Science of Learning Terminology
Patti Shank
With Input From Ruth Clark, Clark Quinn, and Mirjam Neelen
How to Use This Glossary
I built this glossary to help you learn some of
the most important learning science terms. I
then shared it with some other learning
science experts to make sure that I was on
track with the definitions and to get more
terms to add to the glossary.
I recommend you read the terms and
consider how they relate to the instruction
you build. The learning sciences, like other
sciences, is the foundation for good outcomes
in organizational learning and other
educational fields.
What Is Learning? Learning
Sciences?
Learning is a usable change in knowledge,
behavior, or skill from experience or study.
Learning sciences, or the science of learning, is
an interdisciplinary field (incorporating
elements of cognitive science, educational
psychology, human-computer interaction,
and others). The field uses evidence-based
methods to understand how we learn, how to
best design and implement instruction, and
how to improve learning outcomes.
*Terms defined elsewhere in this document
(Selected) Learning Science Terms
Algorithm: A set of rules to follow when
solving specific types of problems.
Assessment: Methods for measuring learning,
progress, skill, or needs. The goal of formative
assessment during learning is to monitor and
modify learning activities to gain needed
learning outcomes. The goal of summative
assessment is to evaluate learning outcomes.
Attention: The process of selectively focusing
on some objects and events and filtering out
others. Attention is not completely under
conscious control.
Blended learning: Combining instructional
methods or media. For example, online plus
classroom, or asynchronous (self-paced) plus
synchronous (live). A key rationale for
blending is to exploit the advantages of
different methods and media.
Chunking: Subdividing instructional materials
into smaller and cohesive sections that
reduce cognitive load* and are the right size
considering prior knowledge.*
Cognition: Mental processes of perception,*
memory,* and thinking.
Cognitive load: The amount of mental effort
used by working memory.* Term invented by
John Sweller, who argues that instructional
design must reduce irrelevant cognitive load
to improve learning results.
Collaborative learning: Two or more people
engaged in learning to explore an issue, find
solutions, or create products. In formal
collaborative learning, desired results are
process related as well as task related.
Communities of practice: A community of
people with shared practices, engaged in a
specific domain.* Typically, this type of
knowledge-building community is somewhat
informal, and members feel affinity with the
group. Attributed to Lave and Wenger (1991)
and Brown and Duguid (1991).
Consolidation: The process of stabilizing
memories in long-term memory after
acquisition. There are questions about how
long this takes, such as weeks or longer.
Context: The real-life and relevant situations
that make learning real, significant, and
memorable. To acquire new knowledge, we
relate it to what we already know. (See
schema.*)
Declarative knowledge and procedural
knowledge: Declarative knowledge is
knowledge about something (for example, the
definition of a paper jam). Procedural
knowledge is knowing how to perform (for
example, how to clear a paper jam in a
copier).
Domain: A specific area of knowledge and
skill.
Dual coding: Two mental systems for
processing information: Visual (images) and
auditory (speech and writing). Knowledge of
dual coding helps us understand better ways
to present information to reduce cognitive
load. Initiated by psychologist Allan Paivio.
Elaboration: An instructional strategy to
connect and interconnect prior knowledge*
and new knowledge. Asks for deep
explanations with details, connections, and
application in context.* Valuable for learning
and checking understanding.
Encoding: The first biological step of
converting (coding) memory* into a storage
form. The process begins with a memory
trace, a biochemical change in the brain’s
neurons. Most encoding is semantic
(meaning), which helps us understand the
importance of context.
Evidence-based: Informed by scientific
evidence. Relies on data and research rather
than instinct, tradition, or fads.
Expertise: A recognized depth of knowledge
about and ability to perform (and solve
complex problems) in a specific domain.*
Accurate and complete schemas* help experts
interpret information and solve problems
more quickly than people with less expertise.
Expertise reversal: Instructional strategies
that work with people with less expertise*
may work less well or poorly with people
with more expertise.
Generative learning: People must be active
participants in meaning making.* Activities
that relate new information to existing
schema* improve learning. Attributed to
psychologist Merlin Wittrock.
Heuristics: General rules derived from deep
experience. People with expertise* tend to
have more heuristics than people with less
expertise.
Informal learning: Typically, the spontaneous
way most of us learn at work and in the world
by participation or knowledge building,
versus knowledge acquisition* in more
formal settings, such as training classes. We
often confuse the term with other terms such
as self-directed learning.*
Knowledge acquisition: Storing new
knowledge in long-term memory. Also
extracting, structuring, and organizing
knowledge from expert sources, including
human experts.
Long-term memory: The type of memory
responsible for extended information storage.
While working memory* only persists for
about 20 seconds, long-term memory may
persist indefinitely, although different
influences can affect ease of retrieval.*
Meaning making: Connecting new
information with prior knowledge*
instruction using activities that help mental
processes relate information, such as
elaboration.*
Memory: The biological process of storing and
retrieving information. We believe memory is
distributed in the brain rather than located in
a single place.
Metacognition: An awareness of one's own
thinking processes useful for better thinking
and learning outcomes.
Motivation, intrinsic and extrinsic: Considered
to be a driver for an individual’s needs and
behavior. Intrinsic motivation is internal and
is thought to come from personal satisfaction.
Extrinsic motivation is external. It comes
from a desire to earn a reward or avoid
punishment. Intrinsic motivation is thought
to be more powerful and long-lasting in many
cases.
Multimedia learning (cognitive theory): We
have separate channels (auditory and visual)
for processing information and each has
limited capacity. Learning is the process of
filtering, selecting, organizing, and integrating
information from these channels. Originator:
Richard Mayer. (See dual coding.)
Multimedia principle: People learn more from
text and useful images than from words
alone.
Perception: How we become aware of the
world through our senses. A beginning point
for learning.
Prior knowledge: What people already know.
An individual’s prior knowledge has a major
impact on how and what they learn and is a
major consideration when designing
instruction.
Recall and recognition: Memory processes.
Recall refers to retrieval of information from
long-term memory. Recognition refers to
identifying previously encountered events,
objects, or people. Recall requires much
deeper processing than recognition.
Retrieval: Accessing encoded* memories from
long-term memory.* Commonly called
remembering.
Retrieval practice: See testing effect.
Scaffolding: Support offered to people as they
are learning so they experience less cognitive
load.* Support may be in many forms,
including making the environment simpler or
offering props (worked examples, job aids).
Schema: How we organize knowledge in our
mind, including how pieces of knowledge are
connected. Introduced by theorist Jean Piaget.
Schemas change by assimilation and
accommodation. In assimilation, schemas add
information. In accommodation, schemas
alter information.
Self-directed learning: A process in which
people take the initiative to learn. They
diagnose their learning needs and formulate
their own learning goals. They identify and
select learning resources, monitor their
progress, and evaluate their results. They use
metacognitive* strategies to self-correct.
Self-regulation: Actively adjusting behavior
and using metacognitive* strategies during
learning. A good strategy during self-
directed-learning.
Social learning: Learning from others, their
results, and their work products. In the
workplace, a great deal of what we learn
comes from others. Psychologist Albert
Bandura is a primary influence in this area.
Spaced learning: Enhancing learning when
presenting the main learning points again
after a delay, as opposed to presenting them
only once. Separate presentations can be
exact or different. Also called the spacing
effect or spaced repetition.
Testing effect: Enhancing memory by asking
people to practice recalling what they need to
remember later. Benefits occur after brief
delays but increasing delays over time can aid
longer term remembering. Also called
retrieval practice.
Transfer of learning: Moving what we learn in
instruction to the job. Or moving what we
learn from one situation to another. Research www.aect.org/edtech/edition3/ER5849x_C0
shows transfer to be difficult, so we should 10.fm.pdf.
design specific strategies for transfer into
Mayer, R.E. . Multimedia Learning, 2nd
instruction.
edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Working memory: The center of conscious Press.
mental processing involved in learning,
Paivio, A. 1971. Imagery and Verbal Processes.
thinking, and problem solving.
New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
Spector, J.M., M.D. Merrill, J. Van Merriënboer,
Selected References and M.P. Driscoll. 2008. Handbook of Research
Bandura, A. 1977. Social Learning Theory. on Educational Communications and
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Technology, 3rd edition. New York: Taylor &
Francis Group.
———. 1986. Social Foundations of Thought
and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory. Sweller, J., J. Van Merriënboer, and F. Paas.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. 1998. “Cognitive Architecture and
Instructional Design.” Educational Psychology
Bransford, J.D., A.L. Brown, and R.R. Cocking,
Review 10(3), 251-296.
eds. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind,
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/downlo
Experience, and School: Expanded Edition.
ad?doi=10.1.1.89.9802&rep=rep1&type=pdf.
Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
http://www.colorado.edu/MCDB/LearningBi Wittrock, M.C. 1974. “Learning as a
ology Generative Process.” Educational Psychology
/readings/How-people-learn.pdf. 19(2) 87-95.
Brown, J. S., and P. Duguid. 1991.
“Organizational Learning and Communities-
of-Practice: Toward a Unified View of
Working, Learning, and Innovation.”
Organization Science 2(1), 40-57.
http://ocw.metu.edu.tr/file.php/118/Week1
1/brown-
_organizational_learning_and_communities_of
_practice.pdf.
Lave, J., and E. Wenger. 1991. Situated
Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation.
New York: Cambridge University Press.
Lee, H.W., K.Y. Lim, and B.L. Grabowski. 2008.
“Generative Learning: Principles and
Implications for Making Meaning.” In
Handbook of research and educational
communications and technology, 3rd edition,
edited by J. Spector, D.M. Merrill, J. van
Merrienboer, and M. P. Driscoll. New York:
Taylor & Francis Group.