) N/mm2 18.0 structure and specification of the Anchor as shown
Allowable compressive
mortar N/mm2 7.0 in Figure 5, and interface of the Anchors and the
stress (σca)
Allowable shear stress Shotcrete Frame as shown in Figure 6 respectively.
N/mm2 0.40
(τca)
Allowable adhesive
N/mm2 1.40 Silty clay
stress (τoa) Sh otcrete Fram e
Reinforcing Allowable tensile stress □500×500＠3000
San d y clay
N/mm2 196.0
bar (σsa)
13
00
0

11
50
0

Calculation result of the maximum bending 85

00
10
00
0

50

70 50
00
Breccia Layer
moment and the maximum shearing force based on 00 00
50
00
50
00
50
00

the design condition is shown in Table 5. In

addition, required volume of reinforcing bar Groun d An ch or
φ12.7 ×3, Td = 310.1kN/An ch or
@ 3.0m × 5 d ifferent level step s
according to the stress force is shown in Table 6. Drillin g d iam eter φ115m m ,
Drillin g ang le α= 35 °
Though shear stress has an overbalance to the L= 12.0m - 18.0m (La= 5.0m )

allowable value, it is evaluated safe because Figure 4. Arrangement of the Ground Anchors
(General cross section of countermeasures)
sufficient stirrups have been arranged to receive
the shearing force.

Figure 5. Structure and Specification of the Ground Anchor

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 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000
5 00
2 50 0

3 00 0
5 00

B
2 50 0

3 00 0
5 00

D19

500 2500 500 2500 500 2500 500 2500 500 2500 500

S=1: 20 S=1: 20

500

85 330 85

Ｄ 16
90

D19
3 20

5 00

1 15
90

80 170 80

500

Figure 6. Structure view of the Shotcrete Flame

OPERATION OF THE COUNTERMEASURE Due to little previous instance of slope

WORKS protection like this method in Indonesia, Japanese
engineer had to educate local labor and constructed.
Volume of works
The volume of countermeasure works based on Shotcrete Frame construction
the design was determined, 862 sq meters of the
For the beginning of Shotcrete Frame
Shotcrete Frame (coverage area) and 80 of the
construction, reinforcing steels were fabricated.
Ground Anchors. 5 numbers of tiers were
Main reinforcing bars (D19) are distributed on the
considered in the progress of designing, however,
slope and stirrup reinforcement (D16) was put on
it was changed to 8 numbers according to actual
them. Subsequently, the mesh frames cut the size
condition of the slope.
of cross section (500mm × 500mm) were
assembled (Figure 7). Cement Mortal was mixed
Process of the construction
by using a Shotcrete machine (wet type) on site.
Procedure of the construction Mixed mortar was delivered by compressed air and
For the commencement of construction, blasted out to the frame (Figure 8). Mixture of
sand, cement and water for mortal had been
cleaning and formation works, removal of unstable
soil or planarization, were executed. Secondary, designed to be satisfied with design strength σck =
the Shotcrete Frame was constructed and then the 18 N/mm2.
steel pipe scaffolding was fabricated for the
Ground Anchor works. Drilling machines were
put on the scaffolding and the Ground Anchors
were constructed.

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Figure 7. Assembly of reinforcing steel, stirrup and
mesh frame
Figure 8. Shotcreting of cement mortar
Figure 9. Drilling of the Ground Anchor
Figure 10. Finished shape
Ground Anchor works
Procedure of the Ground Anchor construction
is drilling, installation of anchor tendon, grouting
and tensioning fixing.
Rotary Percussion Drilling Machine and Rotary
Boring Machine were used for drilling (Figure 9).
Fabrication of the Anchor tendon, bundling
determined length and numbers of PC strands was
executed on site. Mixture ratio of cement and
water was determined to keep strength more than
σck=24N/mm2 and controlled.
Impression for finish of works
It had be taken 5 months to finish this works
without any accident (Figure 10). A lot of
challenges and difficulties were revealed. For
instance, particle size of sands used for mortar had
a big difference in each day and must have been
sorted by ourselves and improved. Moreover
particle of cement in Indonesia was rougher than
Japanese. Thus the mixture of grout as show in the
standard of Japan must have been modified
according to Indonesian conditions otherwise the
ratio of bleeding had been larger and improvable.
These experiences will be a good sample for
improvement.
CONCLUSIONS
The case study of slope protection method by
the shotcrete frame and the ground anchors as a
restoration of slope disaster occurred in Indonesia
was introduced in this thesis.
The counter measures were designed with
Japanese design standard considered the result of
ground survey but the value of plan safety factor
used in Indonesia was considered. It made a result
of designing much bigger than Japanese standard.
This combination couldn’t be concluded as proper
designing in economical efficiency and the
requirement of consistent method between the
designing calculations with the plan safety factor
was revealed.
We could obtain a lot of knowledge for
introduction of countermeasure methods applied in
Japan to Indonesia through this project.
There is a margin for improvement but we are sure
that this challenge is a giant step for the
countermeasure against slope disaster in Indonesia
and willing to contribute continuously.
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REFERENCES
Japan Road Association (2009). Guideline of Road
earth work -cutting ground work and slope
stability work.
The Japan Slope Protection Association (1987).
Guideline of Concrete Frame Work Design and
Construction.
The Japanese Geotechnical Society (2012).
Ground Anchor Design and Construction
Standard, and Explanations.

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 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

SLOPE STABILITY MEASURE FOR BASEMENT EXCAVATION, A CASE STUDY

OFFICE BUILDING CONSTRUCTION IN BANDUNG
Sugianto, A.1 and Cindarto Lie2

ABSTRACT: Construction of office building basement has inline relationship with excavation work which
directly influences the soil stability of its perimeter. Prior to the construction of basement of an 11-story office
building in Dago Street, Bandung - Indonesia, a retaining system which consists of WF steel profile and wooden
plank has been installed along the perimeter of the excavation. The depth of the excavation is 10 m. After
prolonged period of heavy rains, a slope failure was observed on a particular section within the excavation area
which was located at adjacent office building. The slope failure caused damage not only to the retaining system
but also to the floor of the adjacent building, and has caused a dispute and a case of claim.
To protect any further damage to the neighboring building and stop further slope movement, an emergency
measure wass implemented. Back filling of the excavation was immediately carried out to act as temporary
counter weight. The slope failure was then analyzed by using Plaxis 2D. And to simulate the failure profile and
obtaining soil shear strength parameters a back analysis was implemented, in the back analysis it was assumed
that the factor of safety is equal to 1. As for permanent measure, soldier pile with 600mm in diameters had been
installed with 14m of design length along failure area. But due to specification limitation of the equipment for
use on-site and soil profile that showed cemented sand material at depth of 10m, soldier pile could only reached
the 11m to 11.5m depth in a dry bore condition. Due to the depth of soldier pile not reaching the required depth,
soil nailing was deemed necessary at near surface level to hold back the soldier pile. Due to the soil condition at
failure area, compacting the ground will not be effective as well. As an alternative, grouting method was
implemented, a process in which a mixture of water and cement was injected into the poor compacted soil
behind the soldier pile wall to act as self-compacted substance. With respect to quality control and monitoring,
two inclinometers were installed inside soldier pile to monitor lateral deformation of the new protection system
during excavation and construction period. The result showed that the observed lateral deformation was within
the tolerance value (<25mm) and the neighbor building which affected by the excavation was considered safe.
For calibrating the analysis the readings from the inclinometers was then compared against the calculations
using the finite element approach.

Keywords: Slope stability, retaining system, Berlin wall, Plaxis, soldier pile, grouting, inclinometer

INTRODUCTION Consequently, leaving 3m depth from the surface

level as an open cut. Penetration depth of the steel
Bandung is the capital city of West Java
profile is 1.5m below cut off level with remaining
Province, Indonesia. Based on its geology, Bandung
space at the ground surface of only 2.5 m from the
is delineated by two soil types , residual soil
adjacent building wall to the edge of excavation. On
extends on north area of Bandung and sedimentary
August 30, 2014, midnight, heavy rains caused
soil on the south area. An eleven- story office
slope failure. A local slope failure affecting the
building is constructed at Dago street, situated at
adjacent building thatcaused damage to the
north area of Bandung with 10m depth of
retaining system and has made the foundationof
excavation for two levels of basement.
boundary wall exposed, and due to this incident a
Excavation had been conducted in July 2014
dispute ensued and hence a claim for the damage
using berlin wall as retaining system. Berlin wall as
was issued.Some cracks at adjacent building was
retaining system was implemented by using steel
claimed due to the ongoing excavation. To avoid
profile WF 200x100x5.5x8 spanning 4.5m length.
another failure, backfill supported with gabion were

1
PT. GEC, Bandung, Indonesia, currently student at Parahyangan Catholic University,
email: andysugianto.sorong@gmail.com
2
PT. CND Geoteknika, Bandung, Indonesia, currently student at Parahyangan Catholic University,
email:cindarto@gmail.com

K2-1
constructed as counter weight. Excavation work
around failure area was stopped temporarily until
slope failure rectification plan was submitted and
agreed by both parties.
This paper discusses about design rectification
of the slope failure. The rectification design can be
either providing stronger retaining structure or soil
stabilization to improve soil’s shear strength of the
sliding mass.

SITE CONDITION
Obviously the slope failure was trigerred by
runoff water during rainfall. Because of not all the
mass of theslope was failing, it can be concluded
the presence of a weak soil spot in the particular Figure 1. Initial design of retaining system
location on which slope failure has occured. Site SOIL CHARACTERISTIC
observation revealed that in general, the existing
Soil investigation was conducted on the project
retaining system did not perform its function
site by carrying out two deep boreholes and four
properly and needed to be reinforced to secure the
CPT points. Soil stratification showed two distinct
slope.
layers, the first layer is defined as silty clay with
medium consistency till 7m–9m depth and the
second layer was dominated by very dense sand
layer. More detailed soil stratification was shown in
the following figure.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2. Site condition, (a) Retaining system using berlin wall before sliding; (b) Back fill constructed as
emergency work; (c) Boundary wall foundation was exposed due to slope failure

Figure 3. Soil stratification based on deep boring and CPT data

K2-2
INITIAL SHORING SYSTEM DESIGN
Based on site observation, the neighboring
building suffered slight damage due to the slope
failure. Some cracks were found at the adjacent
walls and floors which made the building operation
had to be temporarily halted. Initially, two options
had been offered to rectify the slope.The first option
was by using soldier pile with 60 cm diameter, 14m
length and 1.2m spacing, followed by soil cement
grouting stabilization of the soil backfill behind the
soldier pile. The second option plan was to stabilize
the sliding mass by using cement grouting. The
grouting soil mass was designed form two rows of
70 cm diameter, 80 cm spacing and two rows soil
nailing of 6m length.
ANALYSIS RESULT
Slope failure has been back analyzed with Plaxis
finite element based 2D computer programme. Trial
and error soil parameter was determined during the
analysis until the safety factor obtained was equal to
unity. By using the parameters obtained, proposed
rectification design Alternative 1 and 2 were
analyzed. From the analysis, the sliding type was of
local failure, which indicated that the sliding can not
be wider than the initial sliding plane. Also,
thefactor of safety increased due to soldier pile and
soil nailing installation.
Existing
El. -3.75m
El. -11.5m
Soldier
pile
(a)
(b)
Figure 4. (a) Deformation pattern for soldier pile
protection; (b) Deformation pattern for soil nailing
with cement grouting
REFINEMENT AND ADJUSTMENT DESIGN
DURING CONSTRUCTION
Due to the limited construction period and
workability consideration, the first option by using
soldier pile and backfill grouting stabilization was
chosen. Initially the soldier pile was designed 14m
length and had to penetrate through bearing stratum
with enough embedment depth (3m). Due to the
limited capability of the portable bore-piling
machine that suitable limited working space, the
drilling was stopped at 11 m depth, so that only 1 m
embedment in hard stratum was left for the soldier
pile system. Therefore, additional tie back was
introduced to reduce kick out potential of the pile.
The tie back was soil nailing reinforcement with 20
cm diameter, 45o inclination, which made of a 22
mm reinforced steel bar and sleeve grout with W/C
= 0.50. Again finite element analysis is carried out
check the stability of the actual condition of the
soldier pile system being modified. And the results
are satisfactory.
In the analysis, 12m of soil nailing is needed to
tie back the soldier pile, the soil nailing was
installed every other pile, and unified together in the
concrete capping beam.
The space left between soldier pile and the
neighboring wall foundation was filled using debris
material and was proved difficult to compact. So
that, backfill material needs to be stabilized by using
cement grouting technique. Grouting is generally
used to increase strength of a rock or soil mass and
to reduce premeability (Warner, 2004). Cement
grouting was carried out where the backfill
compaction cannot be implemented on site.In this
project, grouting is injected through perforated PVC
pipe with water cement ratio 0.5 to 1. The back fill
was grouted until 6m depth with 80cm spacing.
Additional grouting was also requested to be
installed at the adjacent building. The grout served
to fill the cracks and voids created underneath the
floor. The injection hole spacing was 2 m and
reached to 3m depth.
SLOPE MONITORING
In order to monitor the performance of the
constructed slope protection system and as an early
warning system as well; inclinometer pipes were
installed inside the soldier piles in two points.
Inclinometer reading basically, shows the lateral
displacement occurred during next excavation.
Aside as design requirement verification, the lateral
displacement recorded can be used to recalculate
actual bending moment occurred in the particular
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soldier pile due to the actual lateral loading caused
by soil pressure and probably also by soil movement.
Neighbor
Inclinometer
Office Building
Inclinometer
Figure 5. Location of inclinometer as slope
monitoring
Inclinometer reading was carried out periodically
every week during construction period. The
allowable lateral displacement was specified as 1
inch (25.4 mm) which meansthat the Site Supervisor
has to be aware if the specified displacement has
occurred. If the lateral displacement read 50 mm,
the construction work has to be stopped temporary,
andadditional lateral supporthas to be introduced.
Actual lateral displacement of soldier pile has
indicated soil movement behind the soldier pile, in
fact the soil movement has to be bigger than
displacement of soldier pile. Based on the analysis,
soldier pile displacement was 3cm, but the actual
lateral displacement of soldier pile was 3 to 5mm. It
might be due to mis-prediction of soil parameter of
grouted backfill behind the soldier pile.
Neighbour Side Excavation Side
Figure 6. Inclinometer result for actual lateral
movement in boredpile
DISCUSSION
Pore water pressure build up due to the long
rainy season had made the basement excavation
slope to fail. Several slope rectification had been
proposed, such as soldier pile, soil grouting, soil
K2-4
nailing, and combination of those method.
Considering accessibility, work duration, and
working space availability, soldier pile had been
chosen as slope protection. Soldier pile was
designed 4m through hard stratum as a fixed length,
but due to limited capacity of the portable bore-
piling machine it could not reach the designed
length. The soldier piles were constructed reaching
only up 11m (1m embedment in hard stratum).
Referring to the previous analysis, the penetration
depth would not be sufficient to resist the lateral
force, so that additional tie back made of soil nailing
was introduced to the soldier pile system. To
stabilize uncompacted backfill material behind the
soldier pile, grouting stabilization measure was
introduced; the grout not only will stabilize the
backfill but also will reduce the active pressure
pressing against the retaining system significantly.
CONCLUSION
The soil found on-site consisted of two layers.
The first layer was silty clay with medium
consistency until 7m-9m. The second layer was
defined as cemented sand with very dense to hard
density.
Improper design shoring system for basement
excavation by use berlin wall was found to be
unreliable, because during excavation work, the
shoring system failed and caused damage to the
neighboring building.
In order to stop progressing failure, emergency
action was taken right after the sliding occurred. The
action consisted of backfill the surrounding sliding
area with local material supported by gabion at the
toe as counterweight and covering the backfilling
soil with plastic sheet to avoid water saturation to
the soil. Combination of soldier pile and soil nailing
as tie back was found to be very effective
rectification measure.
The performance of the designated retaining
system was monitored by using inclinometer which
is installed inside the soldier piles. The actual lateral
displacement obtained from inclinometer reading
ranged from 3mm to 5mm which are much lower
than the calculated displacement from the finite
element analysis (3cm).The reason of this
unconformity may be due to mis-prediction of the
deformation modulus of stabilized backfill material
by grouting.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Finally the author would like to thank to
Cindarto Lie for supporting data, completing, and
reviewing this paper. To Prof. Paulus Pramono
Rahardjo from Catolic Parahyangan University has
been allowed this project to be published.

REFERENCES
Duncan, J.M., Wright, S.G. (2005). Soil Strength
and Slope Stability.
Hencher, S. (2012). Practical Engineering Geology.
Rahardjo, P.P., Parahyangan Catolic University.
(2008). Penyelidikan Geoteknik dengan Uji In-
situ.

K2-5
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

STABLIZATION OF NAINITAL LANDSLIDE BY SOIL NAILING- A CASE STUDY

Dr. Satyendra Mittal 1

ABSTRACT : Landslides, one of the natural hazards always cause a major problem in the Himalayas by killing
hundreds of people every year, besides damaging the properties and blocking the communication links. Mass
movements in the mountainous terrains are natural degradation processes, and one of the most important
landscape building factors. Most of the terrains in mountainous areas have been subjected to slope failure at least
once under the influence of a variety of factors, triggered by events, such as geological fragility, extreme rainfall,
deforestation, instability of slopes, tectonic activities. To reduce the landslide probabilities at critical locations,
scientific slope stabilization techniques like soil nailing, soil stitching, rock anchoring etc. are commonly used.
The present paper discusses the solution which was applied by authors for the landslide that triggered on Nainital
– Halwani road by using soil nailing method.

INTRODUCTION SOIL STRATA AT SITE

A sewage plant exists in Nainital (Uttaranchal The samples were collected from the walls of
State) since British era. This plant has a long pipe existing slopes. The tests were conducted on
line which passes on natural slopes of country side. representative samples collected as per details
This pipeline is partly buried into ground and below (Table 1).
partly exposed. Due to landslide which occurred
in year 2006, this pipe line had broken which had Table 1. Soil Strata present at site
resulted in free flow of water from pipe (Figure 1). Sample Location from Bank Side
This exposed end of pipe (with free flow of No. where sample (according to
sewage water) had not only caused fouling smell were collected flow of
there but also caused serious environment threat. Nallah)
This broken pipe line had to be restored as early as 1 At top about 8.0m Right
possible as the continuous open flow was causing from Nallah
undermining of existing slopes and since the first 2 About 10m from Right
Nallah
day of breakage of pipe, these slopes had further
3 About 15m from Right
deteriorated. Uttaranchal Peyjal Nigam, Nainital Nallah
requested the Deptt. of Civil Engineering, Indian 4 About 10m from Left
Institute of Technology Roorkee to suggest the Nallah
solution to stablize the slopes on both sides of 5 About 25m from Left
exposed nallah. The present paper describes the Nallah
solutions for the landslide problem at site.
All the tests were conducted as per IS
specifications. The test results are summarized in
Tables 2A to 2E.

Figure 1. A View of Sewer Outfall

1
Dept. of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee-247 667, India. smittfce@iitr.ernet.in.

K3-1
 Table 2A (Sample 1) Table 2B (Sample 2)
a) Location : At top about 8.0m from Nallah a) Location :About 10m from Nallah
b) Identification : Right Bank b) Identification: Right Bank
1. Soil Type Gravel % : 31 1. Soil Type Gravel % : 36
Coarse sand % (4.75 – Coarse sand % (4.75 – 2mm) :
2mm) : 44 42
Medium sand % (2 – Medium sand % (2 – 0.425) :
0.425) : 21 16
Fine sand % (0.425 – Fine sand % (0.425 – 0.075) :
0.075) : 3.0 3.6
Silt & Clay % (< 0.075 Silt & Clay % (< 0.075 mm) :
mm) : 1.0 2.4
2. Atterberg Limits LL : 0 2. Atterberg Limits LL : 0
PL : 0 (Non-Plastic) PL : 0 (Non-Plastic)
PI : 0 PI : 0
3. Soil classification Cu = 7, Cc = 0.89 3. Soil classification Cu = 5, Cc = 1.74
(as per IS: 1498- SP (Poorly graded sands) (as per IS: 1498- SP (Poorly graded sands)
1970) 1970)
4. Shear Parameters C = 0 4. Shear Parameters C = 0
 = 42.0  = 42.0

Table 2C (Sample 3) Table 2D (Sample 4)

b) Location :About 15m from Nallah a) Location : About 10m from Nallah
c) Identification :Right Bank b) Identification : Left Bank
1. Soil Type Gravel % : 32 1. Soil Type Gravel % : 3.5
Coarse sand % (4.75 – 2mm) : Coarse sand % (4.75 – 2mm) :
41 43.5
Medium sand % (2 – 0.425) : Medium sand % (2 – 0.425) :
23 43
Fine sand % (0.425 – 0.075) : Fine sand % (0.425 –
3.5 0.075) : 7
Silt & Clay % (< 0.075 Silt & Clay % (< 0.075
mm) : 0.5 mm) : 3
2. Atterberg Limits LL : 0 2. Atterberg Limits LL : 0
PL : 0 (Non-Plastic) PL : 0 (Non-Plastic)
PI : 0 PI : 0
3. Soil Cu = 5.5, Cc = 1.7 3. Soil Cu = 5.5, Cc = 1.7
classification SP (Poorly graded sands) classification SP (Poorly graded sands)
(as per IS: 1498- (as per IS: 1498-
1970) 1970)
4. Shear Parameters C = 0 4. Shear C = 0
 = 42.0 Parameters  = 42.5

Table 2E (Sample 5)
a) Location : About 25m from Nallah
b) Identification : Left Bank
1. Soil Type Gravel % : 8
Coarse sand % (4.75 – 2mm) : 51
Medium sand % (2 – 0.425) : 34
Fine sand % (0.425 – 0.075) : 4.4
Silt & Clay % (< 0.075 mm) : 2.6

2. Atterberg Limits LL : 0
PL : 0 (Non-Plastic)
PI : 0
3. Soil classification Cu = 5, Cc = 1.25
(as per IS: 1498-1970) SP (Poorly graded sands)
4. Shear Parameters C = 0
 = 42.0

K3-2
 The soil present at the site was generally poorly DESIGN OF NAILED CUT
graded sand (SP), cohesionless in nature (c = 0)
After determination of soil parameters
with angle of internal friction () as  42. It was
collected from field, the nailed wall was designed
also observed that the soil present at site is of
by making a computer program “MSNAILS”. In
calcareous in nature.
the design, effect of seismicity was also
incorporated as the site lies in seismic area. The
SOIL NAILING
input parameters of Design of nailed slopes were
Soil nailing is a new technology to stablize the as follows. (Table 3)
soil insitu. This is particularly helpful in making
underground excavations. The technique is also Table 3. Input Parameters for Soil nailed Wall
helpful in stablisation of slopes. Much of field Design
work has been done for nailed slopes successfully Left Bank
(according to
in developed nations while in India only limited Sl.
Parameter flow of sewer Right bank
work has been done. In IIT Roorkee, a software No.
from broken
`MSNAILS’ has been developed by authors for pipe)
Vertical Height of
design of nailed slopes (Gosavi et al., 2006). This (1) 16m 16m
slope
software has been tried by authors at a few sites Angle of slope
(2) 10o 10o
successfully including in Hero Honda factory with vertical (**)
Ludhiana, DLF mall of India Delhi, Railway Angle of internal
bridge Delhi, underground parking in Lucknow etc. (3) friction (o) of soil 42.0 42.5
material
(Mittal et al. 2009). The salient features of this
“user friendly” software are that by using it, a (4)
Seismic
coefficients
pseudo static design can be developed for nailed
slopes. This can be used for design of driven, (5) Surcharge (q) t/m2 4.0 4.0
grouted and pipe nails. The software suggests nail Cohesion (C)
(6) 0.0 0.0
diameter, nail spacing, nail angle etc. with their Kg/cm2
corresponding factor of safety. (7) * 0.6 0.6
** Though the existing exposed surface on both banks
Preliminary Tests for Soil Nailing were almost vertical, it was proposed to re-align the
Some tests are recommended to be conducted existing slopes for better performance of nailed wall. It
at site to adopt the particular construction was therefore suggested that existing exposed surfaces
methodology of soil nailing, as the nailing can be (Left & Right banks) be made re – aligned (by surface
done by any of following techniques: dressing) as shown in Figure 2.
1. Driven nails
2. Grouted nails By computer program, following design
3. Nailing by perforated pipes features were obtained (Table Figure 4)

Table 4. Design for Proposed Nailed Wall

At this site, lateral bore hole tests were not
conducted by the soil investigation agency or Sl.No. Parameter Left & Right Bank
Horizontal &
clients. Hence it was recommended to carryout (i) vertical spacing of 1.0 mm
pullout test at site to determine actual value of nail
friction coefficient between proposed nail and (ii) Length of nail 0.8 H'= 6.4m
Dia & Material of
surrounding soil, But due to hostile conditions at (iii)
nail
tor steel bar-(dia = 25mm)
site on account of bad weather and non working Bore hole -
(iv) 100mm (with 1:2)
available space, the tests could not be conducted. Diameter
(v) Method of nailing Grouted
In the absence of this data, a reasonable value of Shotcreting with two layers of
* (* = apparent coefficient of friction between (vi)
Screen/facia of
6mm dia. Wire mesh, tk =
cut
nail material and soil) had been assumed for 150mm
Surcharge load for
present analysis on the basis of laboratory tests (vii) 40 kN/m2
Design
conducted on same soil (collected from field and (viii) F.O.S. 2.5
creating the same density in model tank). Inclination of nail
(ix) 10o
with horizontal
(H' = Effective height of each slope = 8m)

K3-3

Figure 2. Re – alignment of Existing Slopes
CONSTRUCTION METHODOLOGY
It was suggested by the authors that the wall
construction should be done with full care as the
work has to be done on about 16 m high slope. It
was also recommended to get this work done by a
very competent agency that had a similar work
experience. The design of nailed cut is shown in
Figure 3 and Figure 4. Firstly the boring was done
by boring machine (constant water supply was
ensured while making the bore hole). After making
the bore hole, the hole was cleaned by water jet
Figure 3. Proposed Section of Nailed Slope with Details ‘B’ and ‘C’
K3-4
(though during boring also, partial cleaning was
done). After getting the clean bore hole made, the
nail was inserted (with spacers fixed in nail as per
Figure 3). After placing the nail in its position,
grouting was done with concrete mix of 1:2. The
exposed surface of the landslide was covered by
chicken mesh which was put in position with the
help of exposed length of nails. The shotcrete was
then applied covering the chicken mesh with the
help of pressure pump. As shown in Figure 3, a
berm was provided in the centre so that effective
length of nail is 0.8 H’ = 6.4 m. The shotcreting
was also done with 1: 2 cement concrete mix.
For providing a good drainage, PVC pipes duly
wrapped around by geotextile were also provided
at some intervals. These pipes were filled with Pee
– gravels.
POST CONSTRUCTION REPORT
The entire landslide area (200 m long and 16 m
high) has been stabilized by soil nailing technique
successfully. The grouted nails have been laid as
per Figure 3 and Table 4. Seeing the success of
one part of landslide zone, govt. is planning other
areas also to be stabilized by this technique. The
view of treated hill slope by soil nailing is shown
in Figure 5.
 Figure 4. Construction Detail of Shotcrete Facing
SHOTCRETING
Nails
Figure 5. A View of Treated Landslide Zone by
Soil Nailing Followed By Shotcreting
CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS
1. The soil nailing technique is a right solution
for control of landslide problems.
2. Concrete mix of 1:2 was suggested to be
used in grouting and shotcreting and
standard Tor steel bar of 25mm diameter
was used as grouted nails.
3. Chicken mesh should be properly intact in
position by U-hooks.
4. Spacer/centralizers should be used in
grouted nails to ensure proper centering of
nail in bore hole.
5. PVC perforated pipe 6m long, 4”  duly
wrapped with geosynthetic from outside was
successfully used for drainage purpose.
These pipes were filled up with Pee – gravel
materials to withstand load of overburden.
6. The nailed portion of landslide zone is
showing no traces of distress, hence it is
recommended for all such areas.
REFERENCES
113 – 120.
Gosavi, Meenal (2006) “Behaviour of nailed open
cuts”, Ph.D. Thesis, Indian Institute of
Technology, Roorkee, India.
Gosavi, Meenal., Saran, S., and Mittal, S. (2006).,
“ Software development for design of nailed
open cuts”, Souvenir of Indo – Australian
Conference on Information Technology in Civil
Engineering, I.I.T. Roorkee, India. pp. 101 –
106.
Mittal, S. (2009), “ Behaviour of vertical cuts using
soil nailing techniques in saturated conditions”,
South Asian Geotechnical Engg Journal,
Bangkok, Vol. 39, No. 2, pp
Mittal, Satyendra & Shukla, J.P. (2013), "Soil
Testing for Engineers", Khanna Publishers,
N.Delhi
Mittal, Satyendra (2013), "An Introduction to
Ground Improvement Engineering", SIPL
Publishing House, New Delhi
K3-5
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

EFFECT OF BORED PILE ON SLOPE STABILITY

A. Asriwiyanti Desiani 1 and B. Daud Rahmat Wiyono 2

ABSTRACT: Piles were originally required to transfer load from an upper structure through weak layers to
stiffer soils. They are now used for slope stability problems, retaining structures and underground construction.
Piles used for slope stability are subject to lateral loads from lateral movement of the soft soils. The lateral
loading generates bending moments and shear forces in the pile which will require adequate bending
capacity.This paper present slope stability analysis in the embankment area and the excavation area at Unggul
Karsa Medika teaching hospital project, Kopo, Bandung. The hospital is owned by The Medicine faculty of
Maranatha Christian University. Inadequate stability analysis of an excavation can lead to a slope failure which
in turn causing piles failure. The objective of this study is safety factor analysis for cuttings and embankment
which are reinforced by piles, provide bending moments and shear forces in the pile. Finite element modeling
has been carried out using PLAXIS 2D. Geotechnical investigation has been carried out. The investigation
includes 2 nos. of boreholes, 5 nos. of cone penetration tests (CPT) and 2 nos. standard penetrations test (SPT).
The soil profile and parameters are modeled for finite element analysis. The bored pile had a diameter of 40 cm,
embedded length of 14.00 m and 1 m space center to center. The result is shown that using piles to stabilize
embankment or excavation can increase the safety factor to 1.5.

Keywords: bored pile, slope stability, FEM

INTRODUCTION ‘preliminary design’ of piles near embankments or

piles used to stabilise slopes. Lerouel et al. (1985)
Piles are generally used to support the entire
present case study information regarding the
superstructure. However, in this case, piles are
lateral displacement associated with the
used for slope stability problems.
construction of an embankment on soft clay.
Ground movement are most commonly
Ellish and Springman (2001) describe physical
associated with cut and fill operations, particularly
model testing and plane strain finite element
in clay soils. The impact on structural elements
analyses of full height piled bridge abutments on
such as piles depends strongly on construction
soft clay. A mechanism of full-heigh piled bridge
sequence, and normally the presence of soft clay.
abutments on soft clay.
One of the most important aspect is the lateral
Paulos and Chen (1997) present a method for
interaction. This occur in soil which is moving
analysing the response of piles to a nearby
horizontally, e.g. adjacent to an embankment or
excavation, focusing on braced excavations in clay.
excavation, or in an unstable slope. This can be
Ellis et al. (2010) refer to many recent
particularly damaging since the piles may fail in
numerical studies and give guidance on carious
bending or shear.
generic aspects of design including critical pile
Recent studies which have been carried out
spacing.
about pile adjacent to embankments on soft clay,
Unggul Karsa Medika teaching hospital is
piles near excavations and piles in unstable slopes
owned and constructed by Maranatha Christian
are the following.
University to facilitate medicine students study. A
Chen and Poulos (1997) give a boundary
hospital is still under construction and a road
element procedure for consideration of pile
encircling the hospital will be constructed either.
loading again from known ‘free-field’ soil
However one part of the plan road is located on a
movement. They use this approach to produce
river bank, therefore slope stability analysis has to
design charts, which potentially can be used for the

1
Ph.D. Student, Parahyangan Catholic University, asriwiyanti@gmail.com, Indonesia
1
Lecturer, Maranatha Christian University, Indonesia
2
Lecturer, Maranatha Christian University, Indonesia

K4-1
be done. Slope stability analysis was performed on
two conditions, in the embankment area and the
excavation area.
Site plan and the cross section shown in Figure
1, Figure 2, and Figure 3.
Figure 1. Site plan Unggul Karsa Medika Hospital, Kopo, Bandung
Figure 2. P1 cross section
Figure 3. P9 cross section
PILE ADJACENT TO EMBANKMENTS OF
SOFT CLAY
When an embankment is constructed on soft
clay or peat the soil beneath tends to move
horizontally outwards, rather like toothpaste being
squeezed from a tube. As shown in Figure 4.
Where piles are situated at the edge of an
embankment they will be horizontally loaded by
the soft clay, in addition to any structural loading
at their head. The effect of a pile-head restrained
K4-2
The objective of this study is safety factor
analysis for cuttings and embankment which are
reinforced by piles, provide bending moments and
shear forces in the pile.
against rotation this reduces the displacement of
the pile but, hence, increases the interaction
loading from the soft clay. Where an abutment
structure is supported by the piles, there may be
additional interaction issues associated with the
embankment fill ‘arching’ onto the abutment due
to loss of support from the soft clay (Ellis and
Springman, 2001).
(b) Pile head fixed against
(a) Free-headed pile
rotation
(c) Pile bridge abutment
Figure 4. Piles adjacent to an embankment on soft
soil
PILES NEAR EXCAVATIONS
Where an excavation (e.g. an open excavation
or a cantilevered retaining wall) is constructed near
a pile, the ground will tend to move towards the
excavation, causing interaction loads on the pile
and a corresponding deformation (Figure 5.) Again
the deformation and load in the pile will be
affected if the pile is restrained against rotation or
movement at the head.
For a simple cantilevered wall the zone of
deformation may be assumed to be an ‘active
wedge’ (Figure 5). The amount of movement will
be reduced (perhaps considerably) if the
excavation is braced, and the zone of influence
will also be affected.
Figure 5. Piles near an excavation
A plane strain finite element analysis of the
wall and pile row can be undertaken. Alternatively
if ‘free-field’ soil deformations have been
estimated, the load on a pile can be established and
the bending moment in the pile can be estimated.
Long (2001) and Clough and O’Rourke (1990)
have published comprehensive summaries of
ground movements around deep excavations in a
variety of soft soil types. For excavations in soft
clays, the magnitude of the ground movement is
very sensitive to the factor of safety the relative
pile-soil displacement and hence the interaction
pressure, thus, it is conservative if it is assumed
that the pile does not move.
PILES IN UNSTABLE SLOPES
Piles are often deliberately constructed in
unstable slopes in an effort to ‘dowel’ the potential
slip (Figure 6a) for reasons of economy and to
minimize the use of resources ‘discrete’ piles are
spaced at a distance s along the row, typically 2 to
5 times the pile diameter (d). However, it is critical
that the unstable soil loading the piles ‘arches’
across the gap between adjacent piles and does not
‘flow’ through it (Figure 6) Pile constructed in an
unstable slope for any other reason will attract
similar loading.
(a) Side view
(b) Plan view
Figure 6. Discrete pile row stabilising slope
There are a number of aspects of any design:
 Establishing the critical slip (where there is
not a well-defined existing slip), and required
stabilising force to give the desired factor of
safety for the slope.
 The location of the piles in the slope, which
is likely to be affected by practicality of
construction and the desire to protect
infrastructure either at the crest or toe of the
slope.
 Choice of spacing ratio (s/d).
 Provision of adequate moment capacity in
the piles (nothing that the load per pile
increases in proportion with s).
 Sufficient embedment of the piles in the
underlying stable material to give the
required resistance, and so that a deep failure
cannot pass beneath the piles.
 Horizontal restraint may be provided at the
pile head using a capping beam, which is
itself restrained by ground anchors or raking
piles. This reduces displacement of the pile
head and the maximum moment in the pile.
IN-SITU CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS
The geotechnical investigation consists of 3
nos. of boreholes, 5 nos. of Cone Penetration Tests
K4-3
(CPT) (Figure 7) and 3 nos. Standard Penetration
Test (SPT). The sub-soil profile and stratigraphy N-SPT

condition is based on geotechnical assessment in 0 10 20 30 40 50 60

this area. Soil profile are consisted of three 0.00

separate soil units, as follows: Silty Clay layer, 0-6

meters in depth, Sandy Clay layer, and Silty sands
layer with N-SPT value greater than 50. The result
of the geotechnical investigation can be seen in
Figure 7, 8, and 9. 5.00

FINITE ELEMENT MODEL

In this study, finite element analysis used
computer program PLAXIS 2D in axisymmetric
condition. The soil stratification is modeled based 10.00

on the average N-SPT and classified into 3 layer.

The Mohr Coulomb model is adopted as the soil

Depth (m)
model in this study.

15.00

20.00

25.00

N-1 N-2 N-3 N-design

Figure 9. N-SPT value vs Depth chart

ANALYSIS SLOPE STABILITY OF UNGGUL

Figure 7. Soil Classification based on CPT
KARSA MEDIKA TEACHING HOSPITAL
(Douglas & Olson, 1981)
Slope stability analysis was performed on two
0 50
qc (kg/cm2)
100 150 200
conditions, in the embankment area and the
0.00
excavation area. It used protection in the form of
soldier pile with the diameter of 40 cm, 1 m
centre-to-centre, and 14m pile length from
5.00
embankment surface elevation. Soldier pile base
should be at the soil layer of sand, which function
as soldier pile brace, to minimize the movement of
soil due to excavation and embankment.
Depth(m)

10.00

Excavation Area (section 1)

The area of excavation, slope stability analysis
15.00
was represented by section one. Excavation will
reach 3.5 m depth. Analyses were performed using
the long-term conditions with an effective soil
20.00
parameters / drained. The analysis was done by
S-1 S-2 S-3 S-4 S-5 S Design
using soldier pile model up to the existing ground
Figure 8. CPT value vs Depth chart surface. A plan to combine soldier pile with

K4-4
basement wall which will be constructed upon embankment first, it can reduce the pressure on the
existing ground elevation . The combination will soldier piles so that pile deformation can be
function as the earth retaining wall and it will also reduced. Embankment method should be done
ease the basement construction. with a compaction layer by layer until it reaches
Based on the analysis, embankment slope the final elevation embankment. Once the
stability using the soldier pile with the diameter of embankment is done, then the soldier pile
40 cm, 1 m centre-to-centre , and 14m pile length construction can be done.
has acquired the Safety Factor value of 1.5.
Suggested construction steps is to start by
doing embankment fill. Embankment fill is done
by compacting layer after layer until the
embankment reaches its final elevation. The
suggested layer thickness is 30 cm per layer and
well compacted. After the embankment is done,
soldier pile construction can start. By doing the
embankment first, it can reduce the pressure on the
soldier piles so that pile deformation can be
reduced.
Soldier pile utilizes bored pile so that it can
pierce through the sand layer which lies on the
Figure 10. Potential sliding plane based on section
depth of 10 m from the existing ground surface.
1, the soldier pile reinforcement D40 ctc 1m
Road construction is not recommended to be ( FK = 1.47 ) ( section 1 )
monolithically cast with the soldier pile to avoid
road structure damage due to soldier pile Table 1. The forces in soldier pile D40 ctc 1m
movement. Capping beam construction is required (section 1)
on the head of soldier pile head before excavation
is done. It is done to bind the entire soldier pile so
that the pile can function as an integrated
reinforcement system.

Embankment area (sections 9)

In the area of embankment, slope stability
analysis was represented by section 9. The
embankment will reach 4.4 m height. Analyses
were performed using the long-term conditions
with effective soil parameters / drained. Based on Total
Shear Force Moment max
the analysis, existing slope stability without the Deformation
3.8 ton 5.8 tonm
protection of soldier pile has a safety factor value 7.5cm
of 1.29 which means it does not compel with the
safety requirement. Therefore, it needs a protection
system in the form of soldier pile with the
following specification, 40 cm diameter, 1 m
centre-to-centre, and 14m pile length.
Based on the analysis, embankment slope
stability using the soldier pile with the diameter of
40 cm, 1 m centre-to-centre, and 14m pile length
has acquired the Safety Factor value of 1.5.
Suggested construction steps is to start by
doing embankment fill. Embankment fill is done
by compacting layer after layer until the Figure 11. Potential sliding plane based on section
9, without soldier pile reinforcement D40 ctc 1m
embankment reaches its final elevation. The (FK = 1.29)
suggested layer thickness is 30 cm per layer and
well compacted. After the embankment is done,
soldier pile construction can start. By doing the

K4-5
 CONCLUSION
1.The result is shown that using piles to stabilize
embankment or excavation can increase the
safety factor to 1.5.
2.Reinforcement cutting and embankment on
slope using bored piles have proved safety.
3.A further study using HS-model and soft soil
creep model in PLAXIS may be conducted to
obtain more accurate results.
Figure 12. Potential sliding plane based on section
9, with soldier pile reinforcement D40 ctc 1m
(FK = 1.50) ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thanks Unggul Karsa
Table 2. The forces in soldier pile D40 ctc 1m Medika teaching hospital for providing the soil
data to be used in this paper. The authors also
express appreciation to Civil Engineering Dept.
Maranatha Christian University in Providing all
the necessary facilities. Finally the authors wish to
thanks Prof. Paulus Pramono Rahardjo, Ph.d. and
the organizing committee of this conference for
review this paper.

REFERENCES
ASCE .1998 “Design and Construction of Earth
Retaining System” Proceedings of Sessions of
Total Deformation Shear Force Moment max
2.6 cm 2.3 ton 7 ton.m Geo-Congress 98.Geo Institute.
Chen, L.T. and Poulos, H.G. (1997). Piles
Figure 13 and Figure 14 present the subjected to lateral soil movements. Journal of
comparison of safety factor for piles with length, Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
diameter, and center to center spacing variation. Engineering, ASCE, 125(3), 207-215.
Ellis, E.A., Durrani, I. K. D. and Reddish, D.J.
2
(2010). Numerical modelling of discrete pile
1,8 rows for slope stability and generic guidance
Factor of safety

1,6
for design. Géotechnique, 60(3), 185-195
Fleming, W.G.K. (1992). A new method for single
1,4
pile settlement prediction and analysis.
1,2
Géotechnique, 42(3) 411-425.
1 Goh, A.T.C., The, C.I. and Wong, K.S. (1997).
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Panjang
Pilesoldier pile (m)
Length (m)
Analysis of piles subjected to embankment
induced lateral soil movements. Journal of
Dia. 30 ctc 0,75m Dia. 40 ctc 1m Dia. 50 ctc 1,25m
Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Figure 13. Comparison of safety factor in
Engineering. ASCE, 123(9), 792-801.
excavation area
ICE manual of geotechnical engineering, Vol I &
2 II, Institution of Civil Engineering. Glasgow.
Koerner, Robert M. 1985. “Construction And
1,8
Geotechnical Methods In Foundation
Factor of safety

1,6
Enineering”. McGraw-Hill, Inc. Singapore.
1,4 Poulos, H.G. and Chen, L.T. (1997). Pile response
1,2 due to excavation-induced lateral soil
movement. Journal of Geotechnical and
1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE, 123(2),
Panjang
Pile soldier pile (m)
Length (m)
94-95
Dia. 30 ctc 0,75 Dia. 40 ctc 1m Dia. 50 ctc 1,25 Sarma, S.K. (1979). Stability analysis of
Figure 14. Comparison of safety factor in embankments and slopes. Proceedings of
embankment area

K4-6
 ASCE, Journal of the Geotechnical
Engineering Division, 105, 1511-1524
Schaefer, V.R., and J.M. Duncan. 1988. Finite
Element Analysis of the St. Alban Test
Embankments. In Proc., Symposium on
Geosynthetics for Soil Improvement, National
Convention, Nashville, American Society of
Civil Engineering, pp. 158-177
Viggiani, C. (1981). Ultimate lateral load on piles
used to stabilize landslide. In Proceedings of
10th international Conference on Soil
Mechanics and Foundation Engineering.
Stockholm,3, 555-560.
Wright, S.G., and J.M. Duncan. 1991. Limit
Equilibrium Stability Analysis for
Reinforcement Slopes. In Transportation
Research Record 1330, TRB, National
Research Council, Washington, D.C., 1991, pp.
40-46.

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 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

STUDY CASE THE EXCAVATION STABILITY AT NEAR EXISTING PILE

FOUNDATION

Joko Sudirman N. S. 1

ABSTRACT: The Excavation at near pile foundation of the building can give effect for existing foundation
stability, both internal and external stability. In the internal stability, excavation can increase bending moment
and shear force on pile when earthquake and if this forces is bigger than bending moment or shear force
capacity of pile , the pile foundation will be failure. The excavation also can decrease axial capacity of pile
foundation cause decrease surface of skin friction. Thus, there are the maximum depth of excavation at near pile
foundation, that is depth of excavation where internal stability factor and external stability factor with this depth
bigger than 1. The internal stability is ratio pile foundation capacity and actual force on the pile foundation due
to excavation.

Keywords: Excavation, internal-stability, external-stability

INTRODUCTION PROJECT OVERVIEW

In the construction, changes in plan design is Project is located in Jalan Daan Mogot Raya
very common for the purpose of minimizing costs KM 14, Kel Duri Kosambi, West Jakarta. The
and maximizing the capacity of available space. building consists of 21 floors and one basement
Decision design change in that would have to floor.
consider the capacity of the structure that has been While to change of position STP and GWT, the
implemented. For the substructure in a building main building structure has reached the 9th floor.
generally not too much changed the design of the The cross section of STP-GWT excavation to main
initial design building structure can be seen in the following
STP (Sewage Treatment Plant) and GWT Figure 1.
(Ground Water Tank) structure on a building in
general is positioned at the level of the basement
along with a parking area.
In this case the initial design STP structure and
GWT is at basement level and position the edge of
the building, then planned to bring down the level
of STP and GWT below the level of the basement.
With the STP and GWT excavation nearby pile
foundation, there will be a reduction of the skin
friction surface, so that will affect the bearing
capacity of pile friction. In addition to the reduction
of the skin friction surface, fixed characteristic on
the pile to the structure will be reduced and will
affect the bending moment of pile that occurs when
the lateral load applied (earthquake).
In this research, excavation will analyzed with Figure 1. Cross section of STP- GWT excavation
the finite element model to determine the maximum
depth for excavation which external and internal Dimensions pile is 45x45 and depth of the
shallowest pile is 11.5 with an effective length of
security factor that occurs is still greater than 1 and
the structure of foundation in a safety. 8.3 m from the floor of the basement and the

1
Graduate Student, Parahyangan Catholic University, Bandung, Jawa Barat Indonesia

K5-1
allowable bearing capacity from theoretical is 140.0
Tons. In general, basic soil conditions up to a depth
of 30.5 m can be divided into 11 layers, as
illustrated in the following Table 1.

Table 1. General Soil Layers

Layer Soil Type and Depth

NSPT
No. Consistency/Compactness (m)
SILT, MH , Grey-dark,
1 little sand, soft 0.40-2.30 4
SILT, MH , Grey,
2 medium to stiff 2.30-5.70 8
SILT, MH , Brown, little
3 sand, medium to stiff 5.70-8.00 7
SILT, MH, Grey-Brown,
4 Stiff 8.00-9.20 13
SILT, MH , Grey-Brown,
5 stiff-very stiff 9.20-12.00 29
Sand, SW , Brown , very
6 dense cemented 12.00-14.00 60
SILT, MH , Brown, little
7 sand, medium to stiff 14.00-16.70 14 Figure 2. The decrease of pile bearing capacity
Clay, Grey , some gravel ,
8 very stiff 16.70-20.00 18
SILT, MH , Grey , very
9 stiff 20.00-21.70 60
SILT, MH, Grey-Brown ,
10 Stiff 21.70-27.00 17
SILT, MH, some
11 sandGrey-Brown , Stiff 27.00-30.50 15

RESULT AND ANALYSIS

Overview Excavation Effect to Pile Bearing
Capacity
Pile bearing capacity will be reduced due to
reduction of the skin friction surface effect
excavation near the foundation. The skin friction
value obtained from the interpretation of the PDA
(Pile Driving Analysis) and if considered soil-pile
friction on excavated area is 0, there will be a
reduction in the bearing capacity of the pile which
can be seen in Figure 2.
Based Figure 2, increasing the deeper of
excavation near the pile foundation, bearing
capacity of pile foundation will decrease. Therefore,
limit the depth excavation to do is the depth where
the bearing capacity due to the effect excavation is
still more than 200% the allowable bearing capacity
that is at a depth of -9.0.

Overview Excavation Effect to Actual Bending Failure

Moment of Pile
The excavation will reduce the lateral bearing
capacity on the side of pile where face-to-face with
excavation, thus the actual bending moment to be
the greater linearly with depth of excavation. In the
Figure 3 shown bending moment variation at each
depth of excavation. Figure 3. The bending moment variation at each
depth of excavation

K5-2
 From Figure 3 it can be determined that a safe > 1.5. In the Figure 5 shown safety factor variation
excavation limits without causing broken pile is at a at each depth of excavation.
depth of -6.5 m.

Overview Excavation Effect to Actual Shear Force

of Pile
The effects of excavation, the maximum shear
force change position from the top pile to the
middle pile corresponding base position of
excavation. In the Figure 4 shown shear force
variation at each depth of excavation.

Figure 5. The variation safety factor of external

stability at each depth of excavation

The results of the analysis of the maximum

depth of excavation is shown in Table 2.

Table 2. The Results of the analysis of the

maximum depth of excavation
Maximum Depth of
Criteria
Excavation
Overview Excavation Effect to - 9.0 from ground level
Pile Bearing Capacity
Overview Excavation Effect to - 6.5 from ground level
Actual Bending Moment of Pile
Overview Excavation Effect to - 8.5 from ground level
Actual Shear Force of Pile
Overview External Stability - 6.5 from ground level

From the analysis, it can be concluded that the

maximum depth of excavation at near pile
foundation in this case is -6.5 from ground level.

Figure 4. The Shear force variation at each depth of

excavation

From Figure 3 it can be determined that a safe

excavation limits without causing broken pile is at a
depth of -6.5 m.

Overview External Stability

Besides internal stability, the stability of the
excavation should be reviewed in external stability.
Figure 6. The STP and GWT excavation at near the
External stability required to have safety factor pile Foundation

K5-3
 In the case of excavation which overlaps with excavation depth, so that the actual internal force
the existing building such as this case where the must reviewed to the internal force capacity at the
type of foundation used the pile, the most important middle of the pile.
thing that a review of the pile bearing capacity
reduction due to reduced skin friction resistant on REFERENCES
the side of pile where face to face with excavation. Fakharian, Kazem. (2000). A Case Study on the
In addition to a review of the reduction in application of Pile Driving Analyzer (PDA) and
bearing capacity the foundation pile, a review of the
CAPWWAP Analysis to Bearing Capacity of
increasing bending moment due to excavation Piles. Amirkabir University of
should be done so that the actual bending moment Technology.ISSN. 200(0):1098-6189
is smaller than the bending moment capacity of the
Ou, Chang-Yu .Deep Excavation : Theory and
pile. The position of the maximum bending Practice.2006
moment will also move due to the excavation that is Plaxis 2D Manual Reference, 2011
from the top of the pile to the the middle of the pile,
so that the bending moment happens must reviewed
to the bending moment capacity at the middle of the
pile.
For the shear force on the pile, the maximum
shear force happen at the same position with the
depth of excavation, actual shear forces must be
smaller than the shear capacity of pile structure.

Figure 7. The construction of STP and GWT at near

the pile foundation

SUMMARY
Design excavation in an area that overlaps with
the pile foundation of a building, must review the
skin friction resistant reduction on pile due to the
excavation.
Design excavation in an area that overlaps with
the pile foundation of a building, must review the
actual internal force of the pile as bending moments
and shear due to the excavation.
There is a change in the position of maximum
internal force on the pile that is from top of the pile
to the middle of the pile corresponding with

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 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

STABILITY ANALYSIS OF SLOPES SUPPORTING THE WORLD’S HIGHEST

RAILWAY BRIDGE
G. Madhavi Latha1 and V. Padmavathi 2

ABSTRACT: This paper presents the stability analyses carried out on abutment slopes of the world’s highest
railway bridge being built in Jammu and Kashmir, India. This bridge is 1315 m long and 359 m above the river
bed and connects two hills on either side of the river. The rock slopes are composed of highly jointed rock mass
and the joint spacing and orientation are varying at different locations. The bridge site is located in a high
seismic zone. The biggest challenge in constructing the bridge is the stability of slopes involved. Various
methods being adopted to ensure the stability of slopes during construction and over the design life period of the
bridge are discussed in detail. Design of slope stabilization measures and their implementation are presented.

Keywords: Slope stability, rock slope, numerical analysis, wedge failure, railway bridge, rock anchors

INTRODUCTION resting on left abutment and the other 14 piers

Stability of rock slopes under static and seismic
conditions is an important aspect to consider while
designing structures on the slopes where the
naturally stable rock slopes could be disturbed or
when the slopes are close to the residential areas.
Though the knowledge regarding stability analyses
and monitoring the slope movement and also the
stabilization techniques improved substantially in
recent years, rock slope instabilities still exert a
heavy social, economic and environmental toll in
mountainous regions. This is mainly due to the
complexity of the processes driving slope failure
and our inadequate knowledge of the underlying
mechanisms. Ever increasingly, experts are called
upon to analyse and predict the stability of a given
slope, assessing its risk, potential mode of failure
and possible preventive or remedial measures.
Hence the stability assessment of rock slopes
considering the influence of all the discontinuities
(joints, faults, folds, bedding planes etc.) is a
challenging task for engineers.
A railway line is being laid in Jammu and
Kashmir, India and this line is crossing the river
Chenab at a height of about 359 m. A bridge is
being constructed with total 18 piers at this place
connecting two big hillocks and the bridge forms
about 350 m deep gorge in a V shaped valley in
this area. Among these piers, 4 piers (S10-S40) are
(S50-S180) are resting on right abutment. One of
the important challenges of the project is the
stability of abutment slopes during and after the
construction.
Though the strength of the rock plays an
important role in the slope stability, geological
structure of the rock often govern the stability of
slopes in jointed rock masses. Geological
characteristics of rock mass include location and
number of joint sets, joint spacing, joint
orientations, joint material and seepage pressure.
There are several tools available at present to carry
out slope stability analyses of jointed rocks and are
well documented by several researchers. Limit
equilibrium method used in conjunction with
numerical modelling still remains the most
commonly adopted method in rock slope
engineering, even though most failures involve
complex internal deformation and fracturing which
bears little resemblance to the rigid block
assumptions required by most limit equilibrium
back-analyses. Some of the numerical techniques
proposed by the earlier researchers include: the
shear strength reduction technique developed by
Matsui and San (1992), Universal Discrete
Element Code (UDEC) developed by Cundall
(1980), Pseudo-static analysis of slope stability
proposed by Mononobe and Matsuo (1929) and
Okabe (1926).

1
Associate Professor, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, INDIA
2
Associate Professor, JNTU College of Engineering, JNTU Hyderabad, INDIA

L1-1
 The dynamic analysis of slopes in rock masses
is studied by several earlier researchers using
different techniques. Zhang et al. (1997) carried
out studies on the dynamic behaviour of a 120-m
high rock slope of the Three Gorges Shiplock
using DEM. Hatzor et al. (2004) carried out
dynamic 2D stability analysis of upper terrace of
King Herod’s Palace in Masada, which is a highly
discontinuous rock slope. Bhasin and Kaynia
(2004) performed static and dynamic rock slope
stability analyses for a 700-m high rock slope in
western Norway using a numerical discontinuum
modeling technique. Liu et al. (2004) studied the
dynamic response of Huangmail in Phosphorite
rock slope in China under explosion using UDEC.
Crosta et al. (2007) performed dynamic analysis of
the Thurwieser Rock Avalanche, Italian Alps.
Successful use of numerical codes based on limit
equilibrium analysis for rock engineering
applications were reported by several researchers
earlier (Latha and Garaga, 2010; Sitharam et al.
2002). The stability of rock mass slopes is
primarily governed by the number of joint sets,
joint orientations, joint material, seepage pressure,
depth and steepness of the excavated slope face
and its orientation with reference to the orientation
of joints. The most common modes of failure of
rock slopes are circular failure, planar failure,
wedge failure and toppling failure (Ramamurthy,
2013; Hoek and Bray, 2004). Figure 1 shows all
possible modes of rock slope failures.
Figure 1. Possible modes of rock slope failure
(a) Circular Failure (b) Wedge Failure (c) Planar
Failure (d) Toppling Failure
Rock slope failure can be a combination of the
above mentioned failure modes in field. Hence it is
mandatory that all these failure modes are checked
for the proposed slope. Seismic forces increase the
possibility of all these modes of failures. Pseudo-
static analysis gives factor of safety against
earthquake forces represented as equivalent static
forces in the stability analyses. Information
L1-2
regarding the deformation of slope to the possible
scenarios of earthquake has to be obtained from
the dynamic analysis using earthquake time history
of the site.
The railway bridge under consideration is
resting on two different hills of different rock mass
properties on both sides. Differential settlements of
the bridge is another important thing that has to be
considered in the design. The site is situated in
Seismic Zone V, according to the seismic zonation
map of India, which means that the assessment of
stability of the slope under earthquake induced
dynamic shaking conditions is very essential. The
section of the bridge and abutments along with the
foundations that could affect the stability of the
slope is given in Figure 2. Figure 3 shows the
photograph taken at the proposed bridge site.
Figure 2. Section of the gorge with the pier
foundations along the slope
Figure 3. Photograph showing the proposed bridge
site
GEOLOGY OF THE SITE
The rocks present at the bridge site are heavily
jointed. The subsurface at the extent of the bridge
site considered for slope stability analysis
essentially consists of Dolomitic limestone with
different degrees of weathering and fracturing. At
some locations even brecciated limestone, bauxite
formation and shale have been observed. Mapping
of joints was one of the earliest challenges faced proposed. These profiles for right abutment slope
by the geologists. The slope surfaces were not are shown in Figure 5 Profile 3 was selected by
completely accessible and were covered with carefully considering the field conditions and
debris/soil, thickness of which varies 1 to 3 m but feasibility of construction, apart from optimizing
at some places rock exposures were encountered. the quantity of cutting.
Geological features from pits and available surface
exposures, were collected systematically and
plotted on map and Stereonet, which shows
structural orientation of these features. Surface
mapping of the rock slopes showed three main
discontinuities at the site: one sub-horizontal
foliation joint and two sub-vertical joints. Few
random joint sets were also encountered. As the
proposed foundations of the bridge piers rest much
below the exposed slope surface, it was mandatory
to create a drift to study the subsurface geological
features. A drift was excavated along the axis of
the bridge at proposed S40 location. Figure 4 (a) Profile 1
shows the rock mass at the drift created to map the
joints and orientation of different joint sets.

(b) Profile 2

Figure 4. Rock mass at the drift showing joint

orientations

All bore logs indicated very low core recovery

and the RQD was nil for about 30 m in all the
boreholes. Persistence of joints is the major
challenge in analysing the slopes for stability. The
dip and dip directions of the joint sets vary along
the slope faces and with the depth inside the hill as
well. Considering average dip and dip direction of
the joints may not result in meaningful estimates
of factors of safety because the possibility of (c) Profile 3
wedge formation depends on the orientation of Figure 5. Slope profiles considered for right
joints at any specific location. Hence all the joints abutment
were physically mapped along the slopes.
Similar exercise was carried out for the left
SELECTION OF SLOPE PROFILE abutment also and the profile with similar benches
was selected. Construction of approach roads to
The original slope has to be cut and benches
these berm levels required rigorous study of
need to be provided to facilitate the construction of
contours at the site and careful planning.
foundations along the slope. Three different
profiles with different schemes of excavation were

L1-3
GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS
Considering the importance and size of the
project, large scale geotechnical investigations
were taken up to obtain the properties of rock mass
at the site. Laboratory tests on hundreds of intact
rock samples collected from the bore holes at
different depths were carried out to establish the
density, elastic modulus, Poisson’s ratio, uniaxial
compressive strength and shear strength
parameters. These tests revealed that the spatial
variation in the rock mass properties of left
abutment slope is negligible but on the right
abutment slope, significant variation in the
properties was observed. Rock mass consisted of
fractured dolomitic limestone to brecciated
limestone and quartzite with shale bands.
Possibility of shear zones was also suspected. To
estimate the in-situ properties of the rock mass,
field tests were carried out at several locations.
These tests include cyclic plate load tests, in-situ
direct shear tests, MASW (Mult-channel Analysis
of Surface Waves) tests and permeability tests.
It was not easy to establish the rock mass
parameters at the site. Considerable variation in
the properties was observed in the properties
estimated based on empirical relations using RQD,
RMR and Joint Factor values and those obtained
from field tests. Hence field dilatometer tests were
planned. Flexible Dilatometer Tests (FDT) were
conducted near Bakkal side in three different bore
holes as per USBR-6575-09 guidelines. The
observations were recorded and raw data of the
testing has been digitized, interpreted as per
specifications. Many of these tests could not be
conducted beyond the first cycle. There was an
apprehension that the bore hole was not stable and
as a result the bore diameter was more than
required for the dilatometer test. Accordingly it
has been decided to conduct tests in another bore
hole by stabilizing the hole with cement grout
under gravity. However, the grout has not
penetrated into the medium as grouting was carried
out under gravity. This was confirmed by drilling
below the bottom of the borehole and no traces of
cement grout were found in the cored rock.
Bieniawski (1989) stated that “Unfortunately,
few projects to date have featured a sufficient
number of different tests to allow a meaningful
comparison of in situ test data. Very different in
situ results may be obtained depending on the test
method. Under these circumstances, it is not
helpful to discuss the precision of in situ methods.
Even in an extensive in situ test program in fairly
uniform and good quality rock mass conditions,
L1-4
deformability data may feature a deviation of 25%
or as much as 10 GPa for an average in situ
modulus of 40 GPa. The tests involving full scale
prototype behaviour (tunnel relaxation) give
different results by comparison with other in situ
tests. The choice of the design value for the in situ
modulus of deformation thus becomes a matter of
engineering judgment. This means that it is
difficult to rely on any one in situ method alone;
two or more methods should be used to crosscheck
the results.” After carefully analysing the soil
properties obtained from various in-situ tests and
empirical estimates, based on engineering
judgement, properties of rock mass were fixed. It
was suggested that consolidation grouting should
be carried out below all foundations to improve the
moduli values.
Properties of gouge material filling the joints
were determined from laboratory tests. Sieve
analysis showed the material is classified as clayey
graven (GC) with non-plastic fines. Shear strength
parameters were determined from direct shear tests
on reconstituted samples of gouge material
scratched between joints at the site. Potentially low
values of friction angle were selected for safe
design.
ESTIMATION OF BEARING CAPACITY
The Safe Bearing Capacity was arrived at
based on the following different considerations:
a) RMR Value
b) RQD Value
c) Unconfined Strength of Rock Cores tested
d) Plate Load Tests
e) In-situ Direct Shear Tests duly considering
the excavated profiles using the charts given
in the by Duncan (1999).
f) Numerical analyses of rigid foundations on
the actual slopes for assessing safe bearing
capacity considering the observed settlements.
Safe bearing capacity is assessed using the
load settlement curves and SBC is evaluated
corresponding to a very low settlement of
12mm at these foundations on slopes.
The Safe Bearing Capacity is a function of the
strength of the rock mass, topography of the strata
and limiting settlements. While the RMR method
and Plate Load Tests consider the limiting
settlements, the other methods do not factor in the
limiting settlements. Considering the limitation on
the settlements to 12mm, the lower value obtained
from Plate Load Tests is recommended for
adoption for design purposes. An allowable
bearing pressure of 1000 kPa is recommended for provide adequate safety against wedge failure was
all the foundations. estimated from this analysis.

SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSES

Comprehensive slope stability analysis of both
the abutment slopes of the bridge was carried out
using various numerical tools. Analysis of wedge
failure, toppling failure, planar sliding and global
failure were carried out. Desired factors of safety
were 1.5, 1.2 and 1.0 under static, DBE and MCE
conditions respectively.
Wedge Failure Analyses
Wedge failure occurs due to sliding along a
combination of discontinuities. The conditions for
sliding require that the friction angle of the rock
mass is overcome, and that the intersection of the
discontinuities "daylight" on the slope surface. On a) Wedge formation in stereographic plot
the stereonet plot, these conditions are indicated by
the intersection of two discontinuity great circles
within the shaded crescent formed by the friction
angle and the slope's great circle. Wedge failure
analysis was carried out for all the berms of the
slopes along the central section and the two side
sections of the slopes using kinematic analysis in
DIPS and SWEDGE programs to understand the
formation of wedges and the factors of safety
against wedge failures. This analysis revealed that
wedges are forming at various locations of the
slope and the stability of these wedges was a major
concern. Figure 6 shows the stereographic plot
showing the formation of a typical wedge from b) Wedge dimensions from SWEDGE analysis
DIPS analysis, corresponding wedge in 3D
SWEDGE analysis and the view of wedge
observed in field.
Maximum credible earthquake (MCE)
considered for the seismic analysis has a peak
horizontal acceleration (PHA) value of 0.36g and
peak vertical acceleration (PVA) value of 0.24g.
Design basis earthquake has these values as half of
the MCE case. Though piezometers installed at the
site did not show any pore pressure building up on
slopes, 30% pore pressure was considered in the
analyses to ensure safety under any possible water c) Wedge observed in field
locking in the joints in future. Figure 6. Wedge failure analyses
Wedge failures are critical under seismic
conditions. Exhaustive wedge failure analyses To avoid wedge failures, both the options of
were carried out, considering various possibilities slope flattening and providing rock anchors were
of seismic condition. Upward and downward considered. Wherever the flattening required to
orientations of PVA were considered and the avoid wedge formation was less, slopes were
resultant seismic force was applied along the flattened. In all other places, rock anchors were
intersection of the joints forming wedge with the suggested to provide stability against wedge
slope face as well as along the direction of the failures. Filed Pull-out tests were carried out on
critical joint. Maximum anchor force required to rock anchors to obtain the pull-out capacity of the

L1-5
rock anchors. Anchors are provided in such a way
that the desired anchor force is distributed in the
area of the wedge, whose co-ordinates and
dimensions were obtained from the SWEDGE
analysis. Rock anchor design for a typical slope
section is shown in Figure 7.
7.99 m
70 deg
Figure 7. Rock anchor design for a typical slope
section
Prestressed cable anchors were provided to the
required capacity to avoid wedge failure. Further,
short length cable anchors were provided to give
additional safety. To improve the structural
effectiveness of rock bolts and also to provide
safer working conditions, particularly from rock
fall, shotcreting of 100 mm thickness is
recommended. It is important to note that the
primary function of rock bolts is to modify the
normal and shear forces acting on the sliding
planes, rather than to rely on the shear strength of
steel where the anchor crosses this plane. The
function of shotcrete is to prevent raveling of zone
of fractured rock.
Toppling
There are two criteria that set out the
conditions conducive for toppling failure of jointed
rock slopes.
Condition 1:
For a toppling failure to occur, the dip direction
of the discontinuities dipping into the face must be
within about 10° of the dip direction of the face so
that a series of slabs are formed parallel to the face.
Also, the dip of the planes must be steep enough
for interlayer slip to occur (Hoek and Bray, 2005).
Condition 2:
For toppling to occur, the dip of the slope face
is more than (90 -  + j).
Where  is the dip of the layers and j is the
friction angle between the block and the slope face.
L1-6
For toppling failure to occur, both the
conditions shall be satisfied. Hence the possibility
of toppling failure was checked at all foundation
locations, where the joints were mapped. This
analysis was further confirmed using kinematic
analysis in DIPS program. The possibility of
wedge failure, flexural and direct toppling
obtained from kinematic analysis were in
agreement with the analytical and numerical
results. This analysis showed that there was no
possibility of toppling failure at any of the
locations, except at one location, where it was
suggested to flatten the slope to avoid toppling.
Continuum Analyses
It is impossible to incorporate and model all the
discontinuities in large slope. Hence the slope is
represented by an equivalent continuum in which
the effect of discontinuities has been considered by
reducing the properties and strength of intact rock
to those of the rock mass to check the global
stability of the slope. Rock mass properties
estimated as explained earlier were used in the
continuum analysis. However, sensitivity analysis
was also carried out considering spatial variation
of the shear strength parameters of the rock mass,
as the slope height is large. Spatial variation in
rock mass properties was also considered in these
analyses.
Continuum analyses were carried out using
numerical programs SLIDE and FLAC (Fast
Lagrangian Analysis of Continua). In SLIDE,
options of circular and non-circular failure
surfaces and shallow slip surfaces for local
stability were considered and global factor of
safety was obtained for static and Pseudo-static
cases with MCE and DBE. The slope stability
analysis of abutment slopes is also carried out
using FLAC Version 7.0. Relatively fine
discretization was used and allowable bearing
pressure obtained as explained earlier was used at
the pier locations. Plane strain analysis was carried
out with generalized Hoek and Brown failure
criterion (1997). FLAC uses strength reduction
technique to estimate factor of safety of the slope.
Continuum analyse showed that the slope is safe in
static as well as pseudo-static conditions. The
factors of safety in static and pseudo-static
conditions are more than the required factors of
safety for all the cases and the displacements are
well within the limits. The vertical deformations of
right abutment slope under DBE condition is
shown in Figure 8.
The pseudo-static approach for stability
analysis is simple and straight forward but it
cannot simulate the transient dynamic effects of
earthquake shaking because it assumes a constant
unidirectional pseudo-static acceleration. Hence
dynamic analysis was carried out using FLAC in
which the slope is subjected to base shaking
corresponding to the site specific design dynamic
shaking.
JOB TITLE : right_dbe_set2
FLAC (Version 7.00)
LEGEND
14-Jul-14 19:25
step 29985
-9.583E+01 <x< 3.208E+02
-1.434E+02 <y< 2.733E+02
Boundary plot
0 1E 2
Y-displacement contours
-8.00E-03
-6.00E-03
-4.00E-03
-2.00E-03
0.00E+00
2.00E-03
Contour interval= 2.00E-03
-0.500 0.000 0.500
Figure 8. Pseudo-Static Analysis (DBE) – Y-
Displacement contours
The maximum permissible lateral deformation
for natural slopes for the seismic stability
considerations is given by the Alaska’s
Geotechnical Evaluation Criterion (Idriss, 1985).
The maximum deformations observed in slope in
dynamic analysis with MCE & DBE fall in
category V, which corresponds to little or no
ground adjustment. However, it should be noted
that these permissible limits should be related to
the functionality of the structure being built on the
slope or to the stability of the slope itself after the
earthquake and ground adjustment
SLOPE STABILIZATION
While the design of slopes and foundations
were based on theoretical estimates of factors of
safety and bearing capacity, transferring the design
into a constructed reality is not a very simple task.
Unforeseen geological and geotechnical properties
at few locations force changes to the geometry of
the slopes and foundations for a safe construction.
Many such challenges were encountered while
excavating the slopes and bolting the faces. Once
the slope profile was excavated close to the final
profile on Bakkal side, it was understood that some
part of the slope consists of surficial weathered
and disintegrated mass from valley, which caused
local sliding. A detailed contour mapping of the
area revealed that the valley is crossing the center
line of the bridge alignment. The slope profile was
made steeper at this location, avoiding the valley
portion completely.
Excavation of slopes required systematic
planning at various stages. Each slope height is
excavated in five to six layers. Slope profiles were
excavated by blasting up to 6 m away from the
final profiles and then by controlled blasting and
rock excavators. After installation of rock bolts on
slope face, the surface is shotcreted. As the
excavations are on the slope and river Chenab
flowing near the foothill, protecting the river from
(*10^2)
2.500
the falling debris is of high priority. Hence catch
2.000
trenches were provided to prevent the falling of
1.500
loose boulders into the rivers. Muck deposited in
1.000
these trenches is transported to the dump yard
0.500 created further down the slope, far from the slope
0.000
profile.
Lot of engineering judgement is required at the
-0.500
field while executing the design. Though the
-1.000
proposed bolting scheme shows that all bolts are
1.000
(*10^2)
1.500 2.000 2.500 3.000 perpendicular to slope surface, care should be
taken while placing these bolts so that none of the
joints get open up while bolting. The design life of
the Chenab bridge is 120 years. Construction
quality control is of paramount importance in
projects like this because any negligence can have
serious consequences during and after the
construction.
The initial design of the slope stabilization
measures for the Chenab Bridge are based on the
geological logging carried out in the trial pits and
initial tests carried out at site. But as the slope
profiles are being excavated, the dip and dip
directions of the joint sets are varying significantly.
Based on the new orientations of joints, the design
scheme for slope stability changes. Hence the
principle of design here is “Design as you Move”.
The geological logging is continuous and the
design requirements are being validated on a
continuous basis and corrective measures are being
taken as the work is progressing. The slope cutting
on the left abutment side is almost complete now
and the cutting on the right abutment side is
ongoing in full swing. Installation of anchors on a
typical slope section is shown in Figure 9. A
completed slope profile of the left abutment slope
is shown in Figure 10.
L1-7

Figure 9. Installation of rock anchors on slope
section
Figure 10. Completed left abutment slope
CONCLUSIONS
Stability of abutment slopes of Chenab railway
bridge posed several geotechnical challenges,
which are briefly outlined in this paper. Most of
the problems were solved based on engineering
judgement, rather than rigorous experimental or
mechanics based approaches. The principle of
design adopted is “Design as you Move”. The
geological logging and evaluation of properties is
continuous and the design requirements are being
validated on a continuous basis and corrective
measures are being taken along with the progress
of the work.
REFERENCES
Bhasin, R. and Kaynia, A.M. (2004). Static and
Dynamic Simulation of a 700 m High Rock
Slope in Western Norway. Engineering
Geology. 71:213-226.
Crosta, G. B., Hungs, O., Sosio, R. and Frattini, P.
(2007). Dynamic analysis of the Thurwieser
rock avalanche, Italian Alps. Geophysical
Research Abstracts. 9:1-2.
Cundall, P. A. (1980). UDEC-a generalized
distinct element program for modelling jointed
rock. Report PCAR-I-80. European Research
Office. U.S. Army.
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Hatzor, Y. H., Arzi, A. A. Zaslavsky, Y. and
Shapira, A. (2004). Dynamic stability analysis
of jointed rock slopes using the DDA method.
International Journal of Rock Mechanics and
Mining Sciences. 4:813-832.
Hoek, E and Bray, J. (2004). Rock Slope
Engineering. 4th Edition. Wyllie, D.C. and
C.W. Mah (eds.). Taylor and Francis, London.
Latha, G.M. and Garaga, A. (2010). Seismic
stability analysis of a Himalayan rock slope.
Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering.
43:831–843.
Liu, Y., Li, H. B., Zhao, J, Li, J. R. and Zhou, Q. C.
(2004). UDEC simulation for dynamic
response of a rock slope subject to explosions.
International Journal of Rock Mechanics and
Mining Sciences. 41(3):1-6.
Matsui,,T. and San, K.C.(1992). Finite element
slope stability analysis by shear strength
reduction technique. Soils and Foundations.
32(1):59-70.
Mononobe, N. and Matsuo, H. (1929). On the
determination of earth pressures during
earthquakes. World Engineering Conference.
9:176.
Okabe, S. (1926). General theory of earth pressure.
Journal of Japanese Society of Civil Engineers.
12(1):311.
Ramamurthy, T. (2013). Engineering in rocks for
slopes, foundations and tunnels. 2nd Ed.
Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi.
Sitharam, T.G. and Latha, G.M. (2002).
Simulation of excavations in jointed rock
masses using a practical equivalent continuum
approach. International Journal of Rock
Mechanics and Mining Sciences. 39:517–525.
Zhang, C., Pekau, O.K., Feng, J. and Guanglun, W.
(1997). Application of distinct element method
in dynamic analysis of high rock slopes and
blocky structures. Soil Dynamics and
Earthquake Engineering. 16:385– 394.
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

LANDSLIDE EVIDENCE PROBLEM SOLVING ON NATIONAL ROAD BANDUNG

- JAKARTA AT KM 18+000 IN CILOTO – PUNCAK PASS REGIONS

Dr. Ir. Eddie Sunaryo Munarto, M.Sc. 1, Ir. Herry Vaza, M.Eng., Sc. 2 and Ir. Rudy Febrijanto MT 3

ABSTRACT: Evaluation of the geotechnical condition is most priority on determining the caused factors of
landslide evidences. The geotechnical condition of road landslide have occurred at Ciloto, Puncak Pass Region
which located on National Road for connecting between Bandung to Jakarta - Indonesia contains by volcanic
deposit material which composed by the weathered volcanic combined with breccias rocks and tuff materials.
The landslide evidence is intended by recognized water seepage force which was determined as other importance
caused factors and have founded by recognizing a number of ponds on the slope terrains. Therefore, the
geotechnical condition could be determined as the specify conditions due to containing the varying rock types
with the geo-hydrological conditions. Hence, the mechanism of landslide evidence was impacting to the road
failures with the shape was interconnected with the translational Landslide which was developed by a number of
circular landslides. Accordingly, to determine the appropriate countermeasure technology was evaluated by
identifying the Topographical and Morphology terrain of its slope in relation with the geotechnical and geo-
hydrological condition in which influencing the landslide evidences. Based upon a number of bor-pile data
which was provided by Local Government Authority of West Java then can be suggested the bored-pile
technology in two rows has been suggested as the technology solution for countermeasure on supporting the road
landslide evidence and have been well implemented by local Government Authority of West Java, Ministry of
Public Works and Human Settlement.

Keywords: Geotechnical conditions, cause factors of landslide evidences, topographical and morphology terrain,
geology and geo-hydrology, rock types, seepage forces, countermeasure technologies, and bored-piles

INTRODUCTION KM 18+690 from Jakarta or KM 78+690 from

The evidence of road landslide have been
occurred in National Road Link Networks
connected between Bandung to Jakarta which
located at Puncak Region in West Java Province,
Indonesia at KM 18+690 have been identified as
the one of the several of typical of commonly
landslide evidence occurred on the mountainous
regions over the volcanic deposit. Hence, as
Indonesia is one of the tropical zones therefore the
volcanic deposit is currently composed by the
weathered volcanic product contain with the
brecciate lava and rocks with the tuffaceous means.
Based upon the historical background of the
stability of road in Ciloto site of Puncak Region
which have been previously recognized by
occurring the road landslide evidence is located at
Bandung. Hence, the volume of water flew either
subsurface water and run-off have been also
recognized in the toe of the slope terrains and
therefore the countermeasure technologies such as a
number of horizontal drain was ever implemented
in order to drain-off the subsurface water however
come up with an-unsuccessfully result due to the
horizontal drain was clogged-off and affected to
the evidence of collapsed road in 1995. In 2006 the
part of the existing road from Bandung to Jakarta at
KM 18+690 or KM 78+690 from Bandung have
been experiencing for collapsed. In order to
maintain the assessable traffic or maintaining the
road function, the rising of pavement have been
planned to be implemented in order to maintain the
gradient of longitudinal alignment. Hence, in
relation with the main task of IRE (Institute of

1
Institute of Road Engineering, Agency for research and Development, Ministry of Public Works and Human Settlement,
Indonesia eddie.sunaryo@pusjatan.pu.go.id, eddiesunaryo@gmail.com
2
Institute of Road Engineering, Agency for research and Development, Ministry of Public Works and Human Settlement,
Indonesia, herry.vaza@pusjatan.pu.go.id
3
Institute of Road Engineering, Agency for research and Development, Ministry of Public Works and Human Settlemet,
Indonesia, rudy.febrijanto@pusjatan.pu.go.id, rfebrijanto@yahoo.com

L2-1
Road Engineering), the possibility for solving the
evidence such as the planned rising road has been
asked to IRE. In order to give the technical advice,
IRE staff which is consists of a number of Balai
Geotechnical persons have been visited to the road
landslide evidence. The site visit is also intended to
determine the investigation to determine the
geotechnical and geological conditions.
The investigation was started by collecting the
secondary data related to the historical background
of the landslide and the previous solved landslides
have been implemented. The information of site
condition was collected contains of the soil
condition which was known as the soil layers with
the high degree of weathering levels and can be
determined as the caused factors to influencing the
landslide evidence beside of the geo-hydrology
conditions were also contributing to the
occurrences of landslide evidence contain with
secondary and primary data as follows:
1. The secondary data that was collected from the
report of the site investigation results which
have been done by the Research Center and
Development of Geology and Mineral Sources
Department, Ministry of Mineral and Power
Source (P3G, Bandung-Indonesia).
2. The primary data is obtained from the field
observation and the soil investigation which
have been done by the road project authority
who was responsible with on maintaining this
road.
Therefore this paper presented the technical
advices as the one of the recommendation of
problem solving in order to overcome the landslide
occurrences and was submitted to the Directorate
General of Highway and the local project authority
of Ministry of Public Works and Human Settlement.
Hence, the recommendation as the technical
advices covers the evaluation and suggestion of the
appropriate technology that can be implemented.
The following recommendations contain either
for temporary treatment to encouraging the
functionality of roads and permanent solution,
especially to stop the progress of landslide
occurrences of road could be assessed by the road
users or the final recommendation for
implementing the suitable countermeasure
technology without any causes.
LANDSLIDE CHARACTERISTIC
Refer to the Geological Map with the scale
1:100,000, produced by Research Center and
Development of Geology and Mineral Sources
Department, Ministry of Mineral Power Source
L2-2
(P3G, Bandung-Indonesia) by Sudjatmiko (2002)
as shown in Figure 1, the landslide location was
developed by the morphological terrains which
have been developed by the wave of parallel
mountainous regions deposited as the sedimentary
deposit of transported volcanic product and can be
recognized with the containing condition as
follows:
1. The soil is containing by the volcanic breccias
and lava deposits in grey color with the hard
consistency of the material with heavy to low
completely weathered conditions and recognize
up to 50 meters thicknesses.
2. Containing sand and rock volcanic product
which combined with tuff materials in yellow to
brown color with losses characters due to
experiencing with heavy – low completely
weathered condition and recognize up to 25
meters thicknesses.
3. The layer of Claystone in white and yellowish
brown color with soft to hard consistency with
experiencing with the heavy weathered
condition and recognize more than 10 meter
thicknesses.
4. The top layers are recognized as sedimentary of
transported deposit from volcanic debris flows
which consisted of silty clay, sand and gravelly
subsistence materials from volcanic products in
grey color with 5 meters thicknesses. This
layers is laid down over the hard rock strata of
claystone layers which indicated the favorable
instability of landslide problems.
Figure 1. Geological Map Information made by
Sudjatmiko (2002), Research Center and
Development of Geology and Mineral Re-Sources,
Ministry of Mineral and Power Source (P3G,
Bandung-Indonesia, 2002)
The Information of Landslide Characteristics
which was covering the collapsed road at KM
18+690 (from Jakarta city) or KM 78+690 (from
Bandung City) and the clearly figures is shown in
Figure 2. This previous landslide analysis was
investigated by Wahyono in 1997 and the currently
condition is based upon the site visit by the Institute
of Road Engineering (IRE) of the Agency for
Research and Development, Ministry of Public
Works in 21st of January 2013 or after a week of
the landslide evidence occurs.
The previous occurred landslide in this site was
identified in 1985 and come up with a number of
solution such as retrofitting technology was applied.
The technology by installment of the number of
horizontal drain have been implemented to drain-
off the water with unsuccessfully result due to
starting to clogged-off in 1990 then finally the road
was totally collapsed in 1995. The area of collapsed
road is now used as a restaurant for the famous rest
area at Ciloto region from Bandung to Jakarta or
vice versa.
The final solution which have been
implemented in 1995 by divided road into 2 (two)
diverted traffic for two way opposite direction
which is from south to the north to accommodate
traffic from Bandung to Jakarta and from the north
to south vice versa in 1995, Agency for Road
Construction Region IV (2011) In relays with those
collapsed road, hence the diverted traffic contains
by relocated roads and divided into separated
direction flow which was the traffic flows from
south to the north or from Bandung to Jakarta used
Figure 2. Lokasi Longsoran Ciloto KM 78+690 from Jakarta City in the National Road Network between
Bandung – Jakarta, Puncak Pass– West Java, Indonesia (Agency for Road Construction Region IV (2011)).
the existing roads and from the north to south used
the New Road to accommodated the Traffic from
Jakarta to Bandung.
In order to performing the road function, hence
the constructed hollow steel piles in 2 (two) rows
were installed to support the indicated landslide at
KM 18+690. Based upon the historical background,
in 2008, the hollow steel piles have been fatigued
due to the occurrence of continuity landslide
occurrences (Agency for Road Construction Region
IV (2011). Finally, in 2011, the road at KM 18+690
was totally collapsed and the traffic was unable
passing through this road.
Further, in 2006 the part of road direction from
south to north at KM 18+690 Jakarta or KM
78+690 Bandung to accommodate traffic from
Bandung to Jakarta was encountering with the
landslide evidence and the hollow steel pile with 2
(two) rows of position in 1997 have been
implemented however from time to time was also
giving unsuccessful solution due to the hollow steel
pile was fatigue to deforming. Finally, in 2011, this
location of the road collapsed and the traffic was
unable to be used for accommodating the traffic.
The collapse of this road is predicted to deal
with the rising pavement in order to maintain the
serviceability of the traffic which was occasionally
applied in every time of each settlement occurs as
an impact from the landslide evidence.
L2-3
 The details of landslide and its impact in 2011 is
showed in Figure 3, which shows the occurrences
of the road slope landslide and detecting the 50
meters longitudinal cracks of the road surfaces with
the landslide dimension is recognized on the
geological rock strata of volcanic deposit which
have been experienced by the heavy weathered
products, which has the characterization as follows:
1. The length of landslide is approximately ±50
meter with ±10 meters depth from the original
surface of roads with part of the wide of road
has failures on the left side of the direct traffic
from Bandung to Jakarta.
2. The landslide materials consist of silty-clay and
clayey-sand-stone as the debris material from
medium to high weathered volcanic product.
3. The Geology Structure have been developed
and recognized in the field consist of jointing
fractures with clay infill which tends to the
easily wash drain out by water.
Figure 3. The Occurrences of Landslide Evidence at KM 78+690 Jakarta, Ciloto, West Java Province - Indonesia,
Eddie Sunaryo, et al (2011)
L2-4
4. The typical of landslide was recognized as a
transversal slide which was developed by
combining a number of a circular sliding.
The countermeasure technology using 2 (two)
rows of the hollow steel piles have been installed
but unsuccessfully due to the landslide is as a
typical a transversal landslide with influencing the
high pressure of driving moments (Error!
Reference source not found.).
From Figure 4, the countermeasure technology
using the hollow steel piles in 2 (two) rows which
have been installed in 1997 showed unsuccessfully
result and indicated that the landslide evidence is
still occurs and the intended landslide occurrence
was identified by a number of evidence such as
shows on Figure 3. The Occurrences of Landslide
Evidence at KM 78+960 Jakarta, Ciloto, West Java
Province – Indonesia, Eddie Sunaryo, et al (2011):
Figure 4. Identification of Landslide evidence and impacted to the deformed hollow steel piles with 2 (two) rows
in which was previously constructed as the solution by the project authority, Eddie Sunaryo, et al. (2011)
The hollow steel piles in 2 (two) rows have
collapsed and was showing due to the continuing
deformation occurrences related with the rising
progress of road surface in order to maintain the
standard grade of roads. The occurrences of
landslide is clearly seen with the occurrences of
cracks along the road surface then impacting to the
active lateral force pressure and producing the
continuity collapsing hollow steel piles even have
been used 2 (two) rows. The occurrences of cracks
have been recognized from the crown of road
LANDSLIDE ANALYSIS AND
IMPLEMENTATION OF THE SUITABLE
RETROFITTING TECHNOLOGIES
Landslide Analysis
Based upon the topographical map based upon
the morphology terrain and bore holes data which
was obtained by the local road authority, the road at
KM 18+690 have been constructed over the debris
volcanic breccias which have experienced with the
highly weathered and settled on the claystone
deposit with the SPT – N value is greater than 60 in
6 meters position of the thickness depth. The
weathered volcanic breccias layer was indicating
very as permeable layers while the clay-stone layer
has the character as an-impermeable layers. This
condition was clearly recognized by indicating the
surface. Based on the site visit during investigation
to the overall morphology terrain, the landslide
evidence indicated the transversal landslides which
developed by the combining a number of circular
landslides. Those evidences was also recognized
from field survey investigation which is there are
many local ponds on the slope toe were also
indicating the seepage caused by water inflow of
sub-surface water as also one of the other cause
factors.
number of water ponds in the many part of toe
slopes, which meant the inflow water under surface
has restricted on the clay-stone layers.
The other cause of factors which was
influencing the landslide evidence was
distinguished that the water flows either from
infiltrated run-off or sub-water inflows was causing
the volcanic breccias layer to becoming saturated
manner which meant, indicated to increasing its
weight and producing the increased lateral active
pressure.
The rising-up of the road surface in order to
repairing and maintaining the standard level of
longitudinal alignment of road grades as the
solution of road surface settlement due to landslide
evidences which could produced the increasing
lateral active forces.
L2-5
 From the evidence on above, can be stated that
the caused factors of landslide consisted of a
number of characteristic manners, as follows as
shows in Figure 5:
1. The characteristic of stratification of slope
materials which is containing the highly
weathered volcanic breccias layers on top was
indicating as a permeable layer.
2. The characteristic of clay-stone underneath of
the highly weathered volcanic breccias was
indicating as the typical materials with
impermeable layer manners.
3. The terrain of slope either morphology or
topography showed the typical landslide with
the water flow configurations as the dendrites
flow types. Hence, the dendrites flow has the
characters that can be recognized from the
Figure 5. The condition of Road Network Situation before first landslide in 1985 and after landslide with
solution using 2 opposite direction Bandung – Jakarta and vice versa in 1996 (Wahyono, 1997)
L2-6
previously collapsed road in 1985 and the
implemented solution using the installments of
the horizontal drain have been ever blocked
after 2 (two) years.
4. The solution by diverting 2 (two) opposite
traffic flows for different direction roads which
have been constructed in 1997, hence the
occurrences of other landslide has still occurred
(Wahyono, 1997).
5. Due to the occasionally the raising up of the
road surface in order to repairing and
maintaining the road grade as requirement of
implementation of level of service will be
indicating on producing the lateral of active
pressures (Wahyono, 1997).
Criterion on Applying Retrofitting Technology
The retrofitting technology that might be
suitable needs to be determined and evaluated
based upon the data either secondary such as the
previous investigation and the primary data from
field observation. Hence the criterions are
suggested in order to implementing such kind of the
suitable technology is stated as follows:
1. The condition of rock/soil stratifications based
upon the previous result and soil investigation
shows that the hard strata which is consist of
clay-stone layers have a high strength therefore
the sheet-piles are not enough strong to support
the horizontal forces, due to:
a) Difficult to drive through the sheet hollow
piles into clay-stone layers due to the SPT-
value is greater than 60 already.
b) However the hollow sheet-pile can be driven
into the hard strata of clay-stone layers, the
instability will be occurs due to un-fixed
stand-up as the clay-stone layers will be
destructing and will changes on its character
due to disturbance during the driving
processes by the mechanical driven
machinery. The deformation of un-fixed
stand-up hollow sheet piles can be seen by
the occurrences of its currently deformation
that showed in Figure 4 above and this is
indicated the sheet pile could be probably
come-up with un-enough strength for
supporting the horizontal force due to
decreasing the shear strength.
2. The highly weathered volcanic breccias
materials will be tending to changes its
mineralogy to increasing the clay mineral and
causing the performed dense material as an
impermeable layer with softening conditions
Cook at al (1997).
3. Rising up the surface of road pavement without
maintaining the seepage water in-flow is
creating the increasing load and decreasing the
shear strength. Hence, the occurrence shear
strength is definitely dropped-off due to
increasing the pore water pressures.
4. The occurrences of cracks on the road surface
giving the figures on intending to the infiltration
of run off water as from the field investigation
showed that the water run off from raining have
not been all absorb to the soil but part of them
was flowing and in the field can be recognized
by occurrences of following:
a) The Damaged side ditch over that have been
constructed over the debris volcanic layer,
therefore can be causing the water
infiltration into the sub-surface layers under
roads.
b) The fall-off of the grass along the side ditch
and shoulder berms with the direction same
ways to the run-off surface water.
The mechanical figure of analytical evaluation of
occurrence of road landslide is shown on
5. Figure 6, which is the part of the road settled on
the stable layer whilst the other part has settled
on the debris volcanic breccias layers with the
high weathered conditions.
Implementation of Suitable Retrofitting Technology
Based upon the investigation of the landslide
occurrences in relay with the considering data
requirement, IRE gave the technical advice to the
consultant, the contractor and the local project
manager who are responsible on implementing the
retrofitting technologies. The number of technical
advice was given by starting based upon the above
suggested criterions, as follows:
1. Referring to the minimum standard level of
road functions for public infrastructure, the
retrofitting technology that can be
implemented have to be intended for
supporting the life service of roads. Hence,
implementing the temporary solution in order
to guarantee the traffic is still able on passing
through (Figure 7) have to be the first priority
of the stage activities and should be
constructed with the following stages:
a) Grouting with liquid cement can be
implemented to filled-up the occurrences of
cracks after the material cracks have been
cleared up in order to protect the run-off
water infiltration.
b) Repair the damaged side ditch with the un-
infiltrated ditch, it is recommended to use
the precast side ditch or U-DITCH, with the
current market size of 1.0 meter depth and
1.0 meter wide.
2. The recommendation to implementing the final
solution:
a) Again, hence IRE is only giving the
recommendation to be implemented with the
statement of the criterions with the
reasonable solution can be given and the
detail analysis such as com up with the
dimension of the structure, the consultants
are responsible to contributing the
implementing the retrofitting technology in
detail. The recommendation is by relocating
the road that can be settle on the hard strata
layer and if impossible due to the
L2-7
 administration causes, the retrofitting
technology using Bor-pile can be
implemented.
Based upon the stratification layer on
b) Figure 7 which is part of road wide have
been constructed over the stable layers,
therefore suggestion are made as follows:
i. Do not constructed with the hollow
steel pile which is installed using
driven methods as already showed
the hollow steel pile will decrease its
no longer of the strength capability
on the clayshale layer characters.
ii. The rising the existing road level
grade over the landslide surface is not
suggested due to will affect to the
increasing active lateral forces. It is
recommended to cut-off the stabled
road surface next to the near
occurrence cracks to the level of the
recently road surface (Figure 8).
In order to increase the shear strength which is
capable on supporting the strength, it is
recommended the retrofitting technology using
Bor-Piled construction. The beneficial on applying
Bor-Piled construction will be increasing the shear
strength along its area due to either the depth of
bor-piled structure can be placed passing through
hard strata of claystone layers (Figure 9).

Figure 6. The Cross section of the Road landslide with the interpreted stratification layers based upon the data
from soil investigation of bor-logs, Eddie Sunaryo, et al (2011)

Figure 7. Implemented Temporary Solution as recommended advice in order to maintaining the road
functionality, referred from the technical advice by Eddie Sunaryo, et al (2011)

L2-8
Figure 8. The Recommendation Retrofitting with the cut-off method on the right side parts to Jakarta Direction,
however has not been done due to non-technical reasons, Eddie Sunaryo, et al (2011)

Figure 9. The Implemented 2 row Bor-Piled Technology with 60 cm Diameter in April 2013,
Eddie Sunaryo, et al (2014)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS the National Link Road Jakarta-Bandung for giving

The special thanks is subjected to Institute of
Road Engineering, Agency for Research and
Development, Ministry of Public Works for
admitting the author on written-up and publishing
this paper in this International Seminar. Many
thanks is also subjected to the Project Officer and
Field Engineers of the Agency for Road
Construction Region IV who were responsible to
the chances for the author to investigate.
CONCLUSIONS
The number of conclusion can be stated on
below after evaluating the secondary and primary
data which is able to clarify the caused factors,
implementation of the criterion retrofitting
technology:

L2-9
1. The stratification of rock/soil strata can be
clearly known that the upper layer consist of
debris flow materials of volcanic breccias
deposit with the high weathered characteristic
manners laid down over the hard strata clay-
stone layers
2. The road slide can be distinguished as the
typical landslide was the typical of the debris
flow materials of volcanic breccias deposit with
the high weathered characteristic.
3. The sliding plain of the landslide can be stated
within between the debris flow materials of
volcanic breccias deposit and the hard strata
clay-stone layers as the translational sliding
types.
4. The retrofitting technologies that can be
suggested consist of two types, firstly is by
close-relocating the road to the hilly side or the
right side of the directed traffic to Jakarta
however was un-implemented due to non
technical reasons and the second is by
implementing the 2-Row Bored-Piled which
have been already constructed in April 2013.
5. The use of Bor-pilled were implemented with
the reasonable suggestion from IRE however
the designed of the structure to be evaluated by
consultant and constructed by the contractor
who are working with the local Government on
that sites.
implementation of Retrofitting Technology,
Bandung.
Eddie Sunaryo, et al (2014), “Monitoring Report of
the implementation of Technical Advice”,
Implementation of the Recommendation on
applying the Countermeasure Technology at
Ciloto Road Landslide Region, Bandung
Research Center and Development of Geology and
Mineral Re-Sources, Ministry of Mineral and
Power Source (P3G, Bandung-Indonesia)
(2002), Geological Map of West Java, The
Information of Geological Condition on West
java Provinces invented by Sudjatmiko,
Bandung.
Wahyono (1997), “Characterization of Rock and
Soil Stratifications”, Interpretation of Soil and
Rock Strata based upon the Bor-Log Profiles,
Bandung.
Wahyono (1997), “Evaluation and Analysis of the
Occurrences of Landslide in 1985 and the
Stability Performance after Implementing the
Solution with diverted Traffic Direction”,
Proceeding on Geotechnical Seminar handed by
Research Center and Development of Geology
and Mineral Re-Sources, Ministry of Mineral
and Power Source (P3G, Bandung-Indonesia),
Bandung.

REFERENCES
Agency for Road Construction Region IV (2011),
“Soil Investigation Report and Interpretation of
Soil/Rock Stratifications”, The Factual Report
of Bor-Log Investigation, Jakarta.
Agency for Road Construction Region IV (2011),
“The Report on Collapsing of the
Implementation of Hollow Steel Piles”, the
Report based upon the Condition of Road
Network Situation before first landslide occurs
in 1985 and after landslide occurs with the
solution by implementing 2 opposite traffic
direction from Bandung to Jakarta and vise
versa, reports in 1986, Jakarta.
Cook Jasper, Mc Gown and Jounger, (1997). The
Characterization of Tropical Soil of Weathered
Volcanic Rocks, TRL UK.
Eddie Sunaryo, et al (2011), “Technical Advice for
retrofitting the National Road Landslide
between Bandung to Jakarta in the Puncak
Region of West Java”:, The report based upon
the field discussion and landslide evaluation to
obtaining the recommendation for

L2-10
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS OF TONJONG NATIONAL ROAD, CENTRAL

JAVA PROVINCE

Hedy Rahadian 1 and Hendarto 2

ABSTRACT: This paper presents investigation of slope problems, failure mechanisms and proposed
strengthening methods for the slope stability of Tonjong Road, Kutamendala (Ciregol) at Km 110+800 and Km
110+050. In general, a part of this road is located on hilly areas on clay stone of the formation of Glagah River
and Rambatan and flanked by two active meandering rivers known as Glagah River and Pedes River which set
on the right side and the left side of this road, respectively. A landslide at Km. 110+800 was originated from the
disruption of cliff stability of Pedes River due to the development of the meandering river triggering regressive
sliding pattern failures. The latter landslide was also initially caused by a meander stream making undercut cliff
and finally triggering a falling mechanism landslide. In-situ data, a set of laboratory tests and back analysis
method are used to develop strength parameters for slope stability analysis. Mohr-Coulomb failure criteria and
beam elastic plastic model were adopted in geotechnical analysis using finite element software, PLAXIS. The
result indicates that the contact between lava deposit and clay stone which potentially forms a sliding plane at
18-20m deep. Moreover, microscopically-clay stones expose grains/crystals consisting of fossil fragments,
quartz, feldspar, and opaque minerals embedded in a matrix of clay minerals and the rest is mud. Cement is
present in the form of residual mud and iron oxide. Furthermore, the results of X-Ray diffraction (XRD) analysis
showed the presence of the mineral of quartz, muscovite, albeit, calcite, and clay mineral kaolinite and
montmorillonite. By considering these results, the deterioration of properties due to clay stone’s slaking or
swelling is predicted to give influences to slope stability problems at both locations. Strengthening methods
using concrete bored piles with diameters of 1200mm for a main landslide at Km. 110+800 and 4m high-wall
protections with bored piles with diameters of 600mm and re-sloping for a landslide at Km. 110+050 are
proposed. Based on the results of both static and dynamic analysis using pseudo static force 50% of estimated
peak bedrock acceleration, the proposed strengthening systems are suitable enough to increase the stability of
slopes.

Keywords: X-Ray diffraction, montmorrilonite, slope stability, pseudo static

INTRODUCTION cliffs on the outside of a stream bend and alluvial

Tonjong Road, Kutamendala (Ciregol) in Brebes
Regency in the Northwestern part of Central Java is
one of vital national roads linking Tegal in the North
Corridor of Java arterial road and Kabupaten
Purwokerto. In general, this road is located on hilly
areas. Most of the land use at the site survey is
production forest areas and plantations, and rice
fields. There are two active rivers and the local area
such as mine rock (especially excavation river sand).
A part of Ciregol Road, Km 115+600, was collapsed
in March 2011. This collapsed road is flanked by two
rivers known as Glagah River and Pedes River. Both
of these rivers appear to form active meandering
streams reflected in the development of river-cut
deposits founded on the opposite sides. Most of the
land uses at the site survey are production forest
areas and plantations, rice fields and at particular
area-there are such as mine rock and sand.
The first reconstruction at this station initially
started by cutting hill sides and protecting the slope
from erosion by installing precast concrete
revetments at certain places in 2012. Nevertheless, it
did not successfully stop the slope movement and
erosion. Another symptom of slope stability problem
was appeared at Km 11+800 which was just 200m
away from the first slope failure occurred in 2011.
When the reconnaissance survey conducted in 2013,
there was another landslide occurred at Km 11+050.

1
Director of Bridge Engineering, Ministry of Public Works and Housing, rahadian.hedy@gmail.com, INDONESIA
2
Head of Tunnel Engineering Section, Ministry of Public Works and Housing, hendarto@pu.go.id, INDONESIA

L3-1
 This paper presents geotechnical analyses,
mechanism of slope failure, and slope reinforcement
for both locations.
LANDSLIDE KM 110+800
A slope stability problem at Km 110+800 has a
relative movement to the North. Landslide dimension
can be exactly defined where the total length from its
crown to its toe was 200 m and the maximum width
of sliding surface was up to 500 m. Right and left
boundaries of this landslide seems limited by the
development of cracks that cut the road, where
founded at Km 1+682.502 with relative direction N
1090E and at Km 1+320.780 with N 100E relative
direction.
This landslide generally shows the parts that are
ideal in a kind of a sliding mechanism, starting from
the depletion zones at the head of the landslide to the
accumulation zone at the foot of the landslide. The
presence of the main scarp extends trending
northwest-southeast (NW-SE), some of which have
been repaired slope geometry, forming the principal
crown of the landslide system at this location (Figure
1). The main scarp extends approximately 70 m with
a height of more than 10 m, with a top of landslide
system located at an altitude of about 148 m. At the
foot of the main scarp often found the open cracks in
the same direction as the direction of the main scarp
(transverse cracks) and most have a perpendicular
direction to the main scarp (longitudinal cracks).
These cracks have partially eroded forming riil to
gully erosions. The existence of these cracks is a
good indicator of the possibility of an active
movement of the landslide system.
Figure 1. Main scarp extends trending northwest-
southeast (NW-SE)
Besides the cracks, an indication of the movement
is also evident from the tilt electric poles across the
landslide on the north side of Tonjong Road. In this
section, the landslide escarpment can still be found,
followed by the formation of a staircase up to the
foot of landslide. On the other hand, an indication of
L3-2
the movement appear on the leaning trees to the
direction of movement of the landslide.
Meanwhile, the landslide toe usually showed
transverse ridges or bulging. However, this section
seems mostly been repaired, which might be done in
conjunction with the installation of precast concrete
revetments/tetrapods (
Figure 2).
From some indications above, it can be concluded
that the mechanism of this landslide is a sliding
mechanism with a semi-planar sliding plane. Based
on the reconstruction of cross section and bored holes,
the sliding plane reaches a depth of 18-20 m. The
landslide incident likely originated from the
disruption of cliff stability of Pedes River due to the
development of the meandering river system. The
instability of slopes quite easily formed due to the
existence to a contact between the lava deposit and
clay stone at the cliff toe.
Figure 2. Precast concrete revetments at Pedes River
Contrast engineering properties, especially
permeability of these two materials trigger the
formation of sliding plane in this contact area. The
lava deposit tends permeable while clay stone is
impermeable. Moreover, clay stone is prone to
deterioration of properties due to slaking and
swelling behavior, which may further result in the
clay stone strength degradation and or fracturing.
LANDSLIDE KM 115+050
A landslide at Km 115+050 has a highly curved
crown reaching a length of 100 m or even more, it
relatively faced toward the southwest (SW) and the
scarp almost upright with a height of 30 m from
Glagah River (Figure 3).
Based on the landslide characteristics, it clearly
seems that this landslide has falling mechanism. The
existence of river-cut cliffs on the outside of a
meander bends of Glagah River which might be
identified as a major factor that causes a landslide
occurred (Figure 3). This has led to the unraveling of
the rocks forming the riverbank, which is composed
of clay stone at the bottom of the cliffs and lava
deposition relatively was on it, with some old alluvial
deposits are present in some parts of these rock types.
Most debris material was founded in the foot of the
cliff, but most likely to have been swapped away by
the river flow.
BH7, BH8 and BH10, the results showed the
presence of the mineral of quartz, muscovite, albite,
calcite, cristobalite and clay mineral kaolinite and
montmorillonite. Microscopically, clay stone slices
expose grains/crystals consisting of fossil fragments,
quartz, feldspar, and opaque minerals embedded in a
matrix of clay minerals and mud. Cement is present
in the form of residual mud and iron oxide.

Table 1. XRD test result

BH 05 BH07 BH08 BH10

Mineralogy
21.0m 24.9m 22.5m 11.4m
Albite x x x x
Calcite x x x x
Cristobalite x
Kaolinite x x x x
Figure 3. A landslide at Km. 110+050 Montmorillo
Nite x x x x
The existence of clay stone at the bottom of the Muscovit x x x x
cliff needs attention because these rocks are prone to
Quartz x x x x
deterioration due to slaking and swelling behavior,
Note:
which may further result in clay stone, is strength
BH10 close to a landslide at Km.110+050
degradation and or fracturing. This behavior is feared
BH 05, BH07 and BH08 close to a landslide at Km. 110+800
to facilitate cliffs’ foot eroded by the river flows, and
will further disturb the equilibrium of the cliff. In
Based on the observations, it should be noted that
addition, the contrast permeability between the lava
conchoidal cracks up to shards splintered fairly
and rock clay sediment formed reed erosion (piping
intensive in exposed clay stone (Figure 8) indicating
erosion) and dynamic loads by the vibrations of large
slaking behavior in these rocks. Slaking behavior is
vehicles, are expected to take part in this landslide.
generally formed in response to changes in natural
FIELD INVESTIGATION conditions of rocks, either as a result of changes in
moisture content (water content) as well as changes
Subsurface profiles were investigated by in in-situ stress condition (Sadisun et al., 2010).
conducting field investigation such as 10 bore holes, These changes usually lead to the deterioration of
laboratory tests, geophysical surveys and hydrology rock properties (rock deterioration), which among
of both rivers. Both undisturbed and disturbed other things is characterized by the degradation of
samples were taken into laboratory. Soil rock strength becomes softer (strength degradation)
classifications were examined by various tests such and or fractured (fracturing). Moreover, clay stone
as index properties, direct shear and triaxial tests. samples contain one of expansive minerals,
montmorillonite (Table 1) which usually triggers
deterioration process becoming faster. This behavior
commonly known as a durable low or high slaking,
and it is further feared would give a significant role
in the mechanism of occurrence of landslide in this
area.

Figure 4. Layout of bored holes

X-ray diffraction (XRD) test was also performed

to get a better understanding of soil mineralogy
compositions. From XRD samples taken from BH5,

L3-3
 Figure 5. Process of crack formation of clay stone
under exposure condition (Sadisun et.al., 2010)
Degree of weathering plays important roles in
strength degradation. Strength parameters derived by
Gartung (1986) were adopted in this analysis. The
degree of weathering was classified into 4 zones (I-
IV). Unweathered clay stones are categorized in
Zone I, while for completely weathered clay stones
are in Zone IV. He also showed that the average
residual angles of internal friction, r’ is 8.60. It is
too perilous to analyze slope stability using
unweathered clay stones’ strength properties and too
conservative to use residual strength properties.
Therefore, for design purpose, Gartung has proposed
to use reduced strength parameters for long term
condition which are c’=20 kN/m2 and ’ =20o.
geometry at the level of slope’s safety factor equal or
close to 1.0 and to evaluate residual strength
mobilized in the event of the slope failure.
As for initial soil shear strength parameters (peak
shear strength) were obtained based on the results of
laboratory tests such as direct shear and triaxial CU
tests as well as the correlation based on N value.
Figure 7 and Figure 8 below shows the results of
effective cohesion and internal friction from
laboratory test. Effective cohesion parameters
majorly were in the range of 20 – 40 kPa, except data
from BH 08 at depth 7-8m around 10 kPa and BH06
at depth 7-8m more than 60 kPa.

ESTIMATION OF SOIL PARAMETERS BASED

IN SITU TEST
Key parameters for slope stability analysis can be
derived from in situ and laboratory tests. In this
analysis, unconfined compression test and internal
friction angle were derived based on N value as
follow:
Figure 7. Effective cohesion (c’)
Unconfined compression strength qu
Terzaghi & Peck proposed relationship between
unconfined compression strength (qu) and N value as
follow:

qu  12.5N (1)

Internal friction, 
Figure 6 shows formulas which commonly used
to estimate internal frictional angle. In this analysis,
we propose to adopt lowest limit for conservative Figure 8. Effective internal friction angle (’)
consideration.
Effective internal friction angle parameters were
observed at the range of 20 – 30 degree, only four
data below 15 degree and 2 data above 30 degree.

SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS

Km. 110+800
Geometry of soil layers (

Figure 9) beneath the surface were modeled into

Figure 6. Relationship between N value and internal
friction (after K. Terzaghi)
DESIGN SOIL PARAMETERS
Back analysis method was adopted to estimate the
sliding mechanism based on the initial slope
six soil layers using strength parameter as shown in
Table 2.
A group of bored piles with diameters of 1200
mm consisting of two layers of 36m length of piles
with center to center space 2.4m was analyzed for
reinforcing system at Km. 110+800, while re-sloping
combined with a retaining wall system consisting of

L3-4
walls and bored piles with diameters of 600 mm was
implemented for landslide at Km. 110+050.
Table 2. Soil strength parameters
Layer cu c’  Bulk
(kPa) (kPa) (o) Density
Clayey silt 15 30 17
Clayey silt 8 15 18
Clayey silt 14 15 19.5
Clay stone 5 12 18
Clay stone 600 18
Sand stone 600 19
Figure 10. Total displacement at initial stage FS
1.05

Figure 9. Geometry model of a landslide at km.

110+800

Beam and wall elements were modeled as elastic

plastic beam elements with bending and axial Figure 11. Total displacement after installation of
stiffness, poison ratio and unit weight as can be seen bored piles FS 1.15
in Error! Not a valid bookmark self-reference..

Table 3. Properties of beam elements

W  EA EI
Element 2
kN/m kN/m kN/m2
Pile D1200 7.35 0.15 1.02E+07 9.19E+05
Pile D600 1.84 0.15 6.13E+06 1.38E+05
Wall 7.2 0.15 6.50E+06 4.87E+04

Factor of safety for slope stability at Km. Figure 12. Total displacement if the soils in front of
the piles tend to slide, FS 1.80
110+800 was made using the following conditions:
(i) the ground water table was modeled to be 15m
below ground level at the road and 4m beneath the
surface at the toe of the slope failure, (ii) a surface
load representing traffic loads and pavement
structures is 30kPa. (iii) pseudo static analysis
usually uses a seismic coefficient with the range of
0.05 to 0.25 depending on the site seismicity for
example kh= 0.05 to 0.15 is typical in United States
and kh= 0.12 to 0.25 is typical in Japan. In this
model, the seismic coefficient proposed by Hynes
and Franklin (1984) which at least equal to half the Figure 13. Total displacement if the soils in front of
peak bedrock acceleration, amax was adopted. the piles tend to slide experiencing pseudo static 50%
A group of bored piles has increased factor of amax/g, FS 1.80
safety to value more than 1.3 at static condition and
1.1 at dynamic condition ( Km. 110+050
Figure 11 - Figure 13).

L3-5
 Geometry of soil layers (Error! Reference
source not found.) beneath the surface were
modeled into six layers using soil strength parameter
as shown in Table 2.

Table 4. Soil strength parameters Km. 110+050

Layer c’  Bulk
(kPa) ( o) Density
Clay 5 29 17.5
Silt 5 38 20
Silt 10 34 19
Silt 10 42 20

A A A

1
18
0 20 14 21 4 22
16 23 24
Figure 17. Total displacement with pseudo static
50% amax/g, FS 1.1
19 15 25 26
2 17
27 28
29 30
5
6 13 7 31 32

33 34
8 9 35 36

38
10 11
CONCLUSION
37

Series of field observation, laboratory data and

3 12

geotechnical analyses indicate that the major problem

Figure 14. Geometry model of a landslide at km. triggering a landslide at Km.110+800 was the
110+050 existence of interface between silt layer and weather
clay stone at 18-20m depth. The strength properties
Factor of safety for slope stability at Km. of weathered clay stone layer from back analysis at
110+050 was analyzed using the same condition for failure condition were c’=5kPa and ’=120 which
the slope stability at Km. 110+800 except the ground have much lower than the design strength parameters
water table was modeled to be 28m below ground proposed by Gartung (1986): c’=20kPa and ’=200.
level at the road and retaining wall structures which Meanwhile, a landslide at Km. 110+050 was
have a function to protect the slope from a meander triggered the existence of river-cut cliffs on the
stream of Glagah River. outside of a meander bends of Glagah River and
further disturbing the equilibrium of the slope.
Field survey and laboratory data provide the
existence of montmorillonite at clay stone formations,
i.e. the Glagah and Rambatan formation. Conchoidal
cracks up to shards splintered fairly intensive in
exposed clay stone indicating slaking behavior in
clay stone.
A set of strengthening structures at two landslide
locations consisting of concrete bored piles with
diameters of 1200mm, 36m in length and wall
Figure 15. Total displacement at initial stage, FS
protections, concrete bored piles with diameters of
1.07
600mm, 4-6m in length combined with re-sloping are
suitable enough to increase the stability of slopes.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors very gratefully acknowledge to Dr.
Imam Sadisun, Bandung Institute of Technology, for
fruitful discussion.

REFERENCES

Figure 16. Total displacement after re-sloping Gartung, E. (1986). Excavation in hard clays of the
staging, FS 1.43 Keuper Formation, Proceedings of Symposium,

L3-6
 Geotechnical Engineering Division, Seattle,
Washington.
Hynes, M.E. and Franklin, A.G. (1984).
Rationalizing the seismic coefficient method,”
Miscellaneous paper GL-84-13, U.S. Army
Engineer Waterways experiment Station,
Vicksburg, Mississippi.
PLAXIS (2012). Material models manual,
Netherlands.
Sadisun, I.A., Bandono, H. Shimada, M. Ichinose,
and K. Matsui (2010). Physical Disintegration
Characterization of Mudrocks Subjected to
Slaking Exposure and Immersion Tests, Jurnal
Geologi Indonesia, Vol. 5 No. 4 Desember 2010:
219-225
Tang, W. H., Stark, T.D. and Angulo, (1999).
Reliability in back analysis of slope failures .
soils and Foundations vol. 39, No. 5, 000-000,
Oct. 1999 Japanese Geotechnical Society

L3-7
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

LIMESTONE STRIPS AS REMEDIAL MEASURES OF LANDSLIDES IN

EXPANSIVE CLAY

Eddy Triyanto Sudjatmiko 1

ABSTRACT: Expansive clay soils presents many geotechnical engineering challenges around the world,
including in tropical zones of Indonesia. In developing infrastucture facilities at Cikarang - West Java, expansive
clay soils has led to numerous cases of landslides. Mostly typical cases are excavation/embankment slopes
failure caused by seepage water. In very low permeability type soil materials, even smallest constant seepage
water will initiate soil softened and lead it to saturated condition. Eventually, the soil will lose its shear strength
and simultaneously increased its compressibility due to increased water content. This paper reports a case study
of a landslide that occurred on a 15 m high embankment along a riverbank that are built on expansive silty clay
soils. A method of remedial measure is proposed with construction of limestone strips. The limestone strips
methods have proved to effectively functioned as the "ribs" of the embankment slope structures. It is also played
as subdrain facilities for seepage water not to bring negative impact to the embankment. Additionally “active”
limestone will plays as chemically stabilization agent to increase the safety factor of excavation/embankment
slopes. The similar limestone strip structure is being tested as a strategy to reduce landslides risk.

Keywords: landslide, expansive soils, swelling, remedial, slope stability, limestone strips

INTRODUCTION population growth. Followed with vast

Expansive soil has been known for about as
long as the field of geotechnical engineering has
been practice (Nelson and Miller, 1992). Although
these problem are generally previously only known
in arid regions (Fredlund, 1995 and Chen, 1975),
expansive soils problem become regular case
encountered in Indonesia. Particularly in the
development of new areas. Suherman (2005)
indicate that expansive soil problems prevalent, at
least in Java area. It covers part of Jakarta-
Cikampek toll road, Semarang-Kudus, Semarang-
Purwodadi, Wirosari-Cepu, Yogyakarta-Wates,
Ngawi-Caruban and so forth. Recently, Cikampek-
Palimanan toll road construction also reveals
expansive soils problems.
Expansive soils has brings geotechnical
challanges in development of areas that were
previously ignored and avoided because of its
problematic soils conditions. Cikarang and
Kerawang area, for example. Developed since
1992, Cikarang area has been growing rapidly. In
present time, Cikarang has become a major
industrial city in Indonesia. Statistical data shows
significant increasing in industrial/economic and
development of industrial estate as well as
commercials and residentials estates. Even
government of Bekasi has moved their main office
to Cikarang. In the next few years, this region will
become a foremost economic center in eastern
Jakarta.
In its development, expansive soils problems
has become a main challanges. The term of
expansive soils is generally applied to any soil or
rock material that has a potential to shrink or swell
under changing moisture conditions. The primary
problem that arise with regard to expansive soils is
that deformations are significantly greater than
elastic deformations and they cannot be predicted
by clasical elastic or plastic theory. Movement is
ussually in an uneven pattern and of such a
magnitude as to cause extensive damage to the
structures and pavements resting upon them
(Nelson and Miller, 1992).
In wide scale of constructions for 3,000 ha
developmen,t such as roads, drainage, earthworks
and low rise housing, structural damages is not
solely caused by soil deformation, but also due to
soil softening i.e decrease in soil strength or
bearing capacity and increase in compressibility as

1
Postgraduate Student, Universitas Katolik Parahyangan, Bandung, triyanto_eddy@hotmail.com INDONESIA

L4-1
consequences of changes in moisture content.
Meilani (1999) shown the effect of saturation and
water suction on shear strenght of expansive soils
of Padalarang, Jawa Barat. From triaxial and direct
shear tests data, she noticed that soils shear
strength decreased drastically when its water
content, w > 35% and degree of saturation, S >
85% . In fact, with such water content, shear
strenght of remolded/compacted soils reduce up to
70 ~ 90% compared to unsaturated soils.
In developing such spacious area, land grading
can hardly be avoided. Particularly on industrial
projects which requires substansial flat area with
relatively flat roads and others facilities. Since
original topography consisted of medium
hilly/undulating terrain, area development
involved massive earthworks to present such
demands. This require also the construction of
excavation/ embankment slopes. In expansive soils,
design and constructions of these slopes has its
own challanges because of the shrink/swell
behaviour. Especially in depths of seasonal
fluctuation zone or active zone. It would be more
complicated if seepage or ground water take places.
As the water will caused the soil loose its shear
strength drastically to produce slope instability and
soil movements.
In this situation, earth retaining structure will
be required. Ones may use retaining walls, soldier
piles, gabion, concrete sheet piles and others
structures. However, there are many experience
shows that such expensive structure often fails.
For instance, a 2 m high of gabion structure, was
easily moved away because of subgrade softening
and debris movements. A new approach in design
and construction is required to suit soil
characteristics to overcome these problems. This
paper highlight one case of embankment slope
failure expansive soil, application and failure of
soildier pile methods and the results of
experiments using limestone strip methods.
GEOLOGY CONDITIONS
In general, Cikarang is situated at what was
called by Bemmelen (1949) as Plain of Batavia.
The north part of West Java extent from Serang or
Rangkas-Bitung and Cirebon. This zone has a long
about 175 km and 40 km width formed by an
alluvial lowland plain in the north and
mountaineous in the south. Its consist largely of
alluvial river deposits and lahar (mud flows) from
volcano in the hinterland, with occasional
exposures of slightly folded marine tertiatry
sediment. Field observation may conclude that
L4-2
study area is in transition zone between coastal
flood plain and mountaineous zone of north West
Java.
Peter Lunt (2013) summarize the main
conclusion from the new works on this area. It is
believed that in early Tetriary (about 65.5 ma),
most of onshore Java can be considered part of the
Woyla Terranes, defined in western Sumatra. In
mid Eocene (about 40 ma) there was lifting,
subsidance and sedimentation around the margin
of the enlarged Sundaland caused by subduction of
India-Australia Plates under Eurasia plates. These
subduction activity was also formed a depressed
complex belt of hills, mountain, volcanos and
mountaineous in the mid belt of West Java known
as Bogor and Bandung zone. Ben Clement (2008)
shows that these belt of mountain and volcanos
was formed in the mid Eocene until mid Miocene
(14 ma). The activity subside in the mid Miocene
before reactivated in the end Miocene (5 ma) but
the activity transfered 50 km to the north.
Under severe tropical climate, weathering that
occurs in the Bogor and Bandung zone is intense.
Tropical rain eroded mountains cones, plateaus
and areas of subductions residual debris as well as
residual soils that formed. Transported by rain
water, flow by the rivers, sediment materials are
tending to lead to the coastal plains in the north of
the Java. Until now, sedimentation in the basin of
the North West Java (Sunda/Asri basins) are
substantial. These deposits then undergo folding
and lifting by the subduction activity of which was
reactiveted in late Miocene. Hence, sedimentation
area which was once at coastal zone, currently
located at an elevation about 50 m above sea level.
These folding and lifting acticity in combination
with tropical rainfall and erotion curved the area,
produce currently appears as a low undulating hills.
The oldest rock formations is Jatiluhur
formation aged from mid Miocene, characterize by
calcareous clay stone lithologic units which have
an insert with sandy limestone and deposited in
sub-littoral environment. Unaligned above the
Jatiluhur formation rest Subang formation aged
from end Miocene, characterize by gray clay stone
flake with outside sub-littoral depositional
environment. Above Subang formation then rest
unaligned Kaliwangu formation from early
Pleocene, characterize by sandstones and
calcareous clay stone, deposited in sub-littoral
environment.
Aligned above Kaliwangu formation then
deposited Cihowe Formation, aged from end
Pleocene consists of tuff and tuffaceous clay.
Above it, lay units of rocks consists of landslides at hill sides and about 1~3 m uplift
conglomeratic rocks, sandstone, tuffaceous and movement at the toe side. Major efforts had taken
young river sediment deposited in Pleistocene and to avoid futher movements. However, it was soon
Holocene. Subang formation with lithologic realized that nothing can be done as the soils was
characteristics of gray clay minerals consists of in saturated conditions. Losing its shear strenght
montmorillonite flakes exposes around this almost completely.
locations.
In accordance with the above studies, deep
drilling sampling up to 100 m depth shows that
area of study is consists of alluvial sedimentation
materials. According to Geology Map (Ratman
and Gafur, 1998) this sediment was formed during
the quaternary periods (>2.5 ma) as deposition of
volcanic lava and mud flows of hinterland
mountains such as Mount Salak, Gede, Hambalang
and Pangrango to coastal plain. For thousands to
millions of years, deposition of these fine grained
material is accumulated into shale basin and the Figure 1. First landslides on October 2011
Java sea. Sometimes the volcanic ash from
volcanic activities also settled and deposited in this SOLDIER PILE
coastal plain.
In the area with poor drainage conditions, A series of soil investigation was made to
leaching is limited so that cations of magnesium, analyze and design corrective actions.
calcium, sodium dan irons may be accumulated in Geotechnical investigations conduct CPTu (cone
the system. Combination of volcanic ash and the penetration test with pore pressure measurement
above shales may then turned into montmorillonite. /piezocone test), CPT (dutch cone penetration test),
One of soils clay mineral contents that brings deep sampling drilling with standard penentration
expansive characteristic and is of concern because test (SPT) as well as laboratorium works to
of its expansive characteristic and challanges that characterized natural moisture sample, bulk
should be deal with to these days. density, specific gravity, grain size analysis,
atteberg limit, triaxial UU test and 1-D oedometer
LANDSLIDES CHRONOLOGY consolidation test.

Formed as the above geotecnical condition,

until it was developed, the location was an
undulating lowland aside of Cilemah-abang river,
46 m above mean sea level. Despite being on the
river banks, soil nutrient content is minimal so that
no plants other than the local dew grass. The land
is nonarable and there was no economic activities
around, even agriculture.
Land development project consisted not less
than 3 million cubic meter earthworks of land Figure 2. CPTu results of the landslides area
grading. At river banks, 15m embankment high
was built with local soils materials, just like any Figure 2 shows the result of the CPTu test
other segment of lower elevation. Along the river taken at almost the centre of landslide area up to
bank, the edge of the embankment was built with 4 12.48m depth. It can be seen that up to 9.29m
tiered slope of 1(V) : 3(H). Each tier is of 3 m depth, the soils consist of clays with soft to stiff
height, providing 3 m horizontal bench for each consistency. Below these layer the silty clay soil
tier. layer become stiff to hard. Friction ratio data
The embankment constructions was begun on shows that embankment layer was 6.49m instead
August 2011. Before its completion, a large of 8.5m before landslides takes place. It is
segment of the slopes failure was noticed on interesting to note that pore pressures has been
October 2011 as shown on Figure 1. The cracks read from the ground level, which means that
was then followed with 4~7 m down movement of ground water level is similar with the ground level,

L4-3
and up to 6.5m depth the pore pressure recorded
was more than hidrostatic pressure.
Combining all data collected, analysis was
made to describe soil stratification profile, identify
potential sliding plane, characterize insitu soil
strenght of embankment material as well as
original subgrade and to know soil compressibility
due to embankment process. Figure 3 shows the
summary of NSPT data collected of a cross section
of landslide area. With this data, it is easy to
identify the potential sliding plane which is located
somewhere between original subgrade layer and its Figure 5. Model of embankment slope stability
embankment. NSPT data consistently shown analysis and analysis results shows potential
reduction of blow number at BH-03 and BH-06. sliding plane if ground water level -2.00 m
Measurement of ground water level made during
Model analysis and stability calculations was
drilling process embrace this premise. Groud water
made using PLAXIS computer programme. The
level variations measured at similar depth of the
soldier pile system give safety factor of 1.5. Figure
predicted sliding plane. Hence, it was believed that
5 shows the potential sliding dip if water table
landslides was triggered by soil softening at the
raise up to 2m below designated embankment
base of embankment caused by water seepage at
elevation.
“contact zone” between embankment and original
Following this recommendation, the soldier
subgrade.
pile was constructed immediately to avoid further
Design of corrective actions was proposed by
landslides. The 156m soldier system was
installing a protective soldier pile system of 30cm
constructued in 2 months period continued with
diameter or 40cm square pile and 12m of pile
reconstruction of embankment slope. However,
lenght at a distance of 90 cm. Pile was designed in
just before its completion, similar symptoms of
“zig zag” formation to increase overall system
previous landslide was noticed. Preceded with
stiffness. All piles then tied up with 50 x 70cm
cracks of landslides crown at the upper parts of the
capping beam. Figure 4 shows the diagram of
slopes, movement of soldier pile capping beam
soldier pile construction. In pararel, ground water
followed with debris down movements.
level should be controlled by installing a number
Later measurement shown that the some
of piezometer recorded minimum twice a day.
segment of soldier pile capping beam had moved
3m towards the river. It is not known whether the
pile had broken due to moment or shear forces.
However, these second failure/movements shows
that embankment materials loose its shear strenght
once again, sets all embankment load concentrated
to the soldier pile system.

CONSIDERATION OF OTHER METHOD

Figure 3. NSPT Summary at the centre of
landsliding area
Figure 4. Slope repair design diagram
Further insitu testing and study of slope
movement was made. This time, insitu testing
conducted 36 (thirty six) CPT divided into 6(six)
row to present 6(six) cross sections of soil
conditions. Two rows represent soil conditions that
was not undergo any landslides. While 24 tests in 4
row s was made on area that undergo the
landslides. Figure 6 shows the layout of CPT test
that has undertaken. While Figure 7 plot summary
of CPT of cross section B.
Some methods of reinstatement was discussed.
The consultant bring up the idea to apply soil-
cement stabilization. This method intend to mixed

L4-4
the softened soil with certain amount of cement,
laying it back to its location with sufficient
compaction efforts. After that, 3(three) days of
curing time will be given. It was designed that the
stabilized soil will achieve qc (min.)= 40 kg/cm2
measured by CPT. This specification were based
on laboratory compaction test that shows of qc can
achieved up to 70 kg/cm2. In view of the
variations of soils water contents of area under
concerned, it was estimated that cement content
requirement is between 2 ~ 10% by weight.
However, taking into account massive quantity
of softened soils to be stabilized, cost and amount
of energy for the whole operation (drying, mixing,
laying and compaction), uncertainty wheather
conditions, further risk of landslides, and some
other consideration it was decided not to execute
the above suggestions.
Some technical considerations for instance; (i)
saturated expansive soils tend become softened
soils and require a huge of energy to reduce its
water contents. If this is done by sunlight it will
takes time. It will require also effort to reverse the
wet soils to the above in order to exposed the wet
soils into the sunlight. (ii) softened wet expansive
soils is very sticky. To mix such sticky soil with
cement to get a uniform mixture (and hence
uniform soil strenght qc > 40 kg/cm2) will require
an enourmous energy).
Figure 6. Topography of the area after 2nd landslides
and layout of CPT Tests. It shows also the capping
beam have moved 3 m
Figure 7. Cross section B with CPT data shows
softening of subgrade.
LIMESTONE STRIPS METHOD
Slope stabilisation design then focused to (i)
provide subdrain at the bottom of the embankment
and (ii) replace saturated embankment material
with unsaturated less-expansive materials found in
adjacent area having better remolded properties.
The subdrain will keep the water away to wetting
the embankment body for it could maintain its
shear strenght for good. However, replacement of
embankment material should be made partially to
avoid further landslides. An open excavation area
will cause landslide crown move back of
avalanches, create another landslide especially in
unpredicted weather conditions. Hence it was
decided to make some limestone strips along the
embankment. At least there are 4 (four) reasons as
the basis of consideration:
1. It will provide subdrain routes for seepage
water flowing down the embankment without
wetting up the soils and reduce soil shear
strenghts. As drainage facilities, the limestone
strips should be construct from the bottom of
embankment. For this purpose, the limestone
strip should be construct with gap graded well
compacted coarse limestone ϕ 10~20 cm.
2. The limestone strips is designed to have 2 and
5 m width. With this width, the construction
can be made partially and can be considered
as a part of soil replacement programme. This
is appropriate with the conditions that the
replacement of saturated embankment
material shall be constructed partially to avoid
further landslides.
3. The strips will performed as the embankment
ribs, enhance ‘structural’ strenght to the
embankment. Constructed with limestone,
granular material which have relatively higher
shear strenght coming from internal fiction
angle, the ribs will improve embankment
shear strenght.
4. The use of limestone material have been used
successfully in many projects in Cikarang and
Kerawang area. Initially limestone was used to
minimize swelling and improve soil plasticity
and workability. Lime stabilization layer have
been applied at all road constructions in Lippo
Cikarang as subgrade improvement. To some
degree, the use of limestone may modified
Cikarang’s silty clay expansive soils to exhibit
less plasticity, improved workability and
increased strenght characteristic trough
complex chemical reaction (Nelson & Miller,
1992). To take this advantages the limestone
L4-5
 used should be active. This can be tested with
HCL.
Figure 8. Stages of Construction
(drawing by Heru Kurniawan)
L4-6
1.
A model was then draw and calculated with
PLAXIS 3D computer programme to check its
stability. The calculations resulting safety
factor of 2.1 which bring a reasonably
confidance level for its construction as long as
the parameter assumed can be achieved in the
construction phase.
With the above deskwork, site construction
was begun in July 2012 and compeleted on
September 2012. Two locations of inclinometer
had installed and monitored since then. Only
minor movements (max. 5 mm) was recorded
in early times after the constructions. After that
there no further movement recorded.
CONCLUSION
In dealing with landslides of man made
embankment on expansive soils, softening of
both embankment and subgrade materilas
caused by ground water seepage is one
importance aspect to deal with. Compacted
expansive soils easily lost its shear strenght
when the water content raise up to 35%. A new
approach of remedial measure is proposed. The
limestone strips provide an alterative solution
to handling such failure. The proposed method
is advised on expansive soils embankment
slopes constructions as landslides risk
reduction measure. The similar limestone strip
structures is being tested as a strategy to reduce
landslides risk of embankment slopes.
Figure 8. Construction of Limestone Strip
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Some of the works described in this paper was
supported by PT Lippo Cikarang Tbk. The Author
gratefully acknowledges the major contributions of
a number of professionals on these projects,
including Prof. Paulus Pramono Rahardjo, Ph.D.
and Prof. Djoko Soelarnosidji, Ph.D.
REFERENCES Indonesia and adjacent Archipelagoes,
Government Printing Office, The Hague
Chen, Fu Hua (1975). Foundations on Expansive
Soils, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company,
Amsterdam, New York, NY.
Clements, Ben (2008), Paleogene and Early
Miocene geological evolution of West Java,
Royal Holloway University of London, South
East Asia Reseach Group,
http://searg.rhul.ac.uk
Fredlund, D.G., (1983), Prediction of ground
movements in swelling clays., 31th Annual
Soils Mechanics and Found Engineering
Conference., University of Minnesota,
Minneapolis.
Fredlund, D.G., (1995) The Prediction of Heave in
Expansive soils, Canada – Kenya Symposium
on Unsaturated Soil Behaviour and
Applications, University of Nairobi, pp 105-
119, Nairobi, Kenya.
Lunt, Peter (2013) The Sedimentary Geology of
Java, Indonesia Petroleum Association, Jakarta
Meilani, Inge (1999) A Studi of the Effect of
Saturation and Water Suction on the Shear
Strenght of expansive soils in Padalarang, West
Java. Magister Thesis, Universitas Katolik
Parahyangan. Bandung.
Mitchell J.K., (1993) Fundamental of Soil
Behaviour. John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 1993.
Nelson J.D and Miller D.J., (1992) Expansive
Soils Problems and Practice in Foundation and
Pavement Engineering. John Wiley & Sons,
Inc., New York, NY.
Ratman, N and Gafur, S (1998) Peta Geologi
Regional, Lembar Jawa Bagian Barat Skala
1:500,000, Pusat Penelitian dan Pengembangan
Geologi, Bandung
Suherman, M (2005) Penanganan Tanah Expansif
untuk Konstruksi Jalan, Pedoman Konstruksi
dan Bangunan, Departemen Pekerjaan Umum.
Susanto, Djoko and Cindarto (2002)
Penanggulangan Longsoran dengan Barisan
Tiang Pancang, Studi Kasus Stabilitas Lereng
pada Tanah Ekspansif di Taman Sriwedari
Lippo Cikarang. Prosiding Seminar Nasional
SLOPE 2002, Himpunan Mahasiswa Jurusan
Teknik Sipil, Universitas Katolik Parahyangan,
Bandung.
Sutikno and Damianto, Budi (2009). Stabilisasi
Tanah Ekspansif dengan Penambahan kapur
(Lime): Aplikasi Pada Pekerjaan Timbunan.
Jurnal Teknik Sipil dan Perencanaan, Nomor 2
Volume 11 – Juli 2009.
Van Bemmelen, R.W. (1949), Geology of
Indonesia Vol. IA, General Geology of

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Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

FAILURE OF BRIDGE ABUTMENT EMBANKMENT ON SOFT SOIL

A CASE STUDY IN LAMPUNG, SOUTH SUMATERA

CindartoLie 1 and Djoko Koestijanto 2

ABSTRACT: Not long after the completion of backfilling at bridge abutment and their approach road
embankments, tension cracks are observed, an indication of slope instability and excessive horizontal
deformation of the bridge abutments. Whereas, soil investigation indicated the presence of about 6 to 7 m thick
soft soil underlying the soil embankment. Bearing Capacity and Slope Stability Analysis indicatethat the critical
height of embankment that can overburden the top of soft soil was only4 m. In order to stabilize the slope of
approach road embankment, counterweight was introduced, and to stabilize the counterweight embankment,
wooden piles wereemployed to support the counterweight embankment. Concrete driven pile which supporting
the bridge abutments also have suffered lateral load due to the backfilling behind the abutment and have caused
both bridge abutments deformed laterally towards the river. To reduce the lateral load on the pile foundation
which support the bridge abutment, concrete driven piles are introduced to carry the load exerted by abutment
fill, so that no vertical load on the soft soil can transform to lateral load towards the abutments structure.

Keywords: Soft clay, slope stability analysis, CPT (cone penetration test), driven pile foundation, counter weight

INTRODUCTION short time period, the embankment fail in un-

As part of the development plan for the
cooperation of PT. GPM& PT ILP, sugar cane
plantations in Metro, South Sumatera, a new
connecting bridge between two building
structureshas to be built crossing a river. Total
length of the bridge was 73.6 m, 10 m wide, that
consisted of 3 equal length span with 2 piers in the
river. Right after the completion of backfilling of
the abutments andthe approach road embankment,
slope instability hasoccurred on this soil
embankment. The backfill behind the abutments
has pushed the concrete abutments wall laterally
towards the river. Luckily, the girder of the bridge
has been installed so that the lateral load from both
abutments wastransmitted to the pier foundation. In
the process, the girder stood as strutting elements.
The 6 m concrete abutment itself rest on spun pile
foundation with 600 mm diameter down to 18 m
depth.
The embankment of approach road to the
abutment also showed instability at both side of
their slope, tension cracks and bulging of the sub-
grade are observed at the toe area.It was clear that
the failure was due to the excess pore pressure
caused by the fill material that was placed in very
drained condition.
CONDITION OF THE SITE
Soil investigation conducted during design stage
consists of several deep borings and cone
penetration tests situated along the bridge
alignment. Previous drilling and CPT revealed that
there wasno indication of the presence of very soft
clay underneath the area of the future embankment,
the reason why a possible soil instability during the
embankment activities over the very soft clay river
sediment was not anticipated. Calculation on the
stability of the embankment using stress
distribution approach and the results gave
satisfactory factor of safety.
After the slope instability occurred, additional
drilling and cone penetration testing (CPT) were
carried out by geotechnical drilling company who
did the same work for the design stage, and the
results were similar to the previous data, no
indication about the presence of soft soil. After
making zeroing manometer reading correction to
the cone resistance of the CPT test data, and
interpreting the boring log produced over the

1
Ph.D. Student, Parahyangan Catholic University, Bandung, Indonesia
2
Senior Civil Engineer, PT. BITA Engineering, Bandung, Indonesia

L5-1
problematic area, the following soil profiles was Water table found in the borehole was at 8 m
chosen for the further analysis. below the existing embankment surface, which the
elevation correlates to the water level of the river.

Figure 1. Site plan of the bridge

GEOTECHNICAL MODEL
In order to build geotechnical model for the
stabilization analysis of the road embankment,back
analysison the failing slope was carried out. The 4
m high slope has 1 vertical and 2 horizontal angles
were analyzed. The back analysis was carried out
by using Morgenstren-Pricelimiting equilibrium
method and Slope/w computer program was used.
By adjusting the very soft clay cohesion parameter
so that the factor of safety analyzed close to unity,
thefollowing are soil layer and its parameterswhich
Figure 2. Connecting Bridge between PT. GPM and were considered to be used for further remedial
PT. ILP analysis;

Table 2. Soil layers and their Parameters

Friction
Wet Cohesion,
Soil type angle,
density C
=
Fill
material 18 kN/m3 15 kPa 20o
Very soft
17 kN/m3 10 kPa 0
clay layer
Stiff clay
layer 18 kN/m3 50 kPa 0

Figure 3. Road embankment failure Further the above soil parameters were used to
check the stability of the road embankment slope
Table 1. Soil Profile of the Area with different slope height. And the result is
Layer Characteristics presented in Figure 4.
Fill material whithies red and brown silty clay,
high plasticity, and poorly
compacted, maximum 6 m high.
River sediment grey to dark grey, very soft clay of
high plasticity, very compressible,
7 m to 8 m thick
Sedimentary grey to dark grey, stiff to very stiff
clay clay of high plasticity , as basement
layer covering the area.

L5-2
 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
40
38
40
38
4. Backfilling the bridge abutment with
36 36
34 34 compacted soil as specified compaction
32 32
30
28
30
28
criteria.
26 26
5. Install steel sheet pile for scouring
Elevation, m

24 0.988 24
22 22
20 Fill 20 protection at the shoreline around the
18 18
16
14 Very Soft Clay
16
14
abutment
12 12
10 10
8 8 The following was the analytical calculation of
6 Stiff Clay 6
4
2
4
2
the above recommendations;
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
0
 The vertical pressure due to the 5 m soil
Distance, m
backfill, P = 5 x 18 kN/m3 = 90 kPa.
Figure 4. Back analysis of the failing slope of the
road embankment (h = 4 m), FoS = 0.988  The load capacity of a single mini pile = 4
x 0.2 m x 12 m x  x 10 kPa = 96 kPa.>
4 90 kPa (ok), the pile was considered as
3.5 friction pile and the adhesion factor,  = 1.
3
F a c t o r o f S a fe t y

2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Slope Height, m

Figure 5. Factor of safety versus height of road Figure 6. Typical section of remedial measure at
embankment slope bridge abutment

REMEDIAL MEASURES OF BRIDGE REMEDIAL MEASURES OF ROAD

ABUTMENTS BACKFILL EMBANKMENT
After backfilling of the bridge abutments, not The future road embankment has various
only lateral active pressure was generating against heights, from 0 m at the end of the bridge alignment
the abutment wall but also lateral force imposed on to as high as 6 m at the bridge abutment.Assuming
the spun piles supporting the bridge abutments. the life load imposed on the road is 10 kPa, series
About 11 cm lateral movements had been recorded; of slope stability analysis were exercised for
but with the girder of the bridge that has already different slope angle and height. The results of the
been installed in place although not purposely to analysis were presented in Figure 4.
function as lateral strutting, has held the excessive
lateral deformation 40
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
40
38 38
In order to stop the slope movement the 36 36

following recommendations are instructed; 34

32
34
32

1. Removed the backfill 5 m depth to lessen 30

28
30
28

the vertical pressure 26

Live load 10 kPa
26
E le v a tio n , m

24 24
2. Installed 12 m length minipile, section 20 22 22
20 Fill 20
cm x 20 cm at 80 cm centre to centre 18 18
16 16
spacing 14 Very Soft Clay 14
12 12
3. Installed 100 cm x 100 cm, 15 cm 10 10
8 8
thickness and single reinforcement 6 Stiff Clay 6
4 4
concrete slab as pile cap on top of the pile 2 2

head, this concrete slab will transfer the 0

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
0

backfill load to the deeper soil layer so that Distance, m

transformation of vertical load become Figure 7. Geotechnical model for the remedial
lateral load towards the pile foundation measure analysis
can be eliminated.

L5-3
 2.5 = Unit area treated by wooden pile,
=50 cm x 50 cm
2.3 = Area of the wooden pile, a = 0.25 π d2
= Un-drained shear strength of soil,
2.1 = 10 kPa
Slope 1V:2H
 = Shear strength of wooden pile material,
1.9
Slope 1V:3H
Slope 1V:4H
 = 6-7 kg/cm2
= 30 kPa.
Slope 1V:5H
1.7
The following Figure is typical stabilization
FactorofSafety

scheme for the road embankment.

1.5

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
40 40
1.3 38 38
36 36
34 34
32 32

1.1 30 30
28 28
26 26
Live Load 10 kPa

E le v a tio n , m
24 24

0.9 22 22
20 Fill 20
18 18
16 16
Wooden Pile Wooden Pile
0.7 14 Very Soft Clay 14
12 12
10 10
8 8

0.5 6 Stiff Clay 6

4 4
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 2 2
0 0
Embankment Height, m 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70

Distance, m
Figure 8. Factor of safety against height of road Figure 9. Typical cross section of remedial measure
embankment slope, with additional 10 kPa live load for the road embankment
on the road surface.
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
40 40
38 38
Considering the minimum factor of safety for 36 36
34 34
the road embankment in un-drained condition is 32 32
30 30
1.30, only the embankment with height more than 2 28 28
26 26
m needs to be stabilized. The graph also shows that Live Load 10 kPa
E levation, m

24 1.512 24
22 22
there is no significance increase of factor of safety 20 Fill 20

by flattening of the slope flatter than 1V: 3H. In 18

16
18
16
Wooden Pile Wooden Pile
another word flattening is ineffective. 14
12
Very Soft Clay 14
12

In order to stabilize the failing slope, counter 10

8
10
8

weight embankment placed at the toe of slope as 6

4
Stiff Clay 6
4

counter balance moment was chosen. 2

0
2
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
Counterweight embankment by itself has to be
Distance, m
stable as well, and to increase its stability, wooden Figure 10. Typical slope stability analysis result on
piles were installed to support the weight of the the stabilized embankment by counterweight +
counterweight embankment. The wooden piles wooden pile reinforcement
were made from the trunk of trees which are easily
found at the locality. The wooden piles were 6 m
length and minimum 10 cm diameter with pile
spacing 50 cm centre to centre.
The following is determination of apparent
composite shear strength of the very soft clay that
has been reinforced by using wooden pile.

Where :
= Apparent un-drained cohesion of soil and
wooden pile material

L5-4
 1.9 Proceedings of Soft Soils 2014, October 20-23rd
2014. Bandung, Indonesia
Holtz, R.D., & Kovacs, W.D. 1981. An
1.7
Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering.
Prentice-Hall. New Jersey
1.5 PT. Bita Enarcon Engineering, 2011,
Factor of Safety

LaporanAnalisaGeoteknikPerbaikanLongsoran
1.3 &StabilisasiTimbunanBadanJalan&Jembatan,
PT. Gula Putih Mataram, Bandung, Indonesia.
1.1 William Powrie, 2004. Soil Mechanics, Concepts &
Applications. Spon Press. London and New
York.
0.9

0.7

0.5
0 2 4 6 8
Embankment Height, m
Figure 11. Embankment height versus factor of
safety graph of the stabilized embankment by
counterweight + wooden pile reinforcement

CONCLUSIONS
The case study described in this paper is about
the risk of constructing embankment on soft soil,
which may fail during construction, and fail under
un-drained condition.
Constructing embankment on soft soil shall be
done in stages, time interval is needed tolet excess
pore water pressuredissipatingin the overstressed
soft soil and gain its strength before next stage can
initiated. Otherwise, the consolidation process by
using vertical drain has to be expedited .
Backfilling a bridge abutment built on soft soil
will transform the gravity load of the backfill into
lateral load towards the foundation layer supporting
the abutments.
Since the beginning the problem can be avoided
if competent geotechnical consultant who is
familiar with soft soil behavior shouldhave been
hired so that proper design and construction
sequences areconsidered.

REFERENCES
Budijanto Widjaja & Dania Wardhani, 2011.
Failure of Geotextile Retaining Wall due to
Lack of soil Investigation and Uncertainty of
Soil Stratification, Proceeding Seminar HATTI,
10-11 February 2011, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
Handoko, A., Rahardjo, P.P., Wirawan, A.,
Sugiarto, S. 2014. Evaluation of Abutment
Failure due to Backfill on Soft Soils,

L5-5
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

ANALYSIS OF SOIL CEMENT MATERIAL TO SLOPE STABILIZATION ON

ACCESS ROAD OF JATIBARANG DAM PROJECT
Abdul Hakim

ABSTRACT: Slope stabilization is depend on soil properties which have resistance on self weight of soil and
loads on it. This study descript physical and mechanical aspect of soil cement material to stabilize slope of
access road to Jatibarang dam project Semarang (2011). Access road was constructed on the slope which is on
geology map be ground motion zone and very high vulnerability (M. Wahid, 1993). The result of geology
investigation and site inspection is that sub grade of weathered sandstone has low shear stress. Therefore, one
solution to improve it is by soil cement. The mixed material consists of sand from Damar Formation which is
excavated from Diversion Tunnel, cement and water suitable OMC. The improvement of soil stabilization
consists of three stage, as follow: (a) Trial mix, (b) trial in site, (c) embankment in slide location. The final
results show that soil stress improved by adding cement significantly increases as target 21 kg/cm2.

Keywords: Slope stabilization, Soil Cement, Compression, Density and Permeability

INTRODUCTION reinforcement is by adding cement so that either

The Construction of Jatibarang Dam Semarang
authority under Directorate General Water
Resources of Public Work Ministry need access
road to mobilize material, equipment and man
power to location of the project. Topography
around 114 m lwl and geology condition as
weathered volcanic sedimentary rock cause access
road plan which is constructed potentially sliding
especially in the wet season.
.
Regional
Local
location
location
Figure 1. Soil improvement location
shear stress or resistance forces increase to counter
original soil and embankment. The result of
investigation state that land slide look like
weathered sandstone is impossible mixed cement,
so soil should be replaced. Excavation soil from
Diversion Tunnel was used because of economic
prospect and unlimited material supply.
Started works (a) by sampling to properties
test consist: sieve analysis, standard proctor,
specific gravity, absorption and permeability. (b)
Trial mix was conducted after properties test to
gain appropriate mix proportion so that reached
compression strength minimum 21 kg/cm2 in 7
days. This time limit is used for urgent condition
caused bad weather to prevent other sliding.
The form of sample Trial mix is tube size 8 cm
in diameter and 16 cm in height, sample is cured
by plastic packed. Unconfined compression test
was conducted to know strength of each samples,
the best result is recommended for embankment in
sliding area.

The result of investigation by core drilling of

existing soil is shear angle φ=2.1°, cohesion c =
2.34 kg/cm2 and safety factor SF=0,95. And then
data was analyzed by Fellinius method, result: Act
force 82,1 t/m and counter force 78 t/m.
Analyzed results show that embankment is not
recommended for civil constructions, therefore
need soil reinforcement. One method of

L6-1
METODOLOGY In Table 1 explain us about the results of
investigation by core drilling depth 5,25 meter.
Properties test in laboratory are water content
36,7 % , unit weight 1,7 g/cm3 , cohesion 23,4
kN/m2 and internal friction angle 2.1o. And then
were analyzed by Fellenius method as in Table 2.

Table 2. Results of landslide stability analyzed

Strength parameter of
clay Counter
Act Force
along slip-line Force
c φ
t/m2 Degree kN/m kN/m
0.8 2.1° 821 780

Table 2 shows us that safety factor existing soil

SF = 0.95. The required safety factor is 1.2, the
required restraint force will be 1.2 times of act
force of 821 kN/m.
[Required Restraint Force by Restraint Works]
= 1.2 x [Act Force] – [Resistance Force of Existing
Sliding Block]
= 1.2 x 821 – 780 = 205 kN/m = 21 t/m
Calculated result show to rise safety factor 1.2
resistance force must be increased up to 21 t/m.

Laboratory Test
Existing soil of landslide formed weathered
sandstone is impossible mixed cement, therefore
existing soil should be replaced with other. Fresh
sandstone from excavation Diversion Tunnel
which it properties as gradation, density and water
Figure 2. Flowchart of soil cement method content like below.
execution

Curing specimen
Mold specimen 16 m height, 8 cm diameter
Compression test 1 day, 3 specimen – 2 spare
Compression test 7 days, 3 specimen – 2 spare

RESULT AND ANALYSIS

Clay of landslide condition before improvement
It was conducted investigation by core drilling
depth 5.25 m before improvement. Analysis of Figure 3. Sieve analysis of fresh sandstone
data applied Fellenius Method, results of analyzed
are summarized in Table 1. Table 3. Gradation of fresh sandstone
Sieve analysis % Type
Table 1. Character clay of landslide (mm)
76.2 100 Gravel
Internal 4.75 48.6 Coarse
Water Unit
Depth Cohesion Friction
(m)
Content Weight
(kN/m2) Angle
Sand
(%) (g/cm3) 0.075 8.68 Fine sand
(Degree)
0.005 3.54 Silt
5.25 36.7 1.7 23.4 2.1
0.001 1.79 Clay

L6-2
 Based on Figure 3 and Table 3 show that
coarse sand (48,6%), fine sand (8.68%), silt
(3.54%) and clay (1.79%). Result of sieve analysis
soil is well graded and if mixed cement, it will
bind sand particle and fill soil pore so that soil to
be hard and strong.
Other properties test is standard proctor.
Because of grain size is more than 3 cm, so Figure 5. Comparison of UCS Test Result case 1
modified test is suitable. The results of modified and case 2
test as Figure 4.
Table 5. Results of Density test
Case Sampel Wc Γd
No (kg/cm2) (Kg/cm3)
1 18.66 1.630
2 18.66 1.636
3 18.66 1.669
Case 1
4 18.66 1.560
5 18.66 1.637
6 18.66 1.665
Average 1.632
1 17.05 1.609
Figure 4. Results of Modified Test 2 17.05 1.625
3 17.05 1.633
Results of Modified Test are maximum dry Case 2
4 17.05 1.694
density (1,75 kg/cm3) and optimum moisture
5 17.05 1.709
content (19%,). These parameter are applied in the
6 17.05 1.707
site.
Average 1.660
After properties test and design mix, Trial mix
is conducted in Laboratory. There are 2 alternative
Table 5 shows that density of case 1 (1,632
mix proportions are (a) case 1: soil 30 kg, cement
Kg/cm3) lower than density of case 2 (1,66
1 kg and water1 liter. (b) Case 2: soil 30 kg, semen
Kg/cm3), it is caused by Difference of cement and
1.4 kg and water 1.4 liter. Results of trial mix are
water composition. Based on case 1 and case 2 is
summarized in Table 4.
the result of case 1 better than case 2 so mix
Table 4 show the results of unconfined
proportion case 1 is recommended for conduct
compression strength of soil cement of case1 and
soil improvement.
case 2 on 1 day and 7 days condition. The average
of UCS 1 day condition of case 1 (8.11 kg/cm2), it Trial Field Test
is lower than case 2 (9,920 kg/cm2) but on 7 days
condition case 1 (20.74 kg/cm2 ) is higher than Field test is conducted to compare the results of
case 2 (16,140) kg/cm2. compression strength and density with the same
test in laboratory, the required D value is 95%
Table 4. Results of Unconfined Compressive otherwise to gain appropriate number passing.
Strength Field test is conducted not only to know D
Case Age qu Age qu value but also to know permeability, number
(day) (kg/cm2) (day) (kg/cm2) passing, suitability of machinery. For trial field
1 9.249 7 18.768 test, stockyard 6 m in length, 2 m in wide and 1
Case 1 1 7.459 7 20.779 m in depth , thick of layer is 30 cm. Stockyard as
1 7.624 7 20.668 Figure 6.
Average 8.110 20.738
1 11.107 7 14.845
Case 2 1 9.301 7 16.661
1 9.346 7 16.918
Average 9.920 16.140

L6-3
 proficiency soil. Location of embankment is
divided to 5 block with 4 meter in length and 4
meter in wide. Mixing material is conducted by
excavator. Soil material is always kept OMC
condition by spreading water.
Based on Table 8 and Figure 6 show us that
results of UCS test on age 7 days: block 1 is
Figure 6. Stockyard of Site Test 21,24 kg/cm2, block 2 is 19.43 kg/cm2, block 4 is
24.95 kg/cm2 and block 5 is 21,13 kg/cm2, Block
Method of density and permeability test use 3 as parameter for age of 28 days. Result of UCS
water replacement and falling head method. for each blocks are required and target strength 21
Results of trial summarized in Table 6. kg/cm2 is reached.
For results of density and permeability are
Table 6. Result of Unconfined Compressive summarized in Table 9 and Figure 8.
Strength
Table 8. Results of UCS
Sample Age qu Age qu
(day) (kg/cm2) (day) (kg/cm2) Block Age qu Age qu
Sample 1 1 6.589 7 21.224 (day) (kg/cm2) (days) (kg/cm2)
Sample 2 1 6.576 7 21.361 1 3.741 7 20.56
Block
Sample 3 1 6.590 7 21.125 1 5.598 7 20.64
1
Average 6.585 21.237 1 5.580 7 22.62
Average 4.970 21.24
Table 6 shows that average compression test of 1 5.662 7 18.97
Block
soil cement on age 7 days is 21.237 kg/cm2, this 2
1 5.589 7 20.80
result is required and suitability with result of trial 1 5.580 7 18.54
mix test. Average 5.610 19.43
Results of density and permeability by tamping 1 9.414 28 28.29
Block
rammer with 2 passing, 4 passing and 6 passing 1 9.460 28 26.13
3
are summarized in Table 7 1 9.399 28 26.51
Average 9.420 26.94
Table 7. results of density and permeability trial 1 11.297 7 25.81
test Block
1 9.460 7 22.52
4
passing Water γd Average D 1 10.060 7 26.53
Content (Kg/cm3) Permeability value Average 9.420 24.95
(%) (cm/s) (%) 1 11.279 7 22.65
Block
2 19.39 1.553 3.333E-04 93.41 1 13.223 7 22.07
5
4 19.39 1.573 1.232E-04 94.62 1 11.436 7 18.69
6 19.39 1.595 6.228E-05 95.94 Average 11.970 21.130

Table 7 shows results of density test 2, 4 and 6

passing. Result of 2 passing is density (1.553
kg/cm3) and permeability (3.333E-04 cm/s). Result
of 4 passing is density (1.573 kg/cm3) and
permeability (1.232E-04 cm/s). Result of 2 passing
is density (1.595 kg/cm3) and permeability 6.228E-
05 cm/det. Three alternatives required but one of
alternatives most efficient is used.

Soil Condition after Improvement

Trial mix and trial field test were conducted,
the last stage is embankment in site of Figure 6. Graph of UCS test results
improvement. Before embankment existing
material, is excavated by excavator up to

L6-4
Table 9. Results of density and permeability test REFERENCES
Block Wc γd D Permeability Das, Braja M. (1985) , Principles of Geotechnical
(%) (Kg/cm )3
value (cm/s) Engineering, Pridle, Weber & Schmidt
(%) Publised, Boston.
1 20.20 1.616 97.20 Suardi Enita,(2005).” Kajian Kuat Tekan Bebas
2 19.78 1.586 95.40 Tanah Lempung Yang Distabilisasi Dengan
3 19.13 1.679 100 Aditive Semen Dan Kapur”.Jurnal Ilmiah Poli
4 18.19 1.580 95.04 Rekayasa Volume1, Nomor 1, Oktober 2005
5 17.95 1.691 101.17 2.632E-04 ISSN : 1858-3709
Average 19.05 1.630 97.76 http://aryadhani.blogspot.com/2009/05/geologi-
regional-kota-semarang.html
http://franzbonbon.blogspot.com/2011/04/geologi-
regional-daerah-semarang.html
CTII, (2011) Proposed Countermeasure for the
Landslide at the Embankment Section of Right
Access Road.

Figure 8. Graph of density and permeability tes

Based on Figure 8 and Table 8, D Value of

block 1 (98,63%) , block 2 (98,7%), block 3
(98,10%) block 4 (98,25%), and block 4 (98,41%)
so D value over target minimum 95%.

SUMMARY
1. Landslide of Access Road to Jatibarang Dam
project caused by low shear stress.
2. One solution for landslide in this area is
Mixing of soil cement to improve quality as
well as countermeasure of landslide
3. Because of the soft weathered rock is
impossible mixed of cement so it should be
changed of sand stone material from Damar
Formation.
4. There are three stage of execution: (1) trial
mix, (2) Trial Field test and (3) Embankment
in the site
5. Mix proportion must be prepared 30 before
trial mix, composition as follow: 1 kg of soil,
1 kg of cement and 1 liter of water.
Compaction was conducted by Tamping
Rammer 4 passing’
6. The Results of embankment on site and
sampling for UCS, permeability and density
test are UCS result up to 21 kg/cm2, D value
(97.76) and permeability (2.632E-04 cm/s )

L6-5
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

MECHANISM AND COUNTERMEASURE IN PENGALENGAN LANDSLIDE,

WEST JAVA
Toshiaki Hosoda 1, Aris Handoko 2 and Paulus P. Rahardjo 3

ABSTRACT: On 5th May 2015, a landslide disaster occurred in Pengalengan, located at approx. 40 km south of
Bandung, West Java. The Landslide killed 9 people, missing 2 people and damaged 1,800m of geothermal
pipelines. Soon after, commencement restoration of geothermal pipelines with constructing countermeasures
against the Landslide. Because of the shortage of time for countermeasure construction, temporary
countermeasure and permanent countermeasure are proposed and considered. This paper describe the mechanism
of landslides, the study for counter measures through comprehensive soil investigation, and through design to
stabilize the landslide area.

Keywords: Landslide, Pengalengan, Surface and Subsurface drain, Gabion wall, Concrete Crib Work, Bored
pile

INTRODUCTION LANDSLIDE PHENOMENA

According to the witness a symptom was first
On 5th May 2015, a landslide disaster occurred
observed in 2012: a crack was found in pipeline
in Pengalengan, located at approx. 40 km south of
route in the area. In 2014, crack had spread and
Bandung, West Java. The Landslide is located at 1.0
shifted a part of the pipeline. In March 2015, soil
km NNE of Wayang-Windu Geothermal Power
movement was detected in topsoil of 150 m long,
Station, where the gentle slope is dipping to the
253 m wide and growing cracks were observed (by
west, and elevation is 1,700-1,800 m EL. The
Jakarta Post). On May 5, 2015, soil movement
affected area is 700 m long and 200 m wide,
became rapid, and developed into the Landslide.
destroyed geothermal pipelines and some houses
The Landslide occurred over an area with length
located in the area. The damages of the landslide are
of 200 m and width of 170 m, and most of landslide
listed in Table 1.
body flew down. Based on these phenomena, much
The landslide area was surrounded by gentle
groundwater was supplied to the landslide area.
slope which is utilized by cultivation and tea
After primary landslide, collapses and secondary
plantation. The landslide area would have the same
landslides occurred at the main scarp of primary
gentle slope which is around 20 degrees located at
landslide. They are progressing up to 30 m from the
the foot of a steep mountain. The gentle slope is
shoulder of the main scarp. The secondary
composed of low trees and grasses up to EL 1700-
landslides are performing subsidence of 2-4 meters,
1780 m.
and seem unstable.
Table 1. Damage by Pengalengan Landslide The gentle slope continues behind the main
Item Number scarp. Few cracks and loosen soils are observed at
Death 7 the surface of slope, seems that the slope is losing
Missing 2 stability due to performing of the main scarp.
Injury 10 Slicken lines were found at the northern side of
Geothermal Pipeline Approx. 1,800m main scarp (Figure 1), that has 10 degrees dipping
to the west. At the bottom of the main scarp, whitish
gray sticky clay layer was observed, seems to be a
slip surface of the landslide. The clay layer has
approximately 10 degrees and is dipping to the west.

1
Manager, Geosphere Engineering & Disaster Management Office, Nippon Koei Co., Ltd., Japan
2
Senior Geotechnical Engineer, PT Geotechnical Engineering Consultant, Bandung, Republic of Indonesia
3
Professor, Geotechnical Engineering, Parahyangan Catholic University, Republic of Indonesia

L7-1
Gray to purplish gray altered andesite tuff is SOIL CONDITION
observed below the slip surface, which dip is 10-20
Soil investigation program was proposed to
degrees to the west. Spring is commonly observed
support the design for reinstatement of the pipes as
along the clay layer. The foot of the landslide was
well as for slope stabilization. The main purposes
not clear due to deposition of landslide body;
are:
however it can be assumed that the foot is located at
1. To assess the slope condition and slope
the geothermal pipeline route based on the landslide
safety
movement by witness.
2. To provide sufficient information for the
purpose of slope protection
3. To inform soil condition for the design of
foundation of pipe

Comprehensive soil investigation was conducted

consisting of 15 CPTs and 7 boreholes as shown on
Figure 2. The results have been used to described
soil profiles with depth, to determine the thickness
of debris and to design the slope treatment as well
as the foundation

Figure 1. Slicken lines (arrow) observed at the

northern side of main scarp

Figure 2. Soil investigation plan

Based on boring logs and CPT data, soil

condition is dominated by debris material defined
as soft clayey silt to the depth of 5 – 10 m. Second
layer consist of tuff material to the depth of 17-
25 m. Third layer is dominated by very stiff to
hard clay to the end of borings. The debris
materials at the surface are dominated by relatively
light weight soil of tuffaceous clayey silt (Figure
3), defined as colluvium material formed by
volcanic activity and alteration and/or weathering.
Figure 3. Debris material
Light cementation can be found at certain depth
and this material has a very high porosity.

L7-2
 Remaining landslide body seems stable now,
MECHANISM OF LANDSLIDE OCCURRENCE however groundwater level has possibility to be
Original Factor unstable in rainy season. The main scarp is
collapsing and will be processing in rainy season,
The base factor of the area is geology and may cause other landslides in the future.
topography; brown to yellowish brown talus
deposit composed of sticky soil with andesitic BACK ANALYSIS
gravels, underlain by gray to purplish gray
Because the slope has failed, the factor of
weathered and altered andesitic lava and tuff. The
safety is considered to be unity (1.00) at the time
deposit (colluvials) is continuously supplied by
of failure. Using this knowledge and an
mountain behind, and with occurrence of many
appropriate method of analysis it is possible to
springs water this area was very susceptible to
develop a model of the slope at the time that it
ground movement.
failed. The model consists of the unit weights and
shear strength properties of the soil, groundwater,
and pore water pressure conditions and the method
of analysis, including failure mechanisms. Such a
model will help in understanding the failure and
can be used as a basis of analysis of remedial
measures. The process of determining the
conditions and establishing a suitable model of the
Figure 4. Cross section of geologic condition slope from a failure is termed back analysis or
back-calculation.
Triggering Factor
The triggering factors would be a rainfall in
rainy season and groundwater in the area.
According to the result of rainfall monitoring in
rainy season, the total of rainfall was approx 1,200
mm from 1st January to 5th May 2015.
During our site visit (June, July and August
2015) spring water (approx. 20 L/min) was Figure 5. Long section of the main scarp
observed at the bottom of the main scarp even it is
dry season. Soil parameter is determined by back analysis
based on boring log and CPT data nearby main
Mechanism scarp. Slope stability analysis result shows at
Based on the phenomena and factors, landslide current condition sliding plane occur around toe of
mechanism is summarized as the followings. main scarp. Sliding occurs at soft clay and
After accumulation of rainfall, infiltration of tuffaceous material. Analysis has accommodated
water into porous material lead to the increase of the highest water level, based on site inspection the
ground water level which cannot be resisted by the ground water level can be assumed nearby surface
slope where softening take place at the toe of slope. layer. Sliding plane is shown in the result of
Based on the topography, landslide volume is analysis (Figure 6).
estimated at 500,000 m3, and the half of landslide
body (250,000 m3) flew down to the deposition
area of 110,000 m2 as mud flow, and deposited
with the thickness of 2 to 8 m as shown by the
results of soil investigation.
The materials that flew down are primarily
colluvials and this layer was fully saturated prior to
the landslide occurence. Several water springs Figure 6. Existing condition of main crown after
appear at the foot of the landslide body. The sliding
Landslide rapidly moved along the andesitic tuff
layer as slip surface with striking North-West and
10 degrees dipping to the west.

L7-3
COUNTERMEASURE PLAN
Soon after the landslide occurred, Star Energy
Geothermal Ltd. commenced restoration of
geothermal pipeline as well as landslide
countermeasure works. The overall purpose for
countermeasure works is to protect geothermal
pipelines from future landslide and/or landslide-
induced sediment disasters.
In accordance with the above-mentioned
purpose, two targets are recognized for
countermeasure works based on landslide
mechanism. One is to strengthen stability of
remaining landslide body, another is to protect
main scarp from future landslides and collapses.
Due to the incoming rainfall, the landslide
should be stabilized by December 2015 before the
rainy season. In this condition, two types of
countermeasure works were recommended;
temporary countermeasures and permanent
countermeasures. Monitoring plan for slope and
rainfall are also recommended simultaneously.
Temporary Countermeasures
Temporary countermeasures were composed of
surface and subsurface drains, gabion walls,
counter embankment, debris pocket and
monitoring systems.
The detailed design of surface and subsurface
drains is shown in Figure 7. The depth of drain
should be approx. 5 m deep from the surface. A
filter fabric should be spread at the bottom part of
sub-surface drainage. PVC pipe of the subsurface
drainage should be used for percolation.
Figure 7. Standard structure of surface and
subsurface drain
Main scarp should remain unchanged;
however debris pocket and counter embankment
will be prepared at the bottom.
Considering the great number of spring debit
and soil condition is dominantly by tuff material,
sub-drain is installed to collect water from the
spring to collecting box and then drain to the main
channel. Horizontal drains are used to maintain
ground water level low and usually installed from
L7-4
points of convenient access for the drill rig, often
fanning out to achieve broad coverage of the area.
PERMANENT COUNTERMEASURES
Permanent countermeasures were planned for
protect pipelines permanently from future
landslide risk at the main scarp. Two (2) concepts
and three (3) countermeasure plan are considered
as Table 2.
Table 2. Concept for permanent countermeasures
Concept Countermeasure Plan
1. Shift Pipeline - Vegetation
in Future
2. Keep existing 2A. Debris removal with
Pipeline Hillside work and
permanent monitoring
2B. Debris removal with
Concrete Crib with
Ground Anchors
Shift Pipeline in Future
Shifting pipelines is proposed as the best
solution; it can completely be free from landslide
risk, so vegetation work at the main scarp may be
enough for good landscape.
Keep existing Pipeline
In case the pipelines cannot be shifted,
countermeasures for the main scarp should be
required. There are two (2) options as hillside
work and concrete crib with ground anchors.
Hillside work (Figure 9) at the main scarp is
less expensive countermeasure; however this
countermeasure cannot reduce the risk of future
landslides/collapses, then permanent monitoring of
the main scarp and back-slope should be necessary.
Concrete crib with ground anchors (Figure 10)
is restraint countermeasure and may reduce the
risk completely in the future.
At present due to the fact that the production
must go on, the pipes have been designed to be
placed on pile foundation of 1200 mm diameter
with length of 25 - 35 m. There is sufficient gap of
3 m for the pipes above the foundation. The main
purpose is to allow the mud go through below the
pipes while the foundation keep on stable because
the inertia is much higher.
 REFERENCES
PT Geotechnical Engineering Consultant (2015).
Slope Failiure Assessment and Counter
Measures for Wayang Windu Landslides.
Nippon Koei Co., Ltd. (2015). Report on
Recommendation for Countermeasure Works
for Landslide in Pengalengan West Java,
Indonesia.

Figure 8. Sketch of Horisontal Drains

Figure 9. Example of hillside work in Japan

(Courtesy: http://www.pref.shiga.lg.jp/imazu-pbo/
kankyou/h190330-2.html)

Figure 10. Example of concrete crib with ground

anchors in Japan

CONCLUSIONS
 The occurrence of landslides are primarily due
to water accumulation in the colluvium beside
the water spring had caused softening of the
material causing lost of the resistance.
 The counter measures consist of short terms
(temporary) and long term (permanent)
solution. The most important step in
temporary action is to provide subdrain as
well as surface drains. For long term, either
keep the existing pipes route or treatment of
the slopes.

L7-5
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

PROPOSED EARLY WARNING SYSTEM OF SLOPE FAILURE BY MONITORING

CHANGES IN MULTI-POINT TILT AND VOLUMETRIC WATER CONTENT
L. Wang 1, T. Uchimura 2 ,S. Nishie 3, L. Su 4, C.-W. Lu 5 and J.-J. Chang 6

ABSTRACT: A low-cost and simple method of monitoring rainfall-induced landslides is proposed, with the
intention of developing an early-warning system. Surface tilt angles of a slope are monitored using this method,
which incorporates a Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS) tilt sensor and a volumetric water content
sensor. In several case studies, including a slope failure test conducted on a natural slope using artificial heavy
rainfall, the system detected distinct tilt behavior in the slope in pre-failure stages. Based on these behaviors and
a conservative approach, it is proposed that a precaution for slope failure be issued at a tilting rate of 0.01°/h, and
warning of slope failure issued at a rate of 0.1°/h. The development of this system can occur at a significantly
reduced cost (approximately one-third) compared with current and comparable monitoring methods. Given the
cost reduction, slopes can be monitored at many points, resulting in detailed observation of slope behaviors, but
the potentially large number of monitoring points for each slope does induce a financial restriction. Therefore,
the selection of sensor positions needs to be carefully considered for an effective early warning system.

Keywords: slope failure, early warning, monitoring, tilt sensors, wireless network

INTRODUCTION stages obtained on five natural slope sites under

natural or artificial heavy rainfall. Figure 2
There is a long history of prevention and
presents an example of the typical monitoring data
mitigation of rainfall and/or scouring-induced
obtained, in which the tilting rate (X-axis) can be
landslides. Mechanical countermeasures to prevent
monitored as a function of the duration before
slope failure have been widely used, including
failure or slope stabilization (Y-axis).
retaining walls and ground anchors. However,
these methods can be expensive and are not always
Surface tilt sensor Miniature ground inclinometer
realistically applicable for all slopes of varying Displacement, dKx
scale and potential risk factors. Therefore, careful
Tilt angle, dX1
monitoring of slope behavior and consequent early
0.5 m

dKx = 0.5 m・sin(dX1)

+ 0.5 m・sin(dX2)
warning of failure provides a reasonable and slope- (relative to bottom)
Tilt angle, dX2
specific alternative.
0.5 m

Number of units
extended according
In this paper, an early warning system for slope to slope conditions
0.2 m

Bottom segment
failure is proposed and its development is as reference

described (Figure 1) (Uchimura, et al. 2010, 2011).

The system consists of a minimum number of low- Receiver
cost sensors strategically placed on a slope, with (Gateway)
monitoring data that are collected being Realtime (every 10 min.)
Tilt resolution: 0.003°
Internet
Battry lifetime > 1–3 yr.
transmitted via a wireless network. It is anticipated
that this low-cost and simple system will provide Figure 1. Tilt sensor units and wireless monitoring
at-risk residents with access to accurate and timely system
precautions or warnings of slope failure.
Uchimura et al. (2015) summarized case
studies of slope tilting-rates during pre-failure

1
Senior Manager, Chuo Kaihatsu Corporation, wang@ckcnet.co.jp, JAPAN
2
Associate professor, University of Tokyo, uchimura@civil.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp, JAPAN
3
Director, Chuo Kaihatsu Corporation,nishie@ckcnet.co.jp, JAPAN
4
MSc, Chuo Kaihatsu Corporation,su@ckcnet.co.jp, JAPAN
5
Associate professor, National Kaohsiung First University of Science and Technology, TAIWAN
6
PhD, Geofield Engineering Consultants Inc., Kaohsiung, TAIWAN

M1-1
 Site D: Long term
deformation of cut slope
1000
duration before stabilization (hour)
100
Durations before failure, or
(K-1: Stabilized by
countermeasures)
10
Site C: Long term deformation
of damaged slope
1
Site A: Secondary failure
during remedy work
0.1
0.01
1E-5 1E-4 1E-3 0.01
Tilting rate (deg/hour)
Figure 2. Graphic illustration of the tilting rate as a
function of time before slope failure (or
stabilization) for several case studies
In cases where the slope failed at the position
of the tilt sensor, the duration is measured from the
time when tilting accelerated to the time of failure.
In cases where the slope did not fail but instead
stabilized, the duration is measured from when
tilting decelerated to the time when the slope
stabilized.
According to Figure 2, the order of tilting rate
observed with slope deformation varied widely,
from 0.0001°/h to 10°/h depending on a number of
factors. The tilting rate tends to increase towards
failure with a relatively short duration until failure,
when a higher tilting rate is observed. The
observed tilting rate was > 0.01°/h for all the cases
Low-cost new units
can be arranged densely
on high-risk part of the site
Short transmission
(30–200 m) , but
low-cost and simple
Figure 3. Typical arrangement of equipment including proposed new sensor units and data transmission pathway
M1-2
Site B: Slope along
Three Gorges Dam reservoir
in which the slope failed or nearly failed, while it
was <0.1°/h for all other cases. Durations of 1–10
(T200: Stabilized)
h were observed before failure for a tilting rate of
(Unit 2: Stabilized;
Failure at adjecent place) 0.1°/h.
(K-3: Stabilized) Based on these case studies, it is proposed that
Artificial rainfall test
on natural slope when the tilting rate exceeds 0.1°/h a warning of
slope failure should be issued, and a precaution
(Unit2: (K50:Failed) issued at a tilting rate of 0.01°/h, taking safety into
Failed)
(K150: Nearly failed) account. Additionally, this paper explores efforts
(T50-1:Failed)
by the current authors to improve the applicability
of the monitoring and early warning system. The
0.1 1 10 100 1000
sensor equipment is modified from that currently
available to be more cost-effective, smaller in size
and weight, and simpler to install, maintain and
operate. As a result, it is possible to install a larger
number of sensors on a given slope, thereby
providing greater coverage and higher data density.
Figure 3 illustrates the typical arrangement of
conventional and the new proposed sensors, with
data transfer pathways also shown. Despite the
advantages described above, the proposed units
have relatively short radio transmission distances
(~30 m in non-ideal conditions). They are arranged
densely on high-risk areas of a slope, with one
conventional unit collecting all the data of each
area. The data are transmitted over greater
distances (300–600 m), and uploaded to an internet
server.
Conventional unit is arranged
at high position for
Sensor unit long-distance transmission
History of data is
(up to 600 m)
stored on database
Obtained data is available
anywhere on internet
Water Tilt
All the data gathered to Time
a gateway unit, and
transferred to internet Early warning to
the area nearby
New sensor unit
DESIGN OF PROPOSED SENSOR UNIT
Basic specification
The appearance of the proposed new sensor
units is shown in Figure 4. A steel rod is inserted
into the slope surface to a depth of 0.5–1.0 m, and
the tilt sensor module is attached to the rod in a
sub-ground position to reduce data drift caused by
temperature changes. It can be noted that the
controller/radio module is smaller than a
conventional one. As a relatively shorter
transmission distance is required, the unit can be
placed at a lower position, only 30–50 cm above
ground. The relative reduction in size and weight
results in a lower cost and ease of operation.
Figure 4. Appearance of the proposed new sensor
units
To satisfy cost requirements, power
consumption, radio transmission distance,
accuracy and reliability, a CPU (Central
Processing Unit) with radio-on-chip was carefully
selected for the controller/radio module. The CPU
is a Wireless Engine, provided by Tokyo Cosmos
Electric Co., Ltd., and has a 32-bit RISC (Reduced
Instruction Set Computer) microprocessor. This
CPU can run at a frequency of 32 MHz with 32 Kb
RAM (Random Access Memory), 160 Kb flash
memory, 4 Kb EEPROM (Electrically Erasable
Programmable Read-Only Memory) and includes a
2.4 GHz radio module on the chip. The protocol
software is provided as a library, implementing an
IEEE802.15.4 standards-based wireless transceiver
that transmits and receives data at a speed of 250
Kbps in the unlicensed 2.4 GHz band.
Each sensor unit comprises a CPU, tilt sensor,
MicroSD card, real-time clock, light-emitting
diode (LED) and a set of battery cells. The tilt
sensor is a Micro Electro Mechanical Systems
(MEMS) sensor with low current consumption (5
mA), low temperature dependency (±0.014%/°C),
high resolution (0.0035° at 10 Hz BW with analog
output) and low noise. It can measure inclination
ranges of ±30° in dual axes (X and Y) and shows
negligible drift with temperature changes. The
characteristics of each chip are carefully measured,
and recorded data is corrected using relevant
temperature data.
The MicroSD card is used to record data and a
configuration file is used to instruct the controller
with unique information such as identification
number, source address, destination address and
wake-up timing. The behavior of each sensor unit
can be rearranged easily by rewriting the
configuration file. The LED is used to indicate the
current behavior of the sensor unit, which helps to
ensure reliable functioning of each unit. Two AA
alkaline batteries are used to power each unit for
approximately 6 months at a typical measuring
interval of 10 minutes.
RADIO TRANSMISSION DISTANCE
A conventional sensor unit has sufficiently
long radio transmission distance, from 300 m to
600 m under ideal conditions in the 430 MHz band.
However, the proposed new sensor units have
shorter transmission distances because of its use of
higher radio frequency (2.4 GHz band). The
available distance was carefully evaluated to allow
for a reasonable arrangement of sensors (Figure 5).
The receiver was fixed at a height of 1 m above the
ground surface, while transmitters were set at
different heights and distances from the sensors,
following which the radio signal was checked.
Table 1. Summary of transmission distance under
various conditions
Height of
Flat Plane (m） Slope（m） Forest（m）
transmitter（cm）
10 130 215 33
50 204 - 33
100 238 - 34～36
Table 1 shows the results of the testing, which
indicate that the signal can reach distances of 130–
238 m across a wide open horizontal and paved
plane, depending on the antenna height. Even
when tested on a slope, the signal reached 215 m,
provided the area is open and without vegetation.
However, when tested in a forest with dense
vegetation, the transmission distance reduced to
33–36 m. High-frequency radio signals tend to
propagate best in a straight line, and thus obstacles
between the transmitter and receiver have a
significant negative effect on the signal
transmission.
M1-3
TRIAL INSTALLATION ON A CUT SLOPE Figure 9 shows typical tilt behavior obtained
from 21 to 30 May 2015 (data from H2 and T3 in
Prototypes of the proposed new sensor units
Figure 8 are indicated as examples). The tilt
were installed on a cut slope site in Yenchao,
behavior varied across sensors and there was some
Kaohsiung, Taiwan at the end of 2014. The slope
time delay following the heavy rainfall event.
is on a municipal waste disposal site, and the cut
Notably, it was also found that T3, which is
slope began moving gradually after excavation
outside of the sliding block, recorded movement
works were conducted during construction (Figure
after the heavy rainfall event. Distribution of
6). The slope, consisting of modern clay shale, is
surface tilt behaviors, together with time histories,
sliding along the established geological jointing
can be determined based on these data.
direction (Figure 7).
Eighteen tilt sensors were installed to
adequately cover the moving block, with the tilt
angle being measured every 10 minutes and
corrected using data from a receiver on the
opposite slope (Figure 8).

Height of
transmitter
On flat plane
1m

Transmitter <Receiver> <Transmitter>

On slope
10cm

In the forest

Receiver
Receiver
100cm

Figure 5. Evaluation of radio transmission distance

Figure 6. Moving cut slope of Yenchao waste

disposal site
Figure 7. Moving cut slope of Yenchao waste
disposal site

M1-4
 that involve the detachment and rapid downward
movement of rock.
H2 ： Tilt sensors, 2015 Sep.
Given that most traditional slope monitoring
： Tilt sensors, 2015 Dec.

0 50m
methods are expensive, difficult to control and
may not be suitable for application in this civilian
area, the simple and low-cost monitoring system
Assumed boundary
of sliding block
was deployed on a test slope to validate field
performance. It should be noted that the research is
Y+ T3
Directions of
supported by the Japanese government, but the
tilt sensors
technique and initial stage measurement results are
Receiver presented here.
Figure 10 shows the scale of the Manzawa
Figure 8. Arrangement of the tilt sensors on the slope failure site, and Figure 11 shows the
moving cut slope
arrangement of the multi-point tilt sensors and
locations, where two types of tilt sensor were used.
H2 Tilt-X (deg)
-6.4
A total of 66 sets of sensors were deployed.
-6.45

-6.5

-6.55

-6.6

-6.65

-6.7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
2/ 2/ 2/ 2/ 2/ 2/ 2/ 2/ 2
/ 3
/
5/ 5/ 5/ 5/ 5/ 5/ 5/ 5/ 5
/5 5
/5
51 51 51 51 51 51 51 51 1 1
02 02 02 02 02 02 02 02 0
2 0
2

T3 Tilt-X (deg)
-3
-3.2
-3.4
-3.6
-3.8
-4
-4.2
-4.4
Figure 10. Area of slope failure of Manzawa site
-4.6
-4.8
-5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
The system proposed in this study implemented
/2 /2 /2 /2 /2 /2 /2 /2 /2 /3
5
/
5
1
5
/
5
1
5
/
5
1
5
/
5
1
5
/
5
1
5
/
5
1
5
/
5
1
5
/
5
1
5
/
5
1
5
/
5
1
wireless sensors consisting of MEMS
0
2 0
2 0
2 0
2 0
2 0
2 0
2 0
2 0
2 0
2
accelerometers to measure tilt from angular
100

Precipitation (mm/Day)
movements. This orientation change data from the
90

80
)
y
a
MEMS accelerometers were transmitted wirelessly
/D
70 m
(m
to a remote monitoring facility. A real-time
60 lla
50
f
in
a
monitoring system would be an effective tool for
R
40
the transmission of alerts and immediate activation
30

20 of emergency procedures, thus providing ample

10
time to save lives and property.
0
2015/5/21 2015/5/22 2015/5/23 2015/5/24 2015/5/25 2015/5/26 2015/5/27 2015/5/28 2015/5/29 2015/5/30
Necessary components of the system include
Figure 9. Example of tilt behaviors obtained on the sensors with the required resolution and software
cut slope with the capacity for signal interpretation and
failure alert algorithms. The challenges exist in
MONITORING SLOPE FAILURE ON identifying methods to minimize energy
MANZAWA, YAMANASHI, JAPAN consumption of the units (i.e. improving battery
life), determining the appropriate number of
The Manzawa area in the Yamanashi
devices for deployment and recognizing patterns of
Prefecture of Japan contains a large-scale
movement so that incipient sliding can be
reactivation of old slope failures featuring rockfalls
distinguished from random movements and
environmental effects. The requirement for battery

M1-5
lifetime should ideally be longer than one year to
reliably monitor the most critical time period
without interruption and multiple year lifetimes
should be achievable given the progress being
made in battery technology. The sensor’s
communication range must be far enough to
transmit data to a base station and if necessary by
relaying data through other network sensors. The
sensors are designed to be capable of deployment
in harsh outdoor conditions.
The goal of this monitoring system is to
analyze and develop algorithms for isolating and
Figure 11. Arrangement of the multi-point tilt sensors on the Manzawa slope failure site
CONCLUSIONS
A low-cost and simple monitoring method for
an early-warning system of rainfall-induced
landslides has been proposed. Tilting angles in the
surface layer of the slope are mainly monitored
using this method and, in several case studies,
distinct behaviors in the tilting angles in the pre-
failure stages were detected. From this behavior it
is recommended that, from a regulatory
perspective, a precaution is issued when the tilting
rate of a slope is 0.01°/h, and a warning issued
when the tilting rate is 0.1°/h.
Improvement in the applicability and
development of the monitoring and early-warning
system has been made by modifying the equipment
to be lower in cost, smaller in size and weight, and
simpler to operate. It is estimated that the total cost
for the monitoring system is reduced by one third,
compared to regular systems, and thus a larger
number of sensors can be deployed at the same
M1-6
identifying the data collected by the sensors that
are associated with slope instability. Isolation and
identification of the data will involve separating
actual movement data from data considered to be
noise.
Algorithms can then be developed to account
for these movements and the sensitivity of these to
varying threshold values can be evaluated. Finally
an effective early warning system can be
developed.
cost (if desired). This will assist in improving data
density and real-time feedback on slope behavior.
The prototype of the proposed new sensor units
were installed on a cut slope site in Yenchao,
Kaohsiung, Taiwan at the end of 2014. Whilst
monitoring has only just begun, and some tilt
behavior has been observed, more significant
behavior may be recorded in the 2015 rainy season,
which the current authors will report on.
Similarly, the monitoring project in Manzawa,
Japan has also just begun and hence the current
authors will report the result as soon as they
become available.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research is supported by SIP (Cross-
ministerial Strategic Innovation Promotion
Program) of Cabinet Office of Government of
Japan, Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research of
Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS),
and Core-to-Core Program “B. Asia-Africa
Science Platforms” (JSPS), and Japanese Ministry
of Education, Culture, Sports, Science &
Technology (MEXT, #25303015).

REFERENCES
Uchimura, T., Towhata, I., Trinh, T. L. A., Fukuda,
J., Bautista, C. J. B., Wang, L., Seko, I., Uchida,
T., Matsuoka, A., Ito, Y., Onda, Y., Iwagami,
S., Kim, M. S., and Sakai, N. (2010): “Simple
monitoring method for precaution of landslides
watching tilting and water contents on slopes
surface”, Landslides, (Published online: 17
October 2009).
Uchimura, T., Wang, L., Qiao, J.-P., and Towhata,
I. (2011a). Miniature ground inclinometer for
slope monitoring, Proc. of The 14th Asian
Regional Conference on Soil Mechanics and
Geotechnical Engineering, ATC3 Session.
Uchimura, T., Towhata. I., Wang, L., Nishie S.,
Yamaguchi, H., Seko, I. and Qiao, J.-P. (2015):
Precaution and early warning of surface failure
of slopes by using tilt sensors, Soils and
Foundations, Vol.55, No.5 (to appear).

M1-7
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

LANDSLIDE MONITORING AND SLIP SURFACE ESTIMATION

BY GEOMETRIC APPROACH
CASE STUDY: CILOTO-PUNCAK, WEST JAVA

Hasanuddin Z. A.1, Vera Sadarviana 2, Irwan G. 2, Dudy D. W. 2 and Achmad R.T.3

ABSTRACT: During this time, landslide phenomenon usually be observed and analyzed using a physical
approach. The technological developments provide the opportunity of geometric approach to contribute in the
study of landslide phenomenon, namely the monitoring of the material movement and estimate the slip surface.
These contributions can assist evacuation efforts and reduce the risk of disaster. GPS technology and TLS can be
able to realize it and implemented in the landslide zone at Ciloto Puncak West Java.
Two kinds landslide identification are visualization and calculation. By visualization of TLS image series,
landslide can be identified from soil crack or scarp and movement vector of slope material. Scarp is a scar of
exposed soil on the landslide. The kinematic model calculation can be derived from GPS data campaign and
produce a velocity of slope material movement and slip surface estimation.
Knowing the slope material movement vector can determin that Ciloto’s landslide zone is creeping type with
material velocity approximately 5.68 cm/month. The estimation of slip surface gave a result that Ciloto’s
landslide zone have several planar and circular slip surfaces.

Keywords: TLS, GPS, horizontal, vertical, slipsurface

INTRODUCTION geological structure. Physical parameter can give a

realistic output to describe the landslide
Landslides caused heavy losses in the economy,
phenomenon, but it also related with the diversity
and even threaten human life. Landslide disasters
of field condition and material that needs a
most had been preceded by heavy rains and
sophisticated and expensive tools.
flooding along the vulnerable area. The changing
The technological development, especially the
morphology of a forest to be a dry land is
measurement tools, give a chance for the
suspected as the main cause of decline increasing
geometric approach to contribute as problem
resistance material pressure water slope arising
solver. The geometric approach have two ways
from infiltration of rainwater. In addition there is a
namely an image visualization by TLS (Terrestrial
catastrophic landslide causing loss of lives,
Laser Scanner) and a calculation of mathematical
destroyed houses, as well as loss of property. Thus,
model by GPS (Global Positioning System) data
mitigation efforts should be made to minimize the
campaign. The idea of research can seen at below
risk of landslides. In order to minimize the
Figure 1.
probability of landslides is very important to
In landslide zone, slip surface is divided to
monitor material forming of the slope. A common
unstable and stable soil. If we can estimate slip
monitoring method done by calculates the slope
surface location, furthermore we can determine
stability value or safety factor. The calculation is
depth and border of slip surface. This research
using physical parameters such as slope geometry,
purpose is to estimate slip surface location by
resistance of the forming slope material,
geometric method using GPS (Global Positioning
hydrogeology, soil-rock layers, weather, and
Satellite) survey. Monitoring points observed by

1
Geodesy Research Group, Faculty of Earth Sciences and Technology , Bandung Institute of Technology, Jl. Ganesha 10,
Bandung 40132, West Java, INDONESIA, telp/fax : +62 22 2534286 e-mail: hzabidin@gd.itb.ac.id, hzabidin@gmail.com
2
Geodesy Research Group, Faculty of Earth Sciences and Technology , Bandung Institute of Technology, Jl. Ganesha 10,
Bandung 40132, West Java, INDONESIA, telp/fax : +62 22 2534286 e-mail: vsadarviana@gmail.com,
verasadarviana@gd.itb.ac.id, igumilar78@gmail.com, wijaya.dudy@gmail.com
3
Geodetic Department, Technic Faculty, Winaya Mukti University, Jl. Pahlawan 69 Bandung, West Java, INDONESIA, e-
mail : achmadrt87@gmail.com

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GPS survey for several campaign. Landslide
phenomenon can be known by the point movement.
It is related with anatomy landslide which is
consisting of unstable soil, slip surface location
and undisturbed or stable soil. Slip surface denote
a border between unstable or move soil and stable
soil, as sliding plane. The slip surface will be
estimated using geometric method, illustration at
Figure 2.
Figure 1. The Idea of Research
Figure 2. Illustration of Slip Surface Estimation
This research has several advantages, namely
(a) Knowing about susceptibility of sliding
location and influencing from around the
environment. The next step, we can determine
procedure technical engineering for mitigation. (b)
Knowing about vector of soil movement that is
very useful for early warning system and
evacuation of housing area. (c) Knowing about
border between stable and unstable soil slope for
engineering purpose.
CHARACTERISTIC OF STUDY AREA
Research location has geographic position at
107˚00˙00˝-107˚00˙20˝E and 06˚42˙40˝-
06˚43˙00˝S at kilometre 88.1 Cianjur-Puncak
traffic line in Kampung Baru Puncak, Desa Ciloto,
Kecamatan Pacet, Kabupaten Cianjur, and West
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Java, see figure 3. Ciloto’s landslide area has
approximately 40 hectares. The basement of this
area is a quarter of a material that has undergone
weathering volcanic tuff breccias 3-7 meters. The
physical property of the soil is loose and soft rots.
However weathering soil resistance to steep slopes
when conditions are dry, but when in a state of
saturated water then the material is easy to collapse.
The Cijember river get through at the Ciloto’s area.
Figure 3. Ciloto’s Landslide Area, The red points
is Equipment Stationing
Rain water is trapped in the region of Gunung
Lemo, complex Pondok Cikoneng, Gunung Mas,
Gunung Gedogan and Gunung Jongklok will
accumulate on the Cijember River which then
becomes ground water. Cijember local
groundwater from this will flow through the
narrow water bearing layers causes increased
pressure on local ground water (Purnomo, 1993).
Sub Watershed (DAS) Cijember describe the
condition of the slope is quite active, can be seen
clearly in the presence of cracks and irregular
assistance ladder (Panggabean, 1998). While
significant surface water on the landslide area is
water from the rivers that have Cijember 1 meter
wide and 0.5 to 0.75 m depth width valley with a
depth of 20 meters and 7-10 meters. Ground water
influence landslides in this area appear at the
bottom with a discharge that is big enough that
some have been channeled through a small canal.
METHODOLOGY
TLS Observation
The equipment is Leica Scanstation C10 which
have capabilities to acquisition data as height
density and accurate points cloud in practice ways.
At beginning, we have 2 campaign TLS
acquisition data at April and October 2012. This
year, we observed 2 campaign TLS acquisition
data at April and September 2013. We get 4 series
3D surface and intensity map. The observation at
2013 we measured 10 stationing points with GPS.
The TLS’s image show land cover from the
variously of intensity reflecting wave. The next
process is filter all of object over the surface and
we get a terrain surface or 3D surface. By
combining of 3D surface, we have a relative
movement 3D surface. For the estimation of slip
surface position, we need relative movement of
several sample point in order that we can obtain
velocity of material movement for each sample
monitoring point. There for we should define a
coordinate of sample point and know there’s
movement. But we difficult to get sample point
and define it’s coordinate because so many point
clouds and we cannot give code for monitoring.
Figure 4. TLS Data Acquisition and Processing
With the stationing points as a sampling and
interpolation reference, we hope that we can define
a coordinate of point clouds and use it to the
estimation of slip surface location. The principle,
we need to monitored a movement of the same
point or object. In TLS point clouds, we difficult to
identification of the same point or object.
GPS Observation - The kinematic Model
Establishment of GPS monitored points is
based on the geology information about landslide
zone map, result of analysis from GPS satellite
observation and the stability of existence
monitored points in terrestrial measurement. The
establish of reference point has to be in a stable
area and the GPS monitoring point distribution in
landslide zone can be seen in Figure 5. The
position of GPS1, GPS2, GPS3, GPS4 and GPS13
located in the head of landslide zone, result from
early identification. the GPS8 is located at the toe
of landslide zone in Cijember river. The GPS
survey is conducted by using differential static
method with dual frequency geodetic receiver, the
duration of the survey is between 4 to 6 hours with
the interval of recording data is 30 second and the
elevation angle is 15° to avoid multipath signal.
The GPS survey for monitored points conducted
periodically in five campaign.
Figure 5. Distribution of GPS Monitoring Points
The Equation of kinematic model (Yalcinkaya
M. et.al. 2004) :
1
X (i)j  X (ij1)  (t i  t i1 )VXj  (t i  t i1 ) 2 a Xj
2
(1)
Where : Xj(i) is coordinates prediction of the
monitoring point i, Xj(i-1) is observation
coordinates of the monitoring point j at period i-1,
Vxj is movement velocity monitoring point from
data survey, axj is movement acceleration
monitoring point from survey data, ti ti-1 is survey
time period i and i-1, i=1,2,3,4,5 (i : survey
campaign). The kinematic result are movement
position (movement), velocity and acceleration to
time.
Estimation of slip surface can be done if
horizontal movement monitoring point classified
by the same movement direction as a long section.
The assumption is the monitoring points, which
have the same direction, located in a same slip
surface. If we plot the coordinates of the
monitoring point, we know the slope surface
profile. The 1st step, each of long slope surface
section will be approached by polynomial function.
The 2nd step, we should find the coordinates value
of the monitoring point when they achieve a
maximum velocity by minimum-maximum
function. The 3rd step, furthermore we determine
the position of minimum point movement by the
minimum-maximum function. So we can define a
slip surface location by intersection of trend line
velocity for each monitoring point.
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RESULT AND DISCUSSION
TLS data gave relative movement of landslide
material from 2 periods by color classification.
Intensity map give information of land cover
variation. From TLS image, landslide can be
identified from soil crack or scarp. Scarp is a scar
of exposed soil on the landslide. A crack or minor
scarp is identified by high negative vertical
movement or sinking or subsidence of the surface.
Shape of scarp give a clue for shape of slip surface.
A crack or minor scarp is identified by high
negative vertical movement or sinking or
subsidence of the surface (Sadarviana, 2006). In
TLS 3D surface, we can see scarp location by
identification curve shape like as in figure 6. The
shape of scarp is curve, that’s clue for the slip
surface shape is rotational.

Figure 7. Movement Vector from Two TLS

Images

For slip surface estimation, we need five GPS

data campaign. We should make the monitoring
points classification which have the same
movement direction as illustration at below figure.

Figure 6. Scarp Identification from TLS Image

From two campaign TLS Observation, we will

obtain movement vector, illustration at figure 7.
TLS format data is raster and we can get another
information like as 3D surface, DEM (Digital
Elevation Model), Contour, intensity map. But for
slip surface estimation, we need vector data format
Figure 8. The Points Classification of The Same
for each of monitoring points.
Movement Direction

In Figure 8, line of cross section made by the

same direction identification of horizontal
movement. We got fourth cross section lines. By
the result of kinematic model, we can make
movement Velocity Trend Line (VTL) for each
monitoring point of a cross section line. We use
assumption that all material have same velocity on
the same plane of slip surface. So we need an
intersection of VTL. The illustration of slip surface
formation can be seen at bellow figure.

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Figure 9. VTL in 1st cross section
Figure 10. VTL in 2nd cross section
Figure 11. VTL in 3rd cross section
Figure 12. VTL in 4th cross section
If we integrated of slip surface estimation from
4 cross section lines, we will get the geodetic
estimation of slip surface. By the graphic, the
depth of slip surface around 5 metres until 60
metres. For the validation, geodetic method to
geometric estimation of slip surface will be
compared to slip surface from geology method to
physical approach in Ciloto’s landslide zone. The
illustration can be seen in Figure 13.
Figure 13. Slip Surface from Geometric (Geodetic)
and Physical (Geology) Approach (Sadarviana,
2006 and Sugalang, 1989)
Ciloto’s landslide zone have two kind of slip
surface, namely circular and planar. The
mechanism of soil movement is rotational and
translation or compound type. Each of monitoring
point could had a different direction of movement
in every campaign. It mean that one monitoring
point can be on more than one slip surface. In left
side of zone, there is scarp which it’s shape is
curve and topography profile is hilly. It is
indication of rotational slip surface. In right side of
zone, we did not found a scarp and topography
profile is smooth slope. That is indication of
planar slip surface.
M2-5
 Department of Soil Mechanics, Luleå
University of Technology.
Yalcinkaya M. and T. Bayrak, (2004) :
Comparison of Static, Kinematic and Dynamic
Geodetic Deformation Models for KutlugÜn
Landslide in Northeastern Turkey, Journal,
Natural Hazard 34, Page 91-95.

Figure 14. Two Kind of Slip Surface Type

CONCLUSION
Geometric approach can be used to define a
scarp and estimate a slip surface. Slip surface by
Geodetic and physic method give a good
conformity. That is a good start to develop the
method to another case. For the time being, the
geometric approach appropriate for a creep or slow
movement.
Ciloto’s landslide zone include in very slow
category 5 x 10-5 – 5 x 10-7 mm/second and
various direction of movement.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thanks to Institute of Research and
Community Service ITB for research grant 2013-
2014.

REFERENCES
Pangabean J. dan Agoes Darsoatmodjo, (1998) :
Land Movement Monitoring at Ciloto Area and
South of Cianjur, Kabupaten DATI II Cianjur
West Java, Field Report, Bandung, Division of
Environment Geology, Dirjen of Geology and
Mineral Resources, Department of Mining and
Energy.
Purnomo H., (1993) : Land Movement Monitoring
at Ciloto Area, Kabupaten DATI II Cianjur
West Java, Field Report, Bandung, Division of
Environment Geology, Dirjen of Geology and
Mineral Resources, Department of Mining and
Energy.
Sadarviana V., (2006). The Usage of Geodetic
Method to Characteristic, Type and Slip
surface Estimation (In Indonesian),
Dissertation, Geodesy and Geomatica Dept,
FITB-ITB
Sugalang, (1989) : Landslide in Ciloto Area West
Java Indonesia, Thesis, 72 Page, Sweden,

M2-6
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

BANK EROSION AND INSTABILITY MONITORING WITH A LOW COST

TERRESTRIAL LASER SCANNER

D. Brambilla 1, L. Longoni 2 and M. Papini 3

ABSTRACT: Among the dominant processes taking place in a river basin, especially mountain ones, sediments
creation and transport play a key role in morphological processes. Studies usually focus on big mass movements,
such as landslides and debris flows, or on wide spread slope erosion due to rainfalls, while bank erosion is
neglected or not considered essential for sediment budget at basin scale. Nevertheless, authors consider bank
erosion a process that deserve more careful studies; not only the sediment share from bank erosion is not
negligible in steep mountain rivers, but also the process can threat structures on river sides due the possibility to
have limited, but still significant, mass collapse of bank sections during intense events. The paper present an
attempt to monitor bank erosion in a section of a river in Northern Italy Alps and to put it in relation with
weather and water discharge. Survey campaign was set up at regular time intervals, or after particularly intense
rainfalls, and uses a Terrestrial Laser Scanner (TLS) to acquire the bank surface. The tool was developed
internally, at Politecnico di Milano, to meet requirements about low cost level and good accuracy. Successive
acquisitions of point clouds were elaborated, via an ad-hoc MatLab code, to determine erosion, or deposition,
volumes of sediments. These volumetric results have been evaluated in relation with rainfalls and freeze-thaw
cycles looking for a relationship between environmental conditions and bank failures. Some interesting results
are shown, such as a relation between erosion rates and temperature or water flow in the river. The path to a
complete process understanding and modelling is long, however the results reported can be considered a first
step towards objective.

Keywords: bank erosion, TLS, monitoring, river, erosion

INTRODUCTION sediment transport is larger during floods, leading

to higher water levels and consequent higher
Among the dominant processes happening in a
probability of flood hazard (Brambilla et al., 2011).
river basin, especially mountain ones, sediments
Moreover, the frequency of peak-flows and the
creation and transport play a key role. Usual
shape of the flow hydrograph play an important
sediments’ life cycle is being eroded from the
role in morphological processes, especially bank
valley slopes by endogenous and exogenous agents
erosion (Nasermoaddeli and Pasche, 2008). The
and successively involved in migration processes,
degree of saturation of bank material increases with
such as landslides, debris flow, or solid transport in
river stage; therefore, the frequency of bank failure
watercourses (Radice et al., 2011, Brambilla et al.,
is correlated to the frequency of flooding (Duan,
2011).
2005).
Small changes in the riverbank trigger large-
scale morphological changes (Nasermoaddeli and
Why Mountain?
Pasche, 2008). Sediment transport processes have a
negative impact in rivers and streams life, both in In lowlands, there is a sharp difference between
functional and in critical conditions. In particular, it the timescale of morphological evolution of the
has a negative influence on floods, since there is a riverbed, due to sediment transport, and the
strong connection between modifications in timescale of a flood event, which is far shorter. In
riverbed morphology and increase of water level mountain areas, the difference in time scale
(Lane et al., 2007, Reid et al., 2007). Actually, between river geomorphology modification and

1
Research Assistant, Politecnico di Milano, davide.brambilla@polimi.it, ITALY
2
Assistant Professor, Politecnico di Milano, laura.longoni@polimi.it, ITALY
3
Professor, Politecnico di Milano, monica.papini@polimi.it, ITALY

M3-1
flood events is small, or even inexistent (Klaassen,
1997). Event induced sediment yield from
mountain valley slopes may represent a problem for
landscape safety: mountain environments are often
subjected to flash floods, due to the response of
small and steep basins, very hazardous phenomena
because of the short time scale and consequent
short lead time. Due to limited time scale is
necessary to use a fast and easy tool for bank
erosion assessment, which does not take place over
long seasonal periods but in short intense raining
events and thus could require several successive
acquisitions.
Riverbank Erosion
At basin scale, sediment production results from
complex interactions between different processes:
splash erosion, sheet erosion, rill erosion, gully
erosion, bank erosion and mass movements (De
Vente and Poesen, 2005). Not all processes are
equally important in different basins: according to
these two authors, the dominant sediment source
and sink terms vary with the basin dimension.
For instance, bank erosion is of particular
interest in a mountain basin. Riverbank erosion
consists of three processes operating with differing
magnitudes and frequencies: 1.basal erosion due to
fluvial entrainment, which is defined as erosion of
bank materials by running water; 2.mass failure
occurring under the influence of gravity and
3.subaerial erosion, i.e. weakening of the bank face
and subsequent fall of soil particles and small
blocks.
The role of subaerial erosion in bank erosion is
still uncertain since it can be a predisposing or
triggering factor. According to some authors (Green
et al., 1999, Thorne, 1990), subaerial erosion is due
to two processes, which are controlled by climatic
conditions: wetting drying and, especially, freeze-
thaw action: freeze-thaw action that directly
triggers subaerial erosion and indirectly contributes
to mass failure and fluvial entrainment (Yumoto,
2006).
There are three types of freeze-thaw cycles:
diurnal, annual and millennial. Diurnal freeze-thaw
action causes needle ice creep during the freezing
period. According to Yumoto, the maximum rate of
subaerial erosion occurs during the thawing period,
when there is an increase in water content and a
decrease of soil hardness: diurnal and annual
freeze-thaw action directly induces significant
subaerial erosion that contributes to deepening of
notches. After complete thawing of seasonal frost,
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mass failure and fluvial entrainment dominate the
bank erosion.
As stated by De Vente and Poesen (2005), while
most studies recognise that bank retreat is the
integrated product of three interacting processes
(namely, weathering and weakening, fluvial erosion,
and mass failure), simplified approaches are
adopted, and interactions between different groups
of processes are not usually considered .
Three factors have also to be taken into account
when dealing with processes dominance in bank
erosion:
1) limitations of present field monitoring
techniques;
2) temporal change in bank erodibility
3) downstream change in bank erosion
processes.
Few studies have focused on geomorphological
event structure (timing, magnitude, frequency and
duration of individual erosion and deposition
events), in relation to applied stresses, because of
the absence of key monitoring methodologies.
MONITORING TECHNIQUES
In order to understand the process of bank
erosion phenomenon, it’s important to estimate the
rates and the timing of its occurrence. In literature
the most common instruments to measure bank
erosion are Total station survey, Real time
Kinematic Global Positioning System, Photo-
Electronic Erosion Pin (PEEP) system and
Thermal Consonance Timing (TCT), terrestrial
photogrammetry, airborne LiDAR and 3D
terrestrial laser scanner (Nasermoaddeli and Pasche,
2008; O’Neal et al., 2011). Usually these
techniques involve the use of expensive and
voluminous commercial laser scanners, with the
ability to scan huge point clouds in seconds.
This research will focus on the presentation of a
new approach to laser scanning survey for
mountain rivers banks. The use of a little, portable
and inexpensive laser scanner, with the capability
to work on batteries add to the method a new
flexibility that allows for repetitive measure of
critical areas even if not easily reachable.
TEST SITE DESCRIPTION
The test bank is located in Valle dei Mulini, a
small catchment in northern Italy, 70 km north from
Milan. The basin extents from 480 m.a.s.l. to 2367
m.a.s.l. and although being snow covered during
winter period its river is perennial with a little
discharge even in cold months. Water flow was
present at each measure campaign, even if an
automated flow meter is not available on the site.
In the measured area, a narrow bed, cut into
bedrock, with typical steps and pools structure,
characterizes the river (Figure 1). Karst phenomena
are widespread in the whole basin; problems related
to excessive sediment yield are common during the
rainy periods, in particular during autumn, and
affect not only the little village on the alluvial fan,
subjected to little floods and gravel deposits but
also the drinking water supply facilities. The test
site has been individuated in a small bank in a steep
narrow canyon just upstream of the alluvial fan; the
objective was to monitor the evolution of the bank
to assess its role in debris discharge. The bank is
roughly ten meters long, two high and formed by
angular pieces of rock coming from a fault. This
kind of material is quite different from usual studies,
which focus on plain rivers eroding thin materials
such as sand or clay. (Nasermoaddeli & Pasche,
2008).
Figure 1. Test bank
The laser scanner used was developed by
ISSweb srl, a spin off society of Politecnico di
Milano, starting by a Sick bi-dimensional
commercial laser (Figure 2). The laser works on
TOF (time of flight) principle and in its original
version is used to scan a plane around itself for
industrial safety purpose; coupling this laser to a
stepper engine is possible to scan different lines
rotating the scanner, and thus the scanning plane,
and obtain a 3D point cloud. The laser management
software does the transformation from angular
coordinates to Cartesian one automatically and data
are saved as x y z coordinates of each point scanned.
This laser scanner is normally employed for
contactless measure and recognition systems in
industrial applications at close distance; due to this
general purpose during tool design scan speed was
preferred to measurement accuracy and resolution.
Laser can acquire a complete scan of 180° both in
vertical and horizontal direction, acquiring the
complete scene in front of it, in less than 2 seconds.
The scanner is not able to record the reflectivity of
the objects but only the mere distance not allowing
for high reflectivity targets recognition for point
clouds alignment.
In order to employ this tool for bank erosion
measure three issues needed to be solved: measure
accuracy assessment at long range, point cloud
interpolation and repositioning error of the scanner.
Figure 2. Tool deployed on field
Measure Accuracy Assessment
The laser has a certified accuracy of +\- 30 mm
and is usually employed in close range, high speed
contactless measure; the raw result obtained from a
single scan is far from being even acceptable due to
the low density of points measured. Moreover the
features of the stepping motor are unknown so a
campaign of tests was set up to determine the
angular resolution and the measurement accuracy; a
second objective was to test if a multi scan
approach could improve significantly the quality of
data and which is the number of scan needed to
reach a target accuracy. Two different synthetic
case were set-up: a plane surface as training case
and a real bank with artificial erosion spots as
testing case.
Scanning the plane surface allows for an easy
and direct determination of resolution: angular
resolution was 0.5° on horizontal line and 2.1° on
vertical line. The standard deviation on point
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positioning is calculated in 37 mm and is the sum
of errors in both distance measure and angle
measure due to the transformation from spherical to
Cartesian coordinates. Due to the intrinsic
positioning error of the stepper motor each time the
laser finishes a scan cycle and moves back to the
starting position a little difference between the final
and initial position exists; this difference leads to a
progressive thickening of the cloud, as seen in
Figure 3. This result is highly positive and give the
chance to acquire dense point clouds useful for
bank erosion assessment. These dense clouds,
including millions of points, can be cleaned and
interpolated to improve data quality; the objective
of the interpolation is double: regularize the cloud
and eliminate possible errors.
Figure 3. Clouds thickening due to multiscan
procedure
This operation is executed in one single passage
by a specifically Matlab developed algorithm: a
square window move through the point cloud space
from (Min x; Min y) to (Max x; Max y) and put a
single point in each square whose x and y
coordinates are the ones of the square centre, while
z values is the mean of z values of each points
inside the window. Comparison between different
acquisition is made by a simple point to point
comparison of different scans, that need to be of the
same dimension.
THE APPLICATION
The test site has been surveyed after every rain
event, thanks to the easy deployment of the laser
scanner and tools needed. Each measure campaign
consisted in a multiple acquisition of the same area
M3-4
of the bank, from the same station point, until the
target number of scan is acquired. This technique
usually referred to as multiscan and its aim is to
increase the number of point acquired and thus the
resolution of the point cloud in respect of a single
scan. This passage is extremely important when
dealing with a low resolution scanner allowing for
an inexpensive increase of tool performance. The
scanner is not able to record the reflectivity of the
objects but only the mere distance, due to this
limitation is possible to relocate the tool in the same
point at any epoch but not to measure high
reflectivity targets for point clouds alignment.
The survey campaign consisted of nine
measures from Nov 30th 2013 to Apr 12th 2014,
including the most interesting periods of year, when
freeze thaw cycles and high discharges rates take
place. The key input to analyse and understand data
are: precipitation, number of freeze thaw cycles,
erosion measured. Data are summed up in Table 1.
Table 1. Raw data, FT (Freeze-Thaw cycles),
Erosion in [m3]
Time Surveys Rain FT Erosion
30/11-1/3 5 Snowy 40 0.071
1/3-2/4 3 Normal 5 0.451
2/4-12/4 1 Stormy 0 0.002
The entire period of monitoring has been
divided into three sub periods: a first one featuring
low temperatures, high number of freeze thaw
cycles and low erosion rates, a middle one with
high erosion rates linked to rain and a last one that
enclose basically just one intense storm when
temperature where higher than zero. The
comparison it is always made form an epoch to the
successive one and the results are grouped because
they represent different behaviours in different
weather conditions. Erosion maps have been
developed, different colours indicates erosion or
deposition of material on the bank. Some example
of these maps are reported as Figure 4. This step is
important to understand which processes take place
on the bank and if there are areas more subjected to
erosion or not.

Figure 4. Erosion maps: blue areas are deposition
areas, red areas are erosion areas. First two maps
are from first period, third one from high erosion
second period and last one from low erosion third
period
RESULTS DISCUSSION
Data about erosion could give little insights in
the processes if not analyzed together with rainfalls
and temperature data. As stated in the introduction,
freeze thaw cycles are one of the most important
predisposing factors of erosion, while water flow is
crucial to remove the loose soil from the bank. To
sum up all the relevant weather data two graph have
been drawn. The first graph, Figure 5, collects data
relative to climate condition.
Figure 5. Rainfalls and temperature variations (blue
bars indicates rainfalls, black line mean
temperature, grey line hourly temperature, red line
zero Celsius degrees and yellow bars indicate the
surveys dates)
Daily rainfalls are reported as blue bars while
temperature is reported as black (hourly) or grey
(24h mean) line. A preliminary assessment of
weather during the surveyed period shows a
concentration of rain in December and in March
and April, while January and February features
very limited rain but as expected, various freeze
thaw cycles.
As the number of freeze thaw cycles is reported
in table 1, their distribution can been seen in Figure
5, where the red line indicates zero Celsius degrees.
Figure 6 focus on erosion rates: brown bars stand
for erosion rate in dm3/day, blue bars precipitation
in mm/day (if white it was snowing) and red marks
indicates the number of freeze-thaw cycles. This
graph actually resume all the results of this
research: is possible to notice how erosion actually
take place from the end of February, when
precipitations increase and the freeze thaw cycles
stops. In the previous period little erosion was
measured, while precipitation was mostly in snow
form, and various freeze thaw cycles took place.
This duality in the behaviour is perfectly
compatible with studies found in literature. Freeze
thaw cycles are considered as predisposing factors
(Gatto, 1995; Lawler, 1985) while rainfalls and thus
water flow in stream is considered a triggering
factor (Johnson, 2002-2006, Lawler, 1985; Stott,
1995).
Figure 6. Rainfalls and erosion rates (brown bars
stand for erosion rate in dm3/day, blue bars
precipitation in mm/day (if white it was snowing)
and red marks indicates the number of freeze-thaw
cycles)
M3-5
CONCLUSION De Vente, J., & Poesen, J. (2005). Predicting soil
erosion and sediment yield at the basin scale:
Riverbank erosion is a key factor to understand
scale issues and semi-quantitative models.
the dynamic of sediments inside basin being one
Earth-Science Reviews, 71(1), 95-125.
important source of material that can be find in
Duan, J. G. (2005). Analytical approach to calculate
streams and can influence the flooding during
rate of bank erosion. Journal of hydraulic
extreme events. The objective of the paper was to
engineering, 131(11), 980-990.
test an innovative tool for a rapid assessment of
Green, T. R., Beavis, S. G., Dietrich, C. R., &
river bank erosion; secondarily an attempt to link
Jakeman, A. J. (1999). Relating stream bank
measured erosion and weather condition is done.
erosion to in stream transport of suspended
First objective is completely met by the laser
sediment. Hydrological Processes, 13(5), 777-
scanner, it proved to be reliable, easy to use and can
787.
be deployed easily in the field. Various test have
Klaassen, G.J., FRIMAR: Flooding RIsks in
been done to prove its precision, not all reported
Mountain AReas. Available at the web address
here for synthesis sake and its error is low enough
http://www.hrwallingford.co.uk/Mitch/papers/kl
to assure usable results. Erosion rates do not need
aassen.pdf, 1997.
high precision measure, since the uncertainty of all
Lane S.N., Tayefi V., Reid S.C., Yu D., Hardy R.J.,
the ruling parameters is high. Moreover, the other
Interactions between sediment delivery, channel
sediment sources, as slope erosion or concentrated
change, climate change and flood risk in a
sources cannot be estimated with high precision,
temperate upland environment. Earth Surface
lowering the need for very precise bank erosion
Processes and Landforms, 32, 429-446, 2007.
evaluation.
Nasermoaddeli, M. H., & Pasche, E. (2008).
Second objective was partially met: the study
Application of terrestrial 3D laser scanner in
was indeed able to give insights on bank erosion
quantification of the riverbank erosion and
dynamics. However, these results do not add much
deposition. Proceedings of Riverflow, 3-5.
to the pre-existing knowledge about bank erosion
O'Neal, M. A., & Pizzuto, J. E. (2011). The rates
and, due to the limited span of time and space,
and spatial patterns of annual riverbank erosion
cannot be translated in a correlation between
revealed through terrestrial laser scanner
weather conditions and erosion rate. The role of
surveys of the South River, Virginia. Earth
temperature is confirmed as predominant in the
Surface Processes and Landforms, 36(5), 695-
process and in particular, freeze thaw cycles are the
701.
most critical phenomenon in loosening soil, making
Radice, A., Giorgetti, E., Brambilla, D., Longoni,
it erosion easier. More yearly survey campaign are
L., & Papini, M. (2012). On integrated sediment
needed to look for a strong correlation between
transport modelling for flash events in mountain
erosion and weather conditions.
environments. Acta Geophysica, 60(1), 191-213.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Reid S.C., Lane S.N., Berney J.M., Holden J.,The
timing and magnitude of coarse sediment
Authors wants to acknowledge Ing. Davide transport events within an upland, temperate
Biotto and Ing. Laura Scamoni for their help in gravel-bed river. Geomorphology, 83, 152-182,
field work, done as part of their master of science 2007.
thesis. Thorne, C. R. (1990). Effects of vegetation on
riverbank erosion and stability. Vegetation and
REFERENCES erosion, 125-144.
B. Wieczorek and J. Kuczynska. Usefulness of Yumoto, M., Ogata, T., Matsuoka, N., &
terrestrial laser scanner for determining bank of Matsumoto, E. (2006). Riverbank freeze thaw
the river. Institute of river and coastal erosion along a small mountain stream, Nikko
engineering, 2010. volcanic area, central Japan. Permafrost and
Brambilla, D., Longoni, L., Papini, M., Giorgetti, Periglacial Processes, 17(4), 325-339.
E., & Radice, A. (2011). On analysis of
sediment sources toward proper characterization
of hydro-geological hazard for mountain
environments. International journal of safety
and security engineering, 1(4), 423-437.

M3-6
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

CHARACTERIZATION OF SOIL CHEMICAL PROPERTIES FOR STABLE AND

UNSTABLE SLOPE AS HAZARD MONITORING RATING SYSTEM FOR
SHALLOW SLOPE FAILURE

Rashidi Othman 1, Mohd Shah Irani Hasni 2 , Ruhul ‘Izzati Shaharuddin 3, and Noor Shakilah Mhd Radzi 4

ABSTRACT: Shallow slope failure is the problem that seem like have no ending in the highway construction
field in Malaysia. Most of the oxisols in Malaysia is highly weathered and thus it is essential to study the soil
properties between stable and unstable slope in terms of chemical characteristics that will lead to the factors of
shallow slope failure. The aim of the study is to characterize chemical properties of stable and unstable slope of
oxisols soils from 5 sites along highways in Malaysia. Chemically, clay contents, micronutrient contents, soil
texture, soil pH value, cation exchange capacity (CEC), organic carbon contents, nitrogen contents, phosphorus
content, and heavy metal contents are the important elements in soil that could make the soil structure strong or
weak. All of them have various relationships to each other, as indicator and binding agents that affects the strong
soil structure. Shallow slope failure have strong relationship between CEC and hydrogen content in the soil
because both play an important role in binding the negative and positive charges in soil that lead to the stability
of the soil structure. In conclusion, indicators that can be used to predict shallow slope failure are low content of
Aluminum (Al), Ferum ( Fe), Plumbum (Pb), Zinc (Zn), Chromium (Cr), low content of organic carbon and
CEC.

Keywords: Oxisols, soil chemical properties, heavy metal, shallow slope failure, CEC

INTRODUCTION island state of Penang. Even though the slope area

Landslides in Malaysia have always posed
threats to settlement and structures that support
transportation, natural resources and tourism. They
cause considerable damages to highways,
waterways, properties, livestock and pipelines.
Most of the landslide occurred near high rise
apartments and in residential areas, causing death to
human beings. Landslides in Malaysia are mainly
triggered by tropical rainfall and flash floods,
causing failure of the rock surface along fracture,
joint and cleavage planes. The geology of the
country is quiet stable, however, the continuous
development and urbanization leads to
deforestation and weathering and erosion of the
covered soil masses causing serious threat to slopes
(Pradhan, 2010). According to the local newspaper
reports (The Star, 2008) in the year 2006, 2007,
2008 and 2009 heavy rainfall have triggered
landslides and mud flows along east coast highways
in peninsular Malaysia, Sabah as well as in the
has been reinforced by implementing concrete
covering at the area, the shallow slope failure still
occur after continuous raining for two or three days
(Pradhan, 2010).
The issues of landslides always closely related
to the soil factors (Harwant Singh, 2006). The soils
of the humid tropics such as sandy soil and highly
weathered soil (oxisols) have been shown to be
managerially problematic, particularly with regard
to their fertility. Like all acid soils of the humid
tropics, oxisols soils are low in soil pH, which
brings with it many potential associated problems,
including H, Al, and Mn toxicity, Ca deficiency,
low CEC, P fixation and low microbial activity
(Tessens and Shamshuddin, 1983; Foy, 1984).
Their shallow top soils are highly susceptible to
erosion and, if not managed properly after clearing,
can lose much of their original fertility and
beneficial physical properties. Reviews on the
characteristics and management of these soils did
not take into account the effect of terracing in

1
Associate Professor, International Islamic University Malaysia (INHART), rashidi@iium.edu.my, Malaysia
2
Student, International Islamic University Malaysia (INHART), shahiranihasni@gmail.com, Malaysia
3
Student, International Islamic University Malaysia (INHART), ruhulizzatiium@gmail.com, Malaysia
4
Student, International Islamic University Malaysia (INHART), noor.shakilah@gmail.com, Malaysia

M4-1
exposing saprolites or C horizon. With the surface MATERIALS AND METHOD
soils and subsoils already being considered
Two different states of Malaysia were selected
problematic, one could only imagine what impact
as sites studies in this research. As in Perak there
the saprolites pose to fertility of these soils.
will be 2 case studies, while in Selangor 3 case
Moreover, the chemical and physical properties
studies.
of the soil are very important for overall soil
stability (Sidle and Ochiai, 2006). Degradation or Study Areas and Sampling Sites
decline of soil quality may occur due to physical
or chemical processes triggered off by natural Two different states that were chosen as case
phenomena, or induced by humans through misuse studies are Perak and Selangor. In Perak, 8 different
of land resources. Processes such as soil erosion, locations were identified which the areas
nutrient run-off, water logging, desertification or specifically focus on the stable and unstable slope;
compaction, may give examples of physical all chosen sites were located along the highways.
degradation processes, while acidification, organic Similar to Selangor 13 locations were identified
matter loss, salinization, nutrient depletion by which consist of 10 unstable slope areas and three
leaching, or toxicants accumulation, are all stable slope areas. Therefore, total of 21 sites were
processes that can be classified as being agents and selected from 2 different localities in Peninsular
indicators of chemical degradation of soil (Harwant Malaysia.
Singh, 2006). Indicators of soil quality are Perak: Is the second largest state in Peninsular
numerous. They may be biological indicators, Malaysia. Perak is co-ordinated at latitude of
4°45'N 101°0'E3. Site’s background is elaborated
assessed by interpreting the figures indicating
as below:
density of microorganisms’ populations or through
measuring sonic of the basic biological activities, Table 1. Sampling site criteria in Tanjung Malim
such as respiration or intensity of biogeochemical Perak
reactions. They may also be physical indicators Area/
measured by investigating some of the fundamental Soil Site Sampling
Tanjung order condition points criteria
physical characteristics of soil, water infiltration or Malim
field water holding capacity. Soil chemical Along 4 points of
properties are determined by given parameters UPSI Oxisol Tanjung stable slope with
arising from the presence of certain amounts and Malim route vegetation
certain types of soil colloids (clays and organic Along
PROTO 4 points of
Oxisol Tanjung
matter). Most important among these are N CITY unstable slope
Malim route
parameters related to mineral solubility, nutrient
availability and parameters determining such as
Selangor: The state of Selangor located at
CEC ( Harwant Singh, 2006).
latitude 2◦35’–3◦60’N and longitude 100◦45’–
The chemical properties of soil are different at
102◦00’E has an area of approximately 800,000 ha,
every area based on the state or region of study area.
and extends along the west coast of peninsular
The problem might be the chemical properties
Malaysia. The background of each sampling sites
inside the soil which causes the shallow slope
are described below:
failure. It is vital to identify and analyze the
potential slope failure areas to prevent this from Table 2. Sampling site criteria and criteria in
happening. The study on chemical properties of soil Selangor
on hilly area that affects shallow slope failure Soil Site Sampling points
Area
focusing on soil heavy metal content is seen as an order condition criteria
action to create the hazard monitoring system to -1 point of stable
identify potential shallow slope failure area. In this Kuala slope with vegetation
Along Kuala
Kubu Oxisol
paper, we attempt to characterize the changes in Kubu route -1 point of unstable
Bharu
soil chemical properties when these soils are slope
exposed for slope terracing. To achieve this, two -2 points of stable
states Perak and Selangor, places of terraced- Along Hulu slope with vegetation
Ulu yam Oxisol
saprolitic profiles of different geology and locations Yam route -2 points of unstable
slope
were selected for further investigation in order to
forecast the potential of slope failure by soil Along
-7 points of unstable
Latar Oxisol LATAR
chemical analysis. slope
route

M4-2
Method of Soil Sampling RESULTS AND FINDINGS
There were 21 sampling points consists of 14 Heavy Metal Concentrations (Fe, Al, Cr, Zn,Pb)
samples of unstable slope and 7 samples of stable
16 elements of heavy metals were analysed (Na,
slope ( 0 to 200 mm depth ) were collected at two
Ca, Mg, Mn, K, V ,Sb ,Ba ,Cu ,Cr ,Pb ,Zn ,Fe, Al,
state which are Perak and Selangor. Soil samples
Ni, Cd) to determine the total heavy metal content
were air-dried, passed through a 2.00 mm (10
in stable slope and unstable slope soils.
meshes) sieve and stored in plastic bags for further
analysis. a) Tanjung Malim-Perak
Table 3. Total heavy metal content in soil samples
Preparing Soil Sample at stable slope area (Tanjung Malim-Perak) mean
value ± standard deviation values from three
The samples were dried at 80 _C for 3 to 4 days.
replicates (n = 3). (S1-S4: UPSI)
After that, the sample was broken to smaller pieces
and was sieved using 2 mm sieve. About 0.2 g of POINTS S1-UPSI S2-UPSI S3 -UPSI S4 -P.CITY
sample were accurately weighed into a container Fe
made of PFA (a peruoroalkoxy polymer), which 950 ± 24 975 ± 19 975 ± 3 775 ± 13
mg kg-1
was then placed in a microwave pressure vessel. Al
954 ± 32 263 ± 193 279 ± 403 281 ± 451
After addition of 2.5ml of concentrated nitric acid mg kg-1
and 10ml of concentrated hydrochloric acid, the Cr
0.1 ± 0.1 0.066 ± 0.04 0.046 ± 0.06 0.012 ± 0.02
samples were digested by using a microwave power mg kg-1
progressively increasing up to 400W during 40 Zn
0.067 ± 0.01 0.052 ± 0.006 0.039 ± 0.002 0.019 ± 0.003
min. (The graphite furnace temperature program for mg kg-1

working elements were set of as recommended by Pb

0.032 ± 0.01 0.052 ± 0.04 0.2 ± 0.031 0.020 ± 0.013
mg kg-1
the manufacturer). After cooling, the solutions were
accurately diluted to 50 ml with water. The
operating parameters for working elements were set Table 4. Total heavy metal content in soil samples
as recommended by manufacturer. All solutions at unstable slope area (Tanjung Malim-Perak)
were further analyzed in the laboratories through
POINTS S5 S6 S7 S8
ICP-MS with three triplicates of each sample.
Fe
11 ± 19 14 ± 5 22 ± 8 27 ± 16
mg kg-1
Site Pictures
Al
64 ± 17.4 119 ± 60 93 ± 8.6 29 ± 14
mg kg-1
Cr
0.056 ± 0.033 0.029 ± 0.07 0.034.6 ± 0.024 0.011 ± 0.0013
mg kg-1
Zn
0.033 ± 0.01 0.051 ± 0.005 0.058 ± 0.018 0.039 ± 0.014
mg kg-1
Pb
0.0307 ± 0.002 0.018 ± 0.009 0.018 ± 0.018 0.0025 ± 0.015
mg kg-1

The most obvious feature of the studied area

Figure 1. Unstable slope in Selangor
Figure 2. Stable slope in Selangor
was its high level of concentration of Fe and Al in
the stable slope area which their values were from
(775 to 975 mg kg-1) and (263 to 954 mg kg-1)
compared to Al and Fe in unstable slope area. The
presence of chromium (Cr) in both slope condition
(unstable and stable slope) also show a significance
difference, the level of heavy metal Cr was slightly
higher in stable slope rather than unstable slope.
The level of concentration of Zn in stable slope
was from (0.019 to 0.067 mg kg-1) while
concentration of Zn in unstable slope varies was
from (0.033 to 0.039 mg kg-1). The concentration
of Pb in stable slope was from (0.020 to 0.032 mg
kg-1), concentration of pb in unstable slope was
varies from (0.0025 to 0.03 mg kg-1). Al and Fe

M4-3
have the highest concentrations in stable slope area significant relationship in Oxisol soil. The degree
while Cr, Zn and Pb show a slightly higher of Al substitution in iron oxides may reflect the
concentration in stable slope compare to unstable environments in which they form (Schwertmann
slope. In conclusion the stable slope in Perak and Kampf 1985; Schwertmann 1988b). The
consists of higher concentration of Fe and Al. concentration level of chromium is quite balance
b) Selangor between the stable and unstable slope. In addition,
the graph shows concentration of zinc was higher in
Table 5. Total heavy metal content in soil samples stable slope rather than in unstable slope with the
at stable slope area (Selangor) mean value ±
concentration starting from 0.007 to 0.76 mg kg-1.
standard deviation values from three replicates
(n = 3) Furthermore, concentration of Pb was higher in
stable slope from 0.001 to 0.035 mg kg-1. These
POINTS S1 S2 S3
findings have demonstrated an apparent influence
of heavy metal in soil at stable and unstable slope
Fe
87 ± 39 187 ± 236 110 ± 185 area. It can be conclude that in Selangor Fe and Al
mg kg-1
Al
have the highest concentrations in stable area.
392 ± 214 235 ± 14.2 220 ± 256
mg kg-1
Cr Relationship between heavy metal, stable slope and
0.225 ± 0.166 0.071 ± 0.015 0.0015 ± 0.0025
mg kg-1 unstable slope
Zn
0.76 ± 0.022 0.02 ± 0.001 0.007 ± 0.08 Analysis of T-test on each of 21 samples data
mg kg-1
confirmed the previous findings by exhibiting
Pb
0.035 ± 0.002 0.032 ± 0.021 0.001 ± 0.003 highly significant differences between heavy metal
mg kg-1
content, slope stability, and the location .This
clearly demonstrates that concentration of heavy
Table 6. Total heavy metal content in soil samples
metal in different slope condition can have an
at unstable slope area (Selangor) mean value ±
standard deviation values from three replicates important influence on the shallow slope failure.
(n = 3) Below are charts showing summary of overall
comparison for total Al, Fe, Cr, Zn, Pb in both
Fe Al Cr Zn Pb Perak and Selangor state for stable and unstable
Points
mg kg-1 mg kg-1 mg kg-1 mg kg-1 mg kg-1 slope area.
S4 13 ± 3.6 3.2 ± 3.1 0.009 ± 0.008 0.002 ± 0.005 0.001 ± 0.001

S5 0.72 ± 0.38 3.8 ± 2.1 0.006 ± 0.027 0.005 ± 0.009 0.004 ± 0.003

S6 5.1 ± 1.8 3.4 ± 3.5 0.002 ± 0.003 0.001 ± 0.002 0.021 ± 0.035

S7 23 ± 6.2 72.9 ± 21.6 0.076 ± 0.021 0.109 ± 0.04 31 ± 10

S8 71 ± 49.3 183 ± 123 0.199 ± 0.133 0.143 ± 0.132 11.4 ± 8.4

S9 42.6 ± 37.2 125 ± 74.5 0.115 ± 0.099 0.097 ± 0.037 6.6 ± 5.6

S10 33 ± 13 148 ± 64 0.094 ± 0.037 0.094 ± 0.037 5.6 ± 2.3

S11 30.8 ± 4.2 201 ± 15.9 0.087 ± 0.007 0.041 ± 0.024 6.8 ± 0.4

S12 31.9 ± 9.3 144 ± 2.5 0.066 ± 0.04 0.104 ± 0.077 4.6 ± 1.2 Figure 3. Total Al in Perak

S13 36.7 ± 1.2 129 ± 5.1 0.113 ± 0.005 0.062 ± 0.005 3.8 ± 0.74

The result from T-Test analysis shows a

significant difference between the stable and
unstable slope of Fe, Al, Zn, Cr and Pb
concentration in soil. In this study, concentration of
Fe was found to be higher in the stable slope
compared to Fe in unstable slope at concentration
level between 87 to 110 mg kg-1. Moreover high
concentration of Al has also been identified in soil
at stable slope area with concentration level
between 220 to 392 mg kg-1. Al and Fe have a Figure 4. Total Al in Selangor

M4-4
 Figure 5. Total Fe in Perak
Figure 6. Total Fe in Selangor
Figure 7. Total Pb in Perak
Figure 8. Total Pb in Selangor
Figure 9. Total Zn in Perak
Figure 10. Total Zn in Selangor
DISCUSSION
The Relationship between Heavy Metal Content,
CEC, Soil Texture, Organic carbon and Shallow
Slope Failure
This analysis and study shows a higher content
of heavy metal (micronutrients) can be an
indication that the soil has higher content of organic
carbon and higher content of CEC activities which
result in the stability of the soil. It is because,
despite of the laterization process, the tissues from
the existing plantings on slope becomes deposited
in soil through leaf litter and builds up soil organic
matter. The availability of the organic matter will
increase the CEC activities and micronutrients in
the soil. Furthermore the clay in the soil and the
humus from the plants has electrostatic surface
charges which attracts the solution ions and hold
them. This bind process will give stability to the
soil aggregates. The soil is less acidic and more
stable.
Therefore, a lower content of heavy metal
(micronutrients) shows an indication that the soil
has lower content of organic carbon and lower
content of CEC activities, which result in the
instability of the soil. This type of soil will go
through rapid process of laterization. In this process
the primary mineral will most probably absence,
which contribute to low CEC activity low
M4-5
micronutrients and low moisture retention (low Table 7. Tabulated data for overall analysis
holding water capacity). The soil eventually Stable Slope Unstable slope
becomes very acidic and infertile and not stable.
Heavy Metal
Based on the result, total content of Aluminium -Aluminium,
(Al), Zinc (Zn), Ferum (Fe) and Plumbum ( Pb) -Plumbum
High Low
showed higher content value in stable slope than -Zinc
failure slope for both sites. It is concluded that -Ferum
-Chromium
heavy metal content are higher in stable slope than
in failure slope. Dube (2000) and Brady and Weil Soil Texture
Low content of High content of
(2002) stated that soil with coarser textures would clay clay
have less clay and organic matter and therefore
Soil Organic
lower amounts of exchangeable cations and lower High Low
Carbon
CEC values. The factor of slope failure happen to
Soil CEC High Low
both site is lack of small particles in stable slope
thus lack of negative ion charges that might bind
with the positive charges of micronutrients content Summary
in soil. Table 8. Key indicator to predict shallow slope
The heavy metal contents usually decreases failure based on soil chemical properties for 21
from clay to coarse silt. It is caused by high surface sites.
area of clay minerals and weak pH depending on
the CEC. Hence, soils with high amount of clay and Unstable slope
organic matter can contribute more to heavy metal Class I II III
than the others. Furthermore, the inorganic part of
Heavy Fe +3 20 50 100 150
soil and organic matter can bind to each other like
Metal
Aluminum and Iron oxides and clay mineral (Dube
et. al, 2000). The present of high clay content Al +3 200 250 350 400

contributed to the result of high CEC content in Zn+2 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.35
failure slopes. The factor lead to this is all the total
heavy metal contents shown are positively charge Pb+4 0.05 10 20 28

bonded with high clay contents which are

Cr +3 0.08 0.09 0.1 0.2
negatively charge. The condition of the soil should
stable since the presence of negative ions of clays
and positive ions of heavy metal contents are Stable slope
bonded with each other.
Class I II III
Organic carbon in soil also plays an important
role in soil structure. Organic carbon is the essential Heavy Fe +3 500 1000 1500 3500
element of organic compounds which could Metal

combine with itself, nitrogen, phosphorus, and Al +3 600 800 1000 1600
other elements to form an immerse array
Zn+2 0.05 0.06 0.08 0.09
compounds in soil (Singer and Munns, 2002). In
addition, Jamal and Nuranina (2005) stated that Pb+4 30 35 40 46
nitrogen and CEC also correlated significantly to
aggregate stability by regarding the clay contents in Cr +3 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

soil. Dube (2000) also stated that the organic

substances can bind to silicate surface in clay
mineral via several mechanisms which are Al3+,
Fe2+, Ca2+ and Mg2+ bridges, hydrogen bonding,
and adsorption by association with hydrous oxides.
Based on the results of the experiments, it is
showed that the failure slopes have low organic
carbon and nitrogen contents compare to stable
slopes, which had proven the facts stated by Singer
and Munns (2002), Jamal and Nuraina (2005), and
Dube (2000).
*Class I (Failure slope) = High risk Class,
Class II = medium risk, Class III = low risk
*Class I (Stable slope) = less Stable,
Class II = stable, Class III = Most stable
CONCLUSION
It can be concluded that soil chemical properties
are closely related to the stability of the slope. It
can be an effective hazard monitoring rating system
and can further lengthen the time for shallow slope
failure to occur on the indicated area of slope

M4-6
failure. It could also be a further progress on the
leaching of elements to predict the time for shallow
slope failure to occur. Through this study, we can
examine each of those components, and explores
the importance of soil chemical and what it can tell
us about soil conditions such as fertility and
drainage that play an important aspect in
influencing the stability of the slope. Basically, the
poor condition of soil chemical properties that
cause shallow slope failure can be improved
through several ways such as by improving
drainage to speed soil drying and reduce saturation
during wet periods. It also can be done through
applying mulching around trees, as far as the drip
line. This will lessen compaction effects on the root
zone and improve the soil environment for root
growth. Surface mulching around trees also is an
effective method of improving soil. Mulch will
extend to the drip line if it is possible. Therefore,
organic amendments also benefit soils in several
ways. They will increase nutrient and water-holding
capacities and improve drainage and aeration. In
different ways, organic amendments benefit both
coarse and fine soils. Because organic matter
increases nutrient and water-holding capacity, it
helps counter the drawbacks of sand-based soils. It
also provides a good soil environment for plant
growth that plays important roles in enhancing the
stability of the newly cut slope and matured slope.
Finally, with this result, it is hope that this research
will provide the informative information for the
local authority and also to other non-government
related agencies about new finding for landslide
disaster management. The results are designed to
provide some clarification of the assessment tools
for shallow slope failure which in turn will assist all
relevant stakeholders including engineer,
developers and government bodies in making
informed decisions when designing new cut slope
as well as in monitoring and managing the existing
slope.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thanks Ministry of
Education (MOE) and International Islamic
University Malaysia (IIUM) for the Research Grant
NRGS13-002-0002.
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relation to aggregate properties. Malaysian
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Moura, E. G., Moura, N. G., Marques, E. S.,
Pinheiro, K. M., Costa Sobrinho, J. R. S. &
Aguiar A. C. F. (2009). Evaluating chemical
and physical quality indicators for a
structurally fragile tropical soil. Soil Use and
Management 25: 368–375.
Paramananthan, S. (1977). Soil Genesis On Igneous
And Metamorphic Rocks In Malaysia. D.Sc.
Thesis, State University of Ghent, Belgium.
302p.
Paramananthan, S. and Lim, C. P. (1978). Oxisols
of Malaysia. Proceedings second International
Soil Classification workshop, Kuala Lumpur
and Bangkok, ed. F.H. Beinroth and S.
Paramananthan. Land Development Department,
Bangkok, 1980.
Pradhan, B., Lee, S., (2010) Regional landslide
susceptibility analysis using back-propagation
M4-7
 neural network model at Cameron Highland,
Malaysia, Landslides, 7, 13–30
Singer, M. J., & Munns, D. N., (2002). Soils, an
introduction 5th ed. New Jersey, Pearson
Education, Inc
Sidle R. C. and Ochiai H. 2006, Landslide
Processes, Prediction, and Land use,
Washington DC, American Geophysical Union,
pp. 1–312.
Tessens, E. and Shamshuddin, J. (1983).
Quantitative Relationship between Mineralogy
and Properties of Tropical Soils. UPM Press,
Serdang, Selangor.
Thomasson, A.J. (1978). Towards an objective
classification of soil structure. Journal of Soil
Science 29: 38–46.

M4-8
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

THE POTENTIAL OF SOIL COLOR PROPERTIES TO PREDICT SHALLOW

SLOPE FAILURE IN NORTH-SOUTH HIGHWAY SLOPE, MALAYSIA
Rashidi Othman 1, Mohd Shah Irani Hasni 2, Ruhul ‘Izzati Shaharuddin 3 and Zainul Mukrim Baharuddin 4

ABSTRACT: Landslides in Malaysia have always been seen as serious issue and posed severe threats to any
settlements and structures that support transportation, natural resources, as well as tourism. Eventhough the
geology of Malaysia is quite stable, excessive development and urbanization leads to deforestation, weathering
and erosion of the covered soil masses causing serious threat to slopes. The extent of damages could be reduced
or minimized if a long-term early warning system predicting the landslide prone areas would have been in place.
A study was carried along the North-South highway, Malaysia. 60 points consists of stable and unstable slope
were visited and soils samples were collected from those stations for laboratory analysis. All the selected slopes
for soil sampling are from class 5 (40-50 degree). The aim of the research is to identify the soil color properties
to be manipulated as indicator to forecast shallow slope failure. In conclusion, the indicator to predict shallow
slope failure is ranged from 5YR to 10YR based on Munsell soil color chart. The hues that indicate stable slope
are between 2.5 YR - 5YR while the hues that indicate unstable slope are between 5YR -10YR. This is due to the
high contents of clay and sand which affect the soil color to yellowish, red and whitish.

Keywords: Soil physical properties, soil color, shallow slope failure, early warning system

INTRODUCTION geologically control such as wedge failures and rock

fall (Ali Jawaid, 2000).
Landslide has slowly become a major concern in
The soils of the tropics have long been considered
Malaysia due to the rapid development and
as problem soils compared to their counterparts in
urbanization. Despite advances in science and
temperate areas. Malaysia has a hot humid climate
technology, these catastrophes continue to result in
whereby these high temperatures and heavy rainfall
human suffering, millions in property losses and
acting over a wide variety of parent materials, have
environment degradation. During the period from
produced a wide range of soils. Problem soils are
1993 to 2004, a number of major landslides were
defined as those which require special management
reported in Malaysia, involving fill and cut of natural
practices for their economic use in agricultural
slopes, which also resulted in loss of lives (Harwant
production. In general, problem soils are of the
Singh, 2006). The landslides that occurred in the
lowest priority for agricultural use. However, when
New Klang Valley Express Highways region in the
there are high demands for it, such soils have to be
year 2003 have alerted the highway authorities and
utilized. There are four groups of problem soils found
other governmental organizations toward the
in Malaysia which are Oxisols, acid sulphate soils,
seriousness of landslide management and prevention.
sandy soils, organic soils and most of these soils are
The October 2002 landslide in Kuala Lumpur which
prone to erosion and landslides. It is because, the
completely destroyed a few houses and killed six
high iron content of these Oxisols causes aggregation
members of a family is still fresh in the memory of
of the clay fraction to form pseudo silts and pseudo
the people. The most common type of landslide in
sands and even the formation of clay balls. Such an
Malaysia is the shallow slide where the slide surface
aggregation of the clay results in a soil that is
is usually less than 4 meter deep and occurs during or
excessively drained and highly porous, with a low
immediately after intense rainfall. Other types of
moisture content (Shakilah, 2014).
landslide are deep-seated slide, debris flow and

1
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Rashidi Othman, International Islamic University Malaysia (INHART), rashidi@iium.edu.my, Malaysia
2
Mohd Shah Irani, International Islamic University Malaysia (INHART), shahiranihasni@gmail.com, Malaysia
3
Ruhul ‘Izzati Shaharuddin, International Islamic University Malaysia (INHART), ruhulizzatiium@gmail.com, Malaysia
4
Asst. Prof. Dr. Zainul Mukrim Baharuddin, International Islamic University Malaysia (INHART), zainulm@iium.edu.my,
Malaysia

M5-1
 Chemically these Oxisols also present problems, and towns in western Peninsular Malaysia, acting as
as the mineralogical composition gives special the 'backbone' of the west coast of the Peninsular.
charge characteristics to the soils. In some Oxisols of
Malaysia the net charge is low or even positive, Data Collection: Soil Sample Collection
indicating that the nutrient retention capacity is low.
60 soil samples were collected randomly at sites
The charge in these Oxisols is dominated by high pH from 2 sections along Northern Route of North South
dependent or variable charges while aluminium highway which are at section C2 (Tanjung Malim to
saturation often exceeds 60%. Occasionally some
Bidor) and section C3 (Sungai Buloh to Tanjung
micronutrients toxicity, such as nickel and chromium, Malim). At sites, the samples were collected
has been reported (Shakilah, 2014). As a randomly at 10 points to represent the site (Figure 1).
consequence of all these properties, the highly
Auger set was used to collect soil sample at the
weathered Oxisols of Malaysia can be considered designated area and soil samples were collected in
problem soils and the potential of soil failure at the depth of 30cm from the surface. Finally, the soil
sloppy area are high. It is vital to identify and analyze
samples were stored in plastic bag and labelled for
the potential slope failure areas to prevent this from further analysis.
happening.
In Malaysia, little attention has been paid to the
people who live within landslide-prone areas.
Unfortunately not much database is available about
them and the measures taken to avoid loss (Pradhan
and Lee, 2010). Therefore, there is a need to
determine the weight of landslide causative
parameters using available data and develop such
models to test in the Malaysian environment.
Moreover, many factors may contribute to the
potential of slope failure but this study is aiming on
identifying the differences of physical properties of
Figure 1. 10 Points have been selected randomly to
stable and unstable soil based on soil color. It is due represent the site
to soil color is one of the easiest physical soil
properties to be observed. Many components in the
soil influence the soil color such as organic matter,
minerals and moisture, and soil color can also be an
indicator of past and current environmental
conditions. Through this study, we explored the
importance of soil color properties to predict shallow
slope failure and what it can tell us about soil
conditions such as drainage and fertility that play an
important aspect in influencing the stability of the
slope. In brief, this study is very important for the
local authority for landslide disaster management.
The results of the research need to be disseminated Figure 2. Unstable slope soil
accurately, not only to assist the state administrations,
but also to other government and non-government
related agencies.

MATERIALS AND METHOD

Study Area Description
The North–South Expressway is the longest
expressway in Malaysia with the total length of about
772 km running from Bukit Kayu Hitam in
Kedah near the Malaysian-Thai border (connects
with Phetkasem Road in Thailand) to Johor Bahru at
Figure 3. Stable slope soil covered by fern species
the southern portion of Peninsular Malaysia and to
Singapore. The expressway links many major cities

M5-2
Soil Color Measurement Point Location Munsell soil Color
color ( wet ) category
Through this research, 60 soil samples consist of ( wet)
stable and unstable slope were measured by using the 27 Lembah Brown 7.5 yr 4/4
beringin
Munsell Soil Color Chart. In order to determine the
28 Lembah Reddish brown 5 yr 4/3
soil color, the soil samples were placed in the palm of beringin
hand and choose a color from Munsell Soil Color 29 Lembah Reddish yellow 5yr 6/8
Chart close to color of selected soil sample. beringin
30 Tanjung malim Reddish brown 5yr 4/4
31 Tanjung malim Reddish brown 5yr 5/4
RESULTS AND FINDINGS
41 Lembah Brown 7.5yr 5/3
All samples were collected from December 2014 beringin
47 Tanjung malim Pink 7.5yr 8/4
to February 2015 consist of unstable slope soil
48 Tanjung malim Reddish yellow 5yr 7/6
(Figure 4) and stable slope soil (Figure 5). The
49 Tanjung malim Reddish yellow 7.5yr 7/6
details of findings were elaborated as in Table 1 and
59 Sungkai Light reddish 5yr 6/3
Table 2 : brown

Table 2. Measurement of stable slope soil color

category based on Munsell Soil Color Chart for 40
different sites along North South Highway
Point Location Munsell soil Color
color ( wet ) category
( wet)
2 Sg buloh Dark red 2.5yr 3/6
4 Sg buloh Pinkish white 2.5 yr 8/2
5 Rawang Dark reddish 2.5 yr 3/3
brown
6 Rawang Dark gray 5yr 4/1
Figure 4. Soil Sample for unstable slope
7 Rawang Yellowish red 5yr 5/6
8 Rawang Reddish yellow 5yr 7/6
9 Rawang Dark reddish grey 2.5 yr 4/1
10 Rawang Reddish yellow 5yr 7/6
13 Sg buaya Yellowish red 5yr 5/6
15 Bukit Light yellowish 2.5yr 6/4
beruntung brown
16 Bukit Pale red 2.5yr 6/2
beruntung
17 Bukit Reddish brown 2.5yr 5/3
beruntung
21 Bestari Light reddish 5yr 6/3
jaya brown
Figure 5. Soil Sample for stable slope 22 Bestari Reddish brown 2.5yr 5/3
jaya
Table 1. Measurement of unstable slope soil color 25 Bukit Reddsih brown 5 yr 5/3
category based on Munsell Soil Color Chart for 20 tagar
32 Tanjung Dark reddish 5yr 3/3
different sites along North South Highway
malim brown
Point Location Munsell soil Color 33 Tanjung Reddish brown 2.5 yr 4/4
color ( wet ) category malim
( wet) 34 Tanjung Yellowish red 5 yr 4/6
1 Rawang Reddish brown 5yr 5/4 malim
3 Sg buloh Reddish yellow 7.5 yr 7/8 35 Lembah Pinkish gray 5yr 7/2
beringin
11 Sg buaya Reddish yellow 7.5yr 6/6 36 Lembah Reddish brown 2.5yr 5/3
12 Sg buaya Brown 7.5 yr 4/4 beringin
14 Sg buaya Yellowish red 5yr 5/6 38 Lembah Light reddish 5yr 6/3
18 Bkt beruntung Reddish yellow 5yr 7/6 beringin brown
19 Bkt beruntung Brown 7.5yr 5/3 40 Lembah Light reddish 5yr 6/4
beringin brown
23 Bkt beruntung Yellowish 10yr 5/6
42 Lembah Light reddish 2.5 yr 6/3
brown
beringin brown
24 Bkt beruntung Reddish yellow 5yr 7/6
43 Batang Reddish brown 5yr 5/3
26 Bkt tagar Pinkish gray 7.5 yr 7/2 berjuntai

M5-3
Point Location Munsell soil Color secondary mineral, since it is produced by
color ( wet ) category weathering of the primary minerals. Clay is the
( wet)
44 Bukit Pinkish grey 5 yr 6/2 smallest particle in soil and exhibits colloidal
beruntung properties. Clay has negative charge therefore clay
45 Bukit Reddish brown 5 yr 5/3 has high water holding capacity action. Clay is
beruntung plastic and sticky when wet due to its plate like
46 Tanjung Light reddish 2.5yr 6/3
malim brown structure. Some of the clays, like iron oxide clays,
50 Tanjung Light olive brown 2.5y 5/3 play an important role in soil aggregation and in
malim addition impart red to yellow colors to soils.
51 Tanjung Reddish brown 5yr 4/4 Macrospores of sand offer less attraction for the
malim
52 Behrang Light gray 2.5y 7/1 water than do the finer pores in soil (Brady and Weil,
54 Behrang Light olive gray 2.5yr 6/2 2002), meaning that the lack of content of coarse
55 Behrang Light gray 2.5y 7/2 structure than fine texture will lead to shallow failure
56 Behrang Olive gray 5y 4/2 slope. Brady and Weil (2002) elaborated that the
57 Sungkai Light brownish 2.5y 6/2 large pores in the coarse layer will not be able to
gray support capillary movement from the smaller pores in
60 Sungkai Light yellowish 2.5y 6/4 finer layer. Singer and Munns (2002) also stated that,
brown
61 Bidor Pinkish gray 5yr 7/2 moist particles of sand, silt, and clay causing the
62 Sungkai Pinkish gray 5yr 6/2 weak soil structure. Since water movement is from
63 Sungkai Pale brown 2.5y 7/4 higher to lower potential, thus the gravitational
64 Ladang White 5y 8/1 attraction will bring the small particles and organics
bikam colloids downwards and this is the cause of shallow
65 Bidor Reddish yellow 5yr 6/6 slope failure.
The soil structure and texture in stable slope make
Analysis on each of 60 soil samples clearly the soil strong and tight. The current moisture
showed that there are differences in term of soil color content, the amount of organic matter present, the
properties between stable and unstable slope. It can types of minerals, and how long water is held in the
be concluded that the indicator to predict shallow soil can be observed through the soil color. Singer
slope failure is ranged from 5YR to 10YR based on and Munns (2002) stated that most minerals are not
Munsell soil color chart. The hues that indicate stable highly colored and when they are coated with humus
slope are between 2.5 YR to 5YR while the hues that and iron oxides, they take on the colors of humus
indicate unstable slope are between 5YR to 10YR. (black or brown) and iron oxides and hydroxides (red
This clearly demonstrates that soil color properties and yellow). Meanwhile, carbonates of calcium and
can be used as one of the potential early warning magnesium colors the soil to white colors. Lastly,
system to predict shallow slope failure. Moreover, gray or blue colors may indicate that soils are wet for
from the findings also clearly showed that most of much of the year, and any iron present is likely to be
the stable slope was covered by vegetation such as in chemically reduced form.
fern and grass while for unstable slope mostly To sum up, for the failure slope soil, the color
without any vegetation. was slightly lighter than the stable slope, which
means the soil was lack of organic matter and the
DISCUSSION presence of oxidation states of iron and manganese
oxides content. The lack of organic matter will
The Relationship between soil color, soil texture, reduce the soil strength, make it fragile and weak. As
organic matter and shallow slope failure aggregate size decreases, the amount of organic
Soil colors give valuable clues in soil properties, matter often decreases (Jamal and Nuranina, 2005).
soil classification and interpretation. A standard Organic matters are one of the binding agents in soil
system for accurate color description has been and organic materials also produce organic carbon in
developed by using Munsell soil color chart (Brady soil (Singer and Munns, 2002). Higher amounts of
and Weil, 2002). From the findings, the hues that organic matter usually associate by dark colors in the
indicate stable slope are between 2.5 YR to 5YR soil, especially at the surface. These soils can be high
while the hue that indicates unstable slope is between in nutrients, have favorable structure, and easily
5YR to 10YR. This is due to the high contents of permeable to air, water and plant roots. In other
clay and sand that affect the soil color to yellowish, words, the lack of organic matter will cause shallow
reddish and whitish. Clay is considered as a slope failure and weaken the structure of the slope.

M5-4
Table 3 shows the summary of relationship between d) Root Reinforcement – roots mechanically
soil color, soil texture, organic matter and shallow reinforce a soil by transfer of shear stresses in
slope failure which in agreement with facts stated by the soil to tensile resistance in the roots
Brady and Weil (2002), Singer and Munns (2002)
and Jamal and Nuraina (2005). CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
It can be concluded that soil color is closely
Table 3. Tabulated Data for Overall Analysis
related to soil texture, organic matter and drainage
STABLE UNSTABLE pattern. The elements contributed to each other as
SAMPLE SAMPLE binding agents which will affect the strong soil
structure. The high content of clay in soil leads to
Soil Color (2.5YR – 5YR) high values of CEC and low content of colloidal
(5YR – 10YR)
material such as sandy soil will lead to a lower value
Soil Texture Low content of High content of of CEC. The determination of how strong or weak
clay clay the soil structure could also be caused by water
element too, such as rain, since water can seeps into
Soil Organic High content of Low content of
organic matter the soil or rock and replace the air in the pore space
Matter organic matter
which an which reducing or fractures. Water is heavier than air, and this
important increases the weight of the soil. Water has the ability
the amount of
component for to change the angle of repose (the slope angle which
organic carbon .It
organic carbon
is extremely is the stable angle for the slope). The research on the
important in all indicator for shallow slope failure can further
soil processes. lengthen the time for shallow slope failure to occur
on the indicated area of slope failure. It could also be
The importance of vegetation in influencing slope a further progress on the leaching of elements to
stability predict the time for shallow slope failure to occur.
Vegetation and slope stability are strongly Shallow slope failure can be avoided by planting
interrelated by the capability of the plant life growing plants because plants’ roots will hold the soil
on slopes to both enhance the solidity and stability of structure from falling easily especially during heavy
the slope. The bonding is a complex arrangement of rain. Moreover, plants and underground organism
the type of soil, the rainfall intensity, the plant will increase the organic carbon in soil because
species and classification of the slope (Shah, 2008). organism in soil will associated with plants root
Based on the findings showed that unstable slope was doing the decomposition process thus the ions of
more likely to occur if there is no plant life growing organic carbon will bind with ions in clay and
on the top of soil. The less vegetation growing in the hydrogen in soil. These reactions will strengthen the
soil the more likely that erosion will happen. soil structure.
Vegetation can protect the soil from the impact of the Secondly, since the shallow slope failure usually
rain and slows down the infiltration process. Plants happen after continuous raining, underground
with deeper roots are better at holding the soil drainage can be recommended in order to ease the
together and protect it from erosion. Gray (1994) water flow and to reduce the accumulation of
stated, there are four major mechanisms in which saturated soil that will lead to the soil become moist
vegetation effects slope stability which are: and weaken the soil structure.
a) Soil moisture modifications – Thirdly, terrace slope rather than long slope can
evapotranspiration and interception in the be developed because erosion potential is greater on
foliage limit build-up of soil moisture stress. long slope rather than short slope (Jahn, 1963). In
Vegetation also affects the rate of snowmelt, addition, concave slope shaped can be constructed to
which in turn affects soil moisture regime. decrease water runoff because surface water runoff
b) Surcharge – weight of vegetation can, in increase rapidly on steep and long slope (Pennock
certain instances, increase stability via and de Jong, 1980). In order to add the hydrogen ion
increased confining (normal) stress on the that will be bind with the positive ions of
failure surface. micronutrient and heavy metal contents in soil,
c) Buttressing and arching – anchored and liming process to increase the soil ph is highly
embedded stems can act as buttress piles or recommended. Furthermore, by liming process it also
arch abutments in a slope, counteracting will increase the availability and mobility of the
shear stresses. nutrients that can be absorb by the plants.

M5-5
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT neural network model at Cameron Highland,
Malaysia, Landslides, 7, 13–30
The authors would like to thanks Ministry of
Rajesh Rai and B.K.Shrivastva (2014), “Numerical
Education (MOE) and International Islamic
simulation of vegetated mine dump slope with
University Malaysia (IIUM) for the Research Grant
reference to small plants", International Journal of
NRGS13-002-0002.
Mining Science and Technology 24 (2014) 111–
REFERENCES 115.
Schaetzl, R. J. and Mokma, D. L. (1988) A numerical
Ali Jawaid, S. M., (2000) Risk assessment of index of Podzol and Podzolicsoil development.
landslide using fuzzy theory. In Landslides Physical Geography, Vol. 9, 232–246.
inResearch, Theory and Practice: London: Schaetzl, R. J. and Anderson, S. N. (2005) Soils
Thomas Telford, pp 31-36. Genesis and Geomorphology.Cambridge, UK:
Brady, N. C., & Weil, R. R., (2002) The nature and Cambridge University Press.
properties of soils. Pearson Education, Inc, New Singer, M. J., & Munns, D. N., (2002). Soils, an
Jersey. introduction 5th ed. New Jersey, Pearson
Eswaran, H and Sys, C. (1975). A Pedogenetical Education, Inc.
Study Of Soils Developed On Ultrabasic Rocks T. Kevin O'Donnell (2011),”Determination of
From Sabah, Malaysia. Proceedings Third representative elementary areas for soil
ASEAN Soils conference, Kuala Lumpur. redoximorphic features identified by digital
Gray, D.H., (1994), Influence of vegetation on the image processing”
stability of slopes. In: Vegetation and Slopes:
Stab&&ion, Protection and Ecology, International
Conference. Institution of Civil
Engineers,London, pp. GRAYl-GRAY23.
Harwant, S., (2006) Slope Assessment Systems: A
Review and Evaluation of Current Techniques
Used for Cut Slopes in the Mountainous Terrain
of West Malaysia, Faculty of Resource Science
and Technology, University Malaysia Sarawak.
Jahn, A. (1963) Importance of soil erosion for the
evolution of slopes in Poland. Nach. Akad. Wiss.
Gottingen Math-Phys Kl. 15, 229-37
Jamal, T., and Nuranina, S., (2005) Aggregate
breakdown rates of some Malaysian soils and
relation to aggregate properties. Malaysian
Journal of Soil Science. 9: 1-13.
Noor Shakilah (2014) Studies on Chemical
Properties Of Stable And Unstable Slope Of
Highly Weathered Soil (Oxisols).
Paramananthan, S. and Lim, C. P. (1978). Oxisols of
Malaysia. Proceedings second International Soil
Classification workshop, Kuala Lumpur and
Bangkok, ed. F.H. Beinroth and S.
Paramananthan. Land Development Department,
Bangkok, 1980.
Paramananthan, S. (1977). Soil Genesis On Igneous
And Metamorphic Rocks In Malaysia. D.Sc.
Thesis, State University of Ghent, Belgium. 302p.
Pennock, D. J. & De Jong, E. (1990) Rates of soil
distribution associated with soil zones and slope
classes in Southern Saskatchewan, Canadian
Journal of Soil Science 70: 325-34.
Pradhan, B., Lee, S., (2010) Regional landslide
susceptibility analysis using back-propagation

M5-6
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

LANDSLIDE PROCESSES MODELING, MONITORING AND RISK REDUCTION

Valentina Svalova 1

ABSTRACT mechanical-mathematical model of high viscous fluid was used for modeling of the matter
movement on landslide slopes. Equation of continuity and approximated Navier-Stockes equation for slow
motions in a thin layer of the matter were used. The results of modelling give possibility to define the place of
highest velocity on landslide surface that could be the best place for monitoring post position. Model can be used
for comparison of calculated and measured velocities of the matter and gives possibility to investigate some
fundamental aspects of the matter movement on landslide slope.

Keywords: landslides, modeling, monitoring

INTRODUCTION condition. In June 2007 a rather big landslide took

place there near ski-jump (Figure 6).
Landslides process is one of the most
widespread and dangerous processes in the
urbanized territories. In Moscow the landslips
occupy about 3 % of the most valuable territory of
the city. In Russia many towns are located near
rivers on high coastal sides. There are many
churches and historical buildings on high costs of
Volga River and Moscow River. The organization
of monitoring is necessary for maintenance of
normal functioning of city infrastructure in a
coastal zone and duly realization of effective
protective actions. Last years the landslide process
activization took place in Moscow.
Landslide motions is extremely actual and
difficult problem which decision is necessary for
preservation of valuable historical monuments and
modern city constructions. There are near 15 places
of deep landslides and many shallow landslides in
Moscow (Figure 1).
One of landslide sites is on Vorob'yovy
mountains, on a high slope of the right coast of the
river Moscow . Within the limits of a considered
site there is a historical monument of federal value - Figure 1. Landslides danger places in Moscow
«Andreevsky monastery», based in 1648 (Figure 2 (in red)
– Figure 4).
Also there the complex of buildings of
Presidium of the Russian Academy of Sciences,
constructed in 70 – 80th years of 20-th century
(Figure 4), bridge with station of underground
"Vorob'yovy mountains" and a sports complex are
located. Landslide slope (Figure 5) is in an active

1
Sergeev Institute of Environmental Geoscience RAS, Moscow, Ulansky per., 13, PB 145, 101000 Russia, inter@geoenv.ru

M6-1
 Абс. отм., м

f II
160
gI I
K1a
140

K1g
р.Москв а
 dpI V
dp4
120
J3v3
J3v2
100

J3ox

J3k 80

C
0
300 м 200 100

Figure 5. Schematic cross-section of landslide

slope at Vorob'yovy mountains

Figure 2. Vorob'yovy mountains. Landslide slope

Figure 6. Place of landslide activization

near ski jump

Figure 3. Andreevsky monastery and new buildings

on landslide slope

Figure 7. Museum - reserve "Kolomenskoye".

Common view. Landslide slope
Figure 4. Presidium of RAS, Andreevsky
monastery and new buildings on landslide slope Catastrophic activization of the deep blockglide
landslide in the area of Khoroshevo on the left-hand
Another landslide site is in a southeast part of shore of the Moskva River at Karamyshevskaya
Moscow near museum - reserve "Kolomenskoye" enbankment took place in 2006-2007.
(Figure 7 – Figure 9). Last serious activization of a Deep landslide activization was in
landslide has taken place there in 2002. Moskvorechye area in September 2009.
Such complicated situation demands
development of new investigations of landslide
prone zones. (Osipov et al. 2002, Kutepov et al.
2002, Postoev&Svalova 2005, Svalova&Postoev
2008).

M6-2

Figure 8. Museum - reserve "Kolomenskoye". The
church of Beheading of the Honest Head of Iowan
Predecessor
Figure 9. Deep blockglide landslide. Moscow,
Kolomenskoye. N.1, N.2, N.3 - extensometers,
inclinometers
MECHANICAL-MATHEMATICAL MODEL
FOR LANDSLIDE MOVEMENT
One of the methods of studying of landslide
processes is mechanical-mathematical modelling of
gravitational movement of the matter on landslide
slope. At different stages of the process
development the landslide movement can be
described by various mechanical and rheological
models. At the stage of formation of cracks, losses
of stability, break of blocks the models of the
elastic medium and model of destruction are
applied. During slow movement of soil on the slope
the model of high viscous incompressible fluid can
be used. Such model allows to calculate velocities
of movement in the layer of the matter and to
compare them with results of velocity monitoring.
Boundary conditions of the problem also depend on
concrete situation. So, the condition of sticking is
used on the bottom border of the layer in case of
slow movement. The condition of sliding or more
complex boundary condition is possible on the
bottom border, if the process of debris flow,
underwater landslip or snow avalanche is
considered. The choice of adequate model of the
process and statement of initial and boundary
conditions are the special mechanical problems.
Our approach is rather close to works of
Fathani& Nakamura 2005; Lang&Nakamura 1998;
Nakamura& Fathani 2002; Nakamura, Tsunaki &
Ishihama 1989; Suzuki 2001; Tsurugaya 2001.
Let's consider movement of landslide masses on
the slope as movement of high viscous
incompressible fluid described by equation of
Navier-Stockes and continuity:

dv 1  
 F  gradp  v
dt  

div v = 0

v - vector of velocity,
F – force of gravity,
p – pressure,
 - density,
 - viscosity,
t - time
Such a model can be successfully used for the
lithosphere movements simulation (Svalova 1975)
and for soil movements on the slope (Fathani&
Nakamura 2005). The problem is to estimate
effective viscosity for real matter. It can be done by
comparison of calculated and measured velocities
of the matter movements.
Let the characteristic horizontal scale of a body
of landslip L considerably surpasses its thickness h.
We shall count also a landslip extended enough in
the plan that allows to consider three-dimensional
model as two-dimentional one for sections of
landslide bodies. Following works (Svalova 1975,
1992, 1993; Svalova&Sharkov 1992) and applying
the method of decomposition on small parameter, it
is possible to get the equation of continuity and an
approximated equation of the Navier-Stockes in
dimensionless form for slow motions in a thin
layer:
 P  2U
  
X Z 2

 P   
 Z
U W
 0
X Z
M6-3
 F Q
 0
3 X
h
R   2   9 Q  3 Q  
L (   0 ) 7   (    0 ) 3 0   0
X 2    X 
u L
R 0 0
0 The condition of convexity of upper boundary is:
u
2
 2 
F 0 0
gL X 2
P is dimensionless pressure, 3Q  0
 (    0 )3
U,W – dimensionless velocities,  X
F - Frude number,
R – Reynolds number,
This condition enables to analyze the form of the
 - density,
surface of moving matter (Figure 10).
 - viscosity,
0 , 0 , u0 - scales of density, viscosity and
velocity.

P    Z 
  
U  U0      Z 2  (    0 ) 2 
2 X Figure 10. Sketches of dimensionless landslide
U 0 surface. Various possible forms of landslide
W  W0  ( 0  Z )  ground surfaces: а) - convex, b) - concave
X
  2   1 
2  
  Z       0  
3 1 3
Structure of clinoforms (convex) can arise, if:
 X  6 3 1. Q is large, that is flux is high
2.  is large. It means that matter spreads bad
2

1 

  Z   0  
2
and can support big angle
2 3.  is small. It means that matter has large
    
 (Z   0 ) 
2 specific volume and is friable
 4. grad  0 is small, that is angle of lower
2  X 
boundary is small
    0
 0 (    0 ) 5.
 
0 
is small, that is thickness of
 X X
sedimentary layer is small. Under fixed Q it
 0 - the bottom border of the layer, means that velocity of flux is high and
  - the top border. formation of clinoformes and even
overturning of rockes are possible
All these conditions seem to be natural enough
for explanation of formation of structures such as
Let on the bottom border the condition of sticking
inflows and clinoforms of sedimentary cover that
is satisfied:
confirms correctness of the model.
U0=W0=0
It is important to define the place of maximal
velocity on the slope. An optimum place for
The discharge of matter along the layer is:

location of monitoring post is the point of maximal

    speeds of movement of landslide masses.
Q   UdZ   (   0 ) 3 Let's consider the massif of sedimentary rocks
0
3 X 
with the top border  representing landslide slope.
Since Q=const lengthways X, then: The bottom border  0 is compatible with an axis X.
The maximum of horizontal speed U is reached on
the top border  of the massif according to


condition:

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 U     The places of minimum speed can be used for
 (  Z )  0  Z    building constructions and oil-gas pipelines. Model
Z  X velocities of matter can be compared with real
Point of the maximal horizontal speed on the velocities, that gives possibility to define the real
surface  can be found from condition of equality
 mechanical parameters of media.
to zero of the first derivative:
CONCLUSIONS
U      2

 0, whereU   ( )
X 2 X Landslides process is one of the most
widespread and dangerous processes in the
From here it is easy to receive the condition:
urbanized territories. The landslide process
activization took place in Moscow last years. Such
complicated situation demands development of new
investigations of landslide prone zones.
Mechanical-mathematical model of high
viscous fluid is elaborated for simulation of matter
movement on landslide slopes. The results of
modelling give possibility to define the place of
Figure 11. Sketch of dimensionless slope surface. highest velocity on landslide surface, which could
Point A is the point of maximal horizontal speed of be the best place for monitoring post position.
movement of masses on the ground surface of the Model can be used for comparison of calculated
slope
and measured velocities and estimation of effective
viscosity of real matter, that is subject of future
 2     2
  2 ( ) 0 (1)
research. The results of modelling give possibility
X 2 X to investigate some fundamental aspects of
landslide matter movement.
It is necessary to stress, that  (X) is known


function - the surface of landslide slope. And the REFERENCES

received condition allows to find a point on a slope
Fathani, T.F. & Nakamura, H. 2005. Numerical
where speed of movement is maximal.
analysis of the movement distance and velocity
Let's consider for illustration of the received
of landslides. Proceedings of the International
decision the surface of landslide as (Figure 11):
Conference on Landslides, Vancouver, Canada,
  ( X )  thX  1 10p.
It reflexes roughly the form of landslide surface Kutepov, V.M., Sheko, A.I., Anisimova, N.G.,
(Figure 5, Figure 9). Burova, V.N., Victorov, A.S. et al. 2002.
Then the condition (1) gives: Natural hazards in Russia. Exogenous
th 2 X  thX  1  0 geological hazards. Moscow, “KRUK”, 345 p.
Whence we receive Lang, Y.H. & Nakamura, H. 1998. Characteristics
1 5 of slip surface of loess landslides and their
thX  hazard area prediction. Journal of Japan
2 and
Landslide Society, 35(1), 9-18.
1  5
   1, 62 Nakamura, H., Tsunaki, R. & Ishihama, S. 1989.
2
Simulation model for debris movement of
Such position of the point of the maximal
landslides. Proceedings of the Japan-China
horizontal speed seems to be real, and more exact
Symposium on Landslides and Debris Flows,
data on the structure of landslide and its surface
Niigata, Tokyo, 81-86.
will enable to define such point on a concrete slope.
Nakamura. H. & Fathani, T.F. 2002. Hazard area
The point of maximum of speed on a slope defines
prediction for landslide debris. Proceedings of
the place of possible failure of a landslip in case of
the Tenth International Conference and Fieldtrip
achievement of limiting pressure in massif of rocks.
on Landslide, Krakow, 129-142.
There could be several points of local maximum
Osipov, V.I., Shojgu, S.K., Vladimirov, V.A.,
of speed on a slope, that characterizes an
Vorobjev, Yu.L., Avdod’in, V.P. et al. 2002.
opportunity of failure of a landslip on each terrace
Natural hazards in Russia. Natural hazards and
of a slope.
society. Moscow, “KRUK”, 245 p.

M6-5
Postoev, G.P. & Svalova, V.B. 2005. Landslides
risk reduction and monitoring for urban
territories in Russia. Proceedings of the First
General Assembly of ICL (International
Consortium on Landslides), “Landslides: risk
analysis and sustainable disaster management”,
Washington, USA, Springer, 297-303.
Suzuki, K. 2001. Estimation of the travel distance
of landslide debris in granite area. Master
Thesis at Tokyo Univ. of Agriculture and
Technology. Tokyo, 32-47.
Svalova, V. & Postoev, G. 2008. Landslide Process
Activization on Sites of Cultural Heritage in
Moscow, Russia. Proceedings of the First World
Landslide Forum 2008, Tokyo, Japan, 4p.
Svalova, V.B. & Sharkov, E.V. 1992. Mantle
diapirs and surface depression in back-arc areas:
a rheological model. Ofiolity, 17/1/, 165-170.
Svalova, V.B. 1975.The models of the lithosphere
movements. Ph.D. Thesis at Moscow State
University, 130 p.
Svalova, V.B. 1992. Mechanical-mathematical
models of the formation and evolution of
sedimentary basins. Sci.de la Terre, Ser.Inf.,
Nancy,31, 201-208.
Svalova, V.B. 1993. Mechanical-mathematical
simulation of geological structures evolution.
Geoinformatics, v. 4, N3, 153-160.
Tsurugaya, K. 2001. Study of the occurrence and
flow mechanism of the large-scale landslides
caused by an earthquake. Master Thesis at
Tokyo Univ. of Agriculture and Technology.
Tokyo, 80-108.

M6-6
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

COMPARING SINMAP LANDSLIDE SUSCEPTIBILITY MODELS IN THE RÍO EL

ESTADO, SW FLANK OF PICO DE ORIZABA VOLCANO, MEXICO

Gabriel Legorreta Paulín 1, Fernándo Aceves Quesada 2, Juan Umaña Romero 3

and Héctor Alfredo Legorreta Cuevas4

ABSTRACT: A comprehensive study of landslide susceptibility models assessment is carried out on the SW
flank of Pico de Orizaba volcano. A detailed multi-temporal landslide inventory map in the watershed is used as
framework for the quantitative comparison of two landslide susceptibility maps. The maps are created with the
Stability Index MAPping (SINMAP) model by: 1) using model system default parameters, 2) based on findings
of volcanic soils geotechnical proprieties obtained in the field. The validations of the resulting susceptibility
maps are performed by comparing them with the inventory map under LOGISNET system which provides tools
to compare by using a histogram and a contingency table. Results of the experiment allow for establishing how
the individual models predict the landslide location and advantages and limitations.

Keywords: GIS, landslide, modeling, SINMAP

and the models performance are conducted by

INTRODUCTION
Numerous methods embedded in Geographic
Information System (GIS)-based applications have
been used to map and assess landslide
susceptibility heuristically, statistically, or
deterministically at local or regional scale. One of
the most important tasks in modelling landslide
susceptibility is to compare the results with a detail
and accurate landslide inventory map to highlight
advantages and limitations of models (Hammond
et al., 1992; Montgomery and Dietrich, 1994; Pack
et al., 1998; Iwashasi et al., 2001; Zhou et al.,
2003; Lee et al., 2004; Xie et al., 2006; Qui et al.,
2006; Hervás and Bobrowsky, 2009). In Mexico,
despite efforts (Capra and Lugo-Hubp, 2006;
García-Palomo et al., 2006; Pérez-Gutiérrez, 2007;
Secretaría de Protección Civil, 2010), there are few
detailed landslide inventory maps and sparse
modelling. As a result, there is a lack of systematic
comparison of landslide susceptibility models that
compromises the reliability of the models and can
lead to their abuse. To address the above
deficiency, the SINMAP (Stability Index
MAPping) model is evaluated by using
geotechnical default parameters and by using
specific geotechnical parameters of the study area.
The validations of landslide susceptibility maps
comparing them with the inventory map under the
system LOGISNET (Legorreta et al., 2008) that
provides tools to compare the predicted
susceptibility map with an inventory map by using
a histogram and a contingency table.
The present research has studied the stream
system of the Río El Estado watershed on the
southwestern flank of Pico de Orizaba volcano to
accomplish the comparison between models. The
study area has physiographic conditions that are
prone to landslides: high degree of weathering, and
steep slopes with high rainfall during the wet
season. In the study area, landslides and debris
flows occur continually along the watershed.
These landslides continuously impact and damage
the human settlements and economic activities.
The landslide distribution is ascertained through a
detailed landslide inventory map of 107 landslides
created from multi-temporal aerial photographs
and field investigations (Legorreta et al., 2014).
The landslide models comparison is presented and
discussed, as are the implications for the landslide
susceptibility associated with the watershed. The
results from the study area suggest that the
SINMAP model using specific site geotechnical
data has a better prediction compare with SINMAP
model using default parameters.

1
Researcher, Laboratorio de Análisis Geo-espacial, Instituto de Geografía, UNAM, legorretag@hotmail.com, México
2
Proffesor, Departamento de Geografía Física, Instituto de Geografía, UNAM, acevesquesada.fernando@gmail.com, México
3
Professor, Laboratorio de Mecánica de Suelos, Facultad de Ingeniería, UNAM, jlur67@hotmail.com, México
4
Professor, Laboratorio de Mecánica de Suelos, Facultad de Ingeniería, UNAM, hectora@servidor.unam.mx, México

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BACKGROUND
Worldwide, there are a number approaches to
assess landslide susceptibility. Each one has its
own advantages and limitations (Tobutt, 1982;
Jäger and Wieczorek, 1994; Maceo-Giovanni et al.,
2000; Clerici et al., 2002; Dai et al., 2002; Zhou et
al., 2003; Lee et al., 2004; Metternicht et al., 2005;
Guzzetti et al., 2012;). One main issue in modeling
landslide susceptibility is the lack of systematic
comparison of methods to outline the advantages
and limitations of modeling the spatial distribution
of landslides. The lack of systematic comparison
not only compromises the reliability of the models,
but also leads to abuse of the models (Legorreta et
al., 2008). Problems such as pixel resolution,
interpolation, definition of landslide type that a
model is able to predict, misunderstanding of
model requirements, incorrect calculation and/or
estimation of topographic, hydrologic, and soil
parameters compromise the model efficiency.
Nevertheless, efforts to create, test, and validate
landslide susceptibility models have been made
(Montgomery and Dietrich, 1994; Pack et al.,
2001; Morrisey et al., 2001; Dietrich et al., 2001;
Chinnayakanahalli et al., 2003; Wawer and
Nowocień, 2003; Zaitchik et al., 2003; Borga et al.,
2002; Lan et al., 2004; Winsemius et al., 2005;
Legorreta et al., 2008). For areas with sparse
information SINMAP models have been used.
SINMAP combines the theory of a hydrologic
model (O’Laughlin, 1986; Beven and Kirkby,
1979) and the infinite slope stability model factor
of safety (Hammond et al, 1992) to produce the
susceptibility map.
In Mexico, during the last decade, a general
framework and guidance for landslide
susceptibility has been prepared by the National
Center for Prevention of Disasters (Centro
Nacional de Prevención de Desastres, 2004) and
local or regional landslide mapping has been
carried out by using GIS and remote sensing
(Bocco, 1983; Tapia-Varela and López-Blanco,
2002; Bolongaro-Crevenna et al., 2005; Capra and
Lugo-Hubp, 2006; Pérez-Gutiérrez, 2007;
Secretaría de Protección Civil, 2010). In Veracruz
State, an atlas of geological and
hydrometeorological hazards was created in 2010.
In 2011, an atlas of natural hazards at municipal
level was published (Secretaría de Protección Civil,
2010; SEDESOL, 2011). In the study area, most of
the research has focused on the volcanic history of
Pico de Orizaba volcano to establish the eruptive
styles (Siebe et al., 1992; Carrasco-Núñez et al.,
1993; Carrasco-Núñez and Rose, 1995; De la
N1-2
Cruz-Reyna and Carrasco-Núñez, 2002; Macias,
2005; Carrasco-Núñez et al., 2006). Computer
simulations, GIS, and remote sensing, maps have
been created to show the risk of catastrophic
voluminous lahar movement along stream systems
of Pico de Orizaba (Hubbard, 2001; Sheridan et al.,
2001; Hubbard et al., 2007). On the southwestern
flank of Pico de Orizaba volcano a multi-temporal
inventory map and a landslide susceptibility map
were created by means of Multiple Logistic
Regression (MLR) and SINMAP. The model was
implemented along the Barranca del Muerto-Río
Chiquito watershed whose main tributary is El
Estado river. The results illustrate that SINMAP
and MLR tends to overpredict. In spite of this
overprediction, SINMAP was only able to match
45.39% the inventory map by using field and
published geotechnical values (Legorreta et al.,
2013). In 2014, a landslide inventory, a
susceptibility map using MLR, and a landform
landslide susceptibility zonation were created for
El Estado watershed. The results illustrate that
MLR model succeeds in predicting 79.81 % of
landslide areas (Legorreta et al., 2014; Legorreta et
al., 2015).
STUDY AREA
The Río El Estado watershed on the
southwestern flank of Pico de Orizaba volcano, the
highest mountain in Mexico, is selected as a study
area. The area is a small watershed, located in the
eastern part of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt
(TMVB) physiographic province. The El Estado
watershed is located at 18°55’23”-18°59’36” N
and 97°16’17”-97°14’56” W, on the southwestern
flank of Pico de Orizaba volcano within Puebla
and Veracruz states, Mexico (Figure 1). From the
administrative point of view belongs to the
municipalities of Atzitzintla, Puebla, La Perla and
Mariano Escobedo municipalities of Veracruz. The
river is a sub-basin of Río Chiquito-Barranca del
Muerto watershed which flows into the Gulf of
Mexico. The watershed covers 5.2 km2 with an
elevation range from 2,677 to 4,248 m a.s.l. and
hillslopes between ~17° and > 45°.
Climate is classified as Subtropical semi-cold
(Cb’(w)) at 3000-4400 m a.s.l., and Subtropical
temperate, subhumid (C(w1) and C(w2)) at <3000
m a.s.l. (García, 2004). Annual rainfall averages
1000-1100 mm/yr at > 4000 m a.s.l. and 927
mm/yr at <1500 m a.s.l., and is most abundant in
the wet season between May and November
(Palacios et al., 1999).

Figure 1. Localization of the study area
The stream system of Río El Estado watershed
erodes andesitic and dacitic Tertiary and
Quaternary lavas, pyroclastic flows, and fall
deposits. Piroclastic falls deposit and lahars
deposit constitutes about 50.2% of the total the
watershed area. Massive dacite lava flows cover
34.4% of the watershed area, whereas the area
covered by Quaternary andesitic block lava and
deposits is 15.1% and only 0.2% with basaltic-
andesitic blocky brecciated lava flows. The study
area is prone to landslide due to its large area of
weathered and/or disjointed material under high
seasonal rainfall. Also, the area is prone to
landslide do deforestation and agricultural
activities. In the study area, episodic evacuation of
debris by shallow mass movement takes place
along the watershed. The steep hills caped with ash
and pyroclastic deposits are affected by active and
dormant deep-seated landslides and where the
stream erodes lava flows and lahar deposits, rock
falls have occurred (Legorreta et at., 2015).
METHOD
Landslide susceptibility is modeled with
Stability Index Mapping (SINMAP). SINMAP
combines the theory of a steady-state hydrology
model (O’Laughlin, 1986; Beven and Kirkby,
1979) and the infinite slope stability model factor
of safety (Hammond et al, 1992) to produce the
stability index. The index is expresses by using six
broad classes The SI classes are: 0 > SI (SI is the
stability index) (“Defended slope zone”), 0.5 > SI
> 0.0 (“Upper threshold slope zone”), 1.0 > SI >
0.5 (“Lower threshold slope zone”), 1.25 > SI >
1.0 (“Quasi-stable slope zone”), 1.5 > SI > 1.25
(“Moderately stable zone”), and SI > 1.5 (“Stable
slope zone”). SINMAP combines topographic
(slope, contributing area, and flow direction),
hydrographic (soil transmissivity/ net rainfall ratio),
and soil variables (density, internal friction angle,
and cohesion) to predict. Geotechnical properties
are used to characterize one unstable layer at the
potential failure location within a zone of initiation
to obtain the index SI (Pack et al., 2001). The
evaluation of SINMAP in natural conditions has
led to the claim that the SINMAP approach fairly
well defines areas that intuitively appear to be
susceptible to landsliding if the model is fed with
calibrated geotechnical parameters (Wawer and
Nowocień, 2003). However, little work has been
done in clarifying the importance of the
geotechnical properties of different soil layers in
producing landslides. To palliate the problem,
SINMAP incorporates uncertain parameters
through the use of uniform probability
distributions and lower and upper bounds are set
on uncertain parameters (Pack et al., 2001).
In this study, stratigraphic columns are
sampled to obtain geotechnical properties. Each
stratigraphic column is described by the
procedures suggested by Comptom (1985) and
Gardiner and Dackombe (1983). Samples are
collected from 20 landslide areas. In the field,
transmissivity is calculated with a field mini disk
portable tension infiltrometer. The mean annual
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precipitation and the potential evapotranspiration
per year are obtained from a technical evaluation
of the Rio Chiquito Barranca Del Muerto
watershed (Rodríguez et al., 2006; Rodríguez et al.,
2011) and a weather station located in Atzinzintla
town (9 km SW of El Estado watershed). The
above information is used to obtain the soil
transmissivity/net rainfall ratio. Cohesion and the
internal friction angle are calculated in the
laboratory by using a direct shear machine. The
resulting landslide susceptibility map is created by
using default SINMAP system parameters and
calibrated geotechnical parameters. The default
SINMAP system parameters are set for the user to
examine a study area, when no geotechnical data
exist, however modifying most of these values ‘on
the fly’ will need to be done to provide realistic
values for the user’s study area.
RESULTS
In the study area, a preexisting inventory of
107 landslides covering 0.088 km2 is used to
assess and describe landslide distribution
(Legorreta et al., 2014) (Figure 2).
Figure 2. Landslide inventory (Legorreta et al.,
2014)
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With the landslide inventory as a framework of
know landslide locations, the landslide
susceptibility maps are validated. Qualitatively, the
models show high instability along volcanic hilly
areas and along the valley walls where steep slopes
exist (Figure 3).
Figure 3. a) SINMAP using default system
parameters, b) SINMAP using calibrated
geotehcnical data
The match between landslide inventory and
model prediction is not perfect, and clearly over-
predictions for the models exist by using calibrated
geotechnical data. Nevertheless, the models over-
predicted areas have the potential to fail as it was
observed in field. SINMAP models’ performance,
was evaluated in terms of overall accuracy
(calculated by the total number of correctly
classified pixels of landslides and nonlandslides
divided by the total number of pixels in the study
area) producer’s accuracy (calculated as the ratio
of the number of correctly classified pixels in each
category to the total number of true pixels for that
category), user’s accuracy (calculated as the ratio
of the number of correctly classified pixels in each
category to the total number of pixels that are
classified by the model in that category), and
model efficiency (calculated as the ratio of the
correctly minus incorrectly indicated landslide
pixels to the total number of the true landslide
pixels mapped in the inventory map) (Table 1).
The overall accuracy shows that SINMAP using
default system parameters performs better
(76.81%) than SINMAP using calibrated
geotechnical data (54.39). However, in landslide
areas the producer's accuracy shows that the
prediction of SINMAP with calibrate data has
better coincidence (74.58%) with the landslide
inventory map compared to SINMAP using default
system parameters (59.86%). This “good match”
of SINMAP with calibrates geotechnical data
model-inventory is due to a larger over-prediction.
The over-prediction leads to more nonlandslide
areas being classified incorrectly as landslide in
the models. Both models over-predict as it is
showed by a low percentage of user accuracy and
negative values in the model efficiency.
Table 1. Model accuracies and model efficiency
SINMAP SINMAP
Default Calibrate
Overall
76.81 54.39
Accuracy
Landslide Landslide
area area
Producer´s
59.86 74.58
accurecies
User´s
2.09 1.32%
accurecies
Model
-27.39 -54.85
Efficiency
CONCLUSIONS
In this paper we briefly introduced the
assessment of SINMAP landslide susceptibility
model in unstable volcanic terrains by using
default system parameters and calibrated
geotechnical data. The model validation shows that
by using default SINMAP system parameters the
overall probability that a landslide and
nonlandslide area be correctly classified is the
higher than SINMAP with calibrate geotechnical
data. However, the overall accuracy is a global
accuracy that has to be evaluated in parallel with
other accuracies along the landslide areas, because
the landslide area is smaller than the nonlandslide
area in the inventory map. In the existing landslide
areas, calibrate data allows to SINMAP match
(74.58%) with the inventory landslide area, and it
tends to overpredict more than using default
parameters. This does not mean that the model
perform in a wrong way. The overprediction of
landslides areas by the model can be justified
because the models are in fact, only a guide to
assess areas of high susceptibility to fail. In this
research, we prefer overprediction because
overprediction represents potential future landslide
areas. Future research will involve the modeling of
individual landslide types, the inclusion of other
thematic variables, and techniques of comparison.
We emphasize that the study is the first
prototype in the study area to develop a GIS
methodology for a systematic comparison of
landslide susceptibility models. Hence, it is subject
to adaptation, modification, and improvement with
further field validation, a better cartography, a
better understanding of geotechnical and
hydrological data distribution in the watershed,
and a further validation in other volcanic areas.
Despite its limitations, the comparison allows to
highlight advantages and/or limitations of models.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors thank authorities from, the
International Consortium on Landslides (ICL) and
and to the Laboratorio de Mecánica de Suelos,
Facultad de Ingeniería, UNAM for their help. This
research was supported by the program of Ciencia
Básica SEP-CONACYT Grant # 167495, PAPIIT
# IN102115, COA del IGG, and the International
Programme on Landslides (IPL project # 187).
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373

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 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

MANAGING AND ASSESING LANDSLIDE RISK INCLUDING THE

CONSEQUENCES
Ferry Haryono 1 and Budijanto Widjaja 2

ABSTRACT: Slope stability assessment can be carried out by engineers or geologist with appropriate training
and experience. Most of the natural slopes are often well identified and assessed by an engineering geologist
particularly those with a lot of local knowledge. Nevertheless, it is essential for practitioners to demonstrate a
good ethos by understanding the geological condition, the slope process or history and potential implications for
the project concerned. For assessing and managing landslide risk, it is important to begin the process with a
simplified criteria as follows: Hazard (what might occur), Likelihood (how likely is it), Consequence (how much
will be affected), Risk (to what extent does it matter). This paper will discuss how to manage the risk,
consequences to property, assessing risk to life and assessing risk to undeveloped sites in relation to the New
Zealand GNS Science landslide risk guidelines. In addition, a related case in both Indonesia and New Zealand
will be incorporated as part of the historical cases.

Keywords: Hazard, risk, factor of safety, consequence, likelihood

INTRODUCTION University, Kyoto University and UNESCO

Landslide has been known as a geological
phenomenon that includes a wide range of ground
movements. Some scientists believe that climate
change is a significant contributing factor for a lot
of landslides across the world. Some Asian
countries are reported as being increasingly
susceptible to this. Indonesia, for instance, is
particularly prone to the occurrence of landslides.
Taking into consideration the high population
density in some susceptible parts of Indonesia, it is
essential to setup a suitable system to manage and
control the hazard and risk when and if a
devastating landslide occurs.
UNDERSTANDING LANDSLIDE
Landslide is primarily driven by gravity and
contributing factors such as ‘increasing rainfall
intensities and frequencies, coupled with
population growth can drastically increase
landslide-associated casualties, especially in
developing countries, where pressure on land
resources often lead to slope cultivation and slope
agriculture which are very much prone to landslide
disasters," according to the International
Consortium on Landslides (ICL), United Nations
scientists.
Types of landslide (mass movement) include
debris flow, mudflow, earthflow, debris landslide,
rock fall, shallow and deep seated landslides. An
understanding of how the interaction between
different factors and the condition of the slope
itself is one way to assess slope instability.
IDENTIFYING AND PLANNING
Countries like New Zealand, Indonesia,
Philippines, Japan and the west coast of the
American continent are well known as part of the
‘ring of fire’ where one of the typical terrains
found here consists of volcanic mountains formed
from various fault. The predominant slope type
around these mountains generally comprise of
loose soil overlying weathered rock and any
changes or modification to the slope generally has
an adverse effect on the potential failure risk.
Mountains in Indonesia for example may have an
increased risk of slope failure due to the influence
from other factors such as poor development
planning or uncontrolled mining.
In 2007, the Geological and Nuclear Sciences
Limited (GNS) of New Zealand produced a
document “guidelines for assessing planning

1
Senior Geotechnical Engineer, ferry@soilandrock.co.nz, New Zealand
2
Geotechnical Engineering Lecturer, geotek.gw@gmail.com, Parahyangan Catholic University

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policy and consent requirement foe landslide prone
land”. Similarly, the Australian Geomechanic
Society (AGS) with the Sydney Coastal Councils
Group, also published the “Landslide Risk
Management” guidelines. The guidance is
considered as a good start to mitigate the risk and
hazard of sensitive landslide areas.
To identify the area, it is advisable to conduct a
desktop study such as mapping the geological
condition, aerial photographs, obtaining rainfall
data (if any) and collecting information about
historical events for the area (past slope failures).
landslide. According to Wilopo and based on the
local geology map, this area has a thick soil
horizon including highly weathered rock. The rock
formation comprises of Andesite lava and volcanic
rock such as augite andesite, hornblende and basalt
olivine. There are significant faults located within
the soil movement area as shown in
Figure 2.
160.0
Period: December 2014 Jemblung
140.0

Precipitation (mm)
120.0
It is also best practice to consider the natural
100.0
conditions such as the slope angle, existing
80.0
vegetation and rock formation.
60.0
Proper planning is the next stage to mitigate
any additional hazards and risk due to changes or 40.0

development. Good planning may include 20.0

obtaining a master plan of a proposed development 0.0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
with information on the location of proposed Day
residential developments, critical utility buildings Figure 1. Hyetograph of daily rain at Jemblung
and emergency areas. Village (Naba et al, 2015)
In conjunction with the above processes, a
further step that needs to be implemented is the
landslide management and assessment which can
be started from a simple task such as: Hazard
(what might happen), Likelihood (how likely is it),
Consequence (how much will be affected), Risk
(to what extent does it matter), Factor of safety
(what acceptable value in conjunction with risk).

HISTORICAL CASE
Banjarnegara Landslide
On 13 December 2014, a landslide in
Banjarnegara, Central Java, Indonesia killed 93
people with 23 people not accounted for. The Figure 2. Geology map of the Jemblung site
disaster occurred at Jemblung Village in (Condon et al. 1996)
Banjarnegara, Indonesia, on Friday, around 03.00 Soil characteristic
p.m. At the time, most of the villagers were taking
a nap in their houses. The landslide was most Based on laboratory results of undisturbed
likely triggered due to a high intensity rainfall samples of mudflow deposition area, the soil
event. The rain intensity occurred on 11 to 12 parameters can be summarized as follow:
December 2014, as shown in Figure 1, was in the
Table 1. Soil parameter from mudflow deposition
range of 110 to 120 mm/day. Based on Neary and
area (Naba et al, 2015)
Swift (1987) and Fand and Daniels (2006), this
intensity exceeded the upper bound of a mudflow Soil
triggering limit. sample
location LL PL PI Gs w USCS
Geology
Jemblung 64,83 40,32 24,51 2,735 104,43 MH

Jemblung village is located at the toe of LL = liquid limit; PL = plasticity limit; PI = plasticity
Telagalele Mountain, Banjarnegara province. This index;
area is dominated by hilly topography comprising Gs = unit weight; w = natural moisture content
steep slopes and weak rock which is prone to

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 Deposit area
of Landslide

Deposit
area of
Mudflow

Transport lane
of Landslide
+300 m
Transport lane of
Mudflow+ 500 m

Source area of Source area of

Mudflow +987 m Landslide +980 m

Figure 3. Source area, transport lane and soil movement (Pleiades, 2014)

The particle size distribution and hydrometer
tests of the mudflow soil indicates that the high
plasticity silt has 72.98% fines content which
comprised of 52.02% silt and 20.95% clay content.
Banjarnegara has been known as an area which
is prone to landslide including mass movement. A
contributing factor at the time was a local farmer
had converted the area which had a slope angle of
15 degrees to 35 degrees for a plantation. The
adverse conditions were accelerated because the
farmer planted low moisture absorption vegetation
such as rice, banana and chili. To compound the
problem, there is an existing river located within
the source of the mudflow and therefore this
increased soil saturation significantly, the soil
shear strength reduced and triggered the soil
movement.
the source of soil movement is located at the
elevation of 987 meter and the distance from the
source to the deposition area is approximately
between 300 to 500m. In accordance to Cruden
and Vernes (1996), the landslide rate of movement
(velocity) can be categorized as ‘Extremely rapid’.
The width of the landslide’s transport route was
approximately between 110 m to 170 m and the
volume of the disposition mudflow and landslide
material were 56092 m3 (5m thick) and 49.805 m3
(7m thick), respectively.
Bay of Plenty landslide

Soil Movement
The landslide disaster happened in two
stages with two different soil movement
type. The first movement which is
‘mudflow’ happened on the west side of
Telagalele Mountain and the following
movement which is ‘landslide’ occurred Figure 4. Hyetograph of 15-minutes rainfall totals
at Awakaponga (Environment-Bay-of-Plenty
on the east side of Telagalele Mountain as records)
shown in
Figure 2. Heavy rain on Wednesday 18 May 2005
Each of the flow movement has been assumed to in the Bay of Plenty caused disruption to
have a travel time approximately five minute while
the community with flooding and

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 landslides creating significant problems
that resulted in a state of emergency being
declared by the Tauranga City Council
and for the Matata area by the Whakatane
District Council. Significant rain during
thunderstorm resulted in more than 90 mm
in one hour, on two small catchments that
drain through Matata (
Figure 4).
Geology
The Matahina formation was also likely
deposited from an Okataina volcanic eruption
(Figure 5). It is dominated by firm to very hard
(welded) ignimbrite, in thicknesses of tens to
hundreds of meters, in the areas where it is
exposed near Matata. It does not appear in the
cliffs behind Matata, and the northern-most extent
of Matahina formation appears to be a few
kilometers back from the coastal cliffs there. The
lumps of pumice within the Matahina ignimbrite
are much less crystal rich than those in the Rotoiti
formation, and contain a much smaller proportion
of dark (iron- and magnesium-rich) minerals.
Figure 5. Geology map of Matata area
A very-hard, welded horizon within the
Matahina ignimbrite, tens of meters thick, forms
jointed bluffs in the upper catchments of the
Ohinekoao, Awatarariki and Waitepuru Streams.
Within the welded ignimbrite pumice clasts have
often collapsed to flat, parallel glassy lenses
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(called fiamme). Many of the harder boulders in
the bed of these streams come from this unit.
Sandstone and siltstone constitute the entirety of
the vertical thickness of rock exposed in the
coastal cliffs at Matata. Matahina formation
overlies these rocks a few kilometers back into the
catchments.
Step 1 – Hazard
 Number of houses in the hazard zone –
approximately 100 houses.
 Likely number of occupants – 53 families or
equivalent to 300 people.
 Critical buildings – religious buildings
approximately 5.
 Social cultural buildings – none in the hazard
zone.
 Regional GDP – data not available, assumed
in the order of 1% of regional GDP.
 Mudflow return period – 1: 50 (assumed).
Step 2 – Consequence analysis
Using the consequences matrix below, as
shown in Figure 6, the severity of the impact for
the identified consequences is as follows:
Social/Cultural building – none affected.
Buildings – all buildings within hazard zone have
Figure 6. Consequences matrix (Saunders, 2012)
Step 3 – Likelihood analysis
According to the local expert and knowledge
(Satria, 2014), it was reported that the slope failure
has happened in 2006 and 2009. Using the
likelihood scale as shown in Figure 7, the failure
event (mudflow) is considered to be Likely (Level
5) as the return period is estimated to be once
every 50 years.

Figure 7. Likelihood scale (Saunders, 2012)
Step 4 – Risk
Using the severity impact obtained from Figure
6 and the likelihood number in Step 3, the
mudflow is considered to be “Non complying –
prohibited”.
Figure 8. The risk-based planning framework
(Saunders, 2012b)
Figure 9. Level of risk and associated consent
status (Saunders, 2012b)
The risk assessment of the Matata de-bris flow
has been carried out by GNS science. The result
indicated that the consequence is level V and the
Likelihood level was level 3. Therefore level of
risk is considered to be “Discretionary” activity
(tolerable level of risk).
CONCLUSION
From the historical cases, it appears that even
though both countries are located a distance away
from each other, the ground and geological
conditions are likely to have a similar behavior and
may pose a similar hazard and risk. In New
Zealand, debris flow (mud flow) is relatively
unfamiliar to the public, however since the Matata
event, people are now aware of the hazard.
Fortunately during the disaster there were no
loss of life in Matata. In comparison, almost all of
the Jemblung residents perished.
The lesson learnt from these disasters are even
though a landslide event is hard to predict and
avoid, there are still many ways to reduce the
impact of the hazard on lives and infrastructure if
the proper procedure are implemented.
Risk and hazard management is an important
process that needs to be implemented especially in
vulnerable areas. For a place like Jemblung village
(Banjarnegara), abandoning the area may be one of
the available solutions to prevent any future
disaster occurring again.
In the event that it is not feasible for the area to
be abandoned, a comprehensive study needs to be
carried out and early warning systems such as
slope movement indicator instrumentation needs to
be installed, weather radar information needs to be
developed and monitored regularly.
A debris-detention basin is also another
available option to reduce future damage. Its
purpose would be to restrain the damaging
boulders and logs, and to permit the finer material
and flood water to be more readily controlled
(maintained in a designated floodway). And last
but not least, managing the growth of resilient
vegetation on landslide prone slopes is another
factor that should be considered.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank Robert Smith
of Soil and Rock Ltd. for reviewing the paper and
Ignatius Tommy Pratama from Parahyangan
Catholic University for editing this paper.
REFERENCES
Condon, W.H., Pardyanto, L., Ketner, K.B., Amin,
T.C., Gafoer, S., and Samodra, H. (1996).
Geological map of Banjarnegara and
Pekalongan sheet, Java, 2nd ed., Geological
Research and Development Centre.
Cruden, D.M. and Varnes, D.J. (1996). Landslide
types and processes, Landslides: investigation
and mitigation, Transp. Res. Board., 36-75.
Fang, H.Y. and Daniels, J.L. (2006). Introductory
geotechnical engineering – an environmental
perspective, Taylor & Francis, London, UK.
McSaveney, M. J., Beetham R. D., Leonard G. S.
(2005). The 18 May 2005 debris flow disaster
at Matata: Causes and mitigation suggestions,
Institute of Geological & Nuclear Sciences
client report 2005/71 Project Number:
410W1086
Naba, S.B., Amartiawati, N., and Widjaja, B.
(2015) Landslide and Mudflow: Behavior and
Simulation. ICAST (in press)
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Neary, D.G. and Swift, L.W. (1987). Rainfall
thresholds for triggering a debris avalanching
event in the southern Appalachian mountains,
Reviews in Eng. Geology, 7: 81-92.
Pleiades (2014). Space based disaster emergency
response: Karangkobar subdistrict,
Banjarnegara district, Central Java Province
(update 17 December 2014)
Sara (2005). Rainstorm-induced Landslides in the
Bay of Plenty.
(http://info.geonet.org.nz/Display
/slide/2005/05/27/May+27+2005+-
+Rainstorm-
induced+Landslides+in+the+Bay+of+Plenty)
Satria, H. D. (2014). “Metrotv: News. LIPI:
Karangkobar Berpotensi Longsor Sejak Lama”,
Online),
http://news.metrotvnews.com/read/2014
/12/17/333197/lipi-karangkobar-berpotensi-
longsor-sejak-lama, accessed on 29 April 2015)
Saunders, W.S.A. (2012). Innovative land-use
planning for natural hazard risk reduction in
New Zealand. Doctorate dissertation. Massey
University.
Saunders, W.S.A., Glassey, P. (2007). Guidelines
for assessing planning policy and consent
requirement for landslide prone land, GNS
Science Miscellaneous Series 7.
Saunders, W.S.A., Beban, J.G., Kilvington, M.
(2013). Risk-based land use planning for
natural hazard risk reduction, GNS Science
Miscellaneous Series 67.

N2-6
 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

REGIONAL SLOPE STABILITY ASSESSMENT OF TAWANGMANGU DISTRICT,

CENTRAL JAVA (INDONESIA)
D. Sarah 1, K. Sugianti 1 and H. Lestiana 1

ABSTRACT: Tawangmangu district of Karanganyar Regency Central Java is located at the hill slope of Mount
Lawu. This region has experienced many slope failures particularly during the rainy season therefore regional
assessment is important for regional and disaster mitigation purposes. This paper analyzed the regional slope
stability of Tawangmangu district using a combined approach of slope stability and GIS analyses using the well
established infinite slope model the Transient Rainfall Infiltration and Grid-based Regional Slope-stability
analysis (TRIGRS) and ILWIS packages. Input data for the TRIGRS model include time-varying rainfall,
topographic slope, depths of soil and water table, and material strength and hydraulic conductivity. Field survey
was carried out to map the landslide locations, obtain soil samples and perform infiltration tests. The regional
slope stability is expressed as factor of safety for each grid cell. Classification by Ward (1976) was used to
obtain the landslide susceptibility class based on the grid factor of safety. The results revealed that 43% of the
Tawangmangu district area is highly susceptible to landslide and showed a good agreement with the landslide
locations.

Keywords: regional slope stability, rainfall, Tawangmangu district

INTRODUCTION and Naryanto (2011) by combination of

Rainfall induced landslides have become a
serious hazard threatening the lives of people and
infrastructures in Java island. The vulnerability of
Java Island to landslide is due to the intense
weathering and occurrence of fault zones causing
weak shear strengths, hilly and steep morphology,
uncontrollable land use and high precipitation
intensity during the wet months (up to 100
mm/day) (Tohari et.al, 2006). Rainfall triggers
slope failure by increasing the positive pore
pressure at the near surface hence reducing its
shear strength. The mechanism of rainfall induced
landslides has been widely studied (e.g., Fredlund
and Rahardjo 1991; Dietrich and Montgomery
1998; Iverson 2000; Baum et al. 2002; Tohari and
Sarah 2009; Tohari et.al 2009).
Tawangmangu district of Karanganyar
Regency Central Java is located at the flank of
Mt.Lawu which according to the landslide
susceptibility map (VSI, 2013) belongs to the
medium to high susceptible zone. The landslide in
2007 had claimed lives and economic losses and
marks the importance of landslide susceptibility
microzonation in this area. Previous microzonation
study in this area had been carried out by Wati
(2010) using heuristic weighted scoring approach
geographic information system (GIS) scoring and
resistivity survey. This study aims to combine the
GIS technique with infinite-slope stability
calculation with a transient, one-dimensional
analytic solution for pore pressure response to
steady-state and transient rainfall infiltration
(Iverson 2000; Baum et al. 2002) using the
Transient Rainfall Infiltration and Gridbased
Slope-stability (TRIGRS) to assess the regional
stability of Tawangmangu district.
STUDY LOCATION AND GEOLOGY
The study area in Tawangmangu district is
located at coordinates 9148750-9156250 E and
510000-520000 S (Figure 1). The geology of the
study area is dominated by the Mt.Lawu sediment
which is exposed from west to east. Limestone
outcrop is found at the western part while the rest
of the study area is dominated by volcanic rocks.
The morphology consists of steep hills at elevation
400-2200 m above sea level inclined at 5-450. The
geological structures are faults trending northeast -
southwest and truncated the fault-fault trending
northwest and southeast. The surficial geology of
landslide area is the weathered volcanic deposits of

1
Research Center for Geotechnology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI) Gd.70 Jl.Sangkuriang Bandung 40135, email:
sarah@geotek.lipi.go.id

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 sandy clay to silt, 4-6 m thick, slightly loose and
collapsible.

Geological
Geologicalmap
mapofofTawangmangu
Tawangmangudistrict
district

Mount Lawu
volcanic rocks
Lava
Breccia

Limestone
Lahar
Fault

Figure 1. Geological map of study location

MODELING OF REGIONAL SLOPE STABILITY ψ : transient pore water pressure

t : time
Regional slope stability was assessed using
: angle of slope sliding plane
TRIGRS (Transient Rainfall Infiltration and Grid-
ϕ’: effective internal friction angle
based Regional Slope-Stability Analysis) v.2, an open
w : density of water
source software from USGS (Baum, 2006). TRIGRS
s: bulk density
is capable of modeling regional slope stability by
coupling infinite slope stability calculation and
where for equation (2):
transient pore water response due to rainfall
z : coordinate normal to slope; α : slope
infiltration. The factor of safety (FS) is calculated
inclination d: depth of water table at steady
using the equation from Iverson (2000):
state condition measured in z direction;
β=λcosα and λ= cosα- [Iz/Kz]; Kz: hydraulic
tan φ' c'  ψ Z , t γw tan φ'
F   (1) conductivity in z direction IZ : surface flux at
tan θ γs Z sin θ cos θ steady state; InZ : surface flux at transient
state during intensity at time –n; subscript LT
The solution for transient pore pressure is given represents the length term, D1= D0 cos2α
by the following equation (Baum, 2006): where D0 is hydraulic diffusivity, N is the
where for equation (1): total interval, and H(t–tn) is the heavyside
c’ : effective cohesion step function.
Z: thickness of soil
    
N 1 
 2m1dLZ  dLZ  Z    2m1dLZ  dLZ  Z  
 Z, t   Z  d  2 Ht tn Dt t  tn 2 ierfc
InZ
 ierfc
n1 Kz
 1
  1

m1 
  2D1 t  tn  2

 
 2D 1 t  tn  2


     
 N
I nZ 1 

H t  tn Dt t  tn 2  ierfc  2m  1d LZ  d LZ  Z    2m  1d LZ  d LZ  Z   
  2  1

 ierfc
 1

 n 1 K z

m 1 
  2 D 1 t  t n  2

  2 D 1 t  t n  2

 
(2)

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 The inputs required for the modeling are
elevation map, slope inclination map, flow
direction map, hydrological maps (e.g.
precipitation, water level, discharge) and
geotechnical properties map. GIS package ILWIS
3.0 Academic (ITC, 2001) was used to integrate
the input maps into the spatial slope stability
calculation. The slope stability results were further
classified using landslide susceptibility class
(Ward, 1976) (Table 1).

Table 1. Classification of landslide susceptibility Figure 3. Slope map of Tawangmangu District

(Ward, 1976)

Factor of safety (FS) Landslide susceptibility

FS> 2.0 Very low
2.0 > FS> 1.7 Low
1.7 > FS> 1.2 Medium
FS< 1.2 High

Topographical map of Tawangmangu district at

1: 25.000 scale was used to generate input maps of
elevation, slope, and flow direction (Figure 2 –
Figure 4). The soil geotechnical properties are
Figure 4. Flow direction map of Tawangmangu
divided into three zones in accordance to the District
surficial soil type (Figure 5 and Table 2).

Table 2. Geotechnical properties for TRIGRS

program
Parameter Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3
Type of soil Andosol Mediteran Latosol
Mediteran
Unit weight s Andosol
14700 12400 15100
(N/m3)
Effective Latosol
25088 3528 2744
cohesion, c’ (Pa)
Effective internal
23.8 26.89 28.10
friction angle ᵩ' (o)
Saturated 3.05 x10-7 3.31 x10-7 3.61 x10-7
hydraulic Figure 5. Soil map of Tawangmangu District
conductivity, ks
(m/s) The model was run with from September to
Initial infiltration 1.93x10-5 4.57 x10-5 1.93 x10-6 December 2007 daily precipitation data (Figure 6)
rate (m/s) to understand model sensitivity to rainfall. The
results of TRIGRS models during dry season and
rainy season only show slight difference of highly
vulnerable areas of about 5%. This indicates that
the region is highly susceptible to landslide
considering the weak soil properties and steep
slopes. The regional slope stability during the peak
of the rainy season is shown in Figure 7.

Figure 2. Elevation map of Tawangmangu District

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 predict the unstable locations. The model run at
the highest rainfall infiltration rate shows that the
area is dominated by the high susceptible zone
(Table 3).

Table 3. Slope failure susceptibility zone

Area Percentage
Zone
Figure 6. Daily precipitation records of (Km2) (%)
Tawangmangu station High Susceptibility 26.959 43.12
Medium Susceptibility 10.825 17.31
The previous slope failure locations were
Low Susceptibility 3.361 5.38
superimposed with the model result (Figure 8)
which shows a good agreement. Although the Very Low Susceptibility 21.377 34.19
recorded slope failure locations are scarce, it can
be seen that the TRIGRS model could reasonably

LEGEND

Figure 7. Tawangmangu district landslide susceptibility map derived from factor of safety

Figure 8. Superimposed of landslide locations with the highly susceptible zone

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DISCUSSION
The Tawangmangu district is known to be
susceptible to landslide. The conventional method
of deriving landslide susceptibility method is using
weighted scoring GIS analysis. This paper
attempts to assess the regional stability and
classify the landslide susceptibility based on factor
of safety derived from TRIGRS (Baum et.al 2002).
The TRIGRS model was run from the dry season
(September 2007) until the wettest month
(December 2007) and showed only slight
difference. The steep morphology
Tawangmangu with the slope inclination ranges
from 30-650 (Figure 3) and the weak soil
properties (Table 2) are the controlling factors
responsible for the susceptibility to sliding. The
triggering factor of rainfall infiltration brings the
already critical slope condition into
instability/failure. The resulted model of highly
susceptible zone shows a good agreement with the
previous landslide records. The model results
could be use to predict potential slope instability in
Tawangmangu district.
CONCLUSION
Regional slope stability analysis had been
carried out using TRIGRS 2.0 which results in
factor of safety based susceptibility zone. There
area four category of stability class from highly
susceptible (fS<1.2) to very low susceptible (fS>.2).
Tawangmangu district. It can be seen that about
43% of the area falls into highly susceptible area.
The TRIGRS model result showed a good
agreement with the historical landslide locations.
The susceptibility map of Tawangmangu
district could be useful as a guidance to detect
potential slope instability locations.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to thank the RC for
Geotechnology LIPI and the Geotechnical
Laboratory staffs for their kind assistance during
field and laboratory works.
REFERENCES
Baum, R.L., Savage, W.Z., dan Godt, J.W. (2002).
TRIGRS-A fortran program for transient
rainfall infiltration and grid-based regional
slope-stability analysis. U.S. Geological
Survey Open-File Report 02-0424, 27 p.
Dietrich WE, Montgomery DR (1998)
SHALSTAB: a digital terrain model for
mapping shallow landslide potential. NCASI
(National Council of the Paper Industry for Air
and Stream Improvement) Technical Report,
February 1998, p 29.
Fredlund DG, Rahardjo H (1991) Calculation
procedures for slope stability analyses
involving negative pore-water pressures. Proc.
Int. Conf. on Slope Stability Engineering,
Development Applications, Isle of Wight, pp
43–50.
Iverson RM (2000) Landslide triggering by rain
infiltration. Water Resour Res 36:1897–1910.
of
Naryanto, S.H. (2011): Analisis kondisi bawah
permukaan dan risiko bencana tanah longsor
untuk arahan penataan kawasan di desa
Tengklik Kecamatan Tawangmangu Kabupaten
Karanganyar Jawa Tengah. Jurnal Sains dan
Teknologi Indonesia Vol.13 No.2.
Tohari,A. Sarah, D (2009) Assessment of the
stability of steep volcanic residual soil slopes
under rainfall infiltration Jurnal Media Teknik
Sipil Vol.6 no.2, pp. 95-102.
Tohari,A. Sarah, D, Daryono MR (2009)
Hydrological Condition Leading to Landslide
Initiation. Jurnal Media Teknik Sipil Vol.8
no.2, pp. 67-76.
VSI(2003).http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/index.php/g
erakan-tanah/kejadian-gerakan-tanah/748-
laporan-singkat-pemeriksaan-gerakan-tanah-di-
kec-tawangmangu-dan-kec-kerjo-kab-
karanganyar-jawa-tengah. Acces date: June 8,
2015.
Ward.(1976). Factor of Safety Approach to
Landslide Potential Delineation.Dissertation,
Department of Civil Engineering, Colorado
State, Forth Collins, Colorado.
Wati, S.E, Hastuti, T., Widjojo, S, Pinem, F.
(2010): Landslide susceptibility mapping with
heuristic approach in mountainous area: A case
study in tawangmangu sub district, Central java,
Indonesia. International Archives of the
Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial
Information Science, Volume XXXVIII, Part 8,
Kyoto Japan 2010.
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 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

OVERVIEW OF LANDSLIDE EXPERIENCE IN WEST SUMATRA

IN 2012-2014
A. Hakam 1, B. Istijono 1 and Sarbaini 2

ABSTRACT: The West Sumatra is a province that stretching from the west coast to the hills in the middle of the
Sumatra Island. Many landslides in West Sumatra frequently occur in areas along the mountain chain during last
three years in this province. The diversities of physiographic and geologic conditions as well as surface
vegetation lead to the landslide in the West Sumatra. In addition, the landslide occurrences are also influenced by
the weather and local climate. The reduction of the strength of the soils due to the rain is the main factor causes
landslides. In landslide remedial work, the budget and available technology as well as local resources capability
are restrictions that necessary to be considered. This paper describes a review of the landslide in West Sumatra
and treatment measures for the last 3 years (2012 to 2014). This study is very important to improve and to
develop the efforts to reduce the landslide risk and treatment in the future.

Keywords: landslides, ground condition, remedial action

Government Body. This paper shows a review of

INTRODUCTION that landslide record that occurred in the West
Sumatra in 2012 to 2014. This review is related to
The West Sumatra Province is geographically
located in the west-central side of the Sumatra the incident location, type and geological condition
Island (Figure 1). In the middle of this province of landslide, time of occurrence and remedial
action that has been done.
there are many hills that laid from the north to the
south as part of the Bukit Barisan hill. The Bukit
Barisan hill is also geologically formed due to the
existence of the Semangko fault which divides the
Sumatra Island into two parts, east and west. In
addition, along the Semangko fault there are some
active and non-active volcanoes which create a
mountain area.
The formation of soil deposit of the West
Sumatra province in general is dominated by the
volcano activity along Semangko fault. The area
around the Semangko fault is known as volcanic
area. The lowest area of the volcanic area, the
ground is dominated by sediment material that
likely originated from the volcanic area. The
physiographic of the West Sumatra province then
can be divided into three groups that are volcanic
area, hill area and flat area (Figure 2). These
physiographic conditions form slopes with
different types of soil, in where it will be shown
that the landslide in the West Sumatra generally
occurs.
Figure 1. Map of the West Sumatra province
In the last 3 years, it has been carried out the
Landslide Reports in the West Sumatra by the

1
Lecturer, Andalas University, Padang - West Sumatra, Indonesia
2
Professional, Water Resources Dev., West Sumatra Province, Indonesia

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Figure 2. Physiographic map of West Sumatra
(adapted from Sandy, 1985).
LANDSLIDE OUTLINE
Theories to analyze the stability of the slope
have been written in many textbooks in many
languages (example: Huang, 1983 and Hakam,
2010). Those references have been elaborating
type of sliding, factors cause sliding, slope stability
analysis theories also the methods for designing
the retaining structures. Here, landslide types and
factors cause the sliding of slopes are written
briefly in the following sections.
Slopes can be failure in term of sliding (general
landslide), flow of soil (debris flow) and rock
debris (rock fall). There is also a slow movement
of slope that known as creep. A creep generally
does not cause a collapse in slope but result in
displacement that may lead cracks and damage to
the facilities there on. The illustrations of those
types of landslide are shown in Figure 3.
In general, the factors that cause a landslide
can be divided into two groups: internal and
external factors. Both factors theoretically cause of
decreasing the strength of soil or increasing the
force thus reducing the safety factor of the slope.
External factors are all of the disturbance from the
outside of the slope, either made by natural or
human. The examples of the external factor which
can reduce the slope safety are vibrations from
human activities, earthquakes, additional loads, the
removal of retaining forces on the down of the
slope and also the loss of slope covering. The
internal factors are changing in the moisture
content of the soil, increasing the soil mass due to
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water intrusion, the absence of cemented material
in soil mass, increasing the water table, heaving -
shrinking of the soil mass, sudden reduce of water
table and liquefaction.
Figure 3. Illustration of sliding types
Further, common things that need to be
considered in the dealing with landslide are
topography, geology, water in the soil, climate and
weather, vibration, history and time. These things
directly or indirectly may trigger the slope stability.
LANDSLIDE IN WEST SUMATRA
Since there are many landslides in west
Sumatra region, Division of Geology of Energy
and Mineral Resources Department of West
Sumatra province published annual reports of
landslide. These good records of landslide are
started in 2012. The summary of landslide records
for last 3 years then are shown in the Table 1 –
Table 3. The types of recorded landslides in the
West Sumatra are any mass soil movements
including general type of sliding, debris flows,
creep and rock fall.
The landslides that are reported in here are the
ground movement in which resulting in damage to
public and private facilities as well as fatalities. reduction of the soil shear strength caused by the
Many landslides in small scale that did not result increase of the water content affected the slope
in loss or casualties also occurred in the West stability and lead to the landslides. An assessment
Sumatra but not recorded in this reports. In 2012, for the landslide in Maninjau-Agam showed that
the landslides have taken 11 lives in six locations. the saturation in soil mass can reduce the soil
In 2013 only one event of landslide but took 20 cohesion by 75% (Hakam et al, 2013).
lives at Maninjau Lake in Agam District. In 2014
there were four locations of landslide which Table 2. Landslide in 2013
resulted in the fatality of 7 lives. No Name Type Fatality Trigger Action
1 Agam General sliding 20 Heavy rain Replanting
Table 1. Landslides in 2012 Pesisir
2 Selatan Debris flow Dike Failure Re-planting
No Name Type Fatality Trigger Action - Heavy rain Gabion
Steep slope Slope cutting
1 Tanah Datar Debris flow 1 Heavy rain Retaining wall
3 Agam General landslide - Steep slope Retaining wall
fault Planting
Heavy rain Re-planting
steep land
Slope cutting
no vegetation
4 Pasaman General landslide - Earthquake Re-planting
2 Pasaman Debris flow 1 heavy rain River Normalization
5 Solok Debris flow - Heavy rain Re-planting
(3 injd.) no vegetation Retaining wall
Erotion
Planting
6 Solok Creep - Fault Planting
3 Pariaman Falling 1 Heavy rain Evacuation
Saturation in soil Relocation
Erotion on toe Drainage
Heaving in soil
Solok General Fault Re-planting
4 Debris flow - Heavy rain
Landslide Wrong in land use Relocation
7 Payakumbuh Fault Slope cutting
Water Infiltration Cutting slope
Construction Planting
Heavy rain Retaining wall
5 Padang Debris flow General landslide failure
Illegal logging Relocation
Logging
Re-planting
- Heavy rain Re-planting
General Heavy rain Relocation
6 Padang 4 8 Pantai cermin General landslide Fault Re-construction
Landslide Farming field Educating
7 Solok Selatan 1 Heavy rain Re-planting
Heaving in soil
Debris flow Debris flow Construction Retaining wall
Relocation
failure
Heavy rain
8 - 9 Maninjau Debris flow - Heavy rain Rebuild dam
Tanah Datar Debris flow Steep Farming Gabion
field Dam failure Re-planting
Weathering rock Gabion in river
9 Solok Selatan General 3 Heavy rain Cutting slope Fault Redesign of
Landslide Erosion on slope Re-planting 10 Malalak General landslide - Heavy rain slope
Relocation Wrong slope Retaining wall
design
11 Solok Selatan General landslide - Heavy rain Cutting slope
Steep slope Re-planting
In Table 4 is shown the time of the occurrence Logging
of landslides over 3 years. It can be seen that 12 Tanah Datar General landslide - Heavy rain Retaining wall
Steep slope Plugging crack
landslides occurred mostly in the early months and
the end months of the years. In those months that
The understanding of the factors that cause of
are recognized as rainy season in the West Sumatra.
landslide is very useful to determine the corrective
It is very rarely landslides happened in March to
and preventive actions in the future. The rain is
June where the rain is also rare. There is also
certainly very difficult to be controlled, but the
generally heavy rain felt at the time prior to the
water which triggers the occurrence of landslides
occurrence of landslides. Thus it is needed good
can be controlled well.
preparation of equipments, funding and human
resources to deal with landslides especially in the
rainy season. Although there is only one incident
of landslide triggered by an earthquake, it must
receive special attention. Many landslides also
happened during Sumatra earthquake in 2009.
In three years of the records, landslide
locations in West Sumatra mostly occurred in
volcanic area and some of the locations are in the
hill area as shown in Figure 4 and Figure 5. The
geology of these locations is made of relatively
unstable young rocks. Geotechnical studies on
some locations of slope indicate the behavior of
clay against water affected the landslides. The

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 Table 3. Lanslides in 2014
No Name Type Fatality Trigger Action
1 Sawahlunto General landslide - Heavy rain Cutting slope
Steep slope
Heavy rain
Housing on top
2 Pariaman General landslide 1 Heavy rain Cutting slope
Lack of vegetation Planting
Construction fault
3 Solok Selatan Debris flow - Heavy rain Retaining wall
Lack of vegetation Re-planting
Logging
4 Pasaman Debris flow 3 Heavy rain Re-planting
Steep slope
Human activity
5 Tanah Datar General landslide - Steep slope Re-planting
Lack of vegetation
6 Agam General landslide - Steep slope Cutting slope
High water content Planting
7 Tanah Datar General landslide - Steep slope Cutting slope
Lack of vegetation Planting
Pasaman
8 Barat Debris flow - Heavy rain Re-planting
Steep slope Education
Human activity
Lack of vegetation
9 Pasaman Debris flow - Heavy rain Gabion
Weak soil
10 Solok Debris flow - Heavy rain Cutting slope
Steep slope Re-planting
Non-cohesive soil Education
Figure 4. Location of landslides Logging
11 Solok Debris flow - Heavy rain Re-planting
Weak soil
Erosion prone soil
12 Solok Selatan General landslide - Heavy rain Cutting slope
Steep slope Planting
Wrong slope const.
13 Pasaman Debris flow 1 Heavy rain Re-planting
Steep slope Gabion
Logging
Table 4. Occurrence time of landslide
Tahun 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

2012

2013

2014

Note: rain prior to earthquake accur

Remedial actions to solve the landslide in West

Figure 5. Distribution of landslides
Sumatra are conducted generally in terms of
replanting trees. The main reason to do this action
is because the landslides occurred along the open
locations at the hill and mountain areas. But at
certain locations, the landslides also occurred at
the roadsides. In these cases the restorations are
done by constructing retaining walls. For landslide
which occurred along the rivers, the gabions are
chosen. The remedial action to prevent water
intrusion in to the soil mass by controlling the
water above the slope is rarely done.
The conventional reparation of landslides in the
West Sumatra is caused by the lack of technology
as well as limited budget. That is combined by the
lack of knowledge of slope stability and
stabilization of authorized bodies which deal with

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landslides. The improvement of human capacity
must be done, especially in terms of prevention
tasks of landslides. In additional, the enough
budgets and the appropriate technology to prevent
landslides must be considered better.
Investigations on landslide in sliding prone
locations should be done so that appropriate
solutions associate with landslide can be made up.
An example of an investigation on the slope
stability and its solution for Maninjau sliding in
Agam has been conducted in 2013 (Figure 6). The
investigation procedure is started by a field survey
and laboratory tests of soil samples then followed
by stability analysis and delivering a recommended
solution. On the laboratory investigation the
undisturbed and saturated soils are tested and those
data are used for the analysis. The slope protection
by re-plantation deep-strong root vegetations was
then recommended.
Figure 6. Maninjau – Agam Linslide 9n 2013
(Hakam et al, 2013)
CONCLUSIONS
Landslides in the West Sumatra generally
occurred mostly in the highlands (hills and
mountains) that have relatively steep slope and the
disadvantage geotechnical conditions. The
landslides that occurred from 2012 to 2014 have
caused damage to infrastructures and fatalities.
The cut of vegetations that covering slope surface
and the change of land use have triggered
landslides. Some landslides were also caused by
inaccuracy of the artificial slopes design. Although
in 2012 to 2014 there is only one landslide caused
by an earthquake, it is important to notice that an
earthquake can trigger landslides such that
happened during the Sumatra Earthquake in 2009.
Mainly the landslides occurred during or after
heavy rain. Along a year, landslides occurred in
the rainy season i.e. in January, February and July
to December. It is necessary to have a good
preparation for the emergency response of
landslides in those wet months.
Remedial actions for landslides in the West
Sumatra are mainly associated with the availability
of budget and technology. The plantation is more
popular solution compared to preventive treatment
such as surface water control. For a better solution
in future it is necessary to develop understanding
and to increase the human capacity related to the
slope stability and protection.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank the Ministry of Energy
and Mineral Resources (ESDM) of West Sumatra
province for providing the Report of Landslide in
West Sumatra in which information and data in
this paper are obtained.
We also thank to our students for helping and
accompanying us to carry field investigations and
to accomplish any activities related to this paper.
REFERENCES
Hakam, A. (2010), Stabilitas Lereng dan Dinding
Penahan Tanah, Universitas Andalas, Padang.
Hakam, A., Febrin A I., Fauzan, Istijono, B., and
Arnaldo, R. (2013), Slope stability analysis
following Maninjau Landslide 2013, The
Second International Conference on
Sustainable Infrastructure and Built
Environment (SIBE-2013), Bandung,
November 19th – 20th 2013.
Huang, Yang H., (1983), Stability Analysis of
Earth Slopes, Van Nostrand Reinhold Comp.
Inc., NY.
Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources
(ESDM) of West Sumatra Province (2012),
Pemantauan dan Evaluasi Bencana Alam
Geologi Provinsi Sumatera Barat, Dinas ESDM
Prov. Sumbar, Padang.
Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources
(ESDM) of West Sumatra Province (2013),
Pemantauan dan Evaluasi Bencana Alam
Geologi Provinsi Sumatera Barat, Dinas ESDM
Prov. Sumbar, Padang.
Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources
(ESDM) of West Sumatra Province (2014),
Pemantauan dan Evaluasi Bencana Alam
Geologi Provinsi Sumatera Barat, Dinas ESDM
Prov. Sumbar, Padang.
Sandy, I M., (1985), Geografi Regional Republik
Indonesia, Jurusan Geografi FPMIPA UI,
Jakarta.
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 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

MAP OF SUSCEPTIBILITY ZONE OF LANDSLIDE IN BALIKPAPAN EAST

KALIMANTAN PROVINCE AS AS ASPECTS OF DISASTERS IN DEVELOPING
AREA

Herry Purnomo Suranta, Kristianto, Gede Suantika, Nana Rukmana, and Gasit

ABSTRACT: The purpose of the landslide susceptibility zone mapping is create a map of the zone of landslide
susceptibility in Balikpapan and the surrounding area, East Kalimantan Province. The aim of mapping the map is
expected to be used as a baseline to provide disaster information in planning and regional development in the
region. Location mapping area is in Balikpapan City and surrounding area, East Kalimantan Province.
Coordinate Geographically located in this area 1160 45' - 1170 10' East Longitude and 00 58 ' 33.6 " - 10 17' South
Latitude, wide of mapping area is 99, 980 Ha. In the analysis of the landslide susceptibility zone map used three
(3) method, there are an indirect (statistics), direct and the combined analysis. Indirect Method: Analysis of
indirect done by overlapping distribution maps (distribution) with a map of the landslide parameters (geology,
slope and land use). Direct Method: in the manufacture of landslide susceptibility zone map is a way of direct
observation of the occurrence of landslide in the field. Based on the results of the combined analysis (statistical
and direct), then Balikpapan and the surrounding area can be divided into 4 (four) susceptibility zone, namely:
Very Low; Low; Medium and High Landslide Susceptibility. In each landslide susceptibility zone has its own
conditions and characteristics of the disaster in the development of the area.

Keywords: landslides, susceptibility zones, disaster aspects, regional development

INTRODUCTION and 0 58 '33.6 "until 1 17' south latitude, with an

area of  99980 ha area mapping (Figure 1. Map
Background
directions location).
Landslides are natural events that are often
catastrophic and losses are not small, either of
property and human life. The more natural
condition of Indonesia with the causal factors
(geology, climatology) very dominant to make
some parts of Indonesia is prone to natural disasters
landslide. Balikpapan and surrounding areas largely
shaped by Tertiary rocks in the hilly area, so that in
the rainy season has the potential to landslide occur
of landslides, which could threaten the preservation
of nature and safety of the local inhabitants. With
the map is expected to be used as basic data and
information in the planning and development of the
city of Balikpapan and surrounding areas.
Moreover, it can be useful to improve mitigation
and public awareness of the dangers of landslide
that can occur at any time.

Regional Location Mapping

Mapping areas include regions Balikpapan City Figure 1. Map of Location
and surrounding areas, East Kalimantan Province.
Geographically mapping area located at
coordinates: 116 45 'until 11710' east longitude

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MAPPING METHOD
Landslide mapping performed by using the
method of indirect approach (statistics) and direct
method (observation field and slope stability
analysis), settlement is done by combining the two
methods. Mapping method is not directly done by
overlapping (overlaying) for looking for factors
contained in the maps parameters (geological maps,
slope and land) to distribution of land slides, then
the analysis is done by using GIS (Geographic
Information System), so zoning susceptibility of
landslides can be determined. Direct way is to
directly map the susceptibility zone of landslide on
the ground by studying the landslide distribution,
morphology, geology, land use and geological
structures and by conducting analysis slope stability.
The combined way is to combine the susceptibility
zone map of land slide indirectly with susceptibility
zone map of land slide direct way to produce maps
of susceptibility zones is a final map.
Figure 2. Geological Map of Balikpapan
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GEOLOGY
Morphology
Based on slope classification and morphology
unit from Nichols and Edmunson, JR, 1975, the
shape of the landscape and the slope angle of the
mapping area can be divided into six (6) units of
morphology, namely: plains, hills smooth
undulating, medium hills undulating, hills
undulating bit rough, rugged hills undulating, the
hills are very rough undulating.
Rock Composition
Rock composer mapping area composed by old
rocks Quaternary – Tertiary age, consisting of:
Alluvial (gravel, gravel, sand, silt and clay as the
sediment of rivers, lakes, coastal and delta
Quarternary age), Kampung Baru Formation (sandy
clay stone, quartz sandstone, stone inserts coal silt,
marl, lignite, limestone,Tertiary age), Balikpapan
Formation (intercalation quartz sandstone, silty clay
and shale rock with inserts marl, limestone and coal,
Tertiary age); Balang Pulau Formation
(intercalation quartz sandstone, sandstone and clay
stone inserts coal, Tertiary age).
Geological structure
Geological structures evolve in areas such
mapping fault (faults) landfolds. Fault in the form
of normal fault, the fault shear and fault ride, while
pleats form of anticline and syncline.
Seismicity
Regional mapping is included in the quake zone
with an acceleration of 0.20 to 0.25 g (Beca Carter
Hollings and Ferner, Ltd., 1975) which is
proportional to the scale on the scale MMI VIII.
The southern part of the mapping area is the area
most prone to tectonic earthquake, because the area
is located closer to the source of tectonic
earthquake epicenter generally have in the Indian
Ocean. Thus the seismic factor is taken into account
in the manufacture of landslide susceptibility zones
with slope stability analysis.
SUSCEPTIBILITY ZONE TO LANDSLIDE
Based on the analysis of overlapping, then the
district of Balikpapan scale of 1: 100,000 can be
divided into four (4) zones susceptibility of
landslide, namely: zone of very low susceptibility
to landslide, low, medium and high, and the area
stream flood the description of each zone are as
follows.
Zone of very low susceptibility to landslide
Areas that have a very low level of
susceptibility to landslide occurs. In this zone very
rarely or never occur landslide, both the old and
new landslide, except in the area of the river bank
(groove). A flat to gently sloping areas with a
natural slope of less than 5%, is generally formed
by a unit slope alluvial quartz sand and stones that
are loose and governance in the form of shrub land,
rice fields and a small portion of protected forest.
Wide dissemination of this zone ± 7498 ha (7.55%)
of the entire area mapping.
Zone of low susceptibility to landslide
Areas that have a low level of susceptibility to
landslide occurs. In this zone is rare landslide, if not
impaired on the slopes, and if there is a long
landslide, the slope has steadily returned. The small
dimension of landslide may occur, especially in the
cliffs of the valley (groove) stream. The range of
slope ranging from ramps (5-15%) until the area is
rather steep (15-30%). Depending on the condition
of the physical and engineering properties of soil-
forming rocks and slopes. On the slopes rather
steep to steep slopes are generally formed by
perselingan lapukan ground quartz sandstone, silty
clay stone and silt stone (Balikpapan Formation)
with vegetation cover is generally in the form of
shrubs, mix plantations and a small portion of
protected forests. Broad dissemination of this zone
± 28 954 ha (28 , 96%) of the entire area mapping.
Zone of Moderate susceptibility to landslide
Areas that have a medium level of susceptibility
to landslide occurs. In this zone can occur landslide,
especially in the areas bordering the river valley,
cliff escarpment road, or if the slope impaired.
Landslide time can be active again mainly due to
the high rainfall. The range of slope ranging from a
rather steep (15-30%) to very steep (50-70%).
Depending on the condition of the physical and
engineering properties of rocks and soil as a
material forming the slopes. Intercaalation
generally slopes formed by quartz sandstone, sandy
clay stone, stone silt and silty clay stone and shale
(Balikpapan Formation and Formation Kampung
Baru) and has vegetation in the form of mixed
garden and a small portion of protected forest.
Wide dissemination of this zone ± 38 302 ha
(38.31%) of the entire area mapping.
Zone of hight susceptibility to landslide
Areas that have a high degree of susceptibility
for landslide. In this zone common landslide,
whereas movement of the old landside still active
due to high rainfall and strong erosion. The range
of slope ranging from steep areas (50-70%) to
almost upright (> 70%). Depending on the
conditions and the physical properties of rock and
soil engineering. The vegetation cover is generally
very poor slopes or in the form of shrubs and partly
in the form of mixed farms. Slopes are generally
formed by intercalation quartz sandstone, sandy
clay stone, stone silt and silty clay stone and shale
(Formation Balikpapan and Kampung Baru
Formation) which is less compact. Wide
dissemination of this zone ± 25 165 ha (25.17%) of
the entire area mapping.
N5-3
 Figure 3. Susceptibility zone map of landslide at Balikpapan
HAZARD ASPECTS OF LANDSLIDE IN
DEVELOPMENT AREAS
Hazard aspect in susceptibility zone map of
land landslides, can be grouped into 4 groups,
according susceptibility zone map of land
landslides, namely:
Zone of very low susceptibility to landslide
a. Appropriation spatial / land
 The area is feasible for residential and
building infrastructure.
 It is free for the urban development.
 Eligible for industrial and mining
region.
 Eligible for each type of land use.
 Eligible for the development of every
form of tourism.
b. Recommendation
 The building is located on the edge of
the river and the steep escarpment that
made the river bank retaining wall.
 For industrial and mining region to be
kept away from the settlement.
N5-4
 For buildings over 4 floors and
building infrastructure, must first be
done investigation geotechnical and
physical properties of the soi test.
Zone of low susceptibility to landslide
a. Appropriation spatial / land
 The area is quite feasible for
residential and building infrastructure.
 Freely for the urban development.
 Pretty decent for industrial and mining
region far from the settlement.
 Decent enough for any type of land
use.
 Decent enough for the development of
every form of tourism
a. Recommendation
 The building is located on the edge of
the river that made the riverbank
retaining wall.
 For industrial and mining region to be
kept away from the settlement.
 For buildings over 4 floors and
building infrastructure, first
performed geotechnical investigation
and physical properties of the soil test.
  For cutting terraced slopes that are
made with large escarpment slope
angle and height adjustable with the
results of engineering geological
research
Zona of Moderate Susceptibility to landslide.
a. Appropriation spatial / land
 This area is less feasible for
residential and building infrastructure.
 There is flexibility for the urban
development.
 Less feasible for industrial and mining
region
 The area is recommended for forestry,
plantation deeply rooted.
 Can be used for the development of
natural Tourism and Geotourism
 If want to use the land for paddies, to
be carried out on the slopes under this
part.
b. Recommendation
 Do not perform cutting slopes
 Avoid use of wetlands in the upper
and middle slopes
 Avoid making the buildings on the
escarpment and below the escarpment
 If going to develop or build on this
area, required a detailed geological
investigation techniques to prevent
soil movement
 Structuring drainage on the slope, so
that water flows easily and does not
seep into the ground, preferably
waterproof walled channel.
 Drying of wetlands in the upper and
middle slopes
 Closing the tributary flow direction is
cut (transverse) slope, which is used
for irrigation.
 Perform pelandaian upper and middle
slopes of the way teracces cuts in an
upright slope / steep
 Plant perennials and firmly rooted in
the upper slope and the slope of the
central part.
 Do not cut trees on steep slopes and
escarpment.
 Establishing a cliff by making a
retaining wall landslides in areas
traversed the building infrastructure.
Zone of High Susceptibility to landslide.
a. Appropriation spatial / land
 This area is not feasible for residential
and building infrastructure (need
specific engineering).
 Not feasible for the development of
urban wilyah
 Not feasible for industrial and mining
region
 The area dedicated to forestry,
plantation firmly rooted
 Can be used for the development of
natural Tourism and Geotourism
b. Recommendation
 If forced to build infrastructure in the
area, it is necessary to do detailed
geological investigation techniques, as
well as the necessary engineering
technology in building infrastructure.
 Structuring drainage on the slope, so
that water flows easily and does not
seep into the ground, preferably
waterproof walled channel.
 Drying of wetlands in the upper and
middle slopes
 Closing the tributary flow direction is
cut (transverse) slope, which is used
for irrigation.
 Perform cutting upper and middle
slopes of the way "terassering"
 Do not allowed to cut the slopes in an
upright / steep
 Plant perennials and firmly rooted in
the upper slope and the slope of the
central part.
 Do not cut trees on steep slopes and
escarpment.
 Establishing a cliff by making a
retaining wall landslides in areas
traversed the building infrastructure.
 People need to be vigilant, especially
if there is heavy rain in a long time.
 Keep landslide monitoring conducted
periodically (during the rainy season
and dry season), to determine the
development of landslides.
 Keep training to residents in the area
regarding the procedure for
prevention of landslide
CONCLUSION
Based on the results of the discussion of the
three districts can be summarized as follows:
a) Type of landslide that developed in this
area: avalanche of growing into a flood,
slump and rubble stone materials
b) Susceptibility zone landslide in this region
was divided 4: landslide susceptibility
zones is very low, low, medium and high.
c) Zone of landslide susceptibility to watch
out for: the zone of high landslide
susceptibility and moderate.
N5-5
 d) Factors causing landslide: the physical
properties of rocks and soil weathering,
structural geology, slope and high rainfall.
SUGGESTION
In general, landslide often occurs in areas that
have a slope / morphology of precipitous> 30% (>
17 °). Therefore:
 Need to make green on the slopes above,
and do not do the cutting slope
 In areas prone to landslide, wetland should
be drained.
 Be vigilant for cracks in the cliffs or the
upper and middle slopes, do get closure
with clay and compacted.
 When it rains it turns out that cracks
develop, preferably in the empty
settlements
Public increase awareness and control of
the water leak channels, channel suggested
the cement walled watertight.
 Beware the debris that threatens the flow of
material on the lower slopes and the
settlements along the valley.
 To reduce the number of victims and
controlling the landslides to do some action
as follows:
In Zone Regional High susceptibility to
landslide in terms of disaster unfit for
occupancy, highways, building facilities
and infrastructure, preferably for forestry
and plantation firmly rooted related
institutions (Public Works Department)
and local communities must often
perform control in the event of cracks.
Before and during the rainy season the
public are advised to control,if there is a
crack in the dike channels, seepage water
channel, water leaks and flood water
drain channel, since it can result in an
avalanche of growing into a flood.
Greening back forest land on the upper
slope perennials with strong and deep
rooted.
Do not do the cutting slope at an angle of
> 45 degrees.
Do not make the house above and below
or on a steep escarpment.
It is recommended making a house with a
wooden building in areas prone to
landslide.
The community must be vigilant in case
of heavy rain in a long time.
N5-6
The drains walled, so that water does not
seep into the ground
Avoid development planning in areas that
have a high susceptibility to landslide,
while the construction of the moderate
zone, slope stability investigations need
to be carried out in more detail. reforest
denuded land (critical), especially in
areas steep slope with trees that have
strong and deep roots that can serve as a
binder soil, to prevent soil movement.
To avoid casualties due to landslide, it
can follow the instructions prevention /
reduction of landslide.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Beca Carter Hollings & Ferner Ltd, 1975: Seismic
Zone for Building Construction In Indonesia,
Vol. II.
Chowdhury, RN, 1978: Slope Analysis,
Development In Geotecnical Engineering, Vol.
22, Elsevier Scientific, Amsterdam.
Hidayat.H; 1994; Geological Map of Balikpapan,
Kalimantan; Centre of Geological Survey
Hidayat.H; 1994; Geological Map of Balikpapan,
Kalimantan; Centre of Geological Survey
Institute of Meteorology and Geophysics, 1973:
Map Rainfall Indonesia, Vol. I, the Department
of Transportation of the Republic of Indonesia.
K. Terzaghi and Peck RB, 1976: Soil Mechanics in
Engineering Practice, 2nd edition Wiley, New
York.
Nichols DR, and Edmunson JR, 1975: Text to
Slope Map of Part of West - Central King
Country, Washington: US Geol. Survey Misc.
Geol. Inv. Map I - 825 - E, Scale 1: 48,000.
Nitihardjo, S., 1995: Terrain Mapping Unit
Approach for Landslide Susceptibility using
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information
System in Lembang - Stump Hill Area, West
Java, Indonesia, M.Sc Thesis, ITC, Enchede,
Netherland.
Vernes, DJ, 1978: Slope Movement and Type and
Processes, Landslide Analisys and Control,
special Report 176, Washington, DC,
Transportation Reseach Board, National
Reseach Council.
Wesley, LD, 1976, Soil and Rock Mechanics,
Department of Public Works, Moulds VI
 Photo 5. The area where the entertainment is done
Photo 1. Visible rock cutting slope for buildings
cutting slopes prone to avalanche then to establish
next to the building KNPI, essentially in the form
the weight of the building in order to use the pile
of alternating rock lignite with sandstone, silt and
clay stone

Photo 2. For the engineering on the rocks can be by Photo 6. The road is experiencing slump contained
way of pile foundation in Jl. Sukarno Hatta Km.8,5 and slump has been
addressed by the piles and retaining wall

Photo 3. Intercalation lignite rock, sandstone, Photo 7. Landslide occurs in the area Batuampar,
siltstone and clay stone fever Balikpapan City slump types and has been
overcome by a retaining wall, retaining wall
subdrain less so experienced cracks

Photo 4. Heaps of garbage on the roadside area

Bukit Cinta which forms an upright slopes prone to
avalanche so because if high rainfall the trash heap
to absorb water Photo 8. Temporary water that was in the area
Talagasari Park, City of Balikpapan been breached
and cause flash floods

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 th
Proceedings of Slope 2015, September 27-30 2015

ARATOZAWA MASSIVE LANDSLIDE, KURIHARA, MIYAGI PREF, JAPAN

– AN IDEA TO THE LANDSLIDE GEO-PARK
Toyohiko Miyagi 1, Hidekazu Sato 2, Misao Sato 2 and Rie Nakagawa 2

ABSTRACT: The landslide is not only a basic national geomorphic process but the hazardous phenomena.
However if it is remarkably huge and it is very typical one, it may become the suitable one as the geo-site of
Geo-park. If the Geo-park has the role of environmental or geographical education, such huge and typical
landslide will have some impacts.
At the moment of 2008 Iwate Miyagi Nairiku Earthquake, more than 4100 landslide disasters occurred at the
foot slope of Kurikoma Volcano. Among then the Aratozawa massive landslide happened at the upstream of
Aratozawa Water Researve, Miyagi prefecture. The size is 0.9km in width, 1.3 km in length and 0.1 km deep.
This is the largest one as the critical destruction in Japan.
The Kurihara city local government is proposing to be a geo-park to Japan Geo-park Network. The human
life, nature and infrastructures of the city received severe damages by earthquake. Therefore the city promotes to
the geo-park. Natural disaster will be happen when the person forgets. So disaster facts, prevention way and
the potential hazard have to people learn from nature. Aratozawa landslide and the related landslide areas are
suitable sites not only remarkable natural hazard site but also important resources of disaster study.

Keywords: Aratozawa Landslide, Geopark, Landslide Mechanism, Inland Earthquake

INTRODUCTION

At the occasion of UNDSR Sendai 2015, the participant, organization and media payed attentions to the
tsunami disaster of the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake. The tsunami disaster is very important but the
landslide disaster is also important. However the facts of 2008 earthquake and the disasters like to be changed to
the fossil. The facts completely covered by the tsunami huge sad disaster. We understood there is the necessity to
think. We must move for make the forgettable structure. The geo-park is one of the way of create the structure.

THE ARATOZAWA LANDSLIDE

This is the largest and typical landslide. It 1300 meter in length, 900meter in width and 70 to100 meter in
depth. The slip surface developed at the thin very fine sand layer at a part of lacustrine deposit. And the slip
surface is very platy and the inclination is only 0 to 2 degree. In generally, landslide has the distinctive landforms
such as main scarp, landslide body and slip surface, the main scarp is typical separation cliff the relative height
amount to 150 meres high. The landslide body consisted some sub blocks. The toe part of the body thrust up and
stopped at the mountain foot slope. The huge landslide body so called the large moving body 500 by 500 mete in
size moved 300 metes from the original position. Two large ridges and the trench, Fersen meer, large disturbed
zone is also established. The great landscapes established. Around there, Hiyashizawa land devastated valley, the
Komanoyu Hot spring complex disaster area by landslide, landslide dam and earth flow are also distribute.
If you stand at the area, you will easy to understand the great breath of the earth.
The Aratozawa landslide area as the recently established, finely described, monitored and minimum counter
measure has been carried. When we stand at the edge of the main scarp, feel weak at the knees, feel that the earth
is move, recognize with the bird eye and ants eye. So the Forestry Agency Japan decided to the controlled
landslide prevention site, then started the research and counter measure planning under the orientation of disaster
control committee. The activities still are carrying now.

1
Graduate School of human informatics, Tohoku-Gakuin University, Izumi, Sendai 981-3193 Japan
miyagi@mail.tohoku-gakuin.ac.jp
2
Mt. Kurikoma Area Geopark Promotion Committee Office, Kurihara City Office.Kurihara, 989-5612, Japan

O1-1
 Figure 1. The face shot of the Mt. Kurikoma footslope geopark

Figure 2. Landform classification of the Aratozawa landslide area

O1-2
 Figure 3. Typical cross section (A-A’ in Fig. 2) of the Aratozawa Landslide.
The slip surface is nearly flat and platy

WHY THE LANDSLIDE HAS THE ROLE OF
LANDSLIDE DISASTER EDUCATION SITE
The area has seven importances as the
representative of landslide phenomena. It is,
1)The size “Recognize the force and the depth of
the earth processes.”
2)The micro structure of the landslide “The
mechanisms and the results of the landslide
action are easy to learn because of the size and
typicality.”
3)The newly established and modified land and
vegetation system “Landscape changed and
restarted the new ecotone establishment.”
4)The representativeness among 380000 landslide
topographic area in Japan. “This is reactivated,
it follows the autonomous destruction process,
natural historically meanings in there.”
5)Earthquake triggered landslide. “We think all
most of huge and lateral spreading landslide
needs the acceleration velocity.”

Figure 4. Bird eye view of the Aratozawa landslide site and the related geo points. The target site and the related
points will make up the series of geo-story

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 Figure 5. Introduction the geo-point and Aratozawa landslide for realize the geo-story.
1; Aratozawa gorge (Recognize the basic geological structure with the nice landscape),
2; Aratozawa Dam (The rock fill dam body had no damage but Tsunami rose 3 meters high).
3; Landscape from the Aizenko Park (We can see the toe and top part of the Aratozawa landslide),
4; Ugoki historical trail was cut by the Aratozawa landslide.
5; Landscape of the Aratozawa landslide above from the main scarp.
6; Distribution the large landslide topographic areas near the Aratozawa landslide.
7; Material (very fine sand) of the landslide slip surface collect at 78 meters deep.
8; Image of slip mechanism of the Aratozawa landslide

6) The countermeasure “the minimum
countermeasures such as Head part cutting,
deform the toe parts and pile set, surface
erosion control, channel treatment and
wells” The adaptational management based
on the monitoring system for secondary
deformation.
7) The base for education of disaster
prevention “This is the typical base for
study of crust disaster, earth surface
processes, the meanings of countermeasure,
nature and human relations”
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Japan Forestry Agency, Kurihara City and The
Japan Landslide Society Tohoku Branch promote
to be the Geo-park as the disaster study site. There
are almost of all natural disasters concentrates in
Japan. It means we must pay attention the disasters
and must study from it. At the same time disaster
is not only a critical process but also the initiation
of start the action of overcoming the disaster by
human intelligence.
REFERENCE
Forestory Agency Tohoku Regional Forest Office
(2014) The Chronicle of a Mountain Disaster
The Iwate-Miyagi Nairiku Earthquake in 2008.
30ps.
Miyagi, T., S. Yamashina, F. Esaka and S. Abe
(2011) Massive landslide triggered by 2008
Iwate-Miyagi inland earthquake in the
Aratozawa Dam area, Tohoku, Japan.
Landslide, Vol.8. P. 99-108. DOI
10.1007/s10346-010-0226-8.
Kurihara City, Mt. Kurikoma Area Geopark
Promotion Committee: (2014) Concept of Mt.
Kurikoma area gropark. 4ps.

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