Lecture 2: Introduction to electronic analog circuits 361-1-3661 1

2. Elementary Electronic Circuits with

a BJT Transistor
© Eugene Paperno, 2008

Our main aim in the two next lectures is to build all the
possible practical circuits (amplifiers) by using a BJT
transistor and resistor. (We use the resistor to translate the
output current of the circuit into voltage; otherwise the C
circuit will not be able to provide a voltage gain.) We then
analyze and compare the circuits' small-signals gains to
understand for what applications they can be suitable. We are
particularly interested in the applications where there is a
n
need to amplify power and dc signals.
In this lecture, we develop all the models for the transistors
− as we did this for the diode − and then will build and B
analyze − with the help of these small-signal models − all the
possible single-transistor amplifiers.
VBE / VT
n Bo e p
2.1. BJT transistor: symbol, physical structure, n
analytical model, and graphical characteristics
The symbols of the npn and pnp BJT transistors and the
physical structure of the npn transistor are given in Fig. 1.
E
We will analyze in the lectures only npn transistors. The only
difference between the npn and pnp transistors is in their
static states: the static state of the pnp transistors is reverse to
that of the npn ones because of their opposite structures.
There will be no difference in the small-signal behavior and
models. The circuits analyzed in home exercises, the lab, and
the exam will comprise both npn and pnp transistors.
Injection
In analog circuits, the operating point of transistors is
usually defined in active (linear) region, where the emitter
junction is forward biased and the collector junction is
Fig. 1. Symbol of the n-p-n and p-n-p BJT transistors and the physical
reverse biased. Thus, the emitter injects the electrons into the structure of the npn transistor. Note that for a fixed iB, v'BE is also fixed.
base, and the collector collects them. The amount of the
injected electrons is controlled by the emitter-base voltage,
vBE (or base-to-emitter current, iB). The collector collects configuration, they can also be used (see the Appendix) for
almost all the electrons from the base if its potential is any transistor in a circuit, no matter which terminal of the

n++
sufficiently high: is greater or equal to that of the base. The transistor is grounded (if at all).
base is very thin and the electrons prefer entering the
collector − even its potential equals that of the base − and not Analytical model: transistor equations
the base, because the resistance that they see looking into the Let us first write the equations for the transistor current
base is much greater than that they see looking into the based on the concentrations of the minor charge carriers in
collector. Fig. 1:
To define the operating point of the transistor in active
region, we ground the emitter and bias the transistor
n Bo e v ' BE / VT
junctions with a current and voltage source as shown in Fig.
1. A single transistor circuit (with no other components, E
iC = Dn q
w iE
ABE + i R
iC >> i R
except independent sources) with grounded emitter is called
the common-emitter configuration. Although we develop all . (1)
the models of the transistor for the common-emitter n
= Dn q Bo ABE e v ' BE / VT = I CS e v ' BE / VT
 w
I CS
B
i

pEo
Lecture 2: Introduction to electronic analog circuits 361-1-3661 2

iC VCE iC

IC Q IC

hfe

vCE

I"B I'B IB iB
Fig. 2. Common-emitter characteristics of an npn transistor.

n
Dn q Bo ABE e v ' BE / VT
D p q ABE p Eo iC w
iB = ( e v ' BE / VT
−1) βF ≡ =
L
pE
 
i BS
iB >
> i BS
. (2)
iB
L pE
e iB
D p q ABE p Eo v ' BE / VT

= I BS e v ' BE / VT
Dn n Bo L pE
= >> 1
D p p Eo w
n Bo >> p Eo ; L pE >> W

iE = iC + iB = I CS e v ' BE / VT + I BS e v ' BE / VT (4)

. and
= ( I CS + I BS ) e v ' BE / VT = I ES e v ' BE / VT
    iC iC i /i
αF ≡ = = C B
IB
I ES
(3) iE i B + iC 1 + iC / i B
. (5)
We now can define the static current gains
βF
= →1
1 + βF β F >>1
Lecture 2: Introduction to electronic analog circuits 361-1-3661 3

Small-signal parameters
Note that according to (4), the transistor iC-iB characteristic
should be a linear one (see Fig. 2), of course, provided that Having all the needed transistor characteristics, we can
βF is constant (in a real transistor, βF depends on iB, but we define the small-signal gains as the slopes of the
will neglect this in our theory). It is also apparent from (1)- characteristic at their operating points.
(3) that the iC-vBE, iB-vBE, and iE-vBE characteristics are The small-signal current gains
exponential.
Since according to (1), the collector current is a function ic
of the base width, w, and w decreases with increasing vCE, the h fe ≡ = βF , (7)
ib Q , v ce =0
transistor output characteristics have a slope that is
proportional to IC. (This is unlike the Ebers-Moll model,
where the transistor output characteristics are horizontal.) ic ic ic / ib
Indeed, αf ≡ = =
ie Q , v ce =0
ib + ic Q , v ce =0
1 + ic / ib Q , v ce =0

 n  .
∂  Dn q Bo ABE eV ' BE / VT

∂ iC  w  h fe βF
= = = = αF
∂w Q
∂w 1 + h fe 1 + βF
Q (8)

The small-signal conductance and resistance of the emitter

1 n 1
= Dn q Bo ABE eV ' BE / VT
= IC
W W W
1 i I ES eV ' BE / VT I
≡ e = = E
re v ' be VT VT
∂w Q , vce =0
⇒ ∂ iC = IC .
W .
VT
re = = 26 Ω
∂w ∂ vCE IE 300  K, I E =1 mA
For ∝ :
W VCE (9)

∂ vCE The small-signal (mutual) conductance gain

∂ iC = I C ⇒ ∂ iC ∝ I C .
VCE
ic I CS eV ' BE / VT I
(6) gm ≡ = = C ,
v ' be Q , vce =0
VT VT
Due to the linear dependence of the slope of the output . (10)
characteristics on IC, their extrapolations meet at the one and
the same point on the vCE axis, so-called Early voltage, VA. ic α f ie αf
gm ≡ = =
When vCE increases, the base width w decreases, and the v ' be Q , vce =0
v ' be Q , vce =0
re
base resistance, rB, increases. Therefore, the static VBE
voltage should increase for the same static bias current IB (see
The small-signal input conductance and resistance
the iB-vBE and vBE-vCE characteristics in Fig. 2). As a result, the
iB-vBE, characteristic decreases a bit with increasing VCE.
Since decreasing w causes much more substantial increase in 1 i ic / h fe α f ie / h fe
≡ b = =
iC and iE than in vBE, the iC-vBE and iE-vBE characteristics hie v ' be Q , v ce =0
v 'be Q , v ce =0
v ' be Q , v ce =0
increase with increasing vCE.
The effect associated with the change (modulation) of the
base width by the collector voltage, vCE, and with the ie 1
= = ;
corresponding behavior of the transistor characteristics is (1 + h fe )v ' be (1 + h fe ) re
Q , v ce =0
called Early effect.

hie = (1 + h fe ) re = 2.6 kΩ
300  K, I E =1 mA, h fe =100

. (11)

The small-signal output conductance and resistance ("r-out",

not "r-zero")
Lecture 2: Introduction to electronic analog circuits 361-1-3661 4

IB
rb
B
Fig. 3. "Large"-signal equivalent circuit (model) for the transistor. Note that
another VCE source is added to cancel the effect of the static collector-to-
emitter voltage, VCE, on the current through ro. Thus, only the small-signal
ib
ib
collector-to-emitter voltage, vce, generates the small-signal current through ro,
which is in accordance with the Early effect. Note also that alternating the
polarity of the vs source causes the corresponding alternating the polarity of
the hfeib source.

hoe ≡
1
roe
i
≡ c
vce Q , ib =0
=
IC
V A +VCE v
V A +VCE
ro = =100 kΩ
IC I C =1 mA, V A =100 V >
>VCE
. (12)

And finally, the small-signal reverse-voltage gain

vbe
hre ≡ . (13)
vce Q , ib =0

"Large"-signal model for the transistor

To develop a "large"-signal model (see Fig. 3) for the
transistor, we first replace the base-emitter diode with the
"large"-signal model of the diode, add the βIB dependent
source (this completes the static signal translation), and then
add the hfeib, or what is the same gm v'be dependent source to
represent the effect of v'be on ic, add ro together with an
additional independent voltage source VCE to represent the
effect of vce on ic, and finally add the hrevce source to represent
the effect of vce on v'be. Note that we add another VCE source
to cancel the effect of the static collector-to-emitter voltage, Fig. 4. Small-signal equivalent circuits (models) for the transistor. (a) T small-
signal model of the BJT transistor, (b) separating the input and output loops of
VCE, on the current through ro. Only the small-signal the T model by applying the Miller theorem, (c) hybrid-π small-signal model,
collector-to-emitter voltage, vce, should generate the small- (d) simplified hybrid-π model with the hrevce source and rb neglected.
signal current through ro, which is in accordance with the
Early effect.

rb
B B'
Lecture 2: Introduction to electronic analog circuits 361-1-3661
Electronic circuit
vµin
Fig. A1. Transistor in an arbitrary electronic circuit connected to equivalent
signal sources. According to the substitution theorem, a branch of the network
that is not coupled to other branches can be replaced by an equivalent
independent current or voltage source without affecting any other branch
current or branch voltage. To apply the substitution theorem, the network has
to have a unique solution for all its branch currents and branch voltages. The
network does not have to be linear.
Small-signal model for the transistor
Note that the circuit in Fig. 3 is a linear one. Hence, to
obtain a small-signal model for the transistor [see Fig. 4(a)],
we simply suppress all the static sources in Fig. 3. The circuit
in Fig 4(a) is called the T small-signal model of the BJT
transistor.
iB
The T model can be simplified by separating its input and
output loops [see Fig. 4(b)] by applying the Miller theorem
for voltages (see the Appendix). Such a separation provides
us with so-called hybrid-π small-signal model shown in Fig
4(c). Note that in Fig. 4(b) we short-circuited the resistor and
the voltage source that are connected in series with the hfeib
5
Fig. A2. Miller's theorem (for voltages).
(1+k) Zµ
source. We can omit these two components because they do
1+
not affect the hfeib source and, therefore, do not affect the
model output voltage and current: vce and ic. k
Neglecting the hrevce source (the typical value of hre is very
small, about 10-3), we obtained in Fig. 4(d) a simplified
hybrid-π model. We will use this model in all our further
analysis. Vµ
Either the T or π models can be used in a small-signal
Vµ
analysis to replace a transistor in an electronic circuit.
Naturally, all the small-signal parameters of the models
should be found in advance as a function of the transistor
operating point.
v
APPENDIX
Fig A1 illustrates that the effect of the electronic circuit on
a transistor can be modeled with two independent sources.
Fig. A2 illustrates the Miller theorem for voltages: the
input and output loops of a T network can be separated
without changing the states of the network ports if the values
of the impedances Zµ in and Zµo are increased to compensate
for the reduction of the currents through them relative to the
current in the impedance Zµ of the original T network.
REFERENCES
[1] J. Millman and C. C. Halkias, Integrated electronics, McGraw-Hill.
[2] A. S. Sedra and K. C.Smith, Microelectronic circuits.