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2013 National In-Service Conference:
Teaching Jazz for

the “Non-Jazzer”
Session Presenter:
Chad West
Related Articles
Music Education • Orchestrating Success
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Teaching Jazz for the Non‐Jazzer  
 Chad West, Session Presenter 
 
Jazz Style and Articulation:   
How to Get Your Band or Choir to Swing 
Jerry Tolson 
 
An Aural Learning Project:   
Assimilating Jazz Education Methods for Traditional Applied Pedagogy 
Nancy M. Gamso 
 
Sharing the Gift of Jazz:  
 An Interview with Willie L. Hill Jr  
Brad Howe 
 
Lessons from the Bandstand:  
 Using Jazz as a Model for a Constructivist Approach to Music Education 
John Barron 
 
Improvising Jazz: 
  A Beginner's Guide 
Eddie S. Meadows 
 
Putting It Together:   
Integrating Jazz Education in the Elementary General Music Classroom 
Laura Ferguson 
 
Teaching Improvisation outside of Jazz Settings 
Michael Bitz 
 
Beginning Blues Improvisation Pedagogy for the Non‐Jazz Specialist Music Educator 
Benjamin Thomassetti 
 
Improving Improvisation:  
 Watch for the Flags 
Lee Bash 
 
Playing by Ear:  Foundation or Frill? 
Robert H. Woody 
 
Instrument Selection and Gender Stereotypes: 
  A Review of Recent Literature 
John Eros 
 
Music Educators Journal
http://mej.sagepub.com/
Jazz Style and Articulation : How to Get Your Band or Choir to Swing
Jerry Tolson
Music Educators Journal 2012 99: 80
DOI: 10.1177/0027432112449020
The online version of this article can be found at:

http://mej.sagepub.com/content/99/1/80
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by Jerry Tolson
Jazz Style and

Articulation
How to Get Your Band or
Choir to Swing
Abstract: The interpretation of jazz style is crucial to the element of swing in any jazz ensem-
ble performance. Today, many charts for both large and small instrumental and vocal jazz
ensembles are well marked with articulations and expression markings. However, in some
cases, there is nothing to guide the musician. This article addresses some common jazz articu-
lations and style situations and provides a set of guidelines to help instructors and students
decide how to treat notes and rhythms in swing style. Use of these concepts can help an
ensemble sound more authentic and can help students better understand jazz articulations
and styles.
“It don’t mean a Keywords: articulation, education, ensemble, jazz, pedagogy, rhythm, swing
thing if it ain’t got
that swing,” said
I
n some ways, the concept of swing is the Williams was asked to define it, he joked,
Irving Mills and Duke Holy Grail of jazz.1 It is the foundation of all “Define it? I’d rather tackle Einstein’s theory!”6
jazz performances. Even if the piece is not Scholar Jeff Pressing defined it more academi-
Ellington in 1932. It’s specifically in the traditional swing style, the cally as a phenomenon of carefully aligned
still true today, and sense of propulsive rhythmic feel or “groove” concurrent rhythmic patterns characterized
created by the musical interaction between by a subdivision structure relative to a percep-
you can help your the performers is still referred to as the swing tion of recurring pulses, which is to say that
factor.2 Indeed, Mark Gridley uses this con- it is a matter of how the beat is played and
ensemble learn cept as one of the definitions of swing in his subdivided.7
to do it better. jazz history and styles textbook.3 As a per- The interpretation of jazz style is crucial
formance technique, swing has been called to the element of swing in any jazz ensemble
“the most debated word in jazz.”4 The Jazz in performance. Today, many written arrange-
America glossary defines it as “when an indi- ments for both large and small jazz ensem-
vidual player or ensemble performs in such a bles are clearly marked with articulations
rhythmically coordinated way as to command and expression markings. However, in some
a visceral response from the listener (to cause cases, there is nothing to guide the instructor
feet to tap and heads to nod); an irresistible or student. This article addresses some of the
gravitational buoyancy that defies mere ver- articulation and style situations commonly
bal definition.”5 When jazz performer Cootie found in jazz music. These situations can be
Copyright © 2012 National Association
for Music Education
Jerry Tolson is a professor of jazz studies and music education at the University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky. He can be
DOI: 10.1177/0027432112449020
http://mej.sagepub.com contacted at jerry.tolson@louisville.edu.
80 Music Educators Journal September 2012

generalized into a set of guidelines that performers. Much progress has been
can be used to guide decisions regarding made in the standardization of jazz mark- Select Discography of
the treatment of notes and rhythms in ings and articulations in published jazz Jazz Recording
the swing style of the jazz idiom. Armed material by the Music Publishers Asso- for Students
with this set of general guidelines, your ciation and organizations such as the
ensemble will find it easier to sound Smithsonian Collection of Classic Jazz,
National Association for Music Educa-
vols. 1–3 (Sony, 1987).
more stylistically accurate and authentic. tion (NAfME), the International Associa-
Dizzy Gillespie and Charlie Parker, Town
The ultimate goal of this article is to pro- tion for Jazz Education (now disbanded),
Hall, New York City, June 22, 1945
vide useful tips for helping your students and the Jazz Education Network.8 Still, it (Uptown UPCD 27.51, 2005).
understand jazz articulation and style. must be remembered that because jazz The Genius of Charlie Parker (Savoy MG
Jazz encompasses many styles— has its roots in the aural traditions of 12014, 1992). A multiple-CD set also
from Dixieland to big band swing to African American culture, the printed titled The Genius of Charlie Parker
bebop and fusion. Anecdotal evidence page merely approximates the ultimate was released in 2005.
from adjudicators and directors indicates sound. What happens in the actual per- Charlie Parker, Yardbird in Lotus Land
that by far, the most challenging element formance is far more crucial than what (Spotlite [E] SPJ 123, 1945).
for both instrumentalists and vocalists to is on the printed page. The most effi- Charlie Parker, The Complete Savoy
interpret is the swing style common to cient way to become familiar with jazz Studio Sessions (Savoy SJL 5500,
both big band swing and bebop. Much articulation is to listen to recordings of 1944).
of today’s printed jazz music is based the music being played by master solo- The Quintet, Jazz at Massey Hall (Debut
on performance practices established DEB 124, 1953).
ists and ensembles and to emulate what
Sonny Stitt, Sonny Side Up, with Dizzy
in the big band and bebop eras of the they do as closely as possible. Most stu-
Gillespie and Sonny Rollins (Verve
1930s and 1940s. In the swing styles of dents in today’s world no longer have
MGV-8262, 1958).
jazz, what you see on the page is only an ready access to hearing this music live or Sonny Stitt, The Champ (Muse MR 5023,
approximation of what actually sounds on the radio, but through modern digi- 1974).
when the music is performed. It should tal technology and the Internet, access to Art Blakey, Night at Birdland, vol. 1 (Blue
be noted that jazz, from its inception, vintage performances is rapidly increas- Note 32146, 1954).
has always been a performer’s and an ing. Listening, therefore, is crucial to suc- Ken Burns Jazz, Definitive Count Basie
arranger’s music rather than a compos- cessfully and authentically playing jazz (Verve 549090, 2000).
er’s music. Thus, interpretations of style in the swing style. Please refer to the jazz Count Basie, Basie Straight Ahead (Verve
have varied from individual to individual discography sidebar for a representative 822, 1967).
and from band to band throughout the listening list of artists, bands, and vocal Ken Burns Jazz, Definitive Art Blakey
course of the history of the music. This groups. (Verve 549089, 2000).
makes generalizations about stylistic Likewise, singing is very effective Ken Burns Jazz, Definitive Duke Ellington
performance even more challenging. (Legacy 61444, 2000).
for the internalization of the swing feel
Woody Herman, Woody’s Gold Star
The repertoire of present-day instru- and style. If the rhythm cannot be ver-
(Concord 4330, 1987).
mental school jazz ensembles often balized using syllables that approximate
Thad Jones/Mel Lewis Orchestra, Central
consists of vintage charts from the librar- the desired articulation, the performance Park North (Blue Note 76852, 1969).
ies of the Count Basie, Duke Ellington, will never be truly authentic. The history The Complete Ella Fitzgerald and Louis
Woody Herman, and Stan Kenton bands of jazz has long documented the symbi- Armstrong on Verve (Verve, [1956]
as well as originals by a host of talented otic relationship of the voice and instru- 1997).
young composers and arrangers. While ments in jazz. Louis Armstrong’s singing Ella Fitzgerald, The Best of the
school vocal jazz ensembles have not is a direct extension of how and what Songbooks (UMG, 1993).
been around for quite as long, the reper- he plays on his horn and vice versa. Lis- Ella and Basie! (Verve, 1963).
toire for these groups is populated with ten to the example of him singing and Manhattan Transfer, Bop Doo-Wopp
great arrangements of jazz classics— playing on “Hotter than That” (from the (Atlantic, 1983).
songs from great vocal groups, such as Smithsonian Collection of Classic Jazz, Manhattan Transfer, Vocalese (Atlantic,
the trio Lambert, Hendricks, and Ross; volume 1). A combination of long and 1985).
The Manhattan Transfer; the Hi-Los; Lambert, Hendricks, and Ross,
short syllables, such as doo, dah, day,
Everybody’s Boppin’ (Sony, 1959).
and New York Voices—as well as origi- ba, da, va, daht, dow, and dit, are some
The Real Group, Jazz: Live (Gazell
nals by talented writers in this genre. of the staples of the vocal vocabulary
Records AB, 1996).
Attempts have been made to codify that helped him create the appropriate The Real Group, Unreal! (Town Crier
the style and articulation used by most articulations. These syllables, known Recordings, 1995).
players. These codification efforts have as scat syllables, can help students ver- New York Voices, New York Voices (GRP,
been undertaken to make the music balize rhythmic figures that they can 1989).
more accessible to students and younger then transfer to their instruments. Even
www.nafme.org 81
for singers and nonwind instrumental-
ists, the verbalization of such syllables FIGURE 1
will enhance the swing factor of a per-
former’s technique. For singers, this is
Swing Eighth Note Patterns
true when performing lyrics or scatting.
To be sure, there are as many different
scat syllables used by jazz artists as there
are jazz performers. Comparison listen-
ing to scat solos by Louis Armstrong,
Ella Fitzgerald, and Sarah Vaughan will
demonstrate the wide variety of scat syl-
lables that jazz performers use. Although FIGURE 2
the previously mentioned syllables are
not the only ones used to indicate jazz
Swing Eighth Articulation Pattern
articulations, they have been selected to
offer a basic set of syllables that will pro-
vide accuracy and consistency for your
students. These syllables are typically
used in the following manner:
• Doo is used for long sounds that
occur on downbeats. The articulation
symbol used is (–).
• Day or dah is used for accented FIGURE 3
long sounds on either downbeats or
Scale Articulation Pattern—Slow to medium tempo
upbeats (>).
• Va, da, or ba is typically used on unac-
cented upbeats (no symbol is used).
• Daht is used for accented short sounds,
whether downbeats or upbeats (^).
• Dit is used for unaccented short
notes (.).
• Dn is used for notes that are ghosted overriding principle is that “all eighth to indicate that the eighth notes should
or swallowed. These notes are often notes are not created equal.” Remem- be swung. Any or all of the rhythms in
designated by an X on the staff in bering this so-called Jazz Bill of Rights Figure 1 may be used to indicate swing
place of the notehead or a notehead is effective in performing the music eighth notes.
in parentheses. more authentically.9 Through the use of Practicing eighth notes with the
• Dow is used for notes that are followed accents and an underlying subdivision middle syllable of the triplet silently
by a fall—a descending glissando to that, depending on the tempo, lies some- articulated, but not verbalized, will help
an undefined ending pitch (\). where between the triplet feel of 12/8 develop your students’ style (Figure 2).
• Doo-dle-da is used to articulate time and the exact even subdivision of Keep in mind that both instrumental-
eighth-note triplets. rock music, the jazz performer can cre- ists and vocalists can utilize this exercise
Keep in mind that the articulation ate that ever-elusive swing groove. Also as well as all of the other articulation
symbols are not always used in the sheet crucial to the groove is the importance guidelines.
music. Also note that accented short of swinging the rests as well as the notes. It is equally important that the stu-
notes use a different syllable than unac- A performance where the notes are dent think of the upbeat notes resolving
cented short notes and are, as a result, swung but the rests are not swung is just to the downbeat. Using a legato articu-
played slightly longer, or as one would as inadequate as one where the notes are lation with slightly more emphasis on
say in the jazz vernacular, “fat” or “phat.” not swung. the upbeat will connect the upbeat to
The notes are still short, but they have The swing feel in moderate to slower the next downbeat and will increase
more weight and length. tempos is characterized by an underly- the authenticity of the swing feel. This
In swing style, the eighth note is ing subdivision of the eighth notes into concept can be verbalized as “doo Da-
the traditional underlying subdivision. triplets as shown in Figure 1. You will doo, Da-doo” (Figure 3). One caveat
Although tempo somewhat affects the often see this indication at the beginning to this technique is that as the tempo
treatment of these eighth notes, the of a chart or in the conductor’s score gets faster, there is less emphasis on

the upbeat, and the upbeat eighth notes
are often slurred into the next down- FIGURE 4
beat (Figure 4). Once the quarter note
reaches M.M. = 180+, the eighth notes
Scale Articulation Pattern—Medium tempo
are performed evenly, and the swing
feel is created by slurring three or more
notes together and accenting selected
notes (Figure 5). Scales can be used as
exercises to practice this feel.
Once students become comfortable
with swing eighth notes, then inter-
preting jazz rhythms and applying the FIGURE 5
appropriate articulations will be easier.
Consider the following guidelines when
Scale Articulation Pattern—Fast tempo
preparing your next jazz performance.
Remember that because jazz is like a
language, there are always exceptions to
each guideline.
1. Unless specifically marked otherwise,
any quarter note or eighth note fol-
lowed by a rest is played or sung short.
Notice that the articulation ends with FIGURE 6
a “t” sound, which is achieved by stop- Short Note Articulations
ping the tone with the tongue (Figure 6).
While typically not used in classical per-
formance technique, the tongue-stopped
tone is standard in jazz.
Notice that some of the short notes in
this example are accented and some are
not. This will be addressed in Guideline 4.
Quarter notes or eighth notes fol- FIGURE 7
lowed by rests often occur in jazz in
the middle and at the ends of phrases Quarter Note Articulations
and lines. More clarity is achieved when
these notes are played short. It is also
easier to coordinate the precision of
larger ensembles when these notes are
played short.
If not followed by a rest, then quar-
ter notes and eighth notes are usually In many styles of music, including receive more attention. This action also
played/sung long unless one of the fol- marches, beats 1 and 3 are the strong simulates the beats where finger snaps
lowing situations applies: beats and are therefore emphasized would occur to keep time to the music.
more strongly. In jazz music, beats 2 and To better coordinate the ensemble articu-
2. Quarter notes that occur on the 4 are more strongly emphasized. This lations with the rhythm section sounds,
downbeats of beats 1 or 3 are usually is where the eighth notes occur in the short quarter notes on beats 2 and 4 are
played/sung long. drummer’s ride cymbal pattern (Figure more effective. An exception to this rule
3. Quarter notes that occur on the 8). The drummer usually creates a long is when there is a string of more than four
downbeats of beats 2 or 4 are usually sound on beats 1 and 3 with the ride quarter notes in a row. In this situation,
played/sung short. cymbal. The hi-hat is always played on all the quarter notes are typically played
beats 2 and 4 in jazz. (sung) short and accented (Figure 9).
In the last measure of the example Because of the strong impact of the Likewise, there are certain rhythm
in Figure 7, the quarter note on beat 3 is hi-hat cymbals when they come together combinations, such as the one shown in
played/sung short because it is followed in a sort of “chick” sound on beats 2 and Figure 10, that call for both quarter notes
by a rest (Guideline 1). 4, quarter notes that occur on these beats to be played or sung short, even though
www.nafme.org 83
FIGURE 8 FIGURE 12
Ride Cymbal/Hi Hat Pattern Syncopation Pattern
common malady, especially in young

jazz groups.
5. A quarter note (or the equivalent

FIGURE 9 thereof) that occurs on an upbeat
Articulation for Consecutive Quarter Notes between two eighth notes (or rests) is
played/sung short.
The eighth-note/quarter-note/eighth-
note syncopation pattern, as shown in
Figure 12, is very common in jazz music.
Usually the quarter note is performed
short and is accented to take advantage
of the syncopated rhythm. Figure 13
FIGURE 10 shows several ways that this syncopated
rhythm is articulated. If followed by a
Johnny Carson Theme Rhythm
rest, the figure should be articulated with
the syllables doo-daht-dit (Example 1).
If the last note is tied to a longer note,
the figure is articulated doo-daht-day
(Example 2). Even if the beginning of the
figure is an eighth note rest, the figure
is still articulated in this manner (Exam-
ple 3). Example 4 shows how the figure
FIGURE 11 would be articulated if the last note of
Eighth Note doo-dit Pattern the figure is not tied but is followed by
another note.
When the upbeat quarter-note equiv-
alent occurs as a part of a sequence of
eighth notes and is tied across the bar
line or the imaginary midpoint of the
measure, it is played (sung) long, as seen
in Figure 14.
one occurs on beat 3 and one on beat 4. The two-eighth-note combination 6. Upbeat entrances after a rest, espe-
I refer to this particular rhythm combina- followed by rest is one of the staples cially those that are a dotted-quar-
tion as the “Johnny Carson Theme” rule of swing (Figure 11). As exemplified in ter-note length or longer, should be
due to the prevalence of that rhythm in Duke Ellington’s “C Jam Blues,” the syl- “anticipated with an accent” (AWA).
the theme song to his television show. It is lables doo-dit provide the appropriate However, even short notes that enter
also the primary rhythmic figure in com- interpretation of this rhythm pattern. on the upbeat are AWA.
poser Neal Hefti’s “Li’l Darlin’,” a standard Should this pattern occur at the end of
big band chart recorded by Count Basie. a phrase, the rhythm should be played Entrances on the upbeat after a rest
(sung) as if it were a triplet with the are particularly crucial to an authentic jazz
4. When the rhythmic pattern of two middle note imagined mentally rather style. Anticipating them with an accent
eighth notes followed by a rest starts than be articulated. Using the articula- keeps them from sounding late and pro-
on a downbeat, it is almost always tion syllables doo-hoo-dit will help this vides the appropriate emphasis for the
articulated with the syllables doo-dit. rhythm keep from rushing, which is a rhythm pattern (Figure 15).

7. A succession (three or more) of quar-
FIGURE 13 ter notes (or equivalent) on consecu-
tive upbeats is usually played/sung
Syncopation Pattern Articulations
long and accented.
When three or more quarter notes

occur on successive upbeats, they are all
played (sung) long and accented to pre-
vent the sound from being too choppy
and allowing the beat to rush (Figure 16).
8. In a line of eighth notes, accent the

highest note and any wide-leap
FIGURE 14 changes of direction. Ghost (swallow)
the lowest note and notes that occur
Upbeat Tied Eighth Note Pattern
on the weakest upbeats (2 and 4).
The concept of ghosting, or swal-

lowing, a note is achieved by using the
syllable dn rather than doo and actually
simulating swallowing rather than blow-
ing during these notes. This results in a
less defined tone for that note, making it
more suggested than clearly articulated.
FIGURE 15 Often this type of note is indicated in the
AWA Pattern music with an X rather than a notehead
or parentheses around the chosen note.
This technique is often heard in music
of the bebop era. Listening to the music
of Charlie Parker provides the ultimate
guide for performing this articulation
style authentically. A careful analysis will
indicate this practice being used on long
lines of eighth notes, as shown in Figure
FIGURE 16 17. Use of this practice can be heard on
Consecutive Upbeat Quarter Notes many Charlie Parker recordings. Listen to
examples from the discography included
as a sidebar in this article.
9. The eighth-note triplet rhythm is usu-

ally articulated by slurring the first
two notes and tonguing the last one.
The most commonly used articulation
syllables are doo-dle-da.
FIGURE 17
Ghosted Notes and Eighth Note Line Accents Using this articulation will allow the
performer to play or sing a line of suc-
cessive triplets with speed and smooth-
ness (Figure 18).
10. All notes of a quarter-note triplet

should be played/sung long unless
otherwise indicated. Sometimes
they are accented, and sometimes
they are not.
www.nafme.org 85
for your jazz ensemble to articulate bet-
FIGURE 18 ter. The discography in this article will
provide good examples for your students
Eighth Note Triplets
to listen to and emulate.
NOTES
1. Antonio J. Garcia, “Learning Swing
Feel or How to Sculpt an Elephant,”
International Trombone Association
Journal 34, no. 2 (April 2006),
FIGURE 19 http://www.garciamusic.com/educator/
ita.journal/ita.journal.html.
Quarter Note Triplets
2. See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Swing_(jazz_performance_style)
(accessed January 7, 2010).
3. Mark C. Gridley, Jazz Styles: History

and Analysis, 10th ed. (Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2009),
8–11.
4. Bill Treadwell, The Big Book of

Swing (New York: Cambridge House,
1946).
5. See http://www.jazzinamerica.org/
JazzResources/Resources (accessed
FIGURE 20 January 7, 2010).
Sixteenth Note Pattern
6. Treadwell, The Big Book of Swing.
7. Jeff Pressing, “Black Atlantic Rhythm:

Its Computational and Transcultural
Foundations,” Music Perception 19,
no. 3 (2002): 288.
8. A copy of a chart of standard articu-

lations can be found in J. Richard
In jazz, the quarter-note triplet is While this rhythm pattern does not Dunscomb and Willie Hill Jr.,
known as the drag triplet. The purpose occur as often, it is often challenging for Jazz Pedagogy: The Jazz Educator’s
of this rhythm is to pull against the regu- students, who tend to play the sixteenths Handbook and Resource Guide (Van
lar eighth-note pulse. A common error is too slowly. Using this articulation will Nuys, CA: Alfred Music Publishing Co.,
to play the last note of this figure short, help solve that problem (Figure 20). 2002), 70.
which changes the impact and causes 9. Ibid., 75.
the figure to rush. Imagining this rhythm
By following these guidelines, your
as if it comprised six eighth-note triplets
instrumental or vocal jazz ensemble
tied together in groups of two will make
should be a swinging, hot-sounding jazz
it easier to perform. This rhythm should
machine. To be sure, there are excep- Check out some of the
not be confused with the dotted eighth-
tions to these guidelines, just as there are Jazz-Related Lesson Plans in
note–sixteenth-note tied to eighth-note–
exceptions to the guidelines for English My Music Class®
eighth-note rhythm shown in Figure 19.
language pronunciation. Even so, just as at musiced.nafme.org
11. Two sixteenth notes followed by a one learns a new language by listening under “Lessons.”
rest are articulated with the syllables to it spoken and mimicking the speaker, Put “jazz” in the search box.
spit-it or did-it. The first sixteenth is listening to and mimicking authentic jazz
usually accented. examples will provide the prime model

An Aural Learning Project : Assimilating Jazz Education Methods for Traditional Applied Pedagogy
Nancy M. Gamso
DOI: 10.1177/0027432111423977

Published by:
On behalf of:
>> Version of Record - Dec 20, 2011
What is This?

by Nancy M. Gamso
An Aural Learning
Project
Assimilating Jazz Education
Methods for Traditional
Applied Pedagogy
Abstract: The Aural Learning Project (ALP) was developed to incorporate jazz method com-
ponents into the author’s classical practice and her applied woodwind lesson curriculum. The
primary objective was to place a more focused pedagogical emphasis on listening and hearing
than is traditionally used in the classical applied curriculum. The components of the ALP for
the applied studio are (1) listening to at least two professional recordings of the works currently
being studied and analyzing the performances, (2) recording projects with a written evaluation
The ways students
of the performance, (3) SmartMusic practice, (4) memorization and transcription projects, (5) study jazz can
assigned readings and research on works studied, and (6) composed and improvised warm-up
and technique exercises. This article is a report on the project and a description of its implemen- enhance their
tation and assessment. learning of classical
Keywords: applied instruction, aural learning, improvisation, jazz, listening analysis, repertoire as well.
memorization
T
wo students enter practice rooms with Hilda, is dutifully following every technical
intentions of practicing their private les- and interpretive indication provided in the
son assignments. Both practice tone and notation. Sylvia spends forty minutes of her
technique studies, both use written music, practice session aurally transcribing a solo;
both use metronomes and tuners, but there, Hilda spends forty minutes working out the
the similarities end. One student, Sylvia, technique of a twenty-four-bar sixteenth-
has been taught to consider the written mu- note passage. Sylvia spends another twenty
sic as if it were a blueprint, to be interpreted minutes memorizing the head and changes to
in the style of a notable performer, but ulti- “Body and Soul” and then incorporating her
mately to make it her own. The other student, composed and memorized ii–V patterns into

Nancy M. Gamso is a professor of music and coaches woodwind chamber ensembles at Ohio Wesleyan University, Delaware, for Music Education
Ohio. She is also a woodwind doubler and is researching how to incorporate the techniques of jazz study into traditional classical DOI: 10.1177/0027432111423977
woodwind pedagogy. She can be contacted at nmgamso@owu.edu. http://mej.sagepub.com
www.nafme.org 61
her improvisation. Hilda spends another With the possible exception of orchestral to at least two professional recordings of
forty minutes playing through her recital excerpts, it has been my experience that the works currently being studied and
program while trying to remember the pi- classical players generally frown upon analyzing the performances (see Figure
ano part from one hearing of a recording intensive recording imitation, even for 1), (2) recording projects with a written
several months ago. study purposes. As well, I would venture evaluation of the performance, (3) Smart-
By now you might have gathered that to guess that far fewer classical musicians Music practice, (4) memorization and
Sylvia is practicing for her jazz lesson and compose, arrange, and improvise than do transcription projects, (5) assigned read-
Hilda for her classical one. Which one jazz musicians. ings and research on works studied, and
of these two students is having a more How do jazz musicians practice? First (6) composed and improvised warm-up
challenging and a more developmen- and foremost, jazz musicians learn by lis- and technique exercises (see Figure 2).
tally enriched auditory experience? As an tening. For the jazz musician, this means
applied woodwind instructor, is my clas- more than simply recognizing the tune Implementation of the
sical-based student, Hilda, accessing her and chord progression. Details of every Aural Learning Project
auditory learning modality as fully as is note and inflection are aurally absorbed,
my jazz-based student, Sylvia? as are aspects of style, expression, improv- In a postjury meeting, the student and I
As a woodwind doubler primarily isatory vocabulary, tone, articulation, and discuss the literature to be studied in the
trained in the classical tradition, I spend technique. Second, transcribing solos of a semester to follow and, with scores, lis-
a portion of my flute, saxophone, and model jazz player offers important train- ten to selections to be chosen for study.
clarinet practice pursuing the specific ing for the jazz musician. Jazz musicians During this shared listening experience,
activities typical of jazz study: listening to often claim that most jazz skill sets can it is important to pay close attention to
recordings, transcribing tunes and solos, be developed through listening and tran- the student’s reactions. The student’s
practicing with play-along resources, and scribing solos. These skill sets include first hearing impressions often reflect a
developing a jazz technical and impro- learning an artist’s style and vocabulary, strong affinity or aversion for a work or
visational vocabulary. In the summer of tone, expressive character, articulation, style. An affinity can become an oppor-
2006, it occurred to me that perhaps my and technique as well as acquiring gen- tunity for the student to choose a por-
classical practice, as well as my wood- eral skills associated with aural training, tion of their repertoire. An aversion for a
wind teaching, could benefit from some memorization, and general stylistic ele- particular piece often reflects a student’s
of the aural learning modality resources ments (e.g., swing vs. bebop). They also intimidation of technical challenges or
of jazz study. As a result, I began to experience the “in-the-moment” quality unfamiliarity with modern harmonic lan-
develop components that could be incor- of an artist’s improvisation and capture guage. This reaction requires a pedagog-
porated into my classical practice and the the feel of performing with a top-quality ically thoughtful approach, perhaps by
applied woodwind lesson curriculum. rhythm section. The remainder of the jazz exploring preparatory works of a similar
This was the impetus for the Aural Learn- musician’s practice is devoted to learning style but less technically and/or harmon-
ing Project (ALP). tunes (memorizing the melody, form, and ically challenging. After this initial listen-
chord progressions as well as common ing session, I put together a compact
disc of professional recordings, including
Analysis of Jazz Study arrangements, including introductions
those agreed on in the listening session
and endings), practicing improvisation,
Jazz and classical studies differ in their and borrowing techniques from classical as well as others for future or alterna-
primary learning modes and activi- training (tone development and technical tive study.1 The time it takes to assemble
ties. Jazz study emphasizes aural learn- exercises). In addition, many jazz musi- these playlists is well worth the reward.
ing, memorization, creating new music cians compose new music and arrange By allowing some student choice in
and/or arrangements of standards, and previously composed music for small- selecting works, the student’s developing
improvisation. Although most serious group and ensemble performance. musical preferences are validated, and
classical students listen to recordings students experience a greater “caring”
and certainly listen to themselves when Adapting Jazz Methods for investment in the work that lies ahead. L.
practicing and performing, classical study Dee Fink, in Creating Significant Learn-
relies significantly on visual learning, giv-
Classical Training ing Experiences, identifies a focus on
ing deference to the composer’s written How can classically trained pedagogues caring as a learning goal: “When students
intentions of melody, harmony, rhythm, assimilate the jazz methods’ aural learn- start to care about learning and want to
and aspects of expression notated by ing modality qualities? My primary objec- learn, either in general or about particu-
the composer and/or by a respected tive in developing the ALP was to place lar things, then truly powerful things can
editor. By necessity, classical study also the pedagogical emphasis on listening happen educationally. Then students not
requires a great deal of focus on technical and hearing in a much more profound only care about phenomena, ideas, and
development, leaving less time to focus way. The components of the ALP for my the like, they also care about learning
on aural training in the practice room. applied studio students are (1) listening about them.”2
62 Music Educators Journal December 2011

FIGURE 1
Woodwind Studio Recording Analysis
Name: _______________________________________
Work to be studied (title/composer): ________________________________________________________
Recording Information/Performer’s Name: ___________________________________________________
Obtain at least two professional recordings and do multiple active listening sessions (with score study).
Write comments on the following categories. Specify measures, as is applicable, in your comments.
Musical Element Description

Musical Expression,
Style and Phrasing
Tone Quality
Note Accuracy, Intonation
Rhythm Tempo
Articulation
Dynamics
Aspects to Emulate
www.nafme.org 63
FIGURE 2
Aural Learning Project
Components:
1) Listening to professional recordings – evaluating, analyzing, absorbing style characteristics
2) Recording projects
3) Smart Music practice
4) Memorization and Transcription project
5) Assigned readings and research on works studied
6) Composed and improvised warm-up and technique exercises
Assignments: Due:
1) Research literature and composer background on the work(s) you will be studying. 2nd Week
2) Obtain at least two professional recordings, and do multiple active listening sessions. 4th Week
Write comments using recording analysis template. Midterm
3) Complete recording projects. As assigned, sent 2 days

before next lesson.
4) Use Smart Music for a portion of each practice session. Daily
5) Work on transcription/memorization project, to be performed in studio class. Weekly
6) Prepare for studio class discussion of assigned reading. Weekly
7) Create warm-up and technique exercises. As assigned
I was pleased to receive the follow- for English folksong settings was a guide their music history sequence, do not have
ing response from a student demonstrat- for my literature search. After receiving an abundance of classical recordings
ing her attitude toward this component recordings of works by Finzi, Bliss, Bax, among their listening selections. Their
of the ALP. Malory was a clarinetist and Dunhill, Hurlstone, and William Lloyd summers usually do not include music
senior music education major and was Webber, she wrote, to thank me, “It was camps and performance opportunities,
scheduled to perform her senior recital exciting to listen to [the CDs] and find and they often work long hours to fund
in October. For one of her selections, she pieces that suited me. I’m excited to start the next school year, leaving little energy
had expressed an interest in Vaughan practicing!” or inspiration to practice. I am hopeful
Williams’ Six Studies in English Folk- My students typically come to col- that with the listening incentive, my stu-
song. While I preferred that she work on lege without having had the opportunity dents have greater focus and investment
a more challenging selection, her affinity for private lessons and, before they begin in their practice sessions because they

have a choice in selecting their repertoire skill development as a self-assessment discussions inform the memorization and
and because they enjoy listening to excel- activity, and I am able to collect a record recording projects and are an integral part
lent performances. of their progress throughout every semes- of the weekly studio class. Past and cur-
ter of study (filed as an iTunes playlist rent classes have and are exploring Robert
for each student, each semester). These Jourdain’s Music, the Brain, and Ecstasy:
Listening Analysis sessions are recorded using SmartMusic, How Music Captures Our Imagination or
Every semester there seems to emerge, Audacity, Garage Band, or any digital Daniel J. Levitin’s This Is Your Brain on
quite early on, a pedagogical theme for recording method that can be sent to me Music.3 My initial intention for assign-
each student. One of the first indicators of electronically. ing readings for the memorization and
transcription projects was to explore the
this theme is found in the student’s pro-
fessional recording analysis. For exam- Memorization and cognitive connection between memoriza-
Transcription Components tion and expression. However, students
ple, in the “aspects to emulate” section
have expressed a number of additional
of the analysis, a student who devotes The purposes of the memorization and benefits derived from the readings and
the entire discussion to articulation and transcription components are to inten- discussions. In their own words, com-
technique but has nothing of signifi- sify aural learning, to understand the ments have included the following: “Usu-
cance to say about musical expression, role of memory in musical performance, ally when you take lessons, you learn the
style, and phrasing will prompt focused and to explore the relationship between notes and rhythms, get some instruction
instruction on those qualities. The musi- memorized musical performance and on how to play it correctly, but you don’t
cal expression/style/phrasing theme is expression. The memorization and tran- think about how your brain is process-
developed in lessons and becomes a pri- scription components have been used ing the music. When I recall what we
mary intention in their recording projects as assignments for the selected semes- have read [Levitin], I have ‘a-ha’ moments
and self-analyses. ter’s woodwind studio class. Memoriza- every time I practice.” “Learning that sci-
There are additional benefits from the
tion assignments are made for currently entists have found that master musicians
listening analysis. It has been my expe-
studied music (students have the printed will practice their craft for 10,000 hours
rience, with this activity especially, that
music) and vary from a few phrases to in order to develop expertise, well it just
students begin to develop an appreciation
entire works, depending on the level evens the playing field for the rest of us.”
for technical expertise on music that they
of the student. The transcription assign- For me, these studio classes are an oppor-
are beginning to study and, later, with
ments (recording only, no printed music) tunity for all of us to be held in a state of
which they are more intimately famil-
are typically short melodic movements. wonder together about the phenomenon
iar. Perhaps more important, students
With the assistance of digital recording of music and how it affects our minds and
enrich their development of the common
technology and programs such as the emotions. It has transformed the studio
practices of expression, for example, the
Amazing Slow Downer, the transcription class into a laboratory of discovery and is
pacing of a cadence, the subtlety of a
project delivers a depth of hearing that perhaps one of the most rewarding teach-
phrasing issue, the artistic use of vibrato. was not previously available. Familiar to ing experiences of my week.
In discussions about their analysis, I often jazz musicians but perhaps not to those
emphasis their freedom, with respect for classically trained, the Amazing Slow
the style, to develop their own interpre- Downer is a software program capable
tation. Conversely, historical recordings Improvisation and
of independently manipulating the speed
also put in perspective the imperma- and pitch of a recording. The program
Composition Components
nence of expressive style boundaries and allows students to choose an exact start- Some of the ALP improvisation and com-
further emphasize that musical expres- ing and ending point, change the tempo position correlated activities are concerto
sion, even in classical music, can evolve. by percentages from 20 percent to 200 cadenza composition, composed and
percent of the original, and lower or raise improvised warm-up/technical exercises,
the pitch by cents or by semitones, which and “out-of-context” practice. Students
Recording Project Component is useful with A-442+ recordings or for not only learn classic warm-up and tech-
After five semesters of assessment and transcribing music into a new key. Ear- nique exercises but are also asked to
revision, I concluded that the most effec- training benefits for both the memoriza- compose and improvise new ones. Since
tive recording assignments are those that tion and the transcription projects are these are the practice activities that occur
specify realistic tempos and expressive exactly those found in jazz study; these first in every practice session, they serve
goals and have had adequate practice include hearing style, tone, expression, as the “hearing warm-up” of every prac-
and instruction. The process and the self- and technique and experiencing the in- tice. They also emphasize student own-
assessment have obvious benefits for the the-moment quality of performance. ership of the physical requirements for
student. As the instructor, I gain insight Music psychology and cognitive good tone and technical development.
into my students’ listening and analysis neuro science reading selections and Out-of-context practice is a technique
www.nafme.org 65
of various aspects of the project. In assess-
ing the recording analysis component, stu-
dents’ responses indicated that although
their first impression was positive for most
of the recordings analyzed, after studying
the piece and revisiting the recording at a
later date, they were better able to com-
prehend the artistry of the performers. The
transcription project assessment seemed
to evoke the most affective responses; stu-
dents commented that they enjoyed the
process but also the pleasure in hearing
music so intimately. Students found the
recording assignments to be valuable for
evaluating both their technical progress
and their expressive gestures.
Transferring the techniques described
here to the K–12 curriculum is quite pos-
sible. Many wind band, orchestral, and
choral literature professional recordings
are available through publishers and
educational companies. The listening
analysis for performing ensembles could
be administered as a rehearsal exercise
or assigned individually, possibly using
a listening practice room or a limited-
access website. While music memoriza-
tion assignments are not unheard of in
K–12 music education, transcribing music
is perhaps less common. Students with a
basic technical command of their instru-
ment or voice could manage even short
pieces or portions of a larger work for
transcription purposes. The transcription
could be a preinstruction assignment for
a new work and an extension of the lis-
tening analysis assignment. Many school
programs are dedicating a practice room
to the SmartMusic program. School and
home subscriptions are reasonably priced,
and the software is very user-friendly.
The website has valuable resources for
teachers to manage their assignments and
grade book and to receive recordings and
practice records from the students. While
Garage Band requires a purchase, both
that aids in technical and expressive student to hear technically complex and Audacity and the Amazing Slow Downer
development. Beyond the well-known expressively important moments in new have free, downloadable versions. A sin-
rhythm variation technique for working ways and with greater depth. gle computer in a music classroom can
through difficult passages, this approach easily run all four programs. Certainly,
asks the student to improvise varia- ALP Assessment and the recording assignments can be accom-
tions for the rhythm, tempo, articulation, plished with an analog tape-recording
or expression of a particular passage.
Concluding Thoughts device as well. The technology matters
While meeting technical and expressive In an assessment instrument, students far less than the experience of accessing
objectives, this approach also allows the were asked to express their impressions aural learning in a variety of ways.

Aural learning in informal learning Another recurring theme that is 3. Robert Jourdain, Music, the Brain,
settings has been recognized in at least woven among the research, both edu- and Ecstasy: How Music Captures Our
Imagination (New York: Avon Books,
two studies,4 in which the very act of cational and neuroscience, is the ele-
1997); and Daniel J. Levitin, This Is
learning music aurally created enjoyment, ment of “caring.” Earlier I referenced the Your Brain on Music: The Science of a
deep musical involvement, and motiva- importance of the caring component in Human Obsession (New York: Penguin
tion to learn and perform more.5 Indeed, regard to student caring about the pro- Group 2006).
Gary McPherson argues that traditional cess of learning. Musical memory for 4. Sharon G. Davis, “‘That Thing You
music methods need revision—that “aural performance, as well, is greatly affected Do!’ Compositional Processes of a
and creative activities, such as mentally by the level of caring in the form of the Rock Band,” International Journal
rehearsing music away from an instru- emotional importance that we place on of Education and the Arts 6, no. 16
(December 2005), http://www.ijea.org/
ment, and playing music by ear, from the information.11 With this in mind, it is
v6n16/index.html (accessed August
memory, and by improvising may well be essential for my students’ aural, visual, 27, 2011); and Gary E. McPherson,
more important to musical development kinesthetic, and intellectual experiences “Cognitive Strategies and Skill
than has commonly been assumed.”6 Cer- with their repertory to have an aestheti- Acquisition in Musical Performance,”
tainly, all areas of musical learning must cally compelling quality. Another impor- Bulletin of the Council for Research in
Music Education 133 (Summer 1997):
be accessed and an enriched curriculum tant aspect of caring is referenced in
70–71.
that employs multiple learning modali- literature concerning culturally respon-
ties is ideal when teaching instrumental sive pedagogy. Especially compelling is 5. Davis, “‘That Thing You Do!’”
music in the classical genre, regardless of the research demonstrating the intensely 6. McPherson, “Cognitive Strategies.”
the instructional level. It is no surprise, as significant effect of teacher attitudes on
revealed in Michael Kendall’s 1988 study student achievement. This is especially 7. Michael J. Kendall, “Two Instructional
Approaches to the Development
comparing two instructional methodolo- pertinent for students of different ethnic of Aural and Instrumental Performance
gies—one engaging all relative modali- and/or cultural backgrounds than their Skills,” Journal of Research in Music
ties in an enriched lesson sequence and peers.12 Education 36, no. 4 (Winter 1988):
the other focused on only the aural com- Irrespective of the theoretical foun- 215–18.
ponents of the former—that using all dation for the project, a university- 8. These National Standards for Music
relative modalities is more effective than level applied lesson curriculum’s pri- Education are as follows: Standard
using only aural components in a number mary assessments are juries and recit- 2, “Performing on instruments, alone
of tested areas.7 It is not my intention to als. Although performances cannot be and with others, a varied repertoire
of music”; Standard 6: “Listening to,
eclipse the visual learning modality with an exclusively quantitative assessment
analyzing, and describing music”; and
the increased emphasis on aural learning, of the ALP, it is my observation that my Standard 7: “Evaluating music and
but to merely find a fine balance in all the students are technically and expressively music performances.” See http://
learning modalities applicable to musical better prepared for having participated in www.nafme.org/resources/view/
study. these aural learning activities. The posi- national-standards-for-music-education.
The ALP clearly demonstrates rec- tive response and similar perception of 9. Edwin S. Gordon, Learning Sequences in
ognized educational merit through the success from the students certainly indi- Music: A Contemporary Music Learning
application of National Standards 2, 6, cates a student-centered validation and Theory (Chicago: GIA Music, 2007),
13–25.
and 7.8 In the spirit of music learning a desire to continue these activities. Per-
theory, true and profound auditory com- haps the best outcome of this project has 10. Benjamin S. Bloom, ed., Taxonomy
prehension is the ultimate objective of the been the development of a system that of Educational Objectives: The
ALP. Components of the project evoke the fulfills a much more broad and long-term Classification of Educational Goals,
by a Committee of College and
types of audiation and many of the stages goal, that is, in the words of L. Dee Fink, University Examiners, 1st ed. (New
of audiation processing found in Edwin a learning system that “help[s] students York: Longmans, Green, 1956–64); and
Gordon’s music learning theory.9 As well, develop a strong and proactive sense of Robert J. Marzano and John S. Kendall,
Bloom’s landmark work, Taxonomy of themselves as learners.”13 The New Taxonomy of Educational
Educational Objectives, and subsequent Objectives, 2nd ed. (Thousand Oaks.
CA: Corwin, 2007).
revisions, such as Marzano and Kendall’s
New Taxonomy of Educational Objectives,
Notes 11. Levitin, This Is Your Brain on
describe the types of cognitive process- 1. My iTunes copyright agreement allows Music, 197.
up to seven legal reproductions per pur-
ing of the ALP.10 The Robert Marzano and 12. Geneva Gay, Culturally Responsive
chase, and my lending procedures follow
John Kendall publication includes psy- educational-use guidelines. Teaching: Theory, Research, and Practice
chomotor procedures among the knowl- (New York: Teachers College Press,
2. L. Dee Fink, Creating Significant 2000).
edge domains, an aspect of cognitive Learning Experiences: An Integrated
processing especially relevant to music Approach to Designing College Courses 13. Fink, Creating Significant Learning
learning. (San Francisco, CA: Wiley, 2003), 49. Experiences, 243.
www.nafme.org 67
Sharing the Gift of Jazz : An Interview with Willie L. Hill Jr

Brad Howe
DOI: 10.1177/0027432110396434

http://mej.sagepub.com/content/97/3/26.citation
Published by:
On behalf of:
>> Version of Record - Mar 23, 2011
What is This?

Sharing the Gift of Jazz
An Interview with Willie L. Hill Jr.
by Brad Howe
Institute of Jazz. He is a past president its history—when you consider all of

of MENC: The National Association those things, you have to see jazz study
for Music Education as well as of the as having tremendous value for young
International Association for Jazz people.
Education, which ceased operation in I’ve been teaching instrumental
2008. He taught instrumental music edu- ensembles in the public schools and
cation for sixteen years and has served at the college and university level for
as instrumental music supervisor in the more than forty years, and you know
Denver Public Schools. In this December what I’ve discovered? That the students
2010 interview with Brad Howe, Hill re- in my jazz bands were consistently bet-
flects on jazz education in the United ter listeners, had better rhythmic feel,
States today. and played with better intonation than
the students in my other ensembles
did, because they had to have all of
You clearly bring a great deal to the
those skills to play one-on-a-part in a
purpose and mission of the MENC
Photo courtesy of Willie L. Hill Jr. jazz band. And I found that playing jazz
Society for Jazz Education. How would
builds students’ confidence and their
you describe your primary interest in
ability to work as a team. Studying jazz
the society?
T
is great for the students, it’s great for the
he Society for Jazz Education Thank you. I’m ultimately interested in school, and it’s great for parents and the
seeks to meet the needs of MENC providing teachers with what they need community. It really has that kind of pos-
members concerned with jazz in the classroom—to help them achieve itive impact on people’s lives.
education—to provide them with a a better understanding of the language of But in order for students to benefit
strong voice within MENC in the hope jazz and to do whatever I can to help from all that jazz study has to offer, they
that every student in America might them to become comfortable teaching must have teachers who are equipped
experience jazz in ways that broaden jazz to their students. to deliver outstanding jazz instruction
and deepen their musical lives. The to their students. That is why greater
society was established to improve the emphasis on teacher preparation is
quality of jazz teaching and research at In your view, what is the value of jazz
desperately needed. Too many young
all levels, and at its heart is its founder study?
teachers leave college believing they
and director, Willie L. Hill Jr. Currently When you stop to consider the great are ready to teach music, but soon find
a professor of music education at the history and the many styles that jazz that the first class they run into is jazz
University of Massachusetts–Amherst has to offer—the theory and the band—and many have little or no expe-
and the director of the UMass Fine tremendous opportunities for creativ- rience with jazz. Young teachers need to
Arts Center, Hill has served as director ity it provides through improvisation, be prepared enough to feel comfortable
of education for the Thelonious Monk composition, and arranging; the reality teaching jazz and jazz-related techniques
that while so much of music education in all of their classes. When they’re com-
involves a preponderance of Western fortable, they’ll enjoy it, and I can tell
Copyright © 2011 MENC: The National European styles; and the fact that jazz you that students who have teachers
Association for Music Education
DOI: 10.1177/0027432110396434 study introduces students to something who enjoy teaching jazz are going to get
http://mej.sagepub.com exciting about this country and about into this music!
26 Music Educators Journal March 2011

What would you tell teachers who are last several years as the number of Thank you for taking the time to
less familiar with jazz and jazz edu- minority students participating in these share your thoughts at a busy time.
cation but would like to know more ensembles has dwindled. There are Any final words?
about it? many instances where I may only see
Although there are concerns, the good
one Latino or African American stu-
Many teachers have become better outweighs the bad because there are
dent in an entire ensemble—and there
informed about jazz and jazz education, so many great successful and thriving
are some ensembles where there are
but they often don’t take full advantage jazz education programs throughout our
none at all. When you consider the
of the many resources that are available country. Why? Because there are still tal-
critical role that minority individu-
to them. These include fully developed ented, dedicated, and hardworking edu-
als have played in the making of this
curricula, such as is available from Jazz cators who care about their students and
great music, you cannot help but be
at Lincoln Center, from the Thelonious love to see them enjoy the riches that
concerned: If there are no minority stu-
Institute of Jazz, and from right here at this music has to offer.
dents participating in these and other
MENC. Other sources are technology- outstanding programs, then where
based helps, such as SmartMusic, and will the outstanding minority music Willie L. Hill Jr. was interviewed by Brad
book-and-CD sets such as those pro- teachers and musicians of the future Howe, a doctoral candidate in education at
duced by Jamey Aebersold. In many come from, and what is the future of the University of Idaho, Moscow. The author
cases, community members and local a national music education system that of numerous jazz and education articles,
musicians can serve as a tremendous cannot maintain diversity among its Howe has also taught in the Sitka, Alaska,
resource and will come into the class- professional teaching staff? Every band Public Schools and serves as an educational
room and work with students for little director, choral director, and leader in consultant for the Lionel Hampton Interna-
or nothing. Many conferences and sum- the field needs to be concerned about tional Jazz Festival in Moscow, Idaho. He
mer programs are available as well— this trend. can be contacted at brad@jazz-works.com.
though I know that in some schools
music educators receive little support
from their administrations for this kind
of training.
Obviously teacher preparation and

training are critical if students are
to get the most out of their jazz edu-
cation experience. Do you have any
additional concerns about the future
of jazz education?
You know, I really do. I am deeply

concerned about what I’m seeing out
there in terms of diversity and the arts.
Over the years, the various positions
in which I have served have afforded
me the opportunity to conduct and to
observe a tremendous number of state
and regional honor bands; and it has
been a joy to watch so many students
take part in all that music and arts
education have to offer. But I have
grown increasingly alarmed over the
www.menc.org 27
Lessons from the Bandstand: Using Jazz as a Model for a Constructivist Approach to Music Education
John Barron
DOI: 10.1177/002743210709400205

Published by:
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Citations: http://mej.sagepub.com/content/94/2/18.refs.html
>> Version of Record - Nov 1, 2007
What is This?

Lessons from the
Bandstand: Using Jazz
as a Model for a
Constructivist Approach
to Music Education
chool is on the bandstand.&dquo; I was I recall the memorable moments

can
~ nineteen years old when I heard onstage when I was encouraged by an older
these five words uttered by jazz musician and it was expected that I would
pianist Hal Galper at a master express myself and take chances musically.
~~!~~ class given by the Phil Woods The skills I had to offer were valued and con-
quintet, of which Galper was a member. sidered an integral part of the music being
These words have helped guide me through performed. I can also recall the negative, yet
my experiences as a musician and educator. equally memorable, moments when a band-
Galper was speaking to an audience of jazz leader would rule over the music like a dicta-
students and educators and trying to convey, tor and expect everyone present to conform
in the simplest terms, how to reach profi- to a musical vision that was often rigid,
ciency as a jazz musician. Learning on the unclear, or irrelevant.

bandstand suggests that the developing musi- The music classroom can be strikingly
cian is more likely to learn at an efficient pace similar to that of a professional bandstand.
and with depth of understanding when inter- The environment that the teacher establishes,
acting with more knowledgeable perform- whether in a band or choir rehearsal (or per-
ers-older musicians and more experienced formance) or general music class will leave a
peers-and by participating in authentic lasting impression on students and greatly
musical experiences. influence their lifelong attitudes toward
Young jazz Such an experience-based approach to music making. For the sake of music and the
learning music is not restricted to jazz. While students’ education, the music educator
players need the the ideas presented in this article emphasize should make a concerted effort to abandon
a constructivistl vision of jazz education, any of the teacher-controlled practices that
chance to solve they can easily be transferred to music edu- have, in the past, been the norm in music
cation in general. instruction.
musical problems~ When I was a young jazz musician, my var-
ied experiences on the bandstand could at Valuing the Experiences of Past,
and take an times be enlightening, meaningful, and Present, and Future
empowering, while other times, uninformative, When teaching jazz, which is such an
active role in embarrassing, or demeaning. The outcome of expressive and personalized genre of music,
each experience would often depend on the one of the most effective ways to proceed is
their learning. individuals with whom I was interacting. to listen to students. I have to listen to my
John Barron is a music and classroom teacher at Ottawa Elementary School, Clinton
Township, Michigan. He can be reached at johnbarron@comcast.net.
18 Downloaded from mej.sagepub.com by guest on July 15, 2013
students’ ideas and value them. By listening
to my students, I can begin to understand
and respect their prior experiences. This
helps me plan my teaching around the inter-
ests of my students and consider related
instruction for the future.
As I determine and value my students’
experiences, I am able to clarify where they
are musically and where I would like them to
go with some assistance, a phenomenon Lev

Vygotsky describes as identifying students’
actual developmental level and then working
within their zone of proximal development.22
The zone of proximal development is the
place where teaching takes place-the place
between what students can do on their own
and what they can do with the support of
others, both peers and teacher. Only by truly
being open to my students can I effectively
lead them to a level of musical understanding
that will enable them to be successful.
This openness, however, should take into
account each student as a unique individ- The classroom environment music teacher establishes will leave a
a
ual-a person who is bringing a palette of lasting impression students and will greatly influence
on
unique experiences to the classroom. Not their lifelong attitudes toward music making.
every student will be able to nor should be
expected to demonstrate understanding in a appreciation of the through a combi-
music
generically prescribed way. As Howard nation of listening and learning about the
to
Gardner remarks, &dquo;How easy if understand- major figures who have contributed to its
ing could simply be assimilated, like a good evolution. This is all well and good, but it
meal, and if the same diet worked for every- should not be the emphasis in the experi-
one.&dquo;3 ence-based music classroom. Merely teaching
For me, it has been important to realize about the historical and cultural significance
that students are more likely to achieve of any genre of music is something best done
understanding when they are learning things in a social studies class.
they want to learn. This does not mean that I This is not to say that a historical and cul-
believe teachers should cater to every student tural perspective of jazz has no place in the
whim. It does mean, however, that teachers music program. Understanding music in rela-
should be willing to motivate students by tion to history and culture is indeed one of
being receptive to them and encouraging the national content standards for music edu-
their ideas and interests. Learning is likely to cation. However, as Jackie Wiggins suggests,
take place in situations where, as Eunice it is the responsibility of the music teacher to
Boardman suggests, students are allowed to make sure that any exposure to the history
&dquo;process, analyze, and examine experience and culture surrounding the music is tied
for meaning and understanding and where directly to authentic, interactive experiences
they can relate what they have learned to that emphasize performing, listening, and
their own purpose.&dquo;4 The students need to creating. 5
discover why something is worth learning. Why is it that so many music educators
shy away from teaching jazz in a manner that
Too Much Emphasis on the allows for authentic, meaningful experi-
Extramusical ences ? Perhaps the answer can be found
A common approach to teaching jazz used within the prior experiences of the teacher. It
by many music educators-especially those is quite understandable for a musician or
teaching general music-has been to develop music teacher who has spent countless hours
teacher-directed lessons that promote an practicing and performing only prewritten
19
notes on a page to have a fear of or 6. Learners need to be cognizant of through rhythmic and melodic per-
even dislike for the improvised
a the goals of the learning situation and mutations. By starting with what is
nature of jazz music. On the other their own progress toward goals.9 already familiar and relevant, the
hand, a music teacher who has an Suggestions for how these ideas teacher can lay the necessary ground-
extensive jazz background may not might be applied to jazz education fol- work to prepare students for explo-
have the slightest notion of how to low ration of the more sophisticated
begin teaching students in ways that, Learners need to engage in real- dimensions of jazz improvisation.
as Boardman describes, allow for the life, problem-solving situations. On Learning situations need to be
learner to function as a musician, the bandstand, the jazz musician is holistic in nature. There are many
albeit a novice.66 faced with the problem of having to educational resources available that
navigate through a set of chord contain scale exercises and patterns
A Constructivist Approach to changes that range from one-
can that will fit over standard chord pro-
Jazz Education chord vamps to all-out harmonic gressions found in much of the stan-
Through a synthesis of new and explorations involving altered chords dard jazz canon (rhythm changes,
prior experiences with authentic ele- and unconventional modulations. twelve-bar blues, and so on).
ments of jazz, students are able to Before a musician can set off on such While there may be value in such a
construct their own meaning in rela- a dynamic trek, a sufficient amount of structured approach to learning how
tion to their world. This synthesis of music readiness must occur. to improvise, the material is often
experiences into meaning is the foun- All too often, as an introduction to studied outside the context of an actu-
dation of a constructivist theory of jazz performance, students are merely al piece of music. The experienced
learning. Boardman states that given a set of chord changes with cor- jazz musician not only improvises off
&dquo;humans do not find or discover responding scales and are expected to the harmonic structure of a tune but
knowledge, but rather construct or begin the treacherous task of impro- also develops thematic ideas off a
make it.&dquo;7 vising completely out of context. A tune’s melodic content. By building up
Constructed knowledge, however, more appropriate and authentic a storehouse of familiar tunes, stu-
is unlikely to occur in isolation. Not &dquo;doorway in&dquo;1° to performing jazz, dents will have an ever-growing
unlike the professional bandstand, whether in an elementary general wealth of melodic ideas to incorporate
constructed knowledge and developed music class, band, or orchestra, is to into their improvised solos that are
understanding in the classroom are start with familiar tunes that have the holistic in nature and build upon prior
most likely to occur, according to most basic chord progressions (e.g., experiences.
Wiggins, result of interaction
&dquo;as a I-V-I) and are simple enough for stu- A wonderful way to immerse stu-
between teacher and students and also dents to perform on their ensemble dents into the deep well of jazz tunes
as a result of interaction among stu- instruments, keyboards, mallet instru- is through the blues. The jazz litera-
dents Although the developing jazz ments, or recorders. ture is sufficiently stocked with won-
musician must inevitably devote the Familiar songs from general music derfully simple blues melodies
necessary time alone in the practice classes and folk music are an excellent (heads) that are riff-oriented, can be
room, depth of understanding can be source for simple, yet expressive mate- easily modeled by a teacher, and will
enhanced only through meaningful rial.11 With familiar melodies and not take more than one class period to
and repeated interactions with others. simple harmonies, students can begin learn. (See the sidebar for examples of
The very essence of jazz is interactive to experiment with improvisation twelve-bar blues.)
and communal.
To implement a constructivist-
based jazz studies program that is
meaningful and relevant, educators
can draw on the ideas of Wiggins, who
gives a workable description in six

points of what teaching and learning
might look like in what she calls a
musical cognitive apprenticeship:
1. Learners need to engage in real-
life, problem-solving situations.
2. Learning situations need to be
holistic in nature.
3. Learners need opportunities to
interact directly with the subject matter.
4. Learners need to take an active
role in their own learning.
5. Learners need opportunities to
work on their own, with peers, and
with teacher support, when needed.
20 Downloaded from mej.sagepub.com by guest on July 15, 2013
Learners need opportunities to musicians. Quite often in a social penser of knowledge by simply telling
interact directly with the subject learning environment, students will the students why they need to know
matter. In a constructivist-based scaffold one another, and musical something. The need to know must
music classroom, regardless of the growth will occur with minimal inter- come from within the students.
subject matter, there should always be vention from the instructor. Music teachers certainly have the
less emphasis on talking about music This does not mean that the oppor- ability to create an on-the-bandstand
and more on doing-performing, cre- tunities for students to practice jazz learning environment that provides
ating, and listening. Direct involve- on their own should be eliminated. students the opportunity to partici-
ment with the music will allow stu- Students need time alone to develop pate authentic, real-world musical
in
dents to make relevant and ultimately their own ideas. When working indi- experiences that bear a resemblance to
meaningful connections between the vidually (or with peers), students can those encountered by professionals. It
music and their own lives. use software such as Band-in-a-Box is important to remember that the
For example, a teacher may be try- and Super Dooper Music Looper to result of any musical experience will
ing to explain the difference between create their own backing tracks as an depend on the openness, sincerity, and
straight eighth notes and eighth notes aid to their practicing. Technology has flexibility of the educator.
that swing. This could probably be the potential to give students the
explained in two minutes (not much opportunity to work on specific Notes
of a lesson). If students are truly dimensions of the music (tempo, 1. Constructivism refers to an individ-
expected to understand this stylistic articulation, phrasing, and the like) ual constructing knowledge and, there-
musical difference that is so vital to while operating within a holistic and fore, a unique understanding of the world,
the nature of jazz, they should almost authentic context. through a synthesis of new and prior expe-
immediately be involved in appropri- Learners need to be cognizant of riences.
ate listening, performing, and creating the goals of the learning situation Vygotsky, Mind in Society: The
2. Lev S.
activities that provide opportunities and their own progress toward goals. Development of Higher Psychological
for individual, small-group, and large- By allowing students to assume own- Processes, ed. Michael Cole, Vera John
group experiences. ership in the classroom, teachers can Steiner, Sylvia Scribner, and Ellen
Learners need to take an active help create a need to know in students Souberman (Cambridge, MA: Harvard
role in their own learning. The that will foster understanding rela- University Press, 1978), 87.
teacher should seek ways to teach tionships between what they are expe- 3. Howard Gardner, The Disciplined
music that have less emphasis on riencing and what they already know. Mind (New York: Penguin Books, 2000),
teacher-directed instruc-
large-group, When elementary students are able to 184.
tion. When they are forced to deal construct understanding of jazz after 4. Eunice
Boardman, Dimensions of
with overcrowded performance en- improvising a few variations of &dquo;Mary MusicalTeaching and Learning (Reston,
sembles, music teachers’ jazz instruc- Had a Little Lamb&dquo; on the recorder, VA: MENC, 2002), 2.
tion can be reduced to teaching they are well on their way to achieving 5. Jackie Wiggins, Teaching for Musical
watered-down big band arrangements independence as musicians and musi- Understanding (New York: McGraw-Hill,
that are usually rehearsed in much the cal learners. 2001),43.
same manner as a concert band selec- 6. Boardman, Musical Teaching and
tion. While the large-ensemble big The Importance of &dquo;Why&dquo; Learning, 7.
band sound certainly has its rightful So much of jazz education is con- 7. Ibid., 3.
place in the history of jazz, it should cerned with the what and how (e.g., 8. Wiggins, Teaching for Musical
be only one of many genres for stu- this scale will fit over this chord Understanding, 37.
dents to listen to, perform, and create. change). A crucial element that is 9. Ibid., 18.
For the individual student, the often missing when planning and exe- 10. See Wiggins, Teaching for Musical
opportunity to initiate and carry out cuting a lesson dealing with jazz is the Understanding, for
description of the role
a
original ideas is more likely to occur why. Students deserve to know, for of a "doorway-in" lesson design, 70.
in smaller ensembles. Here, students example, why the blues is such an 11. Stanley Schleuter, A Sound Approach
will have more opportunities to take integral part of understanding jazz, or to Teaching Instrumentalists (New York:
risks with the music and engage in why musicians like Charlie Parker Schirmer Books, 1997), 37.&squf;
music that they find interesting and and Thelonius Monk played such an
meaningful. important role in the development of
Learners need opportunities to jazz as a uniquely American art form.
work on their own, with peers, and I believe that teaching the why can
with teacher support, when needed. encourage a need to know among stu-
The ability to listen to and interact dents and lead to musical experiences
spontaneously with other performers that foster curiosity and generate
is a vital component of jazz perform- enthusiasm for continued learning.
ance. Young musicians need the The teacher needs to be careful, how-
opportunity to test the waters and try ever, not to fall back into the tradi-
out new ideas with other like-minded tional role of the all-knowing dis-
21
Improvising Jazz a Beginner's Guide

Eddie S. Meadows
DOI: 10.2307/3398336

Published by:
On behalf of:
What is This?

IMPROVISATION
I MPRO VlSING
'7
WAUQIUUUIUt&WhhiI3h1*
' 4
i
I I
by EddieS. Meadows
I
Afewsimple lieattheheart
principles of
Eddie
jazzimprovisation. S. Meadows
offers
a primer andteachers.
forstudents
many years, musicians out- marily from oral sources, and as musical situations, phrasingand ar-
side the jazz community believed performers who achieved great- ticulation, learning to swing, and
the ability to improvise was a gift, ness, however, we teachers and shaping creativity through struc-
not something that could be our students must realize that we ture and design.
learned. While acknowledging can also learn to improvise. Teach- Jazz improvisationboth encour-
Louis Armstrong, Miles Davis, ers of beginning instrumentalists ages and expects diversity within
John Coltrane, and Charlie Parker can adopt several pedagogical continuity. Central to this premise
as giants of improvisation,as musi- ideas that mightfoster the develop- is the importance of individuality:
cians who learned their craft pri- ment of skills injazz improvisation. jazz improvisers should attempt to
The ability to improvise jazz de- develop their own personally ex-
Eddie S. Meadows is professor of mu- pends upon learning the "tools of pressive style. Musicians can use
sic at San Diego State University in the trade" (chords, scales, reper- their mastery of the tools of im-
San Diego, California. toire), applying the tools to actual provisation to express their views
MEJ/December'91 41

of the world; this is what distin- "Moose the Mooch," "Oleo," tion.
guishes improvisersfrom each oth- "The Serpent's Tooth," "52nd Students can practice the scales
er-John Coltrane from Stanley Street Theme," "Lester Leaps in figure 1 in orderto improvetheir
Turrentine,Lee Konitz from Char- In," and "Cottontail" are a few of psychomotor skills. These scales
lie Parker, and Miles Davis from the tunes based on "I Got can be played in rhythms of quar-
Dizzy Gillespie. Each of these Rhythm" harmony.The harmonies ter, eighth, triplet, and sixteenth
players has a differentstyle, yet all of "Cherokee," "What Is This notes, or with the characteristic
are masters of the art of jazz im- Thing Called Love?", "How High "shuffle" rhythm of dotted eighth
provisation. Unlike Euro-Ameri- the Moon," "Love Me or Leave and sixteenth notes. The beginning
can classical music, which tends to Me," and "Back Home Again in improvisercould also expandhis or
discourage individual interpreta- Indiana"are also common to many her technical facility by adding
tion, jazz musicians are expected jazz compositions. dynamics-accenting every other
to incorporate their individual in- Jazz improvisersmust be able to note, for example.
terpretations into a performance. play within many scales as they After the beginner has begun to
This can extend beyond improvisa- implement their improvisational hear and recognize differentperfor-
tion to include accents, inflections, ideas and apply these scales spon- mances of the same compositions,
and a personal sound. A musician taneously to the correct harmonic as well as different compositions
does not become an improviserun- situation. Teachers should first in- using the same chord changes, and
til he or she has developed both an troduce students to a small selec- has begun to play selected scales in
individualsound and originalideas. tion of scales, however, and only various rhythms, he or she can
Verbatim imitation of the masters graduallyexpand student's facility learn to improvise.
does not make one an improviser, to include the scale-chordrelation- The best next step is for the
although incorporatingtheir ideas ships listed by Baker.1 For these teacher to demonstrate the rela-
into solos, on a limited basis, is beginningstudents of jazz improvi- tionship of chords and scales to
acceptable and demonstratesa mu- sation, the performanceof all ma- improvisation,followed by the stu-
sician's knowledge of their improv- jor and minor scales is critical in dent's attempts to follow the mod-
isational styles. establishinga foundationof sounds el. A blues piece is a good starting
From a jazz perspective, how "under the fingers" and "in the point. Blues can vary in terms of
does one begin to improvise? The ears." Next, students can be intro- the number of measures or bars,
first step should be to listen to as duced to the major pentatonic, from twelve to sixteen to thirty-two
many approaches to improvisation blues, Dorian, Mixolydian, and di- bars, but the "twelve-barblues" is
on a specific tune as you can find. minished scales and modes. These the most common form. Two basic
It is importantfor the nonjazz mu- scales and modes will become non-substitutive chordal progres-
sician to hear many different ap- storehouses of musical ideas that sions are outlined in figure 2.
proachesin orderto open his or her find their way into jazz improvisa- Students of piano mightbegin by
ears and intellect to what is possi-
ble. If you are a pianist, you might
want to compare the Bud Powell,
Thelonious Monk, and Art Tatum Majorpentatonic Dorian
versions of "Tea for Two." Tenor o
saxophonists might want to com- i ?O 1 ,, - l *,.o
pare the John Coltrane and Stan Blues Mixolydan
Getz versions of "Lush Life." In- hg;
, o ..s- fo "?'' 0o o
*o ? " ?
strumentalistsmay want to listen to
the Eddie Harris (tenor saxo-
phone), Miles Davis (trumpet),and Diminished
Ntig wbhhtiOp)
Miroslav Vitous (bass) versions of
"Freedom Jazz Dance." to
l NO h? I
After listening to individual in-
terpretationsof specific songs, the Figure 1.
beginning improviser should listen
to the myriad compositions based
on single harmonic structures:the
chord progressions of tunes like "I (1) Chord I IV I V I
Got Rhythm." By listening to im-
Measures 1-2-3-4 5-6 7-8 9-10 11-12
provisations based on this harmo-
ny, a musician can expand his or I IV I V IV I
her knowledge of both creative and (2) Chord
melodic possibilities that are possi- Measures 1-2-3-4 5-6 7-8 9 10 11-12
ble within one harmonic structure.
"Anthropology," "Crazeology," Figure 2. Traditionaltwelve-barblues
42 MEJ/December '91
performingthe harmonyof a blues The Mixolydian mode would be a Of course, these scale choices
progression in C major. When the good choice for a melody over the vary in practice, depending upon
chords are comfortablefor the left dominantchord (V7), followed by a the individual musician's taste in
hand, a melody based on the C melody based on the pitches of the chords, scales, and their melodies.
majorpentatonic scale can be add- tonic chord (I). The ii-V7-I progression can be
ed. (For woodwind, brass, and
string players, the melody is of
course the first and only phase, so Five-NoteBlues
the teacher may want to play the
chords.) The result could be some- C7 C7 C7 C7
thing like "Five-Note Blues" (fig-
ure 3).
j .J LjJ J J Lj
When students have relaxed into .
the C major pentatonic blues and

begin to vary the melodies accord-
ing to individual expression, im-
provisation has occurred. Because
they have also learned the Dorian F7 F7 C7 C7
and diminishedscales, they can be
guidedtoward the function of these
scales in melodies over the same
twelve-bar blues progression.
Teachers can ask students to read
and vary the Dorian melody for , <t- :^ K:
"Reggie's Blues" (see figure 4).
The teacher and students can do
the same with "J.J.," a melody on G7 F7 C7 C7
the twelve-bar blues progression
that features the diminished scale.
See figure 5. 4LJ-T r J- j r p
Students should be encouraged
to create their own melodies on
their instrumentsusing any and all
of the scales they rehearsedearlier.
The melodies of these scales can be
laid over the chords of the blues Figure 3.
progression. Beginning improvis-
ers might be eventually guided to
expand the relationshipsof chords Reggie'sBlue
to scales furtherby learningthe ii-
V7-I progression, which is the
most common of several bebop
chord progressions. In the key of C
major, this progression is as fol-
lows:
LED 8 8 I | rZ9 .^WQj

ii 7 V7
Root Position
When attempting to improvise Fgr4.T rXr

i' T f
melodically,a good choice for the ii
chord would be a melody in the re-4. F
Fiu F
Dorian mode, spelled from D. In
fact, if the ii chord were extended
to include a thirteenth, it would
then include all of the notes of a
Fi
g u F
r-W4 r
Dorianmode: D, F, A, C, E, G, B. Figure 4.
MEJ/December '91 43
heard in the hard bop and bebop proviser can gain access to myriad Play-A-Long book/records, covering
educational materials that are de- topics ranging from blues and ii-V7-I
improvisations of Clifford Brown, progressionsto the music of such artists
Fats Navarro, and Charlie Parker. signed to quantifytheory and prac- as CharlieParker,Miles Davis, JohnCol-
In fact, when hard bop and bebop tice of jazz improvisation:they are trane(two volumes), Wayne Shorter,and
players of the 1940s and 1950s practicalsupplementsto the lesson Horace Silver. Each volume contains a
heard this progression, they may or to class instruction. The "tools stereo recordingand a booklet with parts
for all instruments:treble and bass clef,
have been "thinking" scale or of the trade" of jazz improvisation B-flatand E-flat.
mode as they improvised. Note the can be sharpenedthroughlistening Baker, David. How to Play Bebop. Bloom-
ii-V7-I chord/scale relationship in practice and pedagogical guidance ington, IN: FrangipaniPress, 1985-86. 3
figure 6, a short improvisational in this importantmusical genre. books: The Bebop Scales and Other
Scales in Common Use; Learning the
excerpt from "Joy Spring"by Clif- Bebop Language: Patterns, Formulae,
ford Brown.2 and Other Linking Materials;and Tech-
It is, then, simple to introduce Notes
1. For an in-depthchartof chord/scalerela- niquesfor Learningand UtilizingBebop
the beginning student-and per- tionships, see "Relationshipsof Chords to
Tunes.
haps the teacher as well-to the art Scales" in David Baker, The Jazz Style of Baker, David. Improvisational Patterns:
The Bebop Era. Chicago: Maher, 1969.
of improvisation. Jazz improvisa- CliffordBrown: A Musical and Historical Four volumes devoted primarilyto pat-
tion can be taught to those who Perspective(Hialeah,FL: StudioP/R Publi- ternsusingii-V progressions.Volume4 is
cations, 1982), 3-4.
diligently listen; practice their 2. "Joy Spring" (from The Jazz Style of devoted to modal and contemporarypat-
scales, chords, phrasing,and artic- terns. Baker has also publishedbooks on
CliffordBrown: A Musical and Historical ear training,pedagogy, and bebop solos,
ulation; develop a sense of swing; Perspective). Transcribedby David Baker. available through New Albany, IN: Ja-
and shape their creative ideas Copyrightc 1988 by Studio P/R, Inc., c/o
CPP/Belwin,Inc., Miami, FL 33014. Inter- mey Aebersold.
throughstructuralfeaturesof melo- national copyright secured. All rights re- Baker,David. Techniquesof Improvisation.
dy, rhythm, and texture. The rela- served. Chicago: Maher, 1971. 4 vols: Lydian
tionshipbetween chords and scales ChromaticConcept, The ii-V7 Progres-
is one of the critical keys that will sion, Turnbacks(Turnarounds),and Cy-
Selectedresources cles.
unlock the door to the joys of jazz Aebersold, Jamey. Play-A-Longs.New Al- Coker, Jerry.ImprovisingJazz. Englewood
improvisation. The beginning im- bany, IN: Aebersold, 1972-88. Forty-six Cliffs,N.J.: PrenticeHall, 1966.Gives the
beginning performeran insight into the
logical developmentof jazz improvisation
J. J. in a thorough,step-by-stepfashion.
Medium
swing Coker, Jerry. Patternsfor Jazz. Lebanon,
IN: Studio P/R, 1970.Proceeds from ma-
jor trendsand ii-V7 progressionsto poly-
chordsand Lydianand augmentedscales.
Dobbins, Bill. ContemporaryJazz Pianists.
Jamestown, RI: Gamt Press, 1978-1988.
Four vols.: Vol. I focuses on exercises,
fJIuJ chromaticconcepts, and more. Vol. II is a
continuationin more detail of concepts
covered in Volume I. Vol. III is an intro-
duction to styles used by several noted
jazz pianists,with examplesandanalyses.
lT a''si-u#r - 1 1 4 iV 11 Vol. IV is a continuationwith more detail
of Volume III.
> Light
accent Evans, Lee. Several jazz method books:
BeginningJazz Level, IntermediateJazz
Level, Beginning Jazz hnprovisation,
Figure 5. Learning to ImproviseJazz Accompani-
ments, and so on. All publishedby Hal
LeonardPublishingCorporation,Milwau-
Joy Spring kee, WI 53123.
Haerle, Dan. Jazz Improvisationfor Key-
G Am I \ D7 G boardPlayers. 3 vols. Lebanon, IN: Stu-
dio P/R, 1977. The books provide infor-
mationon constructionof melodies,melo-
dy/scale forms, improvisation, chord
F7 Bm voicings, how to use the left hand, and
Cm 3 E7 Am D7 much more.
Mann, Martan.Jazz Improvisationfor the
1'S G
A - U
Lr-Ll
r.,,J_ ,,, Classical Pianist. Cupertino,CA: Music-
man Publisher, 1988. Also available
m
%B E7 A (V)
throughJamey Aebersold. Covers all ar-
eas of improvisation.Gearedto the classi-
cally trained pianist. Includes ideas and
(I)
PR
CopWrigt19e8IbyStudio techniques.
Mehegan, John. ContemporaryStyles for
the Jazz Pianist. 4 vols. New York: Wat-
Figure 6. son-Guptill,1958-65. A1
44 MEJ/December '91
Putting It Together: Integrating Jazz Education in the Elementary General Music Classroom
Laura Ferguson
DOI: 10.2307/3399952

Published by:
On behalf of:
>> Version of Record - Jan 1, 2004
What is This?

Putting It Together: Integrating Jazz Education
in
--- the
---- Elementary 0
General
- -- - -- --- Music
- - ---- - Classroom - ----
Laura Ferguson
If you thinkabout
jazz as a core area
of the curriculum merican schools have great secondary performancepro-
grams, and many of these programs do wonderful
ratherthan as an things with jazz education. As wonderful as these pro-
grams are, only a small percentage of secondary school
students join them, and usually the percentage of stu-
you can
"extra," dents participating in the jazz components of these programs is
even smaller.
ensurethat all As many children as possible should be exposed to jazz. Nearly
all public school students have music education in the elementary
studentsare grades. Therefore,elementary general music classes would seem to
be the most likely place for all students to be exposed to jazz styles
exposedto this and to come to understand the genre.
However, as a teacher of elementary general music, you already
importantgenrein face a daunting task: "Music for every child, and every child for
music," regardless of time, resources, ability, or training. How can
the generalmusic you feasibly be expected to do one more thing? Anything added to
the curriculum is done so at the expense of something else. What
can you get rid of from the curricularshelf to make space for jazz?
Can you really justify not emphasizing singing mastery,or reading
skills, or playing recordings, or providing instrument experience,
or listening to time-tested works? How can you give students a
M ? ._,<....',.'~
I '. I
,0 j
I *?'7
'J-1, -i
E
'I' Pi
I.
':,7w--W-wvAk -e
r? o
Al.
A littlejazzcan go a longway in the elementary

musicclassroom.
MUSIC EDUCATORS JOURNAL

background in jazz without sacrificing basic foundation of jazz into your yourself ready to supplement your les-
what you are already doing well? classes. Appropriate pieces for the sons with other music resources not
The answer to these questions may classroom may be available in the available in the series texts. The sheer
be to use an integrated approach. series text sitting on your desk, and volume of recorded jazz music can
Rather than having a jazz "unit" in appropriate ways of presenting the seem overwhelming. Taking advan-
which the genre is the focus for a genre may already be in place in your tage of the many "Bestof' CD sets put
short period of time and is then put existing classroom practice. out by labels such as Verve, Telarc,
away, consider using the genre as you Do you use singing games in your GNP,and BlueNote can give you a lot
would any other type of time-tested classroom to promote and assess vocal of "bangfor the buck," as many differ-
music. If you look at what you know mastery? Consider replacing one or ent artists and styles will be highlight-
and do well, you may find many more of the traditional sol-mi-la echo ed on a single disc. These collections
places where jazz styles can slip seam- songs with a singing game from urban can also help you to develop your own
lessly into your existing curriculum African-American folk tradition. preferences for artists and time peri-
without loss of time, other activities, "TelephoneSong," found in the Grade ods. Once you find pieces you feel
or conceptual focus. Not only will the 3 Sharethe Music series, is a four-tone your students will enjoy, you can
issue of finding more time be moot, song that uses the flat seventh "blue" shape existing classroom activities
but using this approach brings jazz note essential to many jazz harmonies, around the new repertoire.
into the canon of the curriculum, and it allows you to hear each child
whereas having a jazz "unit"relegates individually for vocal assessment.
the genre to an "extra"rather than a Do you like to begin classes with a
"core"area of the curriculum. gathering song or end with a dismissal
song? "GoodMornin'Blues,"found in
the Grade5 Sharethe Musicand Grade
2 Music Connectionseries, would be a
wonderful opening song to get the Howcan yougivestudents
class going while also emphasizing the
Elementary generalmusic flat third "blue" note found in jazz a background injazz
styles. "Oh, Won't You Sit Down,"
classeswouldseem to be available in the Grade 3 Music withoutsacrificing
whatyou
Connection series and the Grade 4 are alreadydoingwell?
the most likelyplace forall Share the Music series, is a great gath-
studentsto be exposedto ering/settling piece, and it is also a
wonderful vehicle for exploring vocal
jazz stylesand to come to pitch bends. By changing a few lyrics
in "AllAround the Kitchen,"found in
understandthe genre. the Grade 1 Sharethe Musicand Grade
1 Music Connection, you can sing
instructions to students such as "Line
right up!" or "Walk,don't run!" This Do you regularly use pentatonic
will get students focused for the tran- improvisation on barred instruments?
sition from your music room to the Consider having students improvise
Regardless of your level of experi- classroom while also acclimating their over "Camptown Races" by the Dave
ence with jazz, there are many ways to ears to syncopated rhythm and "blue" Brubeck quartet using the black keys
do this successfully. If you feel you are thirds. of the piano or keyboards, all the
a jazz novice, you may find preexist- Do you want to use more jazz black bells of your resonator bell sets,
ing materials in the series texts to be examples in class listening but feel or, if you are fortunate enough to have
very useful in your planning. Or, if you don't know where to start to find them, the chromatics of your Orff
you have some experience with the materials? Look to your series texts' xylos.1 (See the Discography sidebar
genre, you may easily find outside composer indexes for appropriate for a list of recordings referred to in
materials and recordings to supple- examples and see where that leads this article.) By using only the chro-
ment your current classroom practice. you. Composers to look for include matic notes, students can play penta-
And you may even want to create new Charles, Ellington, Gershwin, Jarrett, tonic scale improvisations that fit
lessons around the genre, if you feel at Joplin, McFerrin, Monk, Parker, nicely with the tonality of the piece.
home with this style of music. Rodgers and Hart, Strayhorn, and Comparedwith other jazz pieces, this
Watson. two-minute piece is quite short,
Start with What You Know allowing for ample repetitions of the
and Have Supplement YourActivities activity within a single class period.
With a little creativity and index with Outside Music Do your students regularly play
searching, you may find you already Once you begin to integrate jazz chord tones to simple harmonic
have everything you need to bring a into your teaching, you may find rhythms on choir chimes or other
JANUARY 2004 29
orchestral instruments playing in jazz
styles rather than using orchestral
excerpts. Good choices include Joe
"All or Nothing at All" played by Freddy Hubbardon Jazz Profile:Freddy Venuti playing "Sweet Georgia
Hubbard(Blue Note CDP 7243 8 59071 2 8) Brown" on violin, Buddy Rich's Big
"Blue Rondo a la Turk" on Dave Brubeck'sGreatest Hits (Sony ASIN Band playing "My Man's Gone Now"
with trombone solo, Ken Peplowski
B000002AL8)
playing "Blue Room" on clarinet,
"Blue Room" played by Ken Peplowski on A Rodgers& Hart Songbook
Freddy Hubbard playing "All or
(Standardsof Jazz [Concord Special Products]JAZ45142) Nothing at All" on trumpet, and the
"Blues a la Russe" by The Classical Jazz Quartet on Tchaikovsky's The L.A. 4 playing "My Romance" on
Nutcracker(VerticalJazz 5507-2) flute.
"Camptown Races" on Dave Brubeck's Greatest Hits (Sony ASIN
B000002AL8)
"FreddieFreeloader"by Miles Davis on Kindof Blue(Columbia/LegacyCK
64935)
"He Never Sleeps"as performed byTake6 on Take6 (RepriseW2 25670)
"Hittin'Twelve"by Count Basie on LRCJazzSamplerVolumeI (CDC 9019)
"MyMan'sGone Now" playedbyJohn Boice on BuddyRich:Swingin'NewBig Makingyourownmaterials
Band(PacificJazzCDP 7243 8 35232 2 I)
"My Romance" played by The L.A. 4 on A Rodgers& Hart Songbook for classpresentationcan
(Standardsof Jazz [Concord SpecialProducts]JAZ45142) be a veryrewardingcreative
"Nicest Blues" by MuddyWaters on LRCJazz SamplerVolume3 (CDC
9021) process.
"SaltPeanuts"by Dizzy Gillespie on The Quintet.Jazzat MasseyHallDebut
(OJCCD 044-2 [DEB-124])
"SomedayMy PrinceWill Come" sung by CassandraWilson on Traveling
Miles(Blue Note 7243 8 54123 2 5)
played by Harry Connick Jr.on Songs I
"Supercalifragilisticexpialidocious"
Heard(ColumbiaCK86077)
"Sweet Georgia Brown"playedby Joe Venution LRCJazz SamplerVolume2
If you regularly use familiar songs
(CDC 9020)
from children's movies because of
"Tick-Tock(Nightfallson Toyland)"by Wynton Marsalison JumpStartand their immediate appeal, keep your
Jazz:TwoBallets(Sony ClassicalSK 62998)
eye out for "covers" of well-known
"Vaunceof the Flowers"byThe ClassicalJazzQuartet on Tchaikovsky's The children's tunes by jazz artists. There
Nutcracker(VerticalJazz 5507-2) are many sophisticated renditions of
old favorites, such as Harry Connick
Jr.'s "Supercalifragilisticexpialido-
cious" played in New Orleans march
I
style or Cassandra Wilson's sage
interpretation of "Someday My
Prince Will Come."
Being able to determine changes of
kinds of instruments? Replace the of E) by Muddy Waters and "Hittin' meter is an important skill for ele-
traditional classroom song with a Twelve" (in the key of F) by the mentary school students, and adding
twelve-bar blues, assigning children Count Basie Band. Because these are a movement element to meter listen-
to root or chord tones in the I, the IV, instrumental blues, they can help ing is a tried and true practice in the
or the V7 chords. Help them initially your students make the distinction elementary classroom. Wynton
find the harmonic rhythm of the between the harmonic form and lyric Marsalis's "Tick-Tock (Nightfalls on
piece through a visual reminder such form (AAB) of blues, and you don't Toyland)" moves back and forth
as signaling "one," "four,"and "five" have to worry about the potentially between duple and triple meters in
with your hand or using flash cards risque lyric content of some blues themes clear enough to be heard by
with the appropriate numbers until singing. even novice listeners. Instruct young
students learn to follow the har- Do you regularly discuss instru- students to march during duple-
monies aurally.Some examples to use ment families with your students? meter passages and sway during
would be "Nicest Blues" (in the key Consider presenting traditional triple-meter passages, and then be
30 MUSIC EDUCATORS JOURNAL
Figure I. "Blue Rondo a la Turk"
repeat
I: / :1 6X
- -
0Man
D\ -
- -
-
-
II: w\ W\ > W\ y Jv :II repeat
(end at 1:07)
Listening map created by Julie Hutchinson ?2002.
prepared for them to find a favorite

piece of music. Figure2. "FreddieFreeloader"
For a choral class to achieve good
blend in performance, students need
to understand the difference between recorderplay-along
solo voice and group voice. Listening
to a jazz choir, such as Take 6 singing
"He Never Sleeps," rather than to a
Oi , ..2 '
traditional choral ensemble will ,_1l I 1
acclimate students' ears to balance

and blend while also opening their
ears to the close harmonic inversions
used in jazz styles.
Do you get Nutcracker overload J. 112. 1
every year at Christmas time?
Consider having your students com-
Y4K'~~~~~~'
LU:11
pare "Russian Dance" and "Waltz of
the Flowers" with "Blues a la Russe"
and "Vaunce of the Flowers" as per-
formed by The ClassicalJazz Quartet.
You will gain a well-deserved change
in holiday music, and your students using examples such as "Johnny Create Your Own Materials
will exercise higher-order thinking Brown" from Step It Down, a collec- You may find you want to create
skills when discussing the similari- tion of authentic African-American activities around particularly rich
ties and differences between the ver- singing games.2 Jazz genres have pieces so students may know them
sions. strong roots in both the participatory deeply Makingyour own materialsfor
If folk-song games are a large part and improvisatory nature of such class presentationcan be a very reward-
of your curricular activities, consider folk games. ing creative process. Depending on
JANUARY 2004 31
Figure3. "Salt Peanuts" time, ability, and your knowledge of
the genre, you can create simple or
detailed materials. Listening maps,
Recorder
such as the one shown in figure 1 for
"Blue Rondo a la Turk"by the Dave
Play 4x
Brubeck Quartet, are excellent exam-
- -
ples of ways to get students to listen
=^K I K IJ iO 1I
intelligently to complex pieces of jazz.3
In this map, the contour of the melody
is shown in a simple graphicrepresen-
- C ' tation from left to right. Instruct stu-
*).? y -o- -0- dents to follow the melodic contour
Play 4x shown on the map as it is heard in the
-
I -
I.IJ6 J :11 : piece.
Ifyou lookat whatyou

knowand do well,you may
* Ifyou feel a bit out of your element usingjazz,think of the genre as another
type of multiculturalmusic that you bringto your students.You don't need findmanyplaceswherejazz
to know everythingabout a kind of music to share it in a meaningfulway in
your classroom.
stylescan slipseamlessly
intothe existingcurriculum
* Assess your goals for an activity.Ifthe activity(e.g., playinga simple bass line,
learninga folk dance) is more important to you than the actual music you withoutloss of time,other
use for the activity,this would be a perfect place to slip in a jazz replacement
for a more traditionalsong or piece. activities,or
* When creating play-alongarrangements,remember that simpler is better,
conceptualfocus.
especially at first. Aim for arrangementsthat use stagnant rhythm patterns
and a limited amount of pitches, and plan for many repetitions. Remember
that the recordingwill add the auralinterest for the students as they play.
* Listeningmaps work best with short excerpts of pieces anywherefrom thir-

ty seconds to one minute long.When creatinga listeningmap,focus on just
one musicalconcept at a time, or else the map may be confusingor messy.
For example,the map of"Blue Rondo a laTurk"(figure I) shows only melod- Very sophisticated pieces of jazz
ic contours, even though there are manyother things to hear in the piece.A music can often be arranged for stu-
dents to play recorder or other class-
simple map allows students to add things to their individualmaps according
to what they hear, and comparingthe different student maps encourages room instruments along with the
class dialogue. recordings. Jazz pieces tend to be
rather lengthy, especially when multi-
* Listen like crazy!The more your ears are attuned to jazz styles, the more ple improvisation solos are played.
This can work as an advantage if you
likelyit is you will find ways to slip your personal favorites into your teach-
ing."Bestof" compilationrecordingsfrom well-known jazz labels are excel- prefer using authentic assessment for
lent starting places for new listeners,as are Internet radio stations that are instrument playing and would like to
dedicated to jazz. repeat a playing activity multiple
times so all students can be assessed.
* Above all, remember that jazz is based on improvisation.Never fear trying Simply have students play the
something new! Improvisationin teaching, as in playing,is a creative and arrangementover the "head,"or form,
thoughtfulendeavor. of the tune as many times as needed.
This gives you ample time to focus on
listening to individual students as the
class plays together over the record-
ing.
Milestone pieces of jazz, such as of thinking about how to slip this
"Salt Peanuts" and "Freddie Free- musical style into the repertoire of
loader," can be absorbed by students music used in class than making an
while they focus on the challenge of actual change in teaching practice. If
using more technically difficult finger- jazz pieces are viewed as core compo- HEN~
ings on recorder or improve playing nents of the classroom canon rather
skills on barred instruments. (See fig- than as special, fun "extras,"you can
ures 2 and 3 for music examples.) The easily bring this aspect of rich musical Bookstore
pieces are sophisticated enough to add culture to general music students
interest to otherwise simple arrange- without sacrificing time or content.
ments, which motivates the students to NEW-
play the part well and often. For more Notes
ideas, see the Principles of Success for 1. Specialthanks to Eric Elftmanfor Benchmarks in
IntegratingJazz in ElementaryGeneral sharingthisideawithme in my classroom.
Music sidebar. 2. BessieJonesandBessLomaxHawes, Action:
Step It Down (Athens and London:
Conclusion University of Georgia Press, 1972). A Guide to
Using an integrated approach to 3. Specialthanksto Julie Hutchinson
Standards-Based
jazz in the curriculum is more a way for sharingthis listeningmapwith me. E
Assessment in Music
m
zu 0
z MENC
Resources
23N3W1
The following publicationsthat offer additionalinsightinto teachingjazz

are available in the publications section of the MENC Web site
(www.menc.org)or by calling 1-800-828-0229.
TeachingJazz:A Courseof Study.Providesthe novice teacher with guidance
for startinga jazz-orientedprogramin conjunctionwith any existing program.
Organizedin six levels,from Beginner(LevelI)to Advanced(LevelVI).Suitable
for any age or grade level and designed so students and teachers may work
at their own pace. Includessuggestions for specific texts, discographies,and
This book and CD set is
jazz literature.Developed by the InternationalAssociation for Jazz Education
CurriculumCommittee.A publicationof IAJEand MENC.Recommendedfor designed to help music teachers
text adoption. 1996. Item #1607. at all levels develop standards-
The InstrumentalHistoryof Jazz. From the InternationalAssociation for based assessments. Covers all
JazzEducation.Thistwo-CD boxed set featurestwenty-two audio tracks,mul- nine content standards in the
timedia elements, and a book of text and archivalphotos.The set traces the
National Standards. The CD
early roots of instrumentaljazz from ragtime to Dixieland to swing and
through the twentieth century to the present. Includesdiscographies,video- provides audio benchmarks and
graphies,and recommended listening.WrittenbyWillie L.HillJr.Compilation includes music to stimulate stu-
produced byWillie L.HillJr.and Carl Griffin.ExecutiveProducer,LarryRosen. dent responses to selected
1997. Item #3001.
tasks.This new set is the second
Surveyof TeachingMaterialsfor azz Improvisations.Fromthe International
Association of JazzEducators.More than four hundredreviews of music,text- publication from the Benchmark
books, recordings,computer software, and videotapes, based on grade level, project. Project editor, Carolynn
classroom setting, and teaching approach.By John KuzmichJr.;compiled by
A. Lindeman;Paul R. Lehman,
Matt Betton. 1990. Item #1707.
Howto TeachJazz History:A Teacher'sManualandTestBank(5th ed.). From project consultant. 2003.
the InternationalAssociation of Jazz Educators.Includesgoal lists,essay ques- ISBN 1-56545-123-6.
tions, listening exams, and discographies.By Mark C. Gridley. 1996. Item 160 pages.
#1708.
GettingStartedwithJazz Band.How to judge the pluses and minuses of #3041. $34.00/$25.50
various physicalsetups, how jazz teachers broach the issue of improvisation MENC members
with beginningthroughadvancedstudents,and reviews of brandnames of jazz
equipment,programming,resources,and more. By LissaA. Fleming.1994.Item To order,use the MENCResources
#1626. order form on page 62.
I
JANUARY 2004 33
Teaching Improvisation outside of Jazz Settings : Musical genres that lend themselves to
improvisations by beginning student musicians include bluegrass, blues, ska, reggae, rap, klezmer,
and rock
Michael Bitz
DOI: 10.2307/3399111

Published by:
On behalf of:
What is This?

TEACHING IMPROV
OF JAZZ SETTING
OUTSIDE
thatlendthemselves
Musicalgenres to improvisations
bybeginningstudentmusicians
includebluegrass,blues,ska, reggae,rap, klezmer,and rock.
W henhen children hear the improvisers, on the other hand, are young music students. Improvisation
word "improvisation," only familiar with simple downbeat is the spontaneous, creativegeneration
they often think of hot and upbeat relationships. Finally, jazz of melody, rhythm, and phrases,with-
jazz-fast solos, synco- harmoniesoften veer away from major out specific preparationor premedita-
pated rhythms, and and minor tonalities and contain sev- tion.3 The adjectives "spontaneous"
complex harmonies. Students in gen- enth chords and chord substitutions. and "creative"need not mean "com-
eral music classesmay be familiarwith These harmonies may sound strange plex," however, and the very first
bebop and later jazz eras. Charlie and unresolved to ears that are accus- improvisation exercises should start
Parkerand John Coltrane are some of tomed to orchestraand band arrange- with no more than one or two notes.
the first jazz greats that may come to ments of popular music. Both instrumentalistsand vocalists can
mind. Children who learn jazz from improvise timbres, dynamics, and
their parents' or grandparents'record rhythms on a single tone to get famil-
collections might know the music of iar with making music without the
Glenn Miller, Duke Ellington, Paul written page. As students become
Whiteman, or Count Basie. Others more experienced with improvisation,
may be familiar with jazz improvisa- they can naturally add notes to their
tion groups that mix jazz with hip-hop creations, without improvising in a
sounds, such as Us3, whose 1993 ver- Essentially,collaborative specific genre. Improvising on stan-
sion ("Cantaloop") of Herbie Han- effortsmean greater dard melodies with chord changes,
cock's "Cantaloupe Island" received embellishments, riffs, and licks can
extensive airplay on MTV and major
radio stations.1
possibilities or critical come later.
One reason students are often shy
However, when it comes to teach- thinking in the about improvising is that many times
ing improvisation,jazz may not be the classroom. it means playing alone in front of
best or most logical genre to start other students who will watch and
with. First of all, as children get older perhaps judge them. Although this
they prefer faster jazz tempos, which, may often be the case in jazz, improvi-
as one might expect, are the most dif- sation education does not necessarily
ficult for beginning improvisers.2Sec- have to mean that students have to
ond, jazz rhythms and "swingfeel" are play solo. Just as musicians play writ-
based upon syncopation. Most young ten music in ensembles, they can
Whereto Begin improvise in groups as well. This
If not jazz, what genre should be approach to improvisation establishes
MichaelBitzis a doctoral
candidateatTeachers used for beginning improvisation?To a high level of creativitybecause ideas
at
College Columbia in New
University YorkCity answerthat question, one must decide are passed from one improviser to
andanactiveperformerandteacherofthedouble what improvisation means-not for another. In his article "Opening the
bassandstringimprovisation. professional jazz musicians but for Door to Classroom Improvisation,"
JANUARY 1998 21

Paul Goldstaub recommends several the blues are a basis for rock and Melodic complexity: Melodies are
suitable activities for group improvisa- rhythm and blues, the sound of this simple and repetitive.
tion.4 Essentially,collaborativeefforts genre is usually familiar to most stu- Harmonic complexity: The har-
mean greater possibilities for critical dents' ears. The blues are as much a monies generally consist of a few
thinking in the classroom, and impro- feeling as a form or genre, and stu- chords that do not wander from major
visation does not necessarily mean a dents can create effective improvisa- and minor tonalities. Even more com-
solo performance. tions with a few notes and a lot of plex ska songs often feature simplified
Eventually, students will probably emotion. improvisationsections.
want to improvisesolos in a particular Melodic complexity: Melodies are Tempo:Traditional Jamaican ska
genre or style. Specific musical genres relatively simple and very repetitive. styles, such as "rocksteady"and "blue
that lend themselvesto improvisations Call-and-responseis an importantpart beat," feature slow to medium tempos
by student musicians include blue- of many blues melodies and a good with a relaxed but steady beat. More
grass, blues, ska, reggae, rap, klezmer, technique for beginning improvisers. contemporary groups play the music
and rock. Vocalists and playersof any faster.
instrument can use these genres as a Recommended listening:Bob Marley,
basis for creative improvisation. The Volume II-One Love (MNI 3216,
melodic complexity, harmonic com- 1980); Duke Reid Artists, Tributeto
plexity, and tempo elements of these the Skatalites (Esoldun LG2-1015,
genres make them conducive to 1991); The Specials, The Singles Col-
improvisation. Furthermore, many Ska music... now lection(ChrysalisF2 21823, 1991).
children listen to some or all of these
standsas one of the most Reggae
genres in their leisure time. They may
already be familiar with the necessary
musical "vocabulary"of one of these
popular newgenresin Now a popular form of dance
music in the United States, reggae is
genres and, therefore, be able to con-
the UnitedStates. Jamaicanmusic that evolved from ska.
centrate on improvisationitself. These Reggae is also a good basis for impro-
genres are describedbelow, along with visation because of its defined rhythm,
examplesof recommendedrecordings. * - - a a - relaxed tempo, and easy-to-follow
chords.
Bluegrass Melodic complexity: Melodies are
Bluegrass is a traditional form of Harmonic complexity: The simplest simple, yet melodic, and are easily
American music that usually involves form of the blues consists of three sung or played. Reggae melodies tend
stringed instruments and provides a chords: I, IV, and V. The standard to feature a melodic "hook" that can
model for beginning string improvis- twelve-barblues form can repeatwith- be an effective springboardfor impro-
ers. However, the music need not be out variationto provide a base for first visation.
exclusively for string players-every- improvisations. Harmonic complexity: Harmonies
one can enjoy bluegrass. Tempo:Tempos are very often slow often consist of two or three chords.
Melodic complexity:Melodies tend to medium with definite backbeats. Minor tonalities are prevalent, which
to be very simple, and beginners can Recommended listening: Willie can lead improvisers to discover new
master them quickly and easily. Dixon, The Big ThreeTrio(Columbia sounds.
Harmonic complexity: Harmonies CK 46216, 1990); Blues Guitar Greats Tempo:Tempos tend to be slow and
are usually relegated to a few major (Delmark DE 697, 1996); B.B. King, relaxed with a definite beat. Tempos
chords or a major tonality that moves Live at the Apollo (GRP GRD-9637, are, in part, defined by interestingbass
to the relativeminor. Modulation and 1991); Muddy Waters, Trouble No lines that can be played and then
complex harmonic motion are rare. More (MCA CD9291, 1989). alteredon any instrument.
Tempo:Tempos can be fast but per- Recommended listening: Burning
ceived in cut time, which makes blue- Ska Spear,Man in the Hills (Mango CCD
grassfeel slower. Ska music, combining traditional 9412, 1976); Bob Marley and the
Recommendedlistening: Bill Mon- Caribbeanrhythms and jazz, originat- Wailers, Legend(Tuff Gong 422-846-
roe, 16 Gems(Sony CK 53908, 1996); ed in Jamaica, stormed through 210-2, 1984); Ernest Ranglin, Below
Psychograss, Like Minds (Sugar Hill Britain, and now stands as one of the the Bassline (Island IJCD 4002/524
SHCD-3851, 1996); The Tennessee most popular new genres in the Unit- 299-2, 1996); Junior Reid, Listen to
Mountain Bluegrass Festival (CMH ed States. The song forms are general- the Voices(Ras CD 3200, 1996).
CD-8012, 1995); 20 BluegrassOrigi- ly very simple follow,to and many ska
nals (Deluxe DCD-7909, 1987). songs consist of two or three chords. Rap
Improvisation is an important element Most students in high school or
Blues of this music because it provides lower grades are at least somewhat
The blues have been played on catchy melodies and rhythms for the familiar with rap music. For improvis-
practically every instrument. Because beginning soloist. ers, rhythm is an intriguing aspect of

SampleImprovisationExercises
Reggae
Reggae bass lines are excellent for teaching beginning improvisers.The following set of improvisation exercisesis
based on the bass line featuredin Bob Marley and the Wailers'"StirIt Up" from the collection of hits titled Legend
(Tuff Gong 422-846-210-2, 1984):
A D E
1. Have students in the class learn the bass line by listening to the recordingand figuring out the notes and rhythms
together.They can transcribethe bass line to enhance dictation and note-writing skills if applicable to the cur-
riculum. They can try to capturethe feel of the music by playing along with the recording.
2. Have studentsbegin improvisingby varyingthe dynamics.This allowsthem to feel "safe"by retainingthe notes and
rhythmsthat they know while they begin to createtheir own sounds. An improvisationof dynamics might sound
like:
)j c JA D
Er
A D E
4.
stunts
Hae ontr
improvise e arr m
4. Have students improviseon the notes of the bass line. For example:
5. Have students improvisea complete improvisationof the bass line by varying severalelements at a time. These
improvisationscan take many differentforms, such as the following:
A D E
f P p
Rap
Rap music is an excellent genre for the study of rhythm and timbre. One improvisationexercisebased on rap music
is to have students use their voices as a "beatbox." For example, students can "sing":
b ' x '
f >
UhU AUh Alh UhUl Ah Uh Ah Uh
Ask students to answerthe following questions to encouragethem to explore rhythms and timbres with their vocal
beat boxes:
1. How many differentsounds or timbrescan you improvisewith your beat box?
2. How many differentrhythmscan you improvisewith your beat box?
3. Workingin groups, can you createan improvisedrapwith just the rhythmsand timbres?
4. Can you find a rap song and improviseon the rhythmsand timbresprovidedin it?
JANUARY 1 998 23
rap music, and a soloist can use rap Rock as improvisers in the genre, particular-
rhythms on a few notes to create Though the term covers a broad ly if their instruments are not used in
entire improvisations. range of music, rock is a genre with the style being studied (for example, a
Melodic complexity: Melodies are which most children are familiar. Of bluegrass bassoon is a nontraditional
simple, but rhythmically complex. course, there are complex forms of idea).
This combination can be especially rock, but simplicity is often a virtue in 2. Research the genre. The more
effective for improviserson percussion this music. Students especially enjoy teachers know about a style of music,
instruments or other students who improvisingon songs they know well. the better they can guide students
have experience with more advanced through an improvisation exercise.
concepts of rhythm. Therefore, they need to move beyond
* - - d - -
Harmonic complexity: Harmonies preconceptions and learn as much as
arevery simple. Rap music tends to be possible about a genre before intro-
based on one tonality as defined by a ducing it in the classroom. Students
simple bass line. Klezmerhas had a recent themselves are an excellent resource-
Tempo:Tempos are moderate and they very often know more about their
very definitive. renaissance,and it favorite music than critics or magazine
Recommendedlistening:De la Soul, writers.
3 Feet High and Rising (Tommy Boy
makesforgreat 3. Gather resources.A little work
can go a long way in improvisation
TBCD 1019, 1989); Digable Planets,
improvisationmusic, education. Therefore, find appropriate
Digable Planets: Reachin' (Pendulum
7243 8 27758 29, 1993); A Tribe for more
especially recordings, program accompanying
beats and sequences on a synthesizer,
Called Quest, The Low End Theory advancedimprovisers. and have exercises ready (see the Sam-
(ZombaJ2 1418, 1991).
ple Improvisation Exercises sidebar).
Klezmer 4. Introducethe genre.Asking a stu-
dent to simply begin improvising is
Klezmer is Jewish folk music that
intimidating and counterproductive.
originated in eastern Europe before Introduce the genre with recordings,
World War I. When Jewish immi- Melodic complexity: Melodies are
generally simple and often melodic. your own knowledge, and student
grants came to the United States, they
Many rock songs are based on "hooks" input. As students hear and under-
brought their music with them, and it stand what they are going to impro-
became fused with jazz and Dixieland. or "riffs," which provide improvisa-
tional fodder. vise, they will become excited about
Klezmer has had a recent renaissance,
Harmonic complexity: Harmonies the process. For example, if rap is to
and it makes for great improvisation
are usuallybased on a couple of repeti- be used as a basis for improvisation,
music, especially for more advanced students might explore different beats
tive chords.
improvisers. Clarinet and violin are and timbres that they might find in
traditional improvising instruments in Tempo:Tempos are moderate to
fast, with a definitivebackbeat. rap music.
klezmermusic. 5. Encouragegroup improvisation.
Recommendedlistening: The Beat-
Melodic complexity: Melodies are Students can learn a great deal from
les, Revolver(EMI CDP 7 46441 2,
complex, but usually based on a single 1966); Green Day, Dookie (Reprise 9 each other when they pass musical
tonality: the Phrygian scale. Klezmer 45529-2, 1994); Soundgarden,Super- ideas around the classroom. Some stu-
is a good introduction to improvisa- unknown(A&M 3154 0198 2, 1994); dents absorb stylistic contexts faster
tion based on modes other than major The Rolling Stones, Hot Rocks(Abkco than others, and group improvisation
and minor. 60617,1986). allows for dialogue between students
Harmonic complexity: Harmonies with different levels of understanding.
are simple, based on a few chords.The Classroom When students are ready to improvise
Implementation
songs are often in minor keys. Analyzing a genre for its improvisa- alone, the teacher can schedule a bal-
Tempo:Tempos are fast but steady tional merit is easy,but the implemen- ance of both group and solo improvi-
and rhythmic. tation of ideas is a much more diffi- sations.
Recommendedlistening:Don Byron, cult process. The following sequence, 6 Let studentsexplore.The purpose
Don Byron Plays the Music of Mickey although by no means set in stone, of using different genres of music as a
Katz (Elektra Nonesuch 79313-2, can help teachers organize classroom basis for improvisation is to allow stu-
1993); The Klezmer Conservatory improvisationin less familiargenres. dents to expand their abilities as well
Band, Old WorldBeat (Rounder CD 1. Choose a genre. The idea of as their notions of what they can do.
3115, 1991); The New Shtetl Band, choosing a genre may seem self-evi- Obviously, a cellist playing reggae will
Jewish & Balkan Dance Music (Global dent, but some teachers find vacillat- have to go through a good deal of
Village Music C121, 1987); Itzhak ing between genres tempting. Stu- exploration. This is a positive process,
Perlman,In the Fiddlers House (Angel dents, however, find this confusing.
CDC 7243 5 55555 2 6, 1995). They need time to absorb their roles continuedon page 41

Improvisation
Teaching
Call the people who
continuedfom page 24 know the score.
\\ hi .i ll\ Iii lin tl miLi o fi-
us i .i d Ii tistion i i \l iu V.t ,i.iliiiLi:
N BLIIJ,l1
however,and will eventually lead to a . Ilhsikt'mtic'.
higher level of learning.
HtildCIttil ld lI\ expe rt il cX llx .l idilB),d 1 mLsi.cdtic,itioni.
)LI
l ')ttli tl cmoi ioiiSt uL to tiL eit i, ehit l i\e il ii Liiri i l l.l il-
Conclusion i NlI.lt i hildl,-ci
e iL,'e 1.i,t1tl , X\
These recommendations are in no
way meant to disparagejazz or dimin- )ui1n"mihsiof to0 L11N
% oh (iUt hlic
ii_iii2j
ish its importance in the history of lI.t ill
N1 t UL.flt LIi
t tc.ltIeI .V L
improvisation.After all, many consid-
er jazz to be "America's classical tl,III C 1,t
l' ll ii ll Ilr tIIl l .
\'1,.tlr . ,-li,i,,
ii ,ii. l, ,,]
tlr gi. i ,/1ft
g tti,
music," and the music is undoubtedly \ l
one of the greatestproducts of Ameri- t i ''C
i' ?//.</
,,t'i/ t;t ','iPlf
't/I 1i(' t itl iP I S'Y)()-
iiii, ti . ~',l//
Ix l{S ',,,t, ,t2 2v }(In
can culture. However, because of its t,( ).< l ~7'/-t'-
S
ttl /( 7 It.<
<// 1! ~ 1 tS cnY['t (, ~t().t'~tt
I- SIK
complexity, jazz is not the best music
for beginning improvisers (especially
G RT4 N
I chin' .\Itsi c, 'I hlrst ,tin il(
(.i dr n.
young students) unless they are truly
committed to improvising in that
genre. In the end, a genre is only a n CZG Ed JoJ
vehicle for creative learning. If one
genre works better than another, the
teachershould use it.
Teacherswho want to incorporate
improvisation into their lessons will
find that there are very few classroom
improvisationmaterials,especially for
nonjazz areas. As improvisation
becomes a more integral part of the
music curriculum, publishing and
curriculum design companies may
begin to meet the demand for impro-
visation materialsand musical works.
Until then, classroom teachers will
have to be extra creative with their
improvisation strategies. Branching
into different genres of music is a
good place to start.
K~"IIeiVTtters
Notes Available Now! Quality Yamaha Soprano

1. Us3, Hand on the Torch, (Blue Note Recorders for only $4.50 - Order 100 or more
077778 088325, 1993). and receive FREESHIPPING!
2. Albert LeBlanc and Jan McCrary,
"Effect of Tempo on Children's Music Pref-
erence," Journal of Researchin Music Educa-
tion 31, no. 4 (1983): 283-94. 71e4tn usic
1212 Fifth Street, Coralville, IA 52241
3. Patricia Shehan Campbell, "Unveiling
the Mysteries of Musical Spontaneity," Music
EducatorsJournal 78, no. 4 (1991): 21-24.
4. Paul Goldstaub, "Opening the Door to
Classroom Improvisation," Music Educators
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Eli'
Journal 82, no. 5 (1995): 45-51. ?
JANUARY 1998 41
Beginning Blues Improvisation Pedagogy for the Non-Jazz Specialist Music Educator
Benjamin Tomassetti
DOI: 10.2307/3399853

Published by:
On behalf of:
What is This?

BeginningBlues ImprovisationPedagogy
for the Non-JazzSpecialist MusicEducator
B y Be n ja m i n To ma ss e t t i
Learna
step-by-stepmethod
W he^ Shen I hear great jazz soloists, I can appreciate that for teaching
they are making beautiful music-improvised
music that transcends the choice of notes and blues improvisation
rhythms and communicates with the audience on
many levels. With this in mind, I have always ques- that does not
tioned why the typical jazz improvisation lesson or college course
has focused almost exclusively on scales and chords at the expense
of logically and beautifully expressed musical lines. This is not to requireprevious
say that studying chords and scales is without value. Quite the con-
trary-disciplined practice of these rudiments of jazz is the best jazz experience.
context for m) own approach to teaching improvisation.
I have developed this method and used it for more than ten
years in private lessons, workshops for high school students, and
college courses. This method has worked consistently with stu-
dents aged twelve and up, although this article focuses on the
beginning- and intermediate-level improvisation student. This
method is most effective when used with popular play-along
recordings, such as Jamey Aebersolds jazz improvisation series, or
computer applications like Band-in-a-Box (see Selected Resources
on pg. 18). Both the teacher and the student must have access to
these types of materials during lessons and for practice outside of
lessons.
BenjaminTomassettiis directoi
of the audio technologypiogramn
at American University in
Washington,D.C.
JANUARY 2003 17

the blues scale. An answer phrase is
Selected Resources any phrase that ends on the tonic.
Don't let students use pitches outside
Books of the blues scale.
Improvisation exercises during the
Fleming,LissaA. GettingStartedwithJazz Band.Reston,VA:MENC, 1994.
lesson. All of the exercises can work in
Kuzmich,John Jr. Survey of TeachingMaterials for Jazz Improvisations.
a small-group or whole-class setting.
Compiled by Matt Betton. Manhattan,KS:IAJE,1990.
MENCand IAJE.Teachingazz: A Courseof Study.Reston,VA:MENC, 1996. Use one of the play-along series. If you
are not comfortable playing the exer-
Play-AlongMaterials cises, simply have the students take
turns, trade fours, and so forth. For
A series of twenty-four books with record-
Jazz:Howto Playand Improvise. the remainder of the article, descrip-
ings.JameyAebersold Jazz,PO Box 1244, New Albany,IN 47151- 1244; tions will focus on a typical private
800-456-1388; www.jazzbooks.com
lesson, but it should be emphasized
PG Music,29 CadillacAve.,Victoria,BC,V8Z IT3; 800-268-
Band-in-a-Box. that I have used this approachin class-
6272; www.pgmusic.com room situations and group lessons, as
well as in private lessons.
After the two types of phrases have
The ideas expressed in this article, rudimentary thematic development- been discussed and the student seems
as far as I know, are original. For this the student can successfully improvise ready,begin by trading four-barphras-
reason, there are no bibliographic ref- a meaningful melodic solo that emo- es with both you and the student using
erences. I have never heard of a teach- tionally and intellectually communi- only answer phrases. The purpose of
ing approach similar to this, and my cates with the audience, exhibits a this exercise is to make the student
own education in jazz was in every maturedramaticshape, and has a cohe- comfortable with targeting a specific
aspect different from what I recom- sive musical ending. note while improvising short state-
mend here. There is a lot of material for the ments. This step is very importantand
This approach to teaching blues student to absorb and master. Be should not be omitted.
improvisation does not rely upon hav- patient and allow the student several Afterthe student seems comfortable
ing the student transcribe, memorize, class sessions or private lessons to with this, progress to trading fours
or practice jazz and blues licks. The come to terms with each concept. A using only question phrases.This exer-
focus here is on teaching students realistic schedule for getting through cise is equally important.Have the stu-
basic phrase-based melodic principles all of these concepts, in one key, is dent end phrases on differentnotes in
and having them apply these princi- three to four lessons. For middle the blues scale. Ask the student ques-
ples to improvising melodic music school and high school students tak- tions about the sound of each phrase.
within the context of a twelve-bar ing a weekly one-hour private lesson, What does it sound like to end on the
blues (for definitions see the Basic an entire school year is a reasonable minor third from the blues scale?What
Jazz and Blues Terminology sidebar). timetable for getting through all about ending on the flatted fifth? By
This method teaches students to trust twelve major keys while using this having the student use different notes
and develop their own sense of cre- material. In a college setting, with the of the blues scale as ending notes in a
ativity and to conceive of each solo as class meeting at least twice a week, a question phrase, you are building a
an artistic musical composition. For single semester is reasonable. mental connection between the sound
students wishing to continue their of the music and the student's tech-
education in the jazz and blues field, Phrase Structure nique. This is very importantear train-
there will be ample opportunity to Students must first learn one blues ing and is crucial for successful
learn and memorize licks, transcribe scale. I recommend that they begin improvisation.
solos, and practice standardjazz tech- with concert B-flat, but any would After the student is comfortable
nical patterns and etudes. work. The B-flat blues scale is illus- with this exercise, trade fours, alter-
The three steps of this method are trated in figure 1. nating question and answer phrases.
simple: Once students can successfully At first, you should play the question
1. Students explore the two types of play the blues scale, ascending and phrase, and the student should play
phrases-question (antecedent) descending, for the entire range of the answer phrase. Then alternate
and answer (consequent)-using their instrument (not just one octave), who plays which phrase. By spending
the blues scale. they can move on to the study of an entire lesson on these exercises, the
2. Students work on the melodic ener- phrase structure. For this purpose, a student will learn to begin improvis-
gy and dramatic shape of a solo. phrase is four measures in length. ing cohesive melodic thoughts that
3. Students use basic compositional There are two types of phrases: ques- exhibit an open (question phrase) and
techniques for thematic develop- tion (antecedent) and answer (conse- closed (answer phrase) structure.This
ment. quent). A question phrase is any is the same structure as a composed
By masteringthese three concepts- phrase that does not end on the tonic melodic line, but in this case, the line
phrase structure, dramatic shape, and and therefore ends on another note of is improvised.

The next step is to have the stu-
dent improvise an entire twelve-bar Basic Jazz and Blues Terminology
blues chorus (three four-barphrases).
The pattern of the phrases is ques- Blues changes. The chord progressionfor any given blues tune.Two sets
tion-question-answer. Demonstrate of standardizedblues chord changes are taught.These are notated using stan-
this and have the student try to impro- dard harmonic Roman numeral designations.All of the chords are typically
vise several during the lesson period. major-minorseventh chords or dominant seventh chords. Both sets of chord
Figure 2 illustrates a one-chorus blues changes consist of one chord per measure of music.
solo consisting of three phrases (ques-
Firstchord changes:
tion-question-answer) that are indi-
cative of a simple improvisation. Phrase 1:17,17,17,17
Don't let the student play outside Phrase 2: IV7,IV7,17,17
the blues scale yet. This is important Phrase 3:V7,IV7,17,17
because the goal is to create melodi-
Second chord changes:
cally meaningful improvisations that
utilize the resources of the blues scale. Phrase 1:17,IV7,7,17
Only after the student can improvise Phrase 2: IV7,IV7,17,17
on all twelve blues scales should you Phrase 3:V7,IV7,17,17
allow him or her to use the melodic
In the key of C, the chords can be identifiedas :17= C7 (C, E, G, B-flat),
resources of the chord progression
IV7 F7(F,A, C, E-flat),andV7 = G7 (G, B, D, F).
=
(e.g., major mode with major-seventh
chords, Mixolydian mode with domi- Blues scale (blue note). The scale that has evolved from the blues tra-
nant-seventh chords, Dorian mode
dition.See below for the C blues scale:
with minor-seventh chords). A stu-
dent who has mastered this method
1 b3 4 N4A5 5 b7 8
and progressed to the study of harmo- I
ny will able to improvise fairly mature
multichorus solos that have definite
J
>5^ bi J( J)1I J h-
dramaticshapes with cohesive musical
endings. Once the melodic structure Chorus. One complete performance of the structure of the tune. For
has been internalized, introducing
more advanced melodic and harmonic example, in a twelve-bar blues, if the trumpet player plays a solo that is three
choruses long,then the solo went completely through the twelve-bar structure
concepts is easier and takes less time three times, for a total of thirty-six measures.
for the student to learn.
Twelve-bar blues. The lengthof a standardblues tune. A twelve-barblues
Melodic Energy and Dramatic contains three four-barphrases.
Shape Trading fours. The act of two or more people trading four-measure
The next step is controlling the improvisedphrases.
melodic energy and dramatic shape
during an improvisedsolo. First,define
what constitutes dramatic energy in a
solo. Typically,we think of musical
lines that exhibit less dramatic energy FigureI. TheB-flatbluesscale
as consisting of longer note values,
having more and longer musical rests,
being of a quiet nature, and not using 47 k bo to S" 0o I
the extreme registersof the instrument
or voice. If these elements characterize
a melody of low dramatic energy,then
the opposite is true for melodies that low energy."While this is an overgen- energy of this demo solo can be
exhibit a high level of dramaticenergy. eralization, it works with most begin- defined as small-medium-big in terms
Specifically,high-energy melodies use ning and intermediatestudents. of the three phrases. After your
shorter rhythmic values and syncopa- Improvisationexercises during the demonstration, have the student try to
tion, have fewer and shorter rests, are lesson. After you have explained improvise one. Coach the student
often mezzo forte and louder, and melodic energy and dramatic shape, while he or she is playing the instru-
explore the extreme registers of the begin with one-chorus blues solos. ment, specifically in terms of bringing
instrumentor voice. You can tell this to Start by demonstrating a simple solo the energy up and down.
the student by simply saying, "Higher, that climaxes at the beginning of the Having a predetermined dramatic
faster, and louder equals high energy; third phrase and concludes with an shape for an improvisation is very
and lower, slower, and softer equals answer phrase. The general melodic important at this stage. Always pre-
JANUARY 2003 19
define the dramaticshape that the stu-
Figure2. One-chorus blues solo dent will strive to realize during an
showing phrase structure improvisation exercise. This teaches
the student to explore different levels
J=104 of musical energy while improvising
b Swing
1 and, when learned, will contribute to
a natural and mature flow of musical
energy.
JJ;1JW'
I7 b. 1 Do not forget to incorporate the
^K ideas about phrase structure that have
already been covered. A successful
9
strategy is to require the student to
7 conclude each solo with an answer
p c b ^^ ^
..TTtjg"^7
1
^A^^g"
n phrase. Other specific phrase require-
ments can be made, but concluding
each solo with an answer phrase dur-
ing these exercises teaches the student
Figure3. One-chorus blues solo to end each solo with a logical musical
statement that comes to rest on the
showing dramatic shape tonic note.
Experiment with various dramatic
Swing shapes for a one-chorus solo. Some
successful combinations are small-
h i medium-big, big-small-big, and big-
Ap mbbpi
medium-small.Figure 3 shows a sam-
ple one-chorus solo using the
Ibr
L, L,?_16 Ju J J J7_ small-medium-bigdramatic shape.
I' I I f. Once the student has achieved a
level of success with the one-chorus
X '1
'Jl'-,-- J..r -b.-
-. solo, it is time to move to a two-cho-
---- MP-
rus solo. The important factors are
/ mf p
building energy from the transition of
the first chorus into the beginning of
the second chorus, bringing the ener-
gy down at the end of the second cho-
Figure4. Two-chorusblues solo rus, and solidly ending the solo on the
showing dramatic shape tonic note. Figure 4 illustrates a sam-
ple two-chorus solo. The dramatic
shape of the first chorus is small-
medium-big, and the dramatic shape
of the second chorus is big-medium-
small. The last phrase of the solo ends
P
5 on the tonic.
mp
Using Thematic Development
in a Solo
Using thematic development sim-
b
r crif
7 Z | 8 ifl
7X r r ir ^cr ply means introducing the student to
improvisationas a method of composi-
tion. This can be accomplished in a
fm
straightforwardmannerby introducing
h itf f,ff ,, the student to three basic concepts:
17 1. The "idea"is your first improvised
phrase for the chorus.
165 f 6 II'rr ~'-~
yn $ tv i 4 r t II 2. Any "repetition"that is similarto but
21 not exactly the same as the idea is a
type of thematic development.
3. "Something different"is an inten-
====~P
mp tional deviation from the idea, con-
taining new material, and it helps
keep the solo from becoming too
repetitious.
Figure 5. One-chorus blues solo
With these basic concepts intro- showing thematic pattern
duced, demonstrate for the student a
one-chorus blues solo that follows the =88
Swing
thematic pattern of idea-repetition i Idea
(development)-somethingdifferent for
the three phrases of the blues chorus.
mp
This type of AAB formal structure is 5 related
Thematically Repetition-----
very common in blues lyrics, and it
works quite well in instrumental hy r
mf
bn r^ 'p-rr i JLJI 7:7 ^^
improvisationinstruction. 9 I Something Different
Figure 5 illustrates a one-chorus
blues solo that follows the thematic
patternof idea-repetition-something dif- f mp
ferent, while exhibiting the dramatic
shape small-medium-big.
Once the student has become com-
fortable with one-chorus blues solos
that possess a defined dramaticshape,
use clearly communicated thematic Figure6. Two-chorusblues solo
ideas, and have a coherent musical
showing thematic pattern
J=102
ending, it is time to expand into multi-
chorus blues solos that use these new
Swing
principles.Have the student begin with
two-chorus solos that follow this the- 5s
matic pattern:
* first chorus: idea-repetition-some-
thingdifferent 9
* second chorus: new idea-new repeti-
tion-bring back somethingfrom the
first idea as an answerto end. mY
f
Figure 6 illustrates this type of two-
chorus solo.
After the student is beginning to
feel comfortable with this level of
1f
17
7 >,3
artistic control, start adding predeter-
mined dramaticshapes to the themat-
ic structure. For example, have the 21
first chorus (idea-repetition-something
different)follow the energy pattern of
low energy-bringit up a little bit-build mf M-
energy into the second chorus on the
phrase level as the student is simulta-
neously controlling the thematic
ideas. The second chorus should fol-
low the energy pattern of keep the moment with my students makes it all Aebersold's Blues in All 12 Keys play-
energy up-bring it down a little worthwhile. along books and recordings or Band-
bit-bring the energydown and conclude in-a-Boxsoftware, the teacher and stu-
with a solid musical answer Conclusion dent have a practical means to explore
Once a student can successfullyplay Through the concepts of phrase these principles in the lesson and at
a logical two-chorus blues solo while structure, musical energy and dramat- home. This is a very teachable system,
controlling the musical energyinto and ic shape, and thematic development, and once the teacher is used to the
out of a climax, using clearly commu- you can effectively teach any student specific order of the exercises, it
nicated thematicideas and digressions, to improvise a musically meaningful becomes second nature. Being able to
and concluding with a coherent musi- solo. While the concepts are fairly improvise a musically satisfying blues
cal ending, then the student is begin- simple, the implementation requires solo is, in my opinion, one of the first
ning to master the art of jazz improvi- discipline and, above all, practice. By and most important steps in the life-
sation. As a teacher, performer,com- incorporating this system with the use long pursuit of fluid jazz improvisa-
poser, and lover of jazz, I feel that this of teaching aids such as Jamey tion. K
JANUARY 2003 21
Improving improvisation watch for the flags

Lee Bash
DOI: 10.2307/3398260

Published by:
On behalf of:
>> Version of Record - Oct 1, 1991
What is This?

0
r 0
Improvisation,the least
^ elementin jazz,
structured
fy-
oftenprovesthemostdifficult
to teach.Lee Bash shows
how beingalertfor certain
canhelpyouleadthe
"flags"
wayto a dramatic
improve-
mentinyourstudents'
solos.
n
provisa
by Lee Bash
44 MEJ/October '91

9
There is a "law of conserva- grasped the basic concept through

tion" amongeducators, which sim- guided listening experience and
ply states that individuals only your pinpoint analyses of these at-
learn something when they are tributes-"flags"-creating impro-
ready to learn it. This is based on vised solos with each specific char-
the observation that differentindi- acteristicas a performancestrategy
vidualslearn at differentrates. One will become easier for them.
notablearea in which music educa- Improvisedsolos may seem hard
tors can apply this law is jazz im- to analyze or evaluate criticallyfor
provisation. Understanding this instruction,but in order for you to
general principle can give the jazz identify problems your students
instructor a sense of when a stu- may be having it is essential to look
dent is ready to progress toward for specific characteristics in their
improvisingin a more mature and performances. Actually, once you
musical manner. But much of this begin to identify these attributeson
readiness can be brought about
more easily by raising the con-
walt ch a regular basis, they become so
apparent that they seem to wave
sciousness of the student, and this flags at you to assist in your evalua-
consciousness-raisingcan be readi- tion. In fact, there is nothing subtle
ly achieved when the teacher pro- about these flags-they also wave
vides insightfulanalyses of the stu- blatantlyat adjudicatorswhen your
dent's performance. jazz group competes at festivals.
Therefore, recognizing your solo-
Assessingimprovisation ists' problemswill often enable you
Though your students may have to improve your competitive rat-
mastered the "technical" myster- ings as well.
ies of jazz improvisation to the Young soloists tend to exhibit at
pointwhere they are using the right least one, and often combinations,
scales or chord changes, their im- of these characteristics.There is no
provised solos may still seem to apparent hierarchy among them,
lack characteristicsthat usually are but it is a better strategy to deal
associated with more polished and with them one at a time ratherthan
satisfactorymodels. By learningto as a group of problems. Usually, it
recognize various attributesof stu- is helpful to address the most bla-
dents' improvised solos, you can tant, obvious need for remediation,
begin to identify specific problems and sometimes, while it is being
and then alert your students to improved,other less offensive defi-
their deficiencies and raise their ciencies may automatically be
consciousness as to how to create eliminated.
more sophisticated solos in a sys- Before you begin to analyze po-
tematic manner. As in any jazz tentialproblemsyoung improvisers
improvisation situation, this can are exhibiting, however, you
usuallybe achieved best by supple- should understandthe first funda-
menting your instruction with se- mental principle about improvisa-
lected listening assignments in tion performance. The nature of
which notablejazz improvisersim- any good musical performance,
plement these musical qualities in whetherit is taken from previously
their playing. Once the student has composed material or fresh from
the musician's imagination, relies
Lee Bash chairs the music department upon good communication skills.
and directs thejazz programat Bellar- In other words, in order for an
mine College in Louisville, Kentucky. improvisedsolo to make sense, the
MEJ/October'91 45
improviser should attempt to ex- 0 nicate only one idea or concept
press ideas musically. Because we withinthe context of a solo chorus.
all normally express our thoughts Another version of this same
each day through language, many problem is encountered when stu-
of these flags can be correlated to dents use lots of notes but they
language deficiencies. It is also don't really "say" anything. This
helpfulif you make languageanalo- need to communicateideas is inte-
gies in your improvisationinstruc- gral to other aspects of "flags" as
tion. A description of these prob- well and is central to maturesolos.
lems is presented below with solu- As a result, in most instances, you
tions that shouldenable the student will need to try to get your students
soloist to sound better almost im- to "say" somethingif they want to
mediately. present more musical, mature so-
los, but this is one problem area
False starts where direct reference to this ap-
The use of extreme range is par- proach should help rectify the
ticularly notable (in the negative problem almost immediately. Be-
sense) when an improviser uses it cause young improvisers often ap-
at the beginningof a solo, but it can proach solos like childrenin a can-
be a giveaway anywhere. Extreme dy store and try to choose "one of
range is a device that experienced everything," it can be particularly
improvisers use sparingly, and difficultto get them to refine their
even then with caution and prepa- focus to one idea, but it will inev-
ration. The mature soloist has itably markthe beginningof signifi-
learned that whatever impact ex- cant improvement in their playing
treme range may bring to a solo, it if you can get them to become more
is quickly dissipated, and therefore selective. In addition, we all use
he or she often avoids using it space in languageto indicate punc-
altogether. Not only does its use tuation in our speech. Musical
quickly lose impact, but it also phrases also need punctuation,
tends to restrict the choices the which is most easily achieved
improviser has, since it normally throughthe use of space.
only allows pitches to go in one Another related flag is encoun-
direction. tered when students attempt to
Perhaps this is one of the main compress all technique and ideas
reasons that the use of extreme into one short solo. This is akin to
range sounds unsatisfactory:good someone trying to tell their entire
improvised solos should have a life history in one hundredwords:
quality of unpredictability about it will probably end up as either
them (while at the same time they gibberishor a boring story. Young
should be logical). When extreme students need to practice economy
range is used, the listener is left in their solo presentation, and this
with no uncertaintywhatsoever, so can often be enhanced with impli-
that the overall impressionof such Photographby TimCollins cation. Encourageyour students to
solos is almost inevitably uncom- give the impressionthat, when they
are done with their solo, there's
plimentary. Encourageyour still a lot more that they could have
"Speaking"eloquently students to played. They just wanted to cover
a smaller area for this particular
No space in the improvised solo
creates a sense of "stream of con- concentrateon solo. Also, encourage your stu-
dents to concentrate on one (or at
sciousness," which suggests that
no meaning or communication is one (or at the the most, two) technical aspects in
taking place between listener and
performer.We've probably all en-
most, two) any single solo and to develop
these as fully as possible. For in-
countered the verbal equivalent of technicalaspects stance, rhythmic complexity is
this problem with a speaker who more effective when it is balanced
ramblesnonstop througha series of in any single solo by simple melodic concepts (or the
topics, never indicating the rela-
tionship among ideas or any clear-
and to develop reverse), but simultaneous com-
plexity in both elements usually
cut objective as to where he or she
is leadingus. For studentimprovis-
these as fully as tends to create chaos (which, of
course, again breaks down good
ers, the solutionis to try to commu- possible. communicationbetween improvis-
46 '91
MEJ/October
er and listener). Economy and pac- deals with the beat: either no beat
ing in this area can really improve is evident or what exists gets
the natureof an improvised solo. turned around. The pulse is para-
mount in practically any jazz or
Repetitionand planning rock situation, so any metric ambi-
Somehow, young improvisers guity in the improvisedsolo can be
seem to have the notion that there particularly problematic. Since
is a law in music that forbids them some students have trouble with
to use repetition(of either notes or pulse and tempo even when they
phrases). Not only is this common are performingwritten music, this
perception inaccurate, it is easily can be a particularlytroublesome
remediedand can immediatelyen- difficulty.The initial solution is to
hance a young improviser's per- encouragestudents to performsim-
formance. Merely require the im- ple, stronglymetric solos that care-
proviser consciously to repeat the fully conform to the rhythm sec-
same note in a solo (this may often tion's insistent pulse (and, of
be the tonic, but not necessarily). course, you need to make certain
The difference in the solo's con- that your rhythm players perform
structionwill be amazing. accurately). Blues solos are espe-
After improvisers break down cially helpful in addressing this
the "no-repetitionmyth," they can problem. Get students who have
also begin to repeat phrases, and significantdifficultywith pulse and
once again this becomes a very tempo to concentrate on the
powerful communication skill. rhythm section (particularly the
When we want to say something backbeat stresses on two and four
really important, one of the most provided by the drummer) and
effective, yet simple, strategies is make staying in time their first pri-
to repeat it-and repeat it again. ority (even if it means only playing
Getting students to actually plan one note per measure). Eventually
what will take place in their impro- this problem will be resolved, and
vised solos can be a major task! the student will inevitably play
Most students' solos suggest that muchmore stronglyin all areas as a
they have a lack of strategy as they result.
construct their improvisation. An- If you've ever encountereda mo-
other myth associated with im- notonous speaker, you've experi-
provisation is that the musician enced the equivalentof the student
must always begin with a fresh improviserwho does not use varia-
slate and neitherdrawon past work tion in his or her articulation.
nor use any type of "game plan." There are a whole rangeof articula-
Good speakers typically know tions for the improviser to choose
pretty much what they're going to from, and simply employing two
say in advance and they have some Photograph by Tim Collins contrastingarticulationswithin the
sense of how they will present their context of the same solo will en-
material.That is not to say that the hance the overall impact. But there
student improviser needs to know Getting students are numerousarticulationsthat are
every note and event that will take
place, but as good communicators
to actually plan particularly relevant to jazz/rock
performance that create a more
they must understandthat it is wise
to have a purpose in their presenta-
what will take meaningfulperformancein the con-
text of the style. Phil Woods and
tions and some notion of how that place in their ClarkTerry are two jazz musicians
purposecan best be achieved. The who immediatelycome to mind in
student improviser needs to know improvisedsolos their extensive use of various arti-
the form, chord progression,melo-
dy, and style of a piece in advance
can be a major culations. Some examples of the
more compelling applications of
and have a plan on how he or she task! this activity include articulations
will construct a meaningful and indigenousto jazz such as legato or
effective solo within those parame- staccato against heavy accent, the
ters. use of a short or long gliss either up
or down, and so on. These articula-
Rhythmand melody tions have been standardized by
Anotherone of the more obvious Matt Betton and are availablefrom
flags student improvisers wave the International Association of
MEJ/October'91 47
0
Jazz Educators(IAJE). If your stu- cial function, so should an impro-
dents are unfamiliar with these, vised solo. But for many student
this is another wonderful opportu- improvisers, the beginning doesn't
nity to do some controlledlistening start and the end doesn't finish,
with them. Again, this is one of which leaves the listener with a "so
those simple and obvious flags that what?" response to the solo. Anal-
can be easily addressed and reme- yses of CharlieParker's solos indi-
died. cate the importance of creating a
Some improvisedsolos lack rele- strong beginning and end for an
vance-that is, they don't relate to improvised solo. Parker, who
the melodic material or they are many consider to be the most out-
stylistically inappropriate. During standing improviser ever, would
many improvised solos among the pay particularattention to the first
best musicians, listeners can inter- and last parts of his solo and place
nally hear the theme even though the middle, which used essentially
the soloist is producingan entirely new material for each perform-
differentmelody. In this way, lis- ance, between patterns that he de-
teners are constantly able to com- veloped over the years and utilized
pare what is happeningin the im- for the crucial start and finish. This
provised solo with how things were strategyprovidedParkerwith a se-
initially presented in the "head" cure sense of opening and closing
(initial presentation)of the music. from which to launch his solo and
Some improvisers are notable for bring it to a logical conclusion,
their ability to create innovative while at the same time creatingfor
and delightful "solutions" to this the listener an impression of sub-
problemthat heightenthe listener's stance based upon the most memo-
appreciationof the process. rable parts of any solo-the begin-
Young improvisers,however, of- ning and the end.
ten ignorethe melodic theme to the Finally, there is a rather self-
point where their solo doesn't re- serving motive for students to de-
late in any way to the head. Often, velop skills in this area. Solos that
this is carried to such an extreme don't end conclusively don't elicit
that the improvisedmaterialis not approvaland appreciationfrom the
only thematicallyinappropriatebut audience. So if your students want
stylistically out of place. This may the audience to respond after their
seem like a basic issue, but stu- solo is over, they need to learnhow
dents often have a hard time put- to communicatethey are finishing,
ting it all together. Once again, this and then that they are done. And if
is an instance where structuredlis- they really want to enhance the
tening sessions can really help- audience's approval, they will de-
especially if you have a recording Photograph by Tim Collins
velop skill in how they begin their
of the piece they are performing. solo as well.
Sit down with the studentand care-
fully point out just what is taking Duringmany There is more to creatingan out-
standingimprovisedsolo than play-
place in an improvised solo and
how it relates both stylistically and
improvisedsolos ing the rightnotes within the chord
changes. Because jazz and rock
melodically to the initial thematic amongthe best have roots in the aural tradition,
material.Of course, this means you
will have to do some homeworkto musicians,listen- mimicry, based on careful listen-
ing, has always been an integral
select examplesthat really substan-
tiate your observations. The right
ers can internally part of the learningand developing
process for young musicians. With
choice, however, can do a marvel- hear the theme the assistance of focused listening
ous job of demonstratingthe im- sessions and awareness of the
portance of this concept, and ulti- even thoughthe kinds of flags young, inexperienced
mately this will make your task
easier.
soloist is producing improvisers often exhibit, the pro-
gress of your students can be accel-
Form and finality
an entirely different erated so that their improvisation
performance is more likely to
Just as business letters have spe-
cific parts, each with its own spe-
melody. sound really polished and profes-
sional. A1
48 MEJ/October
'91
Playing by Ear : Foundation or Frill?

Robert H. Woody
DOI: 10.1177/0027432112459199

Published by:
On behalf of:
What is This?

by Robert H. Woody
Playing by Ear
Foundation or Frill?
Abstract: Many people divide musicians into two types: those who can read music and those
who play by ear. Formal music education tends to place great emphasis on producing musi-
cally literate performers but devotes much less attention to teaching students to make music
without notation. Some would suggest that playing by ear is a specialized skill that is useful
only to jazz and popular musicians. There are, however, many reasons to reconsider this
position. Around the world, aural transmission of music and ear-based performance are the
norm. Music pedagogues have described ear playing as a necessary developmental precur-
sor to becoming a truly fluent music reader. Research supports the idea that playing by ear is
a foundational skill that contributes to other aspects of musicianship, including improvising,
sight-reading, and performing from memory. Ear playing has even been shown to be a con-
tributor to skilled performance of rehearsed music, the traditional mainstay of school music.
Learning to play by Ear-driven activities can involve student musicians in composing and arranging, musical col-
ear can give our laboration with peers, and lifelong individual artistic expression.
Keywords: audiation, aural skill, by-ear playing, music-making, improvisation, inner hearing,
students better skills performance, psychology of music learning
both in the music
classroom and when
S
killed painters and sculptors possess an ensemble. These types of listening activities
they engage in music eye for detail. Great food critics have build students’ aural skills in critical ways.
unusually refined taste buds. And it is When we speak of musicians’ being
on their own. easy to understand the phrase “hands of a sur- able to “play by ear,” however, we refer to
geon.” In music, it is the ear that defines great a more specific feat. It does not mean they
musicianship. Sound is the material of music listen in order to make expressive decisions
and what the ear is designed for. For under- about, say, dynamics or tempo. Playing by
standing, creating, and expressively organiz- ear means that the notes they play—that
ing sound as music, the ear is the musician’s is, the pitches and rhythms—are informed
ultimate asset. by an inner hearing. Skilled ear players do
In some ways, the music education pro- not require cues from notation (or another
fession has always recognized the impor- source) to know what notes to play, but
tance of the ear to music-making. Most instead are guided by an internal model of
school ensemble directors feel they con- what the music should sound like.
stantly implore their students to listen: lis- This aspect of musicianship has tradition-
ten to high-quality music recordings as ally gone underdeveloped by school music
homework outside of class, listen carefully instruction. In instrumental music class-
during individual practice, and definitely rooms, for instance, it is not uncommon for
listen when rehearsing with the rest of the every note that students play to be indicated
for Music Education
Robert H. Woody is an associate professor of music education at the University of Nebraska–Lincoln. He may be reached at
DOI: 10.1177/0027432112459199
http://mej.sagepub.com rwoody2@unl.edu.

by a printed page before them. If this is Cues from the Musical World performance skills in other sophisticated
the exclusive classroom routine, students music styles—American jazz, Irish Celtic
run the risk of never adding to their per- To judge the value of ear playing, we music, Argentinean tango, and Indian
formance range the ability to play by might begin outside our own personal raga, among a myriad—traditionally have
ear, improvise, and perform pieces from experiences and beyond the confines of been aurally developed and maintained.
memory. While notation-guided perfor- traditional school music. Is it possible to While ear-based musicianship may be
mance offers opportunities for aural skill consider this issue globally? Around the more common in informal learning set-
development, it has limitations. world, most cultures pass on and advance tings, it is not always the case.5 In much
Formal music education has a long their musical traditions from generation to formal instruction in Asian art music,
record of success in producing musically generation through oral/aural transmis- for instance, the musical modeling of
literate performers. In fact, it is rare that sion. This fact may be easily overlooked a teacher is offered to students for strict
someone learns to read music without by those of us working exclusively in imitation, with little accompanying verbal
the instruction provided by a school cur- scholastic environments. Much in music instruction.
riculum or private lessons. Conversely, can be learned by ear only, and it is the In general, as we survey the world of
many accomplished “ear-only” musicians most common learning approach univer- music, we see that aural transmission of
acquire their performance skills through sally. Experienced musicians sing and play music and playing by ear is the norm. It
informal learning experiences, such as instruments, while younger people watch, is perhaps more readily found in cultures
are found in groups in places of worship, listen, and imitate. It is natural and effec- outside the United States—especially
garage bands, and daily life in musically tive, and it has been happening as long as the current formal education systems
rich cultures and communities. It is no music has existed. Timeless musical val- therein—but is by no means exclusively
wonder that some see the musical world ues are passed down, complex physical a non-Western phenomenon. Ear-based
as divided into two types: those who can skills are acquired, and huge song reper- learning was more prominent in Euro-
read music and those who play by ear.1 toires are learned.2 pean society prior to the invention of the
Some members of each group view the Of course, this is not just a charac- printing press and the increased avail-
other with a certain degree of contempt. teristic of primitive cultures on far-off ability of sheet music and instrumental
When asked whether he could read music, continents. Ear-based models of music method books.6 We have advanced so
jazz great Louis Armstrong is said to have transmission are commonplace in many much in this way that a strictly notation-
replied, “Yes, but not enough to hurt my corners of Western society. For example, based musicianship has become a viable
playing.” Coming from a seemingly oppo- most school playgrounds are sympho- option to some. This has largely hap-
site perspective, many teachers dismiss nies of sound. The culture of childhood pened among school-trained musicians.
learning music by ear as a simplistic and is extremely musical and is dominated The question, however, is not whether it
inefficient alternative to doing it the right by singing and playing by ear as well as is possible, but whether it is education-
way, through notation. improvisation, composition, and musi- ally wise. This is a question many have
Music educators generally endorse cal creativity that defies categorization!3 already sought to answer.
the importance of the ear in music-mak- Even as they grow older, many young
ing and would appreciate if their students people continue this path of ear-driven Voices Gone Unheard?
had stronger aural skills. Who would not exploration, though often outside school
want to lead an ensemble of young musi- walls. A garage or basement becomes Educators have long questioned the spe-
cians who can both read music expertly their musical playground, as groups of cific role of the ear in music learning.
and freely generate ear-based improvi- friends collaborate to reproduce their American music educators might look to
sations and rehearsed performances? favorite songs on hand-me-down guitars, their professional origins in considering
Realistically, though, teachers must care- keyboards, and drum sets. A number of this issue. In the 1830s in Boston, Low-
fully choose how to use instructional researchers have suggested that study- ell Mason, commonly regarded as the
time. If ear playing is primarily valuable ing the learning processes of vernacular father of public school music education,
only to jazz and popular musicians, then musicians has much to offer to classroom strongly advocated aural fluency before
it seems unwise to devote too much educational practices.4 introducing music notation to students.
attention to it outside those stylistic This learning approach cannot be dis- Mason’s educational approach was based
contexts. One might even think that get- missed as merely being done out of neces- largely on the teachings of Swiss peda-
ting students up to speed on reading sity due to lack of resources. Its learners gogue Johann Pestalozzi, who promoted
music is enough of a challenge, such that are not just kids who are too young to active experiences of concepts (e.g., cre-
also teaching ear playing and improvisa- read and teenagers without access to ating and performing musical sounds)
tion is impractical. This article offers a private lessons. Many religious cultures before introducing passive knowledge
variety of reasons to reconsider the notion around the world comprise amateur (e.g., symbols representing music).
that playing by ear is a specialized skill musicians who rely on their ears to learn In the early to mid-twentieth cen-
with limited educational applications. music for worship services. Additionally, tury, prominent British music educator
www.nafme.org 83
James Mainwaring offered tremendous attempt to vocally imitate what they have At best, however, we guard against let-
insight into the cognition behind music heard. Over time, their babbled approxi- ting our own limitations weaken the
learning. In investigating the learn- mations of language give way to actual educational experiences we offer. We
ing process, he became one of the first words and phrases. Soon they achieve aspire to bring the entire musical world
researchers to advance the importance speech fluency and can effortlessly recite to our students, not simply the segments
of ear playing in formal music educa- memorized texts (nursery rhymes), retell that are easy to deliver.
tion.7 His work, which spanned the familiar tales, and spontaneously create
1930s to the 1950s, explicitly stated that original stories. Only after these ear- Musicianship Revisited
students should “proceed from sound to based competencies are attained are
symbol, not from symbol to sound.” It children introduced to the symbols that Perhaps the question we should ask our-
would seem this advice runs contrary to represent their language, and these sym- selves is whether there is any reason to
the teaching practice of today, in which bols (letters and words) are linked to the deprive students of musical experiences
beginning instrumentalists are given ele- sounds they already know so well. Trans- that come only with greater ear develop-
mentary method books from the outset ferring this developmental sequence to ment. Put another way, would increased
and taught to play from their pages. music learning—specifically to learning attention to ear playing detract from
More modern influences include Jap- to perform on an instrument—students growth in other important performance
anese pedagogue Shinichi Suzuki and should have much exposure to musical skills, such as sight-reading and playing
German composer-educator Carl Orff, models to aurally imitate on their instru- rehearsed music? Some have blamed the
whose teaching approaches have long ments. They should have opportunities ear emphasis of Suzuki training when
been staples in American music training. to play familiar songs by ear, embellish its instrumentalists struggle with read-
The Suzuki method makes heavy use of simple musical material, and impro- ing as older students. Referring back to
sound recordings and teacher modeling vise. When this performance fluency is the language-learning analogy, though,
as the primary means for young students reached, young instrumentalists are then it is fairly easy to dispel this accusation.
to learn music material. This allows the ready to learn the written language of No one would think to blame the prob-
postponement of notation reading until music. The symbols of notation can then lem of language illiteracy on the fact
students are technically well established. be linked to the sounds they represent that people first gained aural fluency in
The Orff approach emphasizes oppor- (as opposed to the keys or fingerings the language. The breakdown comes in
tunities for children to learn by ear on used to produce them). the failure to connect verbal language
instruments and voice, realize familiar Of course, these ideas have been to the symbols used to represent it.
folk songs and chants, and improvise championed by more people than If, in fact, some Suzuki students strug-
music in various contexts. Common to those mentioned earlier.9 The question gle to comfortably read notation, the
these and other approaches is the lik- that remains, however, is why these solution comes in giving them proper
ening of learning music to learning lan- theories are not better reflected in the reading experiences and motivating
guage. The Suzuki method is called the mainstream practices of modern music them to attain that skill. Teachers must
“mother-tongue approach” because its classrooms. Have past pedagogues and build on their ear foundation, not wish
prescribed musical experiences dupli- researchers failed to present a compel- it undone.
cate the sequence in which children ling case? Have music teacher train- Empirical research has provided evi-
learn to speak their native language. The ing programs failed to impart sound dence that ear-based musicianship is a
Orff approach similarly uses rote learn- instructional strategies to their students? facilitator—and not an obstacle—to other
ing and relies on rhythmic speech as an There are no easy answers to this line performance skills that are traditionally
important foundation for later musical of questioning, but clearly, putting the- valued in school music programs. Aus-
skills. The language-learning model has ory into practice has not been easy. A tralian music education researcher Gary
been further advanced by Edwin Gor- pragmatist might correctly point out that McPherson has done much recently to
don, who coined the term audiation to although the preceding theories may advance this line of inquiry.10 He con-
describe the inner hearing that underlies describe ideal musical development, ducted a three-year longitudinal study
musicianship.8 Among his many con- it is definitely not the only way for stu- that looked at a variety of environmental
tributions to the field, Gordon keenly dents to gain performance skills. Many influences and several types of instru-
noted that “audiation is to music what students have rewarding school music mental performance skills. Through his
thought is to language.” experiences without gaining much flu- methodology, he was able to go beyond
The music-as-language analogy sug- ency in ear playing and improvisation. just finding associations and overlapping
gests that music learning follows the This likely describes many who go on skills, and to ultimately identify which
natural stages of language development. to become music teachers. Is it possible, skills contribute to others. In consider-
Infants first listen to the spoken sounds then, that we do not value ear playing ing the five skills of improvising, per-
around them and come to identify pat- for our students because we never ade- forming rehearsed music, playing by ear,
terns in what they hear. They then quately developed the skill for ourselves? playing from memory, and sight-reading,

he found that playing by ear was the great difficulty reading music and band music (e.g., jazz, rock, worship ensem-
only one that contributed to the other members who can perform only from bles), and the other half had learned
four skills. Not surprisingly, ear playing notation. Both ensembles are lacking in their skills almost exclusively in formal
offered much to learning to improvise; goal imaging development. The strug- instructional settings (school and pri-
it was also, however, a strong contribu- gling choir members can do little with vate lessons). We used two eight-meas-
tor to sight-reading ability. Playing by ear the notation and instead likely rely on ure melodies with equivalent pitch and
was even shown to facilitate performing other singers around them (or an accom- rhythm content, drawn from a second-
rehearsed music, the traditional main- panist plunking out their part on piano!) year beginning band method book.
stay of school music education. to know what their part should sound With one of the melodies, the musicians
To better understand music learning like. The notation-bound band mem- learned it and sang it back, and with the
and to diagnose student problems, it is bers use their mechanically produced other melody, they played it back on
helpful to consider the cognitive abili- approximations to gradually inform their their principal instruments. We tracked
ties underlying music performance. One goal images of the music. In both cases, the number of times through the listen-
model identifies three interrelated cog- the path to a finished performance prod- then-perform cycle that each musician
nitive skills: goal imaging—creating an uct would be shorter if students had the needed to reach accurate performance. I
expectation of what the music should ear skills to decode notation into more suspected that the vernacular musicians
sound like, motor production—generat- precise images of what the music should would be better at playing melodies by
ing the movements and physical actions sound like. ear on their instruments, but I wondered
on an instrument, and self-monitor- In his writings, Zoltán Kodály how pronounced this difference would
ing—accurately hearing one’s own per- decried the undeveloped ears of bril- be, given that the formal musicians were
formance of the music.11 Performance liant pianists who could not sing simple music majors and the melodic material
depends on a musician’s goal image, melodies, even after multiple hearings.12 was relatively simple. I was also inter-
whether it is built from notation (as in “They play only with their fingers,” he ested to know whether performance
sight-reading) or from a mental image lamented. “They are not musicians but problems could be attributed more to
already stored in memory (as in ear play- machine operators.” While he surely difficulty committing melodies to mem-
ing). Linking that goal image to motor meant this as pointed criticism, he was ory (goal imaging) or to an inability to
production is key; it is the difference not altogether discrediting these accom- realize them on their instruments (motor
between “knowing a song” such that you plished musicians. Their virtuosity and production).
can hum it and knowing it to where you technical prowess on the instrument The results were rather striking. The
can play it readily on your instrument. could not be challenged. Kodály did, vernacular musicians were far better at
Becoming fluent on a musical instru- however, question the completeness of this task than the formal musicians, both
ment—making it a natural extension of their musicianship and the full effects of in terms of singing and playing on their
oneself, as is often said—boils down to their limitations. Herein lies a potential instruments. On average, the vernacular
building an automatic connection from danger of musicians’ learning primarily musicians required three (3.0) attempts
goal imaging to motor production, that is, by sight and not by sound. Students who to sing back a melody accurately and just
a musical ear–hand coordination. When learn exclusively from print notation may 3.8 to learn one on their instruments. In
reading notation, the visual cues should be precluded from engagement in other contrast, the formal musicians needed
bring to mind sounds that are already performance activities. At the very least, an average of 6.4 attempts to correctly
cognitively linked to the instrumental failing to gain adequate aural experi- sing a melody back and 10.6 to play one
action needed. For some instrumental- ence as beginning instrumentalists may on their instruments. These data suggest
ists, a less ideal process occurs: notation severely hinder them from ever develop- several important things. First, singing by
prompts the recall of a fingering or bod- ing ear-playing skills in the future. ear is a good indicator of goal-imaging
ily movement. Whether the right sound Music researcher Andreas Lehmann skill, since it requires only remembering a
is produced depends less on the player’s and I recently investigated the potential melody and no other physical skill learn-
musicianship than on the mechanics gap between notation-based musicians ing. It seems the vernacular musicians had
of the instrument and the body. This is and those also possessing ear-playing developed better remembering skills—
why “earless” note reading is more easily skills.13 In the experiment, twenty-four twice as good, on the basis of the num-
learned on piano, on which every pitch college instrumentalists learned simple bers (3.0 compared to 6.4). Furthermore,
has its own discrete key, than on a horn, melodies by ear such that they could the vernacular musicians also showed
on which a single fingering can produce perform them accurately. These were a better connection between their goal
many different tones. all music majors whose primary instru- imaging and motor production. That is,
With this in mind, we can diagnose ments included piano, flute, bassoon, the difference between singing and play-
some common performance problems. horn, mallet percussion, saxophone, ing was very small for them (3.0 to 3.8),
In fact, we can see the same underlying trombone, and trumpet. Half these stu- whereas it was more sizeable for the for-
issue afflicting choir members who have dents had backgrounds in “vernacular” mal musicians (6.4 to 10.6).
www.nafme.org 85
Our study also included a follow- the secondary level, and the vast majority For music teachers wanting to inte-
up interview in which the participants of them permanently retire from music- grate more ear-based music making
shared their thought processes during making upon graduation. into their classes, it is not just a matter
the performance task and answered As described here, a growing body of finding the right published materi-
some questions about their musical of research supports the admonitions of als. Many method book series include
development. The most interesting com- music pedagogues past and present. Pro- sound recordings and lesson sugges-
ments related to the amount of attention viding ear-based music-making experi- tions that incorporate ear playing, and
they devoted to producing melodies on ences serves only to enhance student these can be a part of effective teaching.
their instruments. Most of the formal development. Teachers do not need to But instead of looking for an expert’s
musicians consciously focused on fin- choose between preserving traditional prescription, teachers should trust their
gerings, slide positions (trombone), and ensemble performance and giving way instincts and adapt what they are already
mallet strokes (percussion). Said one of to a revolutionary ear-based curriculum. doing to engage their students’ ears.
them, “I knew what the notes needed to If thoughtfully planned, instructional Elementary teachers can do copycat
be; I just couldn’t find them on the horn.” time can be allocated to ear-playing and call-and-response games on instru-
This was quite different from the ver- activities without worrying that it will ments. They can use solfège to help stu-
nacular musicians, who spoke very little somehow erode progress in other dents connect sounded pitches to visual
about fingerings. For them, this process aspects of musicianship. Ironically, this representations of them (the hand signs
had become more or less automatic. advice may be most pertinent to teach- can be transitioned to a written staff to
At first glance, the results of this ers whose favored learning objectives introduce proper note reading). Sec-
study may seem to reinforce the tradi- involve reading notation. Ear playing ondary teachers, before handing out
tional idea of two discrete types of musi- is a key contributor to music literacy.14 printed parts to their ensembles, can
cians. We must remember, however, that After a thorough study of the processes teach prominent or recurring melodies
the vernacular musicians in the study of musical development—and notation by ear. They can assign ear-playing time
were also formally trained musicians. reading, specifically—music research- into at-home practice requirements. Stu-
They were products of school music ers Gary McPherson and Alf Gabrielsson dents also can be directed to recordings
and, accordingly, skilled in sight-reading concluded that an emphasis on notation of excellent performers on their instru-
and performance of rehearsed literature. separate from opportunities to play by ments and challenged to reproduce
They helped populate their university’s ear and develop music reading fluency what they hear, in terms of not only
bands and orchestras. It would seem “restricts overall musicianship and the tone quality and technical precision but
these players have developed broad types of skills needed for a musician to also the actual melodic content. See the
performance skills, whereas, according succeed long-term.”15 Ear-Building Strategies for Music Class-
to the results detailed earlier, the exclu- What exactly are the kinds of expe- rooms sidebar for additional practi-
sively formally trained students face riences that advance students’ ear musical strategy ideas. The most important
some serious limitations in musicianship. cianship? In our study mentioned earlier, thing is to do something. There are vir-
the posttask interview prompted partici- tually no ear activities that will harm
pants to list the kinds of activities that musicianship!
School Experiences for contributed to their vernacular musi-
Lifelong Participation cianship. They most often mentioned
playing familiar songs on their instru- Growing Musicianship
Most music educators are committed to ments, using recordings to learn music,
providing the best learning experiences transcribing the solos of other perform- There are many instructional possi-
they can so their students will be able to ers, and improvising in various music bilities available to teachers, depending
enjoy the rewards of being musical. If at groups. Many of the formal musicians on their curricular objectives and the
all possible, we would like our students to in the study reported not being “made needs of their students. Ultimately, how-
attain a musicianship that connects them to use their ears” until entering aural ever, teachers will not incorporate such
to the immense world of music, embraces skills classes as college music majors.16 approaches into their methods unless
the unique benefits of school music, and Ear playing is not something best left to they value the skill of ear playing and
is personally meaningful to them. In the “jazzers.” In fact, many of the formal what it offers to their students’ musi-
most cases, the musical training that stu- musicians in our study had been mem- cal development. Given the evidence, it
dents gain during primary and secondary bers of school jazz bands and came away is clear that learning music by ear is an
schooling is what they will rely on for the without having developed ear-playing effective and foundational part of any
remainder of their lives. Perhaps the most skills. It is possible for instrumental kind of musicianship. Virtually all young
disheartening aspect of the current status teachers to deviate from the genre’s ear- children enter formal music instruction
of music education is this: only a minor- based roots and run their jazz bands just already adept at it, from their language-
ity of students receive music instruction at like their concert bands. learning and previous informal music

experiences. Unfortunately, some music
teachers fail to build on this, and they Ear-Building Strategies for Music Classrooms
thus allow their students’ ear skills to
atrophy. Some young people look else- Elementary General
where to advance their musical skills and • Echo Sing-n-Play—This can be done with students on recorders or at barred “Orff” instruments. Sing
keep their ears growing. Their intrinsic a short melodic phrase, have students sing it back, and then have them play it on their instruments.
Depending on the level of the students, you can limit the length of the phrase and the melodic content.
motivation toward music and their cho- For example, give lower elementary students three-note phrases containing only sol, mi, and la. Move
sen instruments drives them to observe upper elementary students toward longer melodies that are pentatonic (and eventually diatonic).
and imitate more experienced perform- • Hidden Note Game—When students are fairly adept at echoing melodic phrases, challenge them with
ers, analytically listen to recordings, this game. Choose a particular note that students must “hide” in their singing. If, for example, you
and in the Internet age, learn from You- designate mi as the hidden note and sing “sol–sol–mi–do,” the class would replace the mi with a rest
(during which they mentally hear the pitch) and echo back “sol–sol–[rest]–do.” The game can be
Tube videos. For years, educational psy- made into a fun competition; either the class or the teacher scores a point for each melodic phrase
chologists have explained the power of depending on whether students successfully hide the note in their echo singing.
observational learning, both within and • Elementary Instrumental
outside formal instructional settings.17
• Ten-Tune Challenge—Once beginners have learned how to produce a good number of pitches on
After high school, opportunities for their instruments, they can carry this out over several weeks. Assign the task of teaching themselves
music-making are most readily available to play by ear ten melodies that they already know. The tunes may be ones from general music class,
in informal settings. Teens and young playground games, folk songs, melodies from pop music, television jingles, and so on. As students play
each, you have opportunity to assess their developing musicianship in terms of tone production, sense
adults can be active participants in music of pulse, articulation, and intonation, among others. Boost student motivation by tracking their progress
as they turn to their peers, recordings, to ten tunes on an achievement chart.
and the Internet. Few will find member- • A Root Awakening—If using a method book, teach students by ear a “root melody” to accompany a
ship in organized programs that duplicate melody or exercise from the book. A root melody is a bass line consisting of only chord roots, set to a
the traditional large ensembles of second- complementary rhythm. Your aural model can be sung or played on your instrument. Creating the root
melody should be quick work for you, as the chord changes of most method book melodies are not
ary schools (e.g., community bands, and complex (a method’s accompaniment recordings can be helpful in this way too).
choirs and instrumental groups in places
of worship).18 Ideally, music education
Secondary Instrumental
should equip young people to be lifelong
music participants—not mere consumers. Blast from the Past—Student instrumentalists can build their ears by trying to play music they previously
learned by notation. If, for instance, your middle school band students have moved on to book 2 of a
Greater attention to ear-playing devel- method, ask them to recall some of the more popular melodies from book 1. At the high school level,
opment may be a critical ingredient to months of ensemble rehearsal can pay dividends beyond the concert if, after printed parts have been
making this happen. Ear-driven activities collected from students, you have them play some of their favorite passages from past repertoire.
can effectively facilitate development of Eyes-Closed Warm-Up—Many bands and orchestras warm up by playing scales and arpeggios. Using
composing and arranging, improvisation, varying rhythms and pitch sequences, sing or play patterns for your students to imitate. Control the
difficulty through the length of your patterns and the complexity of the rhythmic and melodic content (e.g.,
musical collaboration in groups, and indi- stepwise versus larger intervallic motion). Playing Bach chorales is another popular warm-up approach
vidual artistic expression, not to mention among band directors. These can be taught by ear, especially if the group works on only a phrase or two
more fluent notation reading. These are all of a chorale. Student musicians still reap the benefits, namely, the focus on tone production, balance and
blend, and intonation. In fact, development of these skills may be enhanced if students close their eyes in
skills that will empower music education order to open their ears even more.
graduates to direct their own continued
musical growth and enjoy the rewards of Secondary Choral
music making for life.
Spot the Difference—Choir students can struggle when reading an arrangement of a song they “know”
from a popular recording. Build their ear-based reading skills with this activity. Sing for your choir two
versions of a phrase, differing only slightly in terms of rhythm or pitch content. Have students repeat each
version until they can sing both version A and version B correctly. Then show them the printed notation for
Notes one and challenge them to decide whether it denotes version A or B. Prepare your choir for future classes
by drawing the “correct” versions from the repertoire you will soon be rehearsing.
1. Lars Lilliestam, “On Playing by Ear,”
Vocal Improv Practice—Although we want choir students to read notation accurately, we do not want their
Popular Music 15, no. 2 (1996): singing skills to be entirely dependent on a written part in a choral score. Students often hear pop singers
195–216. and gospel soloists vocally improvise, especially at the end of a song. Give your students opportunities to
2. Bruno Nettl, “An Ethnomusicological try this for themselves. To prepare them for this potentially intimidating experience, share with them some
recorded examples. Guide them in identifying some of the more common vocal embellishments. Ease
Perspective,” in International them into their own vocalizing by having them improvise along to familiar recordings, first silently (mentally
Handbook of Research in Arts hearing their improv ideas), then en masse so no one is put on the spot. Once they are ready to sing out, let
Education, ed. Liora Bresler them try in smaller groups. Of course, ultimate success in improvisation depends heavily on listening, so
(Drodrecht, the Netherlands: Springer, always encourage students to do much listening outside of class.
2007), 829–33.
Note: Special thanks to James B. Karas (instrumental music teacher, Lefler Middle School, Lincoln, Neb-
3. Books on the musical culture of raska) for his contribution to these strategies.
childhood include Patricia Shehan
www.nafme.org 87
Campbell, Songs in Their Heads: 10. Gary E. McPherson, Michael Bailey, Journal of Research in Music
Music and Its Meaning in Children’s and Kenneth E. Sinclair, “Path Education 58, no. 2 (2010):
Lives (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Analysis of a Theoretical Model to 101–15.
Press, 1998); and Kathryn Marsh, The Describe the Relationship among
14. Janet Mills and Gary E. McPherson,
Musical Childhood: Global Tradition Five Types of Musical Performance,”
“Musical Literacy,” in The Child as
and Change in Children’s Songs and Journal of Research in Music
Musician: A Handbook of Musical
Games (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Education 45, no. 1 (1997): 103–29.
Development, ed. Gary E. McPherson
Press, 2008). 11. For more information on this three-part (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press,
4. Studies addressing how vernacular model of the cognitive skills of music 2006): 155–71.
musicianship can be applied to music performance, see Andreas C. Lehmann
15. Gary E. McPherson and Alf
teaching practices include Lucy Green, and Jane W. Davidson, “Taking an
Gabrielsson, “From Sound to Sign,” in
How Popular Musicians Learn: A Way Acquired Skills Perspective on Music
The Science and Psychology of Music
Ahead for Music Education (Aldershot, Performance,” in The New Handbook
Performance: Creative Strategies for
UK: Ashgate, 2001); Sheri E. Jaffurs, of Research on Music Teaching and
Teaching and Learning, ed. Gary E.
“The Impact of Informal Music Learning, ed. Richard Colwell and
McPherson and Richard Parncutt (New
Learning Practices in the Classroom, or Carol Richardson (New York: Oxford
York: Oxford University Press, 2002),
How I Learned to Teach From a Garage University Press, 2002), 542–60;
113.
Band,” International Journal of Music and Robert H. Woody, “Explaining
Education 22, no. 3 (2004): 189– Expressive Performance: Component 16. Woody and Lehmann, “Student
200; Heidi Westerlund, “Garage Rock Cognitive Skills in an Aural Modeling Musicians’ Ear Playing Ability.”
Bands: A Future Model for Developing Task,” Journal of Research in Music 17. Albert Bandura, Social Learning Theory
Musical Expertise?” International Education 51, no. 1 (2003): 51–63. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall,
Journal of Music Education 24, no. 2 12. Zoltán Kodály, The Selected Writings 1977).
(2006): 119–25; and Sharon G. Davis, of Zoltán Kodály (London: Boosey &
“‘That Thing You Do!’ Compositional 18. Don D. Coffman, “Adult Education,”
Hawkes, 1974), 196. in The New Handbook of Research
Processes of a Rock Band,”
International Journal of Education and 13. Robert H. Woody and Andreas C. on Music Teaching and Learning, ed.
the Arts 6, no. 16 (2005), http://www. Lehmann, “Student Musicians’ Richard Colwell and Carol Richardson
ijea.org/v6n16/. Ear Playing Ability as a Function (New York: Oxford University Press,
of Vernacular Music Experiences,” 2002): 199–209.
5. Nettl, “An Ethnomusicological
Perspective.”
6. Gary E. McPherson and Alf
Gabrielsson, “From Sound to Sign,” in
The Science and Psychology of Music Request for Submissions: Centennial-Themed
Performance: Creative Strategies for
Teaching and Learning, ed. Richard
Articles in Honor of MEJ’s First Hundred Years
Parncutt and Gary E. McPherson (New
York: Oxford University Press, 2002), Music Educators Journal, whose antecedent was Music Supervisors Journal, will cele-
99–115. brate a century of publication in 2014. MEJ’s Academic Editor Patrick K. Freer is seeking
7. James Mainwaring, Teaching Music in submissions of articles that reflect high points during the past hundred years or provide
Schools (London: Paxton, 1951), 12. an overview of the contributions of this journal to the music education profession.
8. Edwin E. Gordon, “All about Audiation

Prospective authors may query Patrick Freer about potential topics prior to submission
and Music Aptitudes,” Music
(pfreer@gsu.edu). Authors should follow the “Manuscript Submission” guidelines found
Educators Journal 86, no. 2 (1999):
at www.mej.sagepub.com. As usual, all submitted manuscripts will be reviewed by mem-
41–44. Quoted text is found on p. 42.
bers of the Editorial and Advisory Committees. Accepted pieces will be published during
9. Others emphasizing the role of the ear the 2013–2014 volume year or shortly thereafter. Some of these may also appear on the
in music learning include Maud Hickey, National Association for Music Education (NAfME) website, www.nafme.org.
“Can Improvisation Be ‘Taught’: A Call
for Free Improvisation in Our Schools,” Of special interest are historical articles that look back on the way we were, and articles
International Journal of Music Education that offer ideas about where MEJ might head in its second century.
27, no. 4 (2009): 285–99; Kathy A.
Liperote, “Audiation for Beginning Ideal length should be no more than 12 double-spaced typed pages with references.
Instrumentalists: Listen, Speak, Read, Substantive, shorter pieces are also welcome.
Write,” Music Educators Journal 93,
no. 1 (2006): 46–52; and Stanley All centennial-themed manuscripts must be submitted by March 1, 2013, per instructions
L. Schleuter, A Sound Approach to found at www.mej.sagepub.com.
Teaching Instrumentalists, 2nd ed. (New
York: Schirmer Books, 1997).

Update: Applications of Research in Music
Education
http://upd.sagepub.com/
Instrument Selection and Gender Stereotypes : A Review of Recent Literature

John Eros
Update: Applications of Research in Music Education 2008 27: 57
DOI: 10.1177/8755123308322379

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Update: Applications of
Research in Music Education
Volume 27 Number 1
November 2008 57-64
Instrument Selection and Gender Stereotypes © 2008 MENC: The National

Association for Music Education
10.1177/8755123308322379
http://update.sagepub.com
hosted at
A Review of Recent Literature http://online.sagepub.com
John Eros
University of Michigan
Choice of instrument is among the most important factors in determining the course of a student’s music education.
Instrument selection can be a lengthy process accomplished through a variety of factors. The stereotyping of instru-
ments by gender can, unfortunately, be one of those factors. The association of gender with particular instruments can
significantly influence a student in choosing an instrument, thereby resulting in numerous negative consequences—
including fewer instrument choices, limited ensemble participation, and peer disapproval. The purpose of this litera-
ture review is to examine recent scholarship on this issue and make recommendations for future investigation and
possible interventions. By examining post-1996 literature, this article demonstrates that this issue still affects music
education; it discusses recent aspects of the issue; and it proposes areas for further inquiry.
Keywords: gender; musical instruments; choice; selection; stereotypes
C hoice of instrument is among the most important

factors in determining the course of a student’s
music education. Instrument selection can be a
Sex Versus Gender
There is inconsistency in the literature regarding ter-

lengthy process accomplished through a variety of minology. Gender and sex are often used interchange-
factors. Unfortunately, the stereotyping of instru- ably, as are boy/girl and masculine/feminine. O’Neill
ments by gender can be one of those factors. The (1997) discusses this topic and identifies a changing
association of gender with particular instruments can trend in the literature, beginning in the 1990s, toward
significantly influence a student in choosing an using sex and gender interchangeably or using only
instrument, thereby resulting in numerous negative gender. Previously, it was most common to use the
consequences, including fewer instrument choices, term sex in research literature. O’Neill states,
limited ensemble participation, and peer disapproval.
Numerous studies have demonstrated this phenome- The category of sex has been used to refer to biolog-
non (Abeles & Porter, 1978; Bruce & Kemp, 1993; ical distinctions . . . between males and females,
Delzell & Leppla, 1992; Fortney, Boyle, & DeCarbo, such as the criteria used to identify the sex of a new-
1993; Griswold & Chroback, 1981; Tarnowski, born infant, whereas the category of gender has been
1993). However, the fact that this issue persists can used to infer the social traits and characteristics that
be illustrated by subsequent research based on the same are learned through the socialization process. (p. 48)
subject matter (S. D. Harrison, 2003; Sinsabaugh, 2005).
The purpose of this literature review is to examine Sinsel, Dixon, and Blades-Zeller (1997) also ques-
recent scholarship on this issue and make recommen- tioned the interchangeability of the terms sex and gen-
dations for future investigation and possible interventions. der. They proposed that gender association issues
By examining post-1996 literature, I demonstrate that should be considered not in terms of biological sex but
this issue still affects us; I discuss more recent aspects in terms of psychological sex type. As such, they con-
of the issue; and I propose areas for further inquiry. ducted a study to investigate the relationship between
John Eros is a doctoral candidate in music education at the University of Michigan. He can be reached at the University of Michigan,
School of Music, Theatre, and Dance, EV Moore Building, 1100 Baits Drive, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2085; e-mail: jeros@umich.edu.

57
58 Update
psychological sex type and instrument preference. In masculine, two feminine, and two neutral) they
this study, 64 girls and 44 boys were given the would prefer to play and in which order of prefer-
Children’s Sex Role Inventory, developed by Boldizar ence. Students were also asked to explain their rea-
(1991), and a survey assessing musical instrument sons and to comment on whether certain instruments
preferences. The inventory, based on the Bem Sex should not be played by boys or by girls. Boulton and
Role Inventory (Bem, 1974), is a self-assessment that O’Neill concluded that gender associations did
delineates four typologies: feminine sex-typed, mas- indeed remain and had changed little in the time since
culine sex-typed, androgynous, and undifferentiated. similar studies were performed.
Participants are given hypothetical descriptions of Previous research has suggested that stereotypes
themselves and are asked to rate how well each have a more significant impact on boys, frequently in
description applies. The results yield the four typolo- the form of increased social pressure and fewer
gies: masculine (high masculine, low feminine), fem- instrument choices (Cramer et al., 2002; Delzell
inine (high feminine, low masculine), androgynous & Leppla, 1992; Sinsabaugh, 2005). S. D. Harrison
(high on both), and undifferentiated (low on both). (2003) used five studies to investigate the role of
The inventory yielded 20 feminine sex-typed gender in the larger scheme of boys’ musical experi-
students, 26 masculine, and 62 androgynous, with the ences and activities. In the first study, 102 primary
results of the survey showing a definite relationship students were asked to indicate their first choice of
between sex type and gender association of instru- instrument to play. Drums and guitar were the top
ment selection. Intriguingly, androgynous children two instruments for both sexes, suggesting a pop
showed the greatest preference (41.9%) for neutral music influence, followed by saxophone and trumpet
instruments. The researchers concluded that psycho- for males and piano and voice for females.
logical sex type is an important factor in students’ In his second study, 98 students completed a sur-
choices, with androgynous children showing an abil- vey modeled on the work of Griswold and Chroback
ity to choose instruments from a broader range than (1981). The results described the drums, trombone,
that of masculine and feminine sex types. and trumpet as the most masculine instruments and
the flute as the most feminine. In the third study, 903
secondary students were surveyed about their pri-
Gender Stereotypes mary performing instrument, with results being
largely consistent with previous findings. Boys’ top
Numerous researchers have revisited the presence instruments were tuba, trombone, guitar, bass, and
and nature of gender stereotypes in music programs percussion; girls’ top instruments were oboe, flute,
(Boulton & O’Neill, 1996; Elliot & Yoder-White, 1997; and bassoon. As a side note, bassoon has rarely been
S. D. Harrison, 2003). Although not explicitly stated, included in gender–instrument research—that a
the research literature presents few disagreements that large, low-register instrument was a top female
brass and percussion are male-stereotyped instruments choice demonstrates a possible anomaly in the
whereas high woodwinds (flute, oboe, clarinet) and assumption that low register is masculine stereo-
high strings (violin) are female stereotyped. typed. In addition, although gender was not specifi-
In addition, this literature review includes studies cally addressed, it was included in some students’
performed in England (Boulton & O’Neill, 1996; A. C. comments, such as in one boy’s stating that the flute
Harrison & O’Neill, 2000, 2003), Australia (S. D. was his least preferred “because it’s a girl’s instru-
Harrison, 2003; Pickering & Repacholi, 2002), Canada ment” (S. D. Harrison, 2003, p. 151).
(Cramer, Million, & Perreault, 2002), and Britain Harrison’s final study (2003), a 3-year longitudinal
(Bruce & Kemp, 1996; Crowther & Durkin, 1982; study of secondary students, again showed a procliv-
Green, 1993; MacKenzie, 1991). Although it is cer- ity for males to favor brass and percussion and for
tainly true that there may be cultural differences among females to favor woodwinds and strings. In an
these countries, the research literature has not examined example of gender transition, however, the saxo-
these differences. Furthermore, researchers in this area phone moved from being a gender-neutral instrument
commonly cite the results of research related to gender to a female-identified instrument. Harrison con-
stereotypes from a variety of countries. cluded by observing that stereotypes exist and are
Boulton and O’Neill (1996) individually inter- damaging, particularly for the topic of his study—
viewed 153 students between the ages of 9 and 11. namely, boys. He observed that this situation will be
Students indicated which of six instruments (two a difficult one to address, requiring “a long-term

Eros / Instrument Selection and Gender Stereotypes 59
attitudinal change . . . to change the perception of the Participants evaluated each hypothetical player/instru-
feminine as being inferior” (p. 169). ment in terms of nine personality stereotypes (three
Elliot and Yoder-White (1997) investigated the male, three female, three gender neutral).
question of gender associations with instrumental tim- The study found that those who played feminine
bres. In an attempt to remove any visual recognition, instruments were characterized as warm, caring, and
the researchers designed an investigation in which no sensitive and that female musicians were judged to be
images of the instruments were present. In sum, 106 more dominant, active, and strong leaders. Male players
children listened to a tape of eight instruments playing of female instruments were judged harshly on the mas-
the same four-measure excerpt. Flute and oboe were culine traits. The researchers concluded that females are
the instruments most strongly associated with femi- indeed allowed to choose from a broader range of
ninity, whereas the trombone and bassoon were those instruments than that of males and that males face sig-
most strongly associated with masculinity. nificant social penalties when they cross the gender line.
Gender association was determined by the students’ A. C. Harrison and O’Neill (2003) explored the
selecting between two sets of drawings, one drawing question of children’s extending their preferences to
of two boys and one of two girls, although the draw- the preferences of others. Using a 26-item survey, the
ings were themselves arguably stereotypical. Boys researchers assessed 312 children, ages 8 to 9, about
were depicted holding either a skateboard or a fishing their first choice of six instruments, as well as their
pole, whereas girls were depicted either jumping rope gender association for each instrument. Students were
or holding a stuffed animal. The idea of removing any then asked, using one of two scenarios, to speculate
mention of the instrument is perhaps advantageous, but on whether a hypothetical new student would be more
the images used in their place must also be carefully likely to play masculine instruments or feminine
examined for gender stereotype implications. instruments. In the first scenario, children were asked
Kelly (1997) also investigated timbre as a possible which type of instrument a “new boy” or a “new girl”
influence on instrument selection. In the study, 261 would play. In the second, children were told that the
third-grade students listened to a tape of seven instru- new student played either flute or drums, but they
ments playing two short songs and then indicated were not told the sex of the student. Results indicated
whether the instrument in question “sounded like an that students not only held stereotypical associations
instrument a boy would play or an instrument that a but also believed that other children held the same
girl would play” (p. 47). Five instruments (flute, violin, associations. Results also indicated that students
trumpet, trombone, cello) were chosen along recog- thought that other-sex children were more likely to
nized gender lines, although two (clarinet, saxophone) choose cross-gender instruments, thus suggesting a
did not produce clear distinctions. This is most signif- projection of students’ beliefs onto other children.
icant for the clarinet, which is otherwise strongly iden-
tified in the literature as a female instrument. It is also
Directors’ Role in Instrument Assignment
significant in that Elliot and Yoder-White (1997) found
clarinet timbre to be feminine identified in a study pub-
Among the factors used in choosing an instrument,
lished during the same year. The difference between
director input can be significant. Although many
the studies suggests that timbre associations might not
studies have focused on student perceptions, recent
be consistent for all instruments.
research has examined teacher perceptions of gender
stereotypes in terms of gender stereotype presence in
Perceptions by Other Students the selection process and the role that gender plays in
directors’ assignments.
Cramer et al. (2002) surveyed 98 college students Johnson and Stewart (2004) investigated sex iden-
about their perceptions of femininity and masculinity tification in the process of beginning band instrument
of fictional male and female musicians who played assignment. Eighty-four band directors were asked to
either a male- or female-stereotyped instrument. individually assign students to an instrument on the
Participants were first assessed using the Bem Sex basis of a whole-face picture or a picture of the mouth
Role Inventory (see above discussion of Sinsel et al., area only. The researchers concluded that knowing
1997) and were then given a survey in which they the sex of the student did not have a significant
evaluated the four possible combinations of male/ impact on which instrument band directors recom-
female students and masculine/feminine instruments. mended for a particular student.

60 Update
In a 2005 follow-up study, Johnson and Stewart to students. Studies have indicated that the manner in
added race to their investigation. In sum, 201 music which instruments are demonstrated to beginning
educators were asked to individually assign 14 students, particularly in terms of the relationship of
students to one of six beginning band instruments. the performer’s gender to the instrument’s gender,
The participants were shown full-face pictures of has a powerful impact on instrument preference and
students or pictures of the mouth area only. The 14 perception. The gender of the performer has often
students, 7 male and 7 female, included European been more compelling than the gender stereotype of
American students (n = 8) and African American the instrument itself.
students (n = 4), as well as a Native American student A. C. Harrison and O’Neill (2000) used demon-
and a Latino American student. The researchers con- stration concerts with gender-consistent performers
cluded that race and sex identification did not play a and gender-inconsistent performers to study students’
significant role in directors’ assignments of students. instrument preferences and gender associations. In
This study is commendable for expanding the scope sum, 357 children were asked to rank their order of
of gender and instruments to explore ethnicity— preference for learning to play six instruments, as
although ethnicity, or race, played a limited and well as state their gender associations for each instru-
arguably minor role in this investigation. Furthermore, ment. The students were grouped into three clusters
the absence of other ethnicities, such as Asian of schools, with one school receiving a gender-
Americans, is notable. consistent concert, one receiving a gender-inconsis-
Bayley (2004) submitted a 26-question survey to tent concert, and one control group who did not
322 beginning band instructors regarding methods receive a concert. The results indicated that gender-
used in their instrument selection processes. Gender inconsistent concerts influenced students’ preferences
association was among the areas addressed, although for gender-consistent instruments. For example, after
teachers indicated that they thought that students’ seeing a male pianist, girls had a lower preference for
friends formed the strongest factor in their choices. the piano, a traditionally female-associated instru-
The majority (95.2%) indicated that they guide their ment. A. C. Harrison and O’Neill added a new factor
students in the selection process, although it was fre- to presentation investigation by interviewing students
quently in the name of balanced instrumentation. individually before the demonstration concerts, with
Bayley called for teacher education to assert its role the goal of removing immediate peer influence and
in counteracting stereotypes: “It is . . . essential that allowing the students to speak candidly. Although
gender-stereotyping issues be addressed more effec- they are more time-consuming, individual interviews
tively during preservice teacher education” (p. 32). seem to be a way to counter social pressure, which
In a study based on Bayley’s investigation (2004), has shown to exert a strong influence. By speaking
Bazan (2005) surveyed 56 beginning band directors individually, students might be able to candidly dis-
about instrument selection processes in their pro- cuss their instrument ideas.
grams: 91% of directors indicated guiding students to In an effort to consider performers’ age as well as
instruments, although 6% indicated that they did the gender, Pickering and Repacholi (2002) used high
actual selection. Similar to Bayley’s participants school–age gender-consistent performers and gender-
(2004), those in this study believed that peer influence inconsistent performers as models, based on the idea
was the strongest factor influencing students’ choices. that children might be more responsive to adolescents
Directors believed that students’ preferences were than adults and that seeing older students might pro-
consistent with typical gender stereotypes (brass and vide more sense of relevance. A total of 618 children
percussion for boys, high woodwinds for girls). The viewed videotapes of performances or instrument-
participants were not asked if they thought that gender only displays. The preferences of those who saw the
played a role in their guidance of students, although gender-inconsistent performers did not fall as
they did indicate that they believed gender bias to be strongly along gender lines as it did for those who
present and influential in their programs. saw gender-consistent performers or instruments
alone. Pickering and Repacholi suggested that
whereas the more immediate goal is for children to
Demonstration not be limited by gender stereotypes, the true goal is
gender neutrality for all instruments. They further
A substantial amount has been written on the cautioned that if too heavy an emphasis is placed on
effects of the method used in presenting instruments counterexamples, “we run the risk of creating a new

set of stereotypes, when the goal should be to encour- In a similar study in 2002, McKeage presented a
age children to view these instruments as gender neu- finding that demonstrates a possible strategy to counter
tral” (p. 642). Although their point might seem stereotypes—namely, that stereotypes had less of an
excessive given the current evidence pointing toward effect on secondary instrument choices. She concluded
firmly entrenched stereotypes, it is not inconceivable. that perhaps students feel themselves being safe if they
declare primary allegiance to a gender-consistent
instrument. Given the tradition of instrument doubling,
Ensemble Composition
particularly in jazz ensembles, this may be a point of
access for students to reach music and ensembles pre-
Gender associations and stereotypes make their
viously impeded by gender stereotypes.
presence known in more ways than who is playing
what. Who is playing what becomes who is playing
where. When gender associations affect instrument Crossing the Gender Line
selection, it influences the musical ensembles them-
selves, and it limits performers’ future ensemble Despite the strong presence of gender stereotypes
options as well, considering that many traditional and their effects on programs and students, there are
ensembles have standard instrumentation that falls those who choose to play gender-atypical instru-
along gender lines. Although it is true that all instruments. Conway (2000) interviewed 23 high school
ment choices result in at least some form of limitation students who had broken gender stereotypes in their
for performers and ensembles, there is cause for con- choice of instruments. Students who had crossed the
cern when the prevailing reason behind the choice is gender barrier reported a desire to be different, as
a gender stereotype. well as encouragement from elementary music
Therefore, a boy who follows traditional gender teachers and parents. Those comments point to the
lines in the instrument selection process is signifi- strong influence that adults have on the selection
cantly lowering his chance of playing in a woodwind process and the fact that there are students who are
quintet. Similarly, if a girl makes her initial selection perfectly happy to go against stereotypes.
according to traditional gender lines, then she will Initially inspired by a viola student who came to his
have few opportunities to play in a jazz ensemble. In lesson with a black eye, Sinsabaugh (2005) studied
those cases, the stereotyped choices have removed eight cases of students who had crossed gender lines:
students’ access to entire genres of music. S. D. two boy flutists, two boy violinists, two girl trombon-
Harrison (2003) investigated the question of gender ists, one female trumpeter, and one female percussion-
distribution in ensembles by observing them in a ist. Her study provides substantial insight into the
large music festival. He found that there were twice experiences of those who choose reverse-gender instru-
as many stage bands from boys schools as there were ments. In terms of the selection process, the students
from girls schools, that concert bands were relatively reported common factors, ranging from student choice
even, and that string ensembles were weighted to assignment, although two boys researched their
toward girls schools. instruments before choosing them. Most of the students
McKeage (2002, 2004) performed two studies believed that any student should be able to play any
investigating female participation in jazz ensembles. instrument (gender consistent or inconsistent) and
Of the standard jazz ensemble instruments, only the stated that their parents had played an encouraging role,
piano has been shown to lean toward the feminine which included pointing out reverse-gender role mod-
preference. McKeage investigated 628 students rep- els. In addition, all students believed that girls had more
resenting 15 college programs: 28% of females and choices than boys did, a finding consistent with numer-
72% of males played a primary instrument that was ous other studies. Interestingly, however, only one of
common of jazz. As a reference for the music educa- the students stated that she regularly carried her instru-
tion profession, 42% of women and 12% of men indi- ment openly; others either carried instruments in their
cated never playing instrumental jazz at any level. bags or had two instruments. Both flute players (boys)
Given that many instrumental teaching positions reported harassment and did not carry their instruments
include a jazz component, students with limited jazz openly. They described using additional support mech-
experience are at a distinct disadvantage. Therefore, a anisms, including seeking male flutist role models and
clear link exists between gender-influenced instru- even changing schools. In describing his choice of
ment choice and career opportunities. instrument, one flutist remarked that the music was

62 Update
more important to him than the particular instrument: As it becomes more common to see male flutists and
“It’s the music, not the instrument itself’” (p. 87). female trombonists, the effect of gender stereotypes
Sinsabaugh’s study (2005) included a mixture of might be lessened through direct experience with per-
ethnic and racial backgrounds. One of the flute players formers who have crossed the gender line. One male
had come to the United States from Korea when he was flutist might lead to three the following year.
13; the other was of mixed Puerto Rican–Dominican Music educators must be aware of the effects of
descent; and the female trumpet player was Indian. A these gender stereotypes and so use their powerful
variety of other ethnic backgrounds were represented, ability to model an unbiased view of all musical instru-
which asks the question of the gender–stereotype rela- ments. Research suggests that adult perception and
tionship among different ethnicities. Sinsabaugh’s presentation of instruments are strong influences on
study brings us to the present state of our students’ students (Abeles & Porter, 1978; Boulton & O’Neill,
experiences with the effects of gender association and 1996; Conway, 2000; Fortney et al., 1993; MacKenzie,
stereotype. The presence remains strong; the effects 1991). Boulton and O’Neill (1996) suggest, “It is
remain limiting; and the consequences for students can likely that children’s perceptions of instruments is
be damaging in numerous ways. influenced by their perceptions of gender differences
in musical participation in the adult world” (p. 181).
Although a number of factors concerning this complex
Possible Interventions
issue are difficult to address (e.g., peer influence, pop-
ular culture), the behavior of adults is something that is
Given that the research indicates an absence of
within our grasp. We cannot control the influence of
gender stereotype influence in the early elementary
media-based gender representations and images. We
grades, one possible intervention involves collabora-
can, however, bring mixed-gender brass quintets,
tion between band/orchestra directors and elementary
woodwind quintets, string quartets, and jazz combos
general music teachers in creating plans for musical
for our students to experience. We can also establish
instrument presentation. Dialogue might begin as
private lesson programs and relationships with gender-
early as kindergarten, with directors and general
inconsistent instrumentalists. Research has indicated
music teachers examining curricular materials and
that the gender of performers is a powerful influence
treatment of instruments, as well as developing a
on student audience.
timeline for when and how students will experience
instrumental performers.
In addition, all music teachers must be proactive in Suggestions for Further Research
allowing their students to experience live instrumental
performers. The research suggests that students are A number of studies have illustrated the fact that
strongly affected by meeting with and seeing live gender stereotypes are difficult to address, given that
performances—more so than pictures, videos, and gender as a component is nearly impossible to account
recordings. When trips to symphony orchestras and wind for. A. C. Harrison and O’Neill (2000) observe that
ensembles are not possible, string quartets, brass quin- “more systematic investigation is needed to examine
tets, jazz combos, or any number of small ensembles processes involved in the influence of interviewer sex
might give school performances, followed by opportu- on children’s gender-typed instrument preferences”
nities for student–performer dialogue afterward. (p. 96). The gender of the presenters, researchers, and
Research has also suggested that performers who anyone directly involved must always be considered
are closer to students in age, such as high school among possible factors affecting the research.
students, have an even more powerful effect as Whether a trombonist in a demonstration is male or
demonstrators of instruments. The strategy of perfor- female is significant, but it may also be significant if
mance demonstrations of countergender stereotype a researcher conducting interviews is male or female
might be more influential if students directly observed because students may respond differently on the basis
the performers while sitting or standing next to them of the interviewer’s gender.
as they played. An additional extension of experience Ethnic culture should also be investigated for a
with high school players would include countergender possible relationship with gender stereotypes and
high school performers teaching lessons and section- instrument choice. The majority of studies of gender
als to beginning instrumentalists, thus creating an stereotypes assess students without considering eth-
extended experience with mixed-gender performers. nicity as a factor. Elementary and secondary schools

are constantly changing because of ethnic influences. Conclusion

One example lies in the increasing presence of immi-
grants from Latin American countries, who bring cul- Because of persistent gender stereotypes, students
tural traditions different from those based in Western may have fewer available instruments to play, fewer
Europe, begging the question of whether the gender ensembles in which to participate, fewer career oppor-
stereotypes described in this literature review exist tunities, and they may even face verbal and physical
among other cultural traditions and whether gender abuse. There is good news, however, thanks to contin-
associations will persist as cultural influences grow. ued research: Not only are educators more aware of the
Research on gender perceptions and preferences of presence and effect of stereotypes than in past, but
children who have not yet begun instrumental music students are also becoming more aware themselves.
instruction, including those as young as the age of 3 The proper attitude is best summed up by a male
(Abeles & Porter, 1978), have shown that gender flutist—someone who has broken what may be the
stereotypes have little or no presence in the preschool most tenacious instrument stereotype of all—in giving
and elementary school years. What the research also his views on his instrument: “The flute is for both. This
shows is an impact of gender stereotypes in middle is the twenty-first century” (quoted in Sinsabaugh,
school and high school; thus, the question becomes, 2005, p. 101). Music educators in the 21st century
what is happening during that transition from ele- have the responsibility to see that musical instruments
mentary school to middle school? Insight might be remain, first and foremost, just that: musical.
gained by examining the stereotype-free perception
of elementary school students for possible applica-
tion to older students. References
Furthermore, few studies examine all the woodwind, Abeles, H. F., & Porter, S. Y. (1978). The sex stereotyping of
brass, and string instruments found in standard band and musical Instruments. Journal of Research in Music
orchestra instrumentation. The research commonly uses Education, 26(2), 65–75.
only six (Boulton & O’Neill, 1996; Cramer et al., 2002), Bayley, J. G. (2004). The procedure by which teachers prepare
eight (Elliott & Yoder-White, 1997), or nine instruments students to choose a musical instrument. Update:
Applications of Research in Music Education, 2(2), 23–34.
(Sinsel et al., 1997) for students to consider in terms of
Bazan, D. E. (2005). An investigation of the instrument selection
gender. Certain instruments—particularly, low wood- processes used by directors of beginning band. Contributions
winds—are consistently omitted. Consequently, little to Music Education, 31, 9–31.
data exist on the gender association of instruments such Bem, S. L. (1974). The measurement of psychological androgyny.
as the bassoon and horn. Elliot and Yoder-White (1997) Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 42, 155–162.
illustrate the importance of this point by including the Boldizar, J. P. (1991). Assessing sex typing and androgyny in
children: The children’s sex role inventory. Developmental
bassoon, a low woodwind, as one of their instruments Psychology, 27, 505–515.
for consideration. The bassoon was the most strongly Boulton, M. J., & O’Neill, S. A. (1996). Boys’ and girls’ prefer-
male-associated instrument in their study, suggesting ences for musical instruments: A function of gender.
that low woodwinds might be added to brass and per- Psychology of Music, 24(2), 171–183.
cussion as male-stereotyped instruments. Conversely, Bruce, R., & Kemp, A. (1993). Sex-stereotyping in children’s
preferences for musical instruments. British Journal of Music
S. D. Harrison (2003) found that the bassoon was female
Education, 10, 213–217.
associated, suggesting that it might be a neutral space Conway, C. M. (2000). Gender and musical instrument choice: A
between stereotypes. Further research is needed on this phenomenological investigation. Bulletin of the Council for
instrument, as well as on all common band and orches- Research in Music Education, 146, 1–17.
tra instruments for gender associations. Cramer, K. M., Million, E., & Perreault, L. A. (2002).
Finally, the research indicates that the flute may be Perceptions of musicians: Stereotypes and social role theory.
Psychology of Music, 30(2), 164–174.
the most strongly gender-stereotyped of them all (Elliot Crowther, R. D., & Durkin, K. (1982). Sex and age-related dif-
& Yoder-White, 1997; Griswold & Chroback, 1981; A. ferences in the musical behaviour, interests and attitudes
C. Harrison & O’Neill, 2003). Despite the stereotype, towards music of 232 secondary school students. Educational
however, there are still male students who select the Studies, 8, 131–139.
flute. By researching those few male flutists, music Delzell, J. K., & Leppla, D. A. (1992). Gender association of
musical instruments and preferences for fourth-grade students
educators may be able to develop effective strategies to
for selected instruments. Journal of Research in Music
counter the most obstinate instrument gender stereo- Education, 40(2), 93–103.
type of all. Those findings may then be used to explore Elliot, C. A., & Yoder-White, M. (1997). Masculine/feminine
strategies for less strongly stereotyped instruments. associations for instrumental timbres among children seven,

64 Update
eight, and nine years of age. Contributions to Music Kelly, S. N. (1997). An investigation of the influence of timbre on
Education, 24, 30–39. gender and instrument association. Contributions to Music
Fortney, P. M., Boyle, J. D., & DeCarbo, N. J. (1993). A study of Education, 24(1), 43–56.
middle school band students’ instrument choices. Journal of MacKenzie, C. G. (1991). Starting to learn to play a musical
Research in Music Education, 41(1), 28–39. instrument: A study of boys’ and girls’ motivational criteria.
Green, L. (1993). Music, gender and education a report on some British Journal of Music Education, 8, 15–20.
exploratory research. British Journal of Music Education, 10, McKeage, K. (2002). “Where are all the girls?” Women in colle-
219–253. giate instrumental jazz. Gender, Education, Music and
Griswold, P. M., & Chroback, D. (1981). Sex-role associations of Society, 1. Retrieved April 28, 2007, from http://www
music instruments and occupations by gender and major. .queensu.ca/music/links/gems/past/No.%201/KMarticle.htm
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Harrison, A. C., & O’Neill, S. A. (2000). Children’s gender-typed and college instrumental jazz ensembles. Journal of Research
preferences for musical instruments: An intervention study. in Music Education, 52(4), 343–356.
Psychology of Music, 28, 81–97. O’Neill, S. A. (1997). Gender and music. In D. J. Hargreaves
Harrison, A. C., & O’Neill, S. A. (2003). Preferences and & A. C. North (Eds.), The social psychology of music
children’s use of gender-stereotyped knowledge about musi- (pp. 46–63). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
cal instruments: Making judgments about other children’s Pickering, S., & Repacholi, B. (2002). Modifying children’s
preferences. Sex Roles, 49(7/8), 389–400. gender-typed musical instrument preferences: the effects of
Harrison, S. D. (2003). Musical participation by boys the role of gender and age. Sex Roles, 45, 623–643.
gender in the choice of musical activities by males in Sinsabaugh, K. (2005). Understanding students who cross
Australian schools. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, over gender stereotypes in musical instrument selection.
Griffith University, Queensland, Australia. Dissertation Abstracts International, 66(05). (UMI No. 3175728)
Johnson, C. M., & Stewart, E. E. (2004). Effect of sex identifica- Sinsel, T. J., Dixon, W. E., Jr., & Blades-Zeller, E. (1997).
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348–357. Education, 12(1), 14–21.

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Jazz • Jazz • Jazz • Jazz • Jazz • Jazz • Jazz

2013 National In-Service Conference:

Teaching Jazz for

Music Education • Orchestrating Success

©2013 Copyright by National Association for

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Jazz Style and

80 Music Educators Journal September 2012

82 Music Educators Journal September 2012

common malady, especially in young

5. A quarter note (or the equivalent

84 Music Educators Journal September 2012

When three or more quarter notes

8. In a line of eighth notes, accent the

The concept of ghosting, or swal-

9. The eighth-note triplet rhythm is usu-

10. All notes of a quarter-note triplet

3. Mark C. Gridley, Jazz Styles: History

4. Bill Treadwell, The Big Book of

7. Jeff Pressing, “Black Atlantic Rhythm:

8. A copy of a chart of standard articu-

86 Music Educators Journal September 2012

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Copyright © 2011 National Association

62 Music Educators Journal December 2011

Work to be studied (title/composer): ________________________________________________________

Recording Information/Performer’s Name: ___________________________________________________

Musical Element Description

Note Accuracy, Intonation

3) Complete recording projects. As assigned, sent 2 days

4) Use Smart Music for a portion of each practice session. Daily

5) Work on transcription/memorization project, to be performed in studio class. Weekly

6) Prepare for studio class discussion of assigned reading. Weekly

7) Create warm-up and technique exercises. As assigned

64 Music Educators Journal December 2011

66 Music Educators Journal December 2011

Sharing the Gift of Jazz : An Interview with Willie L. Hill Jr

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Institute of Jazz. He is a past president its history—when you consider all of

26 Music Educators Journal March 2011

Obviously teacher preparation and

You know, I really do. I am deeply

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chool is on the bandstand.&dquo; I was I recall the memorable moments

ciency as a jazz musician. Learning on the unclear, or irrelevant.

go with some assistance, a phenomenon Lev

gives a workable description in six

Improvising Jazz a Beginner's Guide