Chapter 5
Valves
Engineers typically lavish much attention on pumps
but little on valves, which are just as important for the
proper functioning of a pumping station. The discus-
sion of valves and actuators in this chapter applies
mainly to the control of the pumped fluid. Small
valves for auxiliary purposes (e.g., seal water, fuel,
and plumbing) are only briefly mentioned.
Most valves in a pumping station are for isolation
service and, as such, are either open or closed. Actua-
tors are usually manual for valves smaller than 600
mm (24 in.), and power-driven actuators are usually
used for valves larger than 900 mm (36 in.). Check
valves respond to flow direction and open and close
automatically. Pump control valves serve a dual func-
tion as check valves, and the powered actuators are
programmed to open and close slowly enough to con-
trol transient pipeline pressures within acceptable lim-
its. If used at all, control valves are the most important
valves in a pumping station. Flow-control valves (or
valves that modulate to control flow or pressure) are
used in small sizes for cooling-water or seal-water
piping. Pressure-control valves are sometimes used in
distribution systems to separate regions of two differ-
ent pressures. In pumping stations, surge relief or
surge anticipation valves arc occasionally used to
relieve high-pressure surges.
The associated design considerations of cavitation,
noise, actuator sizing, and vibration are specific for
CARL N. ANDERSON
BAYARD E. BOSSERMAN Il
CHARLES D. MORRIS
CONTRIBUTORS
Casi Cadrecha
Joseph E. Lescovich
Harvey W. Taylor
the brand and model of the valve used and, hence, are
not discussed here. Designers should be aware, how-
ever, of the problems and explore them thoroughly
with the manufacturer.
Additional information of value can be found in
the literature and in the following references: Cook
[1], O'Keefe [2], Deutsch et al [3], AWWA Mil [4],
the ISA Handbook of Control Valves [5], Lyons [6],
and others [7—11]. Photographs and drawings that
depict the various valves and show how they work are
so readily obtainable from manufacturers that few are
reproduced here.
References to a specification or standard are given in
abbreviated form (such as ANSI B 16.34) because such
designations are sufficient for identification. The titles
of references are given in Appendix E together with
other standards that may not be referenced but, never-
theless, aid in the selection and specification of valves.
Addresses of publishers are given in Appendix F. The
dangers in referencing a standard without carefully
reading the entire work are discussed in Section 1-4.
5-1. Designing for Quality
Choosing the right kind, style, and even make of valve
in the right situation is vital to the proper functioning
of the station. A valve proper for one installation may
be improper for another. Style (and even model and • Discussing valves with expert consultants and with
maker) has a profound effect on satisfactory service. users—the operators and the utility managers.
The problem of selection is complicated by the fol-
Note that many makes or models of valves look alike
lowing considerations: (1) a valve satisfactory in one
but differ significantly in quality. A valve is probably of
location may not be satisfactory in another location
high quality if a competitor agrees. The best valves are
even if conditions are only slightly different; (2) mak-
expensive, so a misplaced emphasis on low initial cost
ers of several styles of valves may make some good
makes procurement of satisfactory valves difficult at
ones and some poor ones; (3) models are changed
best. Valves are the heart of the hydraulic system; if
from time to time and a valve, once poor, may now be
they fail, the system fails. In the long run, a cheap valve
good; and, finally, (4) it is extremely difficult to write
will have proved to be the most expensive. Skimping on
specifications to comply with the law, allow competi-
valves is the wrong way to try to save money.
tive bidding, and still obtain a satisfactory valve.
Good quality can be obtained by incorporating into
Familiarity with the various manufactured products,
the specifications such items or criteria as listed below.
which is the key to good selection, can be achieved by
• Materials: Abrasion-, corrosion-, and cavitation-
• Interviewing many manufacturers' representatives
resistant materials of construction—especially for
(but with critical skepticism), and
seats (see Table 5-1).

Table 5-1. Typical Valve Seat Materials

Type specification Life Remarks

Resilient seats
Buna N Good General-purpose elastomer for water and wastewater. Economical,
suitable for most water and sewage uses.
Leather Good Usually impregnated with various waxes to improve qualities.
Sometimes used for water, not sewage.
UHMW3 Very good Very abrasion- and chemical-resistant; not expensive.
Teflon™ Poor Impervious to chemical attack, creeps too much for normal use;
expensive.
Viton™ Poor Use only for aggressive liquids or high temperatures, creeps
somewhat.
Natural rubber Good Suitable only for fresh water.
Rigid seats
Bronze
ASTM B 62, B 584 (34 Tremendous variation Most common seat material, least resistant to erosion or corrosion.
alloys), B 16, B 371 among alloys
Stellite
SAE, J775, AMS 5373, Excellent Expensive; best of all for resistance to both corrosion and erosion.
5375,5378, 5380,
5385,5387, 5788
Stainless steel Specification Erosionb Corrosionb Remarks

44OC ASTM A276, alloy 1 5 Most resistant to erosion, highest

S44004 hardness.
420 ASTM A276 alloy 2 5
S42000
17-4 PH ASTM A564, alloy 3 3
S17400
410 ASTM A276, alloy 4 4
S41000
405 ASTM A276, alloy 5 4
S40500
316 ASTM A276, alloy 6 1 Highest resistance to corrosion.
S31600
304 ASTM A276, alloy 7 2 Least resistant to erosion.
S30400
a
Ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene.
b
1 signifies the best resistance.
• Headloss: Specify a price penalty based on life-
cycle energy costs for more headloss than a stated
value.
• Proof-of-design tests: Require certification of suc-
cessful completion of proof-of-design testing con-
ducted on a 6-in. (or larger) valve in accordance with
AWWA C504, Section 5.5, altered as necessary to
apply to the valve specified (e.g., "disc" in the stan-
dard means "plug" in a specification for a plug valve).
• Massiveness of construction and conservatively
designed bearings, shafts, and other moving parts:
Shafts, especially in cushioned-swing check valves,
should be very large; compare the various makes
and models to specify a high-quality product.
• Service records: Find a way to specify features that
eliminate valves with poor records.
• Complexity: Specify valves and actuators that are
simple, trouble free, and require minimum mainte-
nance or the kind of maintenance within the capa-
bility of the workforce.
• Resilient seat material that will not cold flow under
differential pressures: Look for well-designed
mechanisms to retain seats in place (see Table 5-1);
for wastewater and sludge, seat materials must be
resistant to oils and solvents.
• Responsibility: Include a clause that involves the
manufacturer in the responsibility for valve (and
valve actuator system) performance. Warning: In
some instances, manufacturers have inserted addi-
tional rubber shims or seals to the seats during some
tests to meet the C504 testing requirement that the
valve be drop-tight in both directions. Such prac-
tices should not be accepted.
Life-Cycle Cost
Quality might be said to be an inverse function of life-
cycle cost, which is a combination of capital, mainte-
nance, and energy costs. Headlosses can result in
mind-boggling energy costs, as demonstrated in
Example 5-1.

Example 5-1
Energy Penalties for Three Valves

Problem: Compare cone, butterfly, and globe valves for life-cycle costs of energy. Assume (1)
electric power at $0.05/kW • h, (2) a flow velocity of 3.05 m/s (10 ft/s), (3) headlosses based on
the K factors of Table B-7, (4) a wire-to-water power efficiency of 75% for the pump, (5) inter-
est at 8%, (6) a life of 20 yr, and (7) 300-mm (12-in.) valves wide open.
Solution: Calculate the annual cost of electric power, using headloss data from Table B-7,
Equation 10-7 for the relation between head, power, pump efficiency, and flowrate, and Equa-
tion 29-4 for the present worth of an annual expenditure. From the results, it is evident that
headloss is an important cost factor.

Headloss Energy cost (in dollars)

Valve m ft Annual Present worth

Cone 0.02 0.06 24 235

Butterfly 0.15 0.5 211 2,070
Globe 2.3 7.5 3,010 29,600

Location manual. Note that, because of savings in parts and

Quality is a continuing concern and, hence, also a
function of maintenance. Maintenance costs are elu-
sive, but, whatever they are, they can be reduced by
placing valves and actuators in locations that are eas-
ily accessible for servicing. Make it convenient to iso-
late and drain separate parts of the system, and write
maintenance and exercising programs into the O&M
operation and maintenance labor, it may be more cost
effective to install an expensive valve (such as a plug
or a valve of corrosion-resistant construction) that
works when needed than to install a cheap valve (such
as a gate or a valve of lesser quality) that may not
work until repaired.
High quality is achieved as much by good location
and good piping layout as by specifying high-quality
hardware. A good valve is cheapened by misapplica-
tion or poor location. Some considerations for proper
location are
• In all but clean water service, install valves (such as
gate or swing check) with bonnets upright so that
(1) the bonnet cannot become clogged with debris
that can render the valve inoperative and (2) the
removal of the bonnet is easier and maintenance is
less expensive (this means valves should not be
located in a vertical pipe).
• Make sure that the connecting piping is large
enough for projecting butterfly valve discs to
rotate.
• Place a spool (at least two or, better, three pipe
diameters long) between a butterfly valve and an
elbow to prevent the diagonal streamlines from
causing the vane to flutter, excessively wearing the
bearings or even locking the vane; vane shafts
should be horizontal so there is no bottom bearing
to collect grit.
• Place all valves in locations such that operation,
maintenance, and repairs can be comfortably
accomplished.
• Locate sleeve, grooved-end, or flexible couplings
nearby so that (1) valves can be easily removed for
replacement or for factory repair and (2) move-
ments and strain in the piping are not carried
through the valve body (unless the valve body is
designed to resist such loads).
Check Valves
In comparison with choosing other valves, the judi-
cious selection of the right valve for check service is
by far the most difficult and frustrating. Because there
are many kinds and makes of check valves, choose the
type and style only after careful study of Sections 5-4
and 7-1 and the literature of various manufacturers.
Location is particularly important for check valves;
for example, check valves on manifolds usually
behave quite differently from isolated check valves.
Check valves should, if possible, be placed no closer
than four or five pipe diameters from a pump; other-
wise turbulence from the pump tends to cause the
valve disc to flutter and wear the bearings. (Flutter,
however, is of less concern if the spring in a spring-
loaded lever is stiff enough to prevent slam.) Further-
more, such a separation of pump and check valve
allows the discharge pressure gauge to be placed far-
ther from the pump where pressure fluctuation is
much less violent, gauge wear is reduced (this is not a
concern if the gauge piping contains a normally
closed spring-loaded shutoff valve), and accuracy is
greatly improved. The cost of the several fixed pres-
sure gauges needed for several pumps can be greatly
reduced by using a pair (one for suction, one for dis-
charge) of portable gauges.
Safety
No automatic control system for valves is complete if
it does not incorporate safety features to prevent dam-
age from malfunctioning equipment. These safety fea-
tures can be arranged to prevent the operation of an
unprimed pump, to prevent the operation of a pump
against a closed control valve that does not open on
schedule, or to limit excessive pumping when dis-
charging to a broken pipe. Most safety features
include pressure-sensing devices and relays with tim-
ers that operate valves only when pressures are nor-
mal. When abnormal conditions occur, the valve
should remain closed (or should be closed if open),
and pumps should stop (after a suitable delay) to pre-
vent damaging pumps and motors.
5-2. Isolation Valves
Isolation valves are either fully closed or fully opened.
Valves that remain in one position for extended peri-
ods become difficult —even impossible—to operate
unless they are "exercised" from time to time. Valves
should be exercised at least once each year (more
often if the water is corrosive or dirty), and the
required exercise routine should be emphasized in the
O&M manual.
Isolation Valves for Water Service
Isolation valves likely to be used for water service
include
• Ball (these are expensive, so in sizes larger than,
say, 100 mm [4 in.] they are used rarely for isola-
tion only)
• Butterfly (these are popular in all sizes)
• Cone (these are also expensive, so in sizes larger
than, say, 300 mm [12 in.] they are also used rarely
for isolation only)
• Eccentric plug (these are excellent and useful in all
sizes)
• Gate (these are popular in all sizes)
• Plug (these are either lubricated or nonlubricated,
both of which are rarely used for only isolation in
sizes larger than approximately 50 mm [2 in.]; the
lubricated version is frequently used if the valve is
to be closed for extended periods of time).
lodge in any pocket, such as a valve seat. Depending
on the quality of treated wastewater, however, valves
for water service might be used, albeit with some risk.
Isolation valves likely to be used for wastewater
service include

The gate valves most likely to be used are double
disc or, for raw water with grit, resilient seat, but solid
wedge, knife, or even sluice gates may be useful in
some circumstances. The plug valve most likely to be
used is the nonlubricated type with either a rectangu-
lar or a round port, but a lubricated plug valve would
be used for higher pressures. Lubricants approved by
the FDA are available for water service. Globe valves
are not normally used (because of their high headloss)
except in piping 50 mm (2 in.) and smaller in which
an ability to regulate flow is desired. For clean water,
the double disc gate and butterfly valves are the most
frequently used. The more expensive ball or cone
valves are used for flow control, pump control, or
powered check service, usually in conjunction with
another valve for isolation so that the control or check
valve can be repaired.
• Ball (in unusual circumstances only)
• Cone (in unusual circumstances only)
• Gate (popular in all sizes)
• Eccentric plug (popular in all sizes).
The specific styles most often used are eccentric plug,
knife gate, and resilient seat gate. Solid wedge gate
valves with nonresilient seats might be used, but grit
that can collect in the seat is often troublesome. Lubri-
cated and nonlubricated plug valves and ball valves
are used, especially if flow control is needed.
Description of Isolation Valves
The following descriptions are for both water and
wastewater valves. The types of valves that are recom-
mended or could be used for isolation service are
given in Table 5-2.

Isolation Valves for Wastewater Service

Ball Valves
Valves for wastewater service are more limited in type
because stringy materials catch onto and build up on The rotor (round plug) in a ball valve rotates 90° from
any obstructions to the flow and sticky grit tends to fully closed to fully open. A ball valve has very low

Table 5-2. Recommendations for Use of Isolation Valves

Service usage3
Water Wastewater
Type of valve Raw Clean Raw Treated Slurry Gas Fuel oil
Angle G G X G X G G
Ball E E E E E E E
Butterfly G G X G X - -
Cone E E E E — — —
Diaphragm — — — G G — —
Gate
Double disc G E X - F G X G G
Knife F - G F-G F-G F-G F X X
Sluice G G G G — — —
Resilient seat G G F-G F - G F X X
Solid wedge G G F G X G G
Globe X G X F X G G
Pinch G G G G G G G
Plug
Eccentric E E E E F — —
Lubricated G G G G G G G
Nonlubricated G G G G — F F
a
E, excellent; G, good; F, fair; X, do not use; —, use is unlikely.
headless in the fully open position because the bore of
the pipe is carried straight through the ball, which
results in headloss nearly the same as in a straight
piece of pipe of the same laying length as the valve.
Ball valves are of two basic types: (1) seat supported,
usually for valves smaller than 150 mm (6 in.) and (2)
trunnion supported, usually for valves 150 mm (6 in.)
in size or larger as described in AWWA C507.
Ball valves in water, wastewater, and sludge pump-
ing stations are not ordinarily used as isolation valves.
Their laying length, weight, and cost are much greater
than those of gate and butterfly valves. Seat-supported
ball valves are widely used in auxiliary piping in such
services as seal water, fuel oil, and natural gas as well
as in isolating pressure gauges and air and vacuum
valves because such piping is smaller than 75 mm (3
in.). An advantage of a ball valve is that it offers a rel-
atively leak-free seal.
Ball valves for severe duty service (wastewater,
storm water, surge control, and pump control) are
usually of the trunnion type and should be selected
with a great deal of care, especially with respect to
materials for seats and bearings, because ball valves
vary widely in quality. Seats are subjected to wear and
tear from grit and tramp iron (nuts, bolts, scraps) in
wastewater and storm water service, particularly in
check and surge control usage. Bearings and shafts
must be designed to withstand unbalanced forces dur-
ing rapid closure on pump failure and during surge
control episodes. Ball valves are often reserved for
severe service conditions, and some engineers have
experienced difficulties with cold-flow of resilient
seat materials under high differential pressures. In
some seat designs or under some operating condi-
tions, those materials tend to escape the mechanism
intended to retain them in the plug or body castings.
Stainless steel and stainless steel against monel metal
are excellent alternatives for seats in such service —
although these are not a universal panacea, and prob-
lems have been reported with metal-seated ball valves
as well.
There are two kinds of mechanisms for operating
ball valves. In most valves, a shaft allows the ball to
rotate about a fixed axis so that the seat is wiped by
the turning of the ball. In some metal-seated valves
(e.g., Figure 5- Ia), a loose-fitted trunnion allows
pressure from the force main to push the ball against
its seat. When the pump starts against the closed
valve, the pressure moves the ball away from its seat
and allows the valve to open freely. If the valve is
closed before the pump is stopped, the action is
reversed, and when the pump stops, the manifold
pressure again seats the ball tightly. In effect, the
action is like that of a cone valve but without its
complex mechanism. The seat is thus never wiped
except on power failure.
An alternative mechanism for accomplishing the
same purpose (avoiding wiping the seat when the
valve is opened or closed) is a movable retainer ring
for holding resilient seat material. The inside surface
of the ring is always exposed to the pressure in the
force main. When the pump is started and its pressure
exceeds force main pressure, the retainer ring retracts
away from the seat and allows the valve to open
freely. When the valve is closed and the pump subse-
quently stopped, pressure from the force main closes
the seat and makes it driptight. The retainer ring
mechanism can be adjusted for a wide range of differ-
ential pressures. Valves in service for 20 yr show no
signs of seat wear.
Designers should carefully investigate the perfor-
mance history of the ball valve under consideration
and be satisfied that the valve will be satisfactory
under the conditions that will prevail in service. In
addition to considerations of cost and trouble-free
operating life under imposed conditions, the cost, dif-
ficulty, down time, and probable frequency of repairs
should be weighed. Some valves can be repaired in
place, whereas others must be removed and disman-
tled for repairs.
Trunnion-supported ball valves should be installed
with the shaft horizontal and should be located in hor-
izontal—not vertical—pipes.
A ball valve for pump, check, and surge control in
water or wastewater service is usually fitted with a
worm gear and compound lever (or pantographic)
operating mechanism, as shown in Figure 5-1. The
operating mechanisms may be fitted with a variety of
actuators. Such a valve is superior to all others in pro-
viding ideal opening and closing characteristics for
minimizing surges caused by pump start-up and shut-
down or loss of power. As shown in Figure 5-2, the
last 10% of Cv (a measure of flow) requires about
50% of the stem travel, so the last portion of flow is
choked off very slowly. The parameter Cv is more pre-
cisely defined by Equations 5-1 and 5-2.
In SI units
,2
Cv = 2.919-yr (5-la)
*]K
where d is the diameter of the valve (approach pipe,
actually) in meters and K is the dimensionless valve
coefficient in Table B -7. At any differential pressure
across the valve
Q = 0.3807CvVAP (5-2a)
Figure 5-1. Ball valves with link and lever motion, (a) A metal-seated valve. Courtesy of APCOAViIlamette Valve,
Inc. (b) A resilient-seated valve. Note that removing the cover allows the seal ring to be replaced with the valve in
situ. Courtesy of GA Industries, Inc.

where Q is in cubic meters per second and AP is dif- Q = C v JAP (5-2b)

ferential pressure in kilopascals.
In U.S. customary units
where Q is in gallons per minute and AP is in pounds
,2 per square inch. One can think of Cv as the gallons per
Cv = 29.854= (5-lb) minute of water at 6O0F that flow through the valve at a
JK pressure difference of 1 lb/in.2 An inconsequential cor-
rection for density at other temperatures is omitted
where d is the diameter of the valve in inches and K is from Equation 5-2 because the correction applicable in
the valve coefficient in Table B -7. Flow through the pumping stations would never reach 2%. As the valve
valve is given by is closed, Cv is reduced, as indicated in Figure 5-2.
Figure 5-2. Stroke versus Cv for various valves. After GA Industries, Inc., DeZurik, A Unit of General Signal Corp.,
and Willamette Valve, Inc.
Butterfly Valves
A butterfly valve (Figure 5-3) is a quarter-turn valve in
which a disc (or rectangular vane for square channels)
is rotated on a shaft so that the disc seats on a ring in
the valve body. The seat usually is an elastomer
bonded or fastened either to the vane or to the body.
Figure 5-3. Butterfly valve. Courtesy of Henry Pratt Co.
Most, if not all, manufacturers have now standard-
ized on the short body style (see AWWA C504). In the
long body style, the vane is contained entirely within
the body when the vane is in the fully open position.
In the short body style, the vane protrudes into the
adjacent piping when in the open position.
The wafer style, which is very thin, requires instal-
lation of the valve between pipeline flanges bolted
across the valve body. When planning the use of short
body or wafer- sty Ie butterfly valves, make sure the
pipe on either side is large enough to accept the vane.
Wafer valves are not recommended for isolating pur-
poses where it may be necessary to remove the adja-
cent, connecting pipe spools. Some consultants refuse
to use wafer valves under any circumstances.
Butterfly valves are used in both isolation and lim-
ited throttling service. Butterfly valves can be designed
for leakproof shut-off, but leakage is significant with-
out a resilient seat. Solids, wear, and scale buildup
cause leakage even with resilient seats. In throttling
service, the control range for the vane angle is about
15 or 20° to 60 or 70°. Because most butterfly valve
designs are entirely unsuitable for throttling and some
are prone to failure, select only valves recommended
by the manufacturer for throttling. Then be suspicious.
Investigate installations of valves proposed for throt-
tling service. Pay particular attention to the seat
design. The AWWA C504 standards alone do not
ensure butterfly valve seats that are adequate for severe
throttling (as in pump-control valves) where seats must
be very rugged for longevity. Some valves have their
rubber seats vulcanized into the body. Such valves are
reliable, but when the seat needs to be replaced, the
valve must be shipped to the manufacturer for repairs.
Other valves have seats that are intended to be replace-
able in the field, but after several years of service, cor-
rosion may make it impossible to unscrew studs or
nuts, and the valve must be sent to the shop for repairs
anyway. So beware of sales claims concerning "easy
replacement" in the field. Some (but by no means all)
replaceable body seats are satisfactory.
Butterfly valves are used most frequently in water
and air service. They are not suitable for sewage, sludge,
or grit service because the disc collects stringy solids
and the seating edge is easily abraded. When used in a
"dirty" service, such as raw water, install the valves
with the vane axles horizontal to prevent grit from set-
tling in the shaft bearings and oriented so that the bot-
tom part of the vane moves in the direction of flow to
wash solids through the valve when it first opens.
Butterfly valves should be located at least three (and
preferably five) pipe diameters from an upstream bend
and at least two pipe diameters from a downstream
bend to place the valves in regions of approximately
symmetrical velocities and coaxial streamlines. Valves
that are closer to bends may chatter, and if they are
very close, excessive forces may be required to operate
them. The excessive forces can be eliminated by
Figure 5-4. Cone valve. Courtesy of Allis-Chalmers Corp.
mounting valve shafts in the plane of the bend, but it is
best to orient shafts horizontally wherever possible.
Cone Valves
Cone valves, sometimes called "lift-action" plugs, are
essentially plug valves that are positioned by first lift-
ing the plug in the body before the operating mecha-
nism moves the plug to its new position (see Figure
5-4). After reaching the new position, the plug is then
reseated to provide a seal. The valve has excellent
characteristics for surge-control and pump-control
service. Cone valves have been used successfully in
large water and wastewater applications. Compared
with a ball valve, the axial motion in a cone valve
reduces operating forces and seat wear and produces a
tighter shutoff. However, because of the unusual
stroking requirements, cone valve operating mecha-
nisms require skilled maintenance personnel and can
be complex and prone to failure.
A variant of the cone valve is the small taper-
ground cock in which the plug is axially forced into
tight contact by a spring. There is no mechanical lift,
but a slight axial movement occurs anyway as the
valve is turned. Cocks are useful for the isolation of
taps, pressure gauges, and sampling ports.
Diaphragm Valves (Not Stem Guided)
A diaphragm valve contains an internal flexible elas-
tomer diaphragm that presses down against the inte-
rior body wall (or, sometimes, against an internal weir
that is part of the body). The diaphragm seals the
valve body from the stem, so the valve is leakproof
and the stem requires no packing. This type of valve is
useful in sludge and grit service because there is little
obstruction through the body that could collect grit or
solids. Cleaning tools such as pigs, however, cannot
pass through them. These valves can be lined with
various plastics such as PVC or polyethylene and are,
therefore, often used in chemical piping (e.g., chlorine
solution piping). They are not often encountered in
raw sewage, water, and sludge pumping stations
because other types of valves are cheaper. Sometimes
a diaphragm valve or its close relative, the pinch
valve, is used as a safety device on a bypass pipe
around a positive displacement pump to prevent
destruction of the pump or main pipeline if a down-
stream valve were to be mistakenly closed. The dia-
phragm or pinch valve is set to open automatically,
either by a preloaded spring or by air pressure, at a
suitable overpressure. The lack of a visible position
Figure 5-5. Eccentric plug valve. Courtesy of DeZurik, A
indicator is a shortcoming.
Unit of General Signal Corp.
Another type of diaphragm valve is a stem-guided
globe valve with a diaphragm in the bonnet to actuate
the valve (see Section 5-5). The two types are in no
way similar and should not be confused. against the applicable pressure, which is often oppo-
site to the direction of flow (as, for example, in the
Eccentric Plug Valves isolation valve on the discharge side of the pump).
Debris problems are less severe if the body seat is
In an eccentric plug valve (Figure 5-5), both the body upstream. The valve body may be marked to install
and the plug seat are offset from the center of rotation the other way, so both the specifications and the O&M
so that when the valve is opened the plug-seat surface manual must clearly state both which way the valve is
rotates away from the body-seat surface; this move- to be installed and the reason for the orientation.
ment minimizes the scraping and deterioration of When these valves are installed, tighten the flange
seats common in other valves. In the open position, at bolts only enough to stop leaks. Excessive tightening
a quarter-turn from closed position, the plug rests squeezes the gasket material against the plug and
against the side of the valve body. In some makes of causes it to bind. This cautionary note should also be
valves, the port is either rectangular or, at least, not placed in both the specifications and in the O&M
full ported. In others, the port is circular and the same manual. Add the warning that all valves (not just
size as the pipe so that a pig can pass through the eccentric plug valves) should be exercised on a regular
valve. Some styles or makes are difficult to service in schedule.
the field. Plug valves are especially attractive in
wastewater and sludge applications because there is
Gate Valves
nothing to become jammed or clogged with solids.
The plug is usually coated with an elastomer, such as
A gate valve has a disc sliding in a bonnet at a right
neoprene, to obtain a resilient seating. angle to the direction of flow. Gate valves are further
Eccentric plug valves used in sewage and sludge divided into several subtypes:
service, or for any fluid containing solids or grit,
should be installed so that the plug rotates about a hor- • Double disc (Figure 5-6)
izontal axis. The plug should be stored in the top when • Solid wedge resilient seated (Figure 5-7) or metal
the valve is in the open position and should seat in the seated
direction opposite the high-pressure side so that the • Knife (Figure 5-8)
pressure of the water forces the plug against the seat • Rising stem (shown in Figure 5-7)
for a tighter seal. Because some designs hold pressure • Outside screw and yoke (OS&Y), which also is
in only one direction, they must be installed to hold often a rising stem design (as shown in Figure 5-7)
• Nonrising stem (NRS) (as shown in Figure 5-6) allows a high flow capacity [I]. Furthermore, gate
• Inside screw and outside stem thread valves are subject to damaging vibration when partly
• Bolted, screwed, or union bonnet open.
A rising stem (as shown in Figure 5-8) allows the
Double Disc Gate Valve
operator or observer to determine easily if the valve is
open or closed. An NRS (as shown in Figure 5-6)
The double disc gate valve equipped with a rising
allows the valve to fit into cramped areas where a ris-
stem is one of the most popular types for clean water.
ing stem would strike a ceiling or wall. The NRS style
should be avoided wherever possible because when it
is used there is no indication of whether the disc is
fully seated. If a hard object is caught on the seat,
workers may assume the gate is closed. Dismantling a
pressurized pipe, thought to be isolated, can lead to
flooding and even loss of life. Hence, some indication
of valve position is desirable for all valves. Further-
more, in the O&M manual, caution workers always to
back off nuts by two or three threads and crack the
joint to determine whether there is pressure. If there
is, the nuts can be retightened until the trouble is cor-
rected.
Gate valves are suitable only for isolation (open/
closed) service. They should not be used for throttling
service because a relatively small valve opening

Figure 5-6. Double disc NRS (nonrising stem) gate Figure 5-7. Solid wedge resilient seat OS&Y (outside
valve. Courtesy of Mueller®. screw & yoke) valve. Courtesy of Mueller®.
 Figure 5-8. Knife gate valve. Courtesy of DeZurik, A Unit of General Signal Corp.
After the discs drop into their seats, further movement
of the stem wedges the discs outward to produce a
leakproof shut-off even at pressures exceeding 1700
kPA (250 lb/in.2). Opening the valve reverses the pro-
cedure. Hence, the discs do not slide until the wedging
is relaxed, and sliding and grinding between the disc
rings and body rings are thus minimized.
This type of valve should not be used if the water
carries a heavy load of grit or solids that would fill the
seats (pockets) and prevent the discs from first drop-
ping into place. For such service, use resilient seated
gate valves instead.
Solid Wedge Gate Valve
Solid wedge gate valves are suitable for water con-
taining grit, solids, sludge, and other matter. These
valves offer the advantages of full port opening and
limited throttling service, and, strange though it may
seem, they can be placed on vertical pipes or even
upside down because the valve will work even when
the bonnet is full of solids. Confer with the manufac-
turer, however, before installing the valve on a vertical
pipe or in any position other than near upright. Con-
sider, instead, plug or ball valves for such applica-
tions. Solid wedge valves are less expensive than the
double disc type. The wedge minimizes sliding and
scraping as the valve opens, and solids in the pocket
can usually be displaced by opening and closing the
valve several times. If the grit is sticky and the valve is
to remain open a long time, however, consider a resil-
ient seated gate instead.
Resilient Seated Gate Valve
The seat of a gate valve is a pocket that can entrap
solids and prevent the valve from closing fully. The
resilient seat type greatly reduces this problem
because it has no pocket in the body in which the gate
seats (see AWWA C509). Instead, the rubber edge of
the disc seats directly on the valve body, as shown in
Figure 5-7.
Because there is no pocket for the disc at the bot-
tom of the valve to collect grit and debris, the resilient
seated gate valve is suitable for grit-laden waters and
sewage as well as for clean water service. The disc is
encapsulated with a resilient material (usually vulca-
nized rubber) that presses against the smooth, pris-
matic body of the valve. The valve is restricted to
nearly horizontal pipelines and the bonnet must be
oriented up or, at least, diagonally up. These valves
can seal tight against working pressures up to 1380
kPa (200 lb/in.2).
Knife Gate Valve
The knife gate valve (Figure 5-8) is lighter and more
suitable for water carrying debris than other gate valve
types, but it is more difficult to prevent leakage either
through the closed valve or through the stem packing.
Unless some leakage is acceptable and the head is low
(say, 6 m or 20 ft), another type of valve should be
selected. The knife gate is adapted for pressures below
approximately 170 to 350 kPa (25 to 50 lb/in.2).
Pinch Valve
A pinch valve is essentially a rubber or elastomer tube
closed pneumatically or by a screw, wedge, or lever.
The valve is leakproof and requires no packing, but it
is not suitable for high pressures and the tube weakens
where it is compressed. When closed pneumatically, it
is an inexpensive and suitable valve for a bypass pipe
around a positive displacement pump for guarding
against damage due to a blockage or to an inadvert-
ently closed valve. But it is limited in size, the tube is
relatively expensive and difficult to replace, and the
laying length is greater than for other valve types.
Plug Valves (Lubricated and Nonlubricated)
A plug valve contains a cylindrical or tapered plug with
an opening cast or cut into it. A 90° turn of the plug fully
opens or fully closes the valve. Hence, plug valves are
considered to be quarter-turn valves. The design of the
plug seat is such that solids do not accumulate and cause
the plug to jam or bind. Plug valves can be obtained with
full-ported plugs or with reduced port areas.
Lubricated plug valves (Figure 5-9) contain a lubri-
cating system in which a nearly solid lubricant is
forced into the top of the plug and through a series of
Figure 5-9. Lubricated plug valve. Courtesy of Rockwell
International.
grooves into the bottom so that the faces of the plug
and seat are wiped with the lubricant, which functions
as a deformable sealant each time the valve is open or
closed. This feature is attractive in applications where
the valve may be fixed in the open or closed position
for a long time. The valve is less likely to freeze in
position, and, if necessary, a small amount of lubricant
can be forced into it to unfreeze it. Many different
lubricants, which allow the valve to be used in differ-
ent fluid services, are available. Lubricant can also be
used in slurry service because there are no spaces that
can become packed with solids. On the other hand,
some fluids can dissolve the lubricant off the plug face,
which would cause the valve to seize and gall, but this
usually is no problem with the fluids encountered in
water, wastewater, and sludge pumping stations. A
plug valve provides a very tight seal and is especially
useful in service pressures greater than 1000 kPa (150
lb/in.2). In the cylindrical style, excess lubricant is
forced outside of the valve body where it can be exam-
ined for contamination, less torque is required to turn
it, and the rotor has a 100% bore. Both styles are excel-
lent for pump control service. Lubricated plug valves
require occasional but simple maintenance.
Nonlubricated plug valves have become unpopular,
and several former manufacturers no longer make
them. They seem to have no advantages over the lubri-
cated types.
5-3. Sluice Gates, Shear Gates, Flap Valves,
and Stop Plates
The devices in this section are not actually valves, but
they are used as a means of flow isolation in channels
and on ends of pipes such as those entering wet wells.
Sluice Gate
Sluice gates (Figure 5-10) are used against a wall
between two basins or between a pipeline and an open
channel. Sluice gates are usually located where the
influent channel or sewer enters the wet well and can
be used if the pumping station
• is subject to flooding due to excessive influent flow
or pumping failure;
• is critical, that is, if any major emergency repairs
must be done as quickly as possible;
• has two wet wells; or
• has submersible pumps and the wet well must be
dewatered when (or if) the pump lifting mechanism
jams.
 a pipeline. One side of the shear gate contains a fixed
bolt; on the other side is a lever, which is used to lift
and rotate the gate about the fixed bolt on the other side.

Flap Valves

Flap valves (see Figure 5-11) for pump discharge are

substitutes for check and isolation valves and are an
economical, reliable method of preventing backflow
through out-of-service pumps. With this type of
device, no isolating valve is installed. Rather, the flap
valve is installed on the individual pump discharge
piping at the point of discharge to the receiving sewer,
channel, or discharge structure. A prudent engineer
makes some provision (slide gate or bulkhead slots)
for isolating the flap valve for maintenance purposes,
but no expensive, heavy-duty isolating valves are
required. Be sure to provide a vent just upstream from
the flap valve to drain the pump discharge and prevent
slam. Use flap valves with a cushion design specifi-
cally intended for pump discharge service.

Stop Plates

A stop plate is a thin, vertical, rectangular plate used

to form a temporary dam in open channel flow. It is

Figure 5-10. Sluice gate. Courtesy of Rodney Hunt Co.

Stems and actuators must be sized to overcome

large friction forces for the following reasons:
• Breakaway forces are sometimes greater than the
manufacturer's typical recommendation, particu-
larly if the gate remains closed for a protracted
period.
• Power actuators can develop very large torques and
thrusting forces. Therefore, it is prudent to size
operating stems in a way that will more than ade-
quately sustain those forces, especially when the
fluid contains debris that can be trapped underneath
the sluice gate leaf when closing.
Once the gate has been broken loose, the operating
forces are reduced greatly.

Shear Gates

Shear gates are mounted on the ends of open pipes. Figure 5-11. Flap valve designed for use with pump dis-
Unlike conventional valves, they cannot be mounted in charge. Courtesy of Rodney Hunt Co.
sometimes used in the wet wells of pumping stations
to block flow to part of the wet well so that a pump
and its suction piping can be dewatered for mainte-
nance. The plate may have its own actuator or may be
lifted by hand. Large plates can be lifted with a crane
or hoist and stored on a rack or in a pit when not in
service.
The plate is usually aluminum, but wood, fiber-
glass, stainless steel, and other materials are some-
times used. A local fabricating shop can make stop
plates if supplied with detailed design information.
Alternatively, a somewhat more sophisticated plate
can be obtained from manufacturers, which means the
engineer need not design such details as reinforcing.
Except for very small units, stop plates cannot be
moved up or down when there is a substantial difference
(more than about 0.2 m or 6 in.) in water level across
the gate. If it is necessary to move the plate under such
conditions, (1) a sluice gate may be used instead or (2) a
valve (typically a 100- to 200-mm [4- to 8-in.] gate or
butterfly) or small stop plate can be mounted in a larger
plate to allow equalization of water levels before the
larger plate is moved. Stop plates are inexpensive, are
simple, are suitable for local fabrication, and take up lit-
tle of the valuable space in a wet well, but moving them
is awkward and the leakage is high.
5-4. Check Valves
A check valve is usually (but not always) required to
(1) prevent reverse flow and prevent runaway reverse
pump speeds when the pump is shut off, (2) keep the
pipeline full of water to prevent the entrance of air,
and (3) minimize water hammer and surges for pump
start-up and shut-down.
Vertical pipelines are poor locations for check
valves if the water contains grit or solids. For verti-
cally placed valves in clean water service, special
springs or counterweights may be needed. Manufac-
turers that state that a check valve can be placed in a
vertical pipeline are referring only to the springs or
counterweights and ignoring the danger of deposited
grit and solids, which can (and will) jam the valve.
The designer's responsibility is the selection of a
valve that will give good service in keeping with the
pump selection, hydraulics, and size of the system.
The first decision is whether a check valve will serve,
or whether a more sophisticated pump-control valve is
necessary to limit surges. Some insights for this deci-
sion are contained in Chapters 6, 7, and 26 as well as
in Parmakian [12], but only a sophisticated mathemat-
ical model of the system solved by means of a com-
puter can provide a rational analysis. Unfortunately,
such modeling is too time consuming and expensive
for common use.
Valve Slam
Check valves can be divided into two broad classifica-
tions: (1) those that are closed by the static pressure of
water above the valve (mechanical checks) and (2)
those held shut by an external actuator (pump control
or controlled check valves). The latter do not slam, but
swing checks do if, before the valve is fully closed,
any substantial reverse velocity catches the valve disc
and accelerates it until it strikes the body seat
abruptly. The sudden stop of disc, lever, and counter-
weight (if there is one) plus the violent impact of the
disc on the body seat (especially if the contact is metal
to metal) causes an explosive noise and vibrations that
shake the pipe and may shake the whole building. The
real problem is the water hammer that results if the
water column is flowing backward at a significant
velocity when the valve closes. However, valve slam
can occur without water hammer and vice versa.
At worst, valve slam can rupture water lines and
pump casings. At best, it is annoying. In between, it
pounds the system, can overstress pipes and joints,
and may well result in eventual leaks and greatly
increased maintenance. It is difficult to give advice on
the best kinds of valves to specify because valve slam
depends on many interrelated factors in addition to
valve design. Other factors that are just as important
include static head, friction head, the inertia and spin-
down characteristics of the impeller and motor, size of
pipe, and velocity of flow. Generally, valve slam is
caused or aggravated in the following ways.
Low flywheel effect. The principal cause of valve
slam is quick deceleration of the pump due to low
angular momentum of the impeller, the driver, and
the water within the casing. With enough inertia,
valve slam can be prevented, but the necessary fly-
wheels may be large and costly.
High proportion of static head. If the headless is
70% static and 30% dynamic (due to friction),
valves slam worse than if the headloss is 50% static
and 50% dynamic. A simple vertical lift (e.g., into
an adjacent elevated tank) is especially prone to
valve slam.
Frequency of valve slam. Valve slam may stress
material beyond yield strengths and cause perma-
nent deformations. A few deformations of a given
intensity may be acceptable, but numerous defor-
mations eventually cause leakage or rupture. Even a
single slam, if severe, is dangerous.