Physics

Mathematics in Physics

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Table of Content

1. Introduction.
2. Algebra.
3. Trigonometry.
4. Logarithm.
5. Graphs.
6. Differential calculus.
7. Integral calculus.
8. General formulae for area and volume.
9. Introduction of vector.
10. Types of vector.
11. Triangle law of vector addition of two vectors.
12. Parallelogram law of vector addition of two vectors.
13. Polygon law of vector addition.
14. Subtraction of vectors.
15. Resolution of vector into components.
16. Rectangular components of 3-D vector.
17. Scalar product of two vectors.
18. Vector product of two vector.
19. Lemi's theorem.
20. Relative velocity.
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1. Introduction.
Mathematics is the language of physics. It becomes very easier to describe, understand and apply the
physical principles, if we have a good knowledge of mathematics.
For example: Newton’s law of gravitation states that everybody in this universe attracts every other
body with a force which is directly proportional to the product of their masses and is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.
m1m 2 Gm 1 m 2
This law can be expressed by a single mathematical relationship F  2
or F 
r r2
The techniques of mathematics such as algebra, trigonometry, calculus, graph and logarithm can be
used to make predictions from the basic equation.
If we are poor at grammar and vocabulary, it would be difficult for us to communicate our feelings,
similarly for better understanding and expressing of physics the basic knowledge of mathematics is
must.
In this introductory chapter we will learn some fundamental mathematics.

2. Algebra.
(1) Quadratic equation: An equation of second degree is called a quadratic equation. Standard
quadratic equation ax 2  bx  c  0
Here a is called the coefficient of x2, b is called the coefficient of x and c is a constant term, x is the
variable whose value (roots of the equation) are to be determined

 b  b 2  4 ac
Roots of the equation are: x 
2a
This formula can be written as

 Coefficient of x  (Coefficient of x )2  4 (Coefficient of x 2 )  (Constant term)

x
2(Coefficient of x 2 )
Note: If  and  be the roots of the quadratic equation then
b c
Sum of roots  +  = – and product of roots =
a a

2
(2) Binomial theorem: If n is any number positive, negative or fraction and x is any real number, such
that x < 1 i.e. x lies between – 1 and + 1 then according to binomial theorem
n(n  1) 2 n(n  1)(n  2) 3
(1  x )n  1  nx  x  x  .....
2! 3!
Here 2! (Factorial 2) = 2  1, 3! (Factorial 3) = 3  2  1 and 4! (Factorial 4) = 4  3  2  1
Note: If |x| << 1 then only the first two terms are significant. It is so because the values of second and
the higher order terms being very small, can be neglected. So the expression can be written as
(1 + x)n = 1 + nx
(1 + x)–n = 1 – nx
(1 – x)n = 1 – nx
(1 – x)–n = 1 + nx

(3) Arithmetic progression: It is a sequence of numbers which are arranged in increasing order and
having a constant difference between them.
Example: 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, …… or 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, …..
In general arithmetic progression can be written as a0, a1, a2, a3, a4, a5 …….

(i) nth term of arithmetic progression an  a0  (n  1)d

a0 = First term, n = Number of terms, d = Common difference = (a1 – a0) or (a2 – a1) or (a3 – a2)

Sn 
n
2a0  (n  1)d   n a0  an 
(ii) Sum of arithmetic progression 2 2

(4) Geometric progression: It is a sequence of numbers in which every term is obtained by

multiplying the previous term by a constant quantity. This constant quantity is called the common
ratio.
Example: 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128 …… or 5, 10, 20, 40, 80, …….
In general geometric progression can be written as a, ar, ar2, ar3, ar4, ….
Here a = first term, r = common ratio
a(1  r n )
(i) Sum of ‘n’ terms of G.P. Sn  if r < 1
1r
a (r n  1)
Sn  if r > 1
r 1
a
(ii) Sum of infinite terms of G.P. S   if r < 1
1r

3
 a
S  if r > 1
r 1

(5) Some common formulae of algebra

(i) (a + b)2 = a2 + b2 + 2ab
(ii) (a – b)2 = a2 + b2 – 2ab
(iii) (a + b + c)2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2ab + 2bc + 2ca
(iv) (a + b) (a – b) = a2 – b2
(v) (a + b)3 = a3 + b3 + 3ab(a + b)
(vi) (a – b)3 = a3 – b3 – 3ab(a – b)
(vii) (a + b)2 – (a – b)2 = 4ab
(viii) (a + b)2 + (a – b)2 = 2(a2 + b2)
(ix) a 3  b 3  (a  b)(a 2  b 2  ab)

(x) a 3  b 3  (a  b)(a 2  b 2  ab)

a c ab cd
(6) Componendo and dividendo method: If  then 
b d ab c d

3. Trigonometry.
Arc AB S
Angle ( )    (formula true for radian only) B
Radius OA r

unit of angle is radian or degree SA
Relation between radian and degree: O r
2 radian = 360 ; 1 radian = 57.3
o o

(1) Trigonometric ratio : In right angled triangle ABC, the largest side AC, which is opposite to the
right angle is called hypotenuse, and if angle considered is  , then side opposite to , AB, will be
termed as perpendicular and BC is called the base of the triangle.
Perpendicu lar AB Hypotenuse AC
sin    cosec   
Hypotenuse AC Perpendicu lar AB
Base BC Hypotenuse AC
A
cos    sec   
Hypotenuse AC Base BC
90o 
B C

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 Perpendicu lar AB Base BC
tan    cot   
Base BC Perpendicu lar AB

(2) Value of trigonometric ratio of standard angles

Angle 0 3 4 6 9 1 1 1 1 2 3
o
0 5 0 0 2 3 5 8 7 6
o o o o
0 5 0 0 0 0
o o o o o o

sin 0 1 1  1  1 1 0 – 0
/ / 3 3 / / 1
2  / /  2
2 2 2 2

cos 1  1 1 0 – – – – 0 1
3 / / 1 1  1
/  2 / / 3
2 2 2  /
2 2
tan 0 1 1   – – – 0 – 0
/ 3  1 1 
 3 /
3 
3

(3) Important points:

(i) Value of sin or cos lies between – 1 and +1, however tan and cot can have any real value.
(ii) Value of sec and cosec cannot be numerically less than one.

Second quadrant First quadrant

(iii) (90o – ) will lie in first quadrant
(Only sin and cosec are (All T-ratio positive)
(90o + ) will lie in second quadrant positive)

(180o – ) will lie in second quadrant Third quadrant Fourth quadrant

(Only cos and sec are
(180o + ) will lie in third quadrant (Only tan and cot are
positive) positive)
(270o + ) and (0o – ) will lie in fourth quadrant.

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(4) Fundamental trigonometrical relation
sin 
(i) tan  
cos 
1
(ii) cosec  
sin 
1
(iii) sec  
cos 
1
(iv) cot  
tan 
(v) sin 2   cos 2   1
(vi) sec 2   tan 2   1
(vii) cosec 2  cot 2   1

(5) T-Ratios of allied angles: The angles whose sum or difference with angle  is zero or a multiple
of 90° are called angle allied to .

(i) sin( )   sin cos(  )  cos  tan(  )   tan 

(ii) sin(90 o   )  cos  cos( 90 o   )  sin  tan( 90 o   )  cot 

(iii) sin(90 o   )  cos  cos( 90 o   )   sin  tan( 90 o   )   cot 

(iv) sin(180 o   )  sin  cos(180 o   )   cos  tan(180 o   )   tan 

(v) sin(180 o   )   sin  cos(180 o   )   cos  tan( 180 o   )  tan 

(vi) sin(270 o   )   cos  cos( 270 o   )   sin  tan( 270 o   )  cot 

(vii) sin(270 o   )   cos  cos( 270 o   )  sin  tan( 270 o   )   cot 

(viii) sin(360 o   )   sin  cos( 360 o   )  cos  tan( 360 o   )   tan 

(ix) sin(360 o   )  sin  cos( 360 o   )  cos  tan( 360 o   )  tan 

Note: Angle ( 2n   ) lies in first quadrant, if  in an acute angle. Similarly (2n   ) will lie in fourth quadrant.
Where n  0, 1, 2, 3, 4

 Angle ( ) is presumed always lie in fourth quadrant, whatever the value of  .
 If parent angle is 90° or 270° then sin  change to cos  , tan  change to cot  and sec  change
to cos ec .
 If parent angle is 180° or 360° then no change in trigonometric function
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4. Logarithm.
Logarithm of a number with respect to a given base is the power to which the base must be raised to
represent that number.
If a x  N then log a N  x
Here x is called the logarithm of N to the base a.
There are two system of logarithm: Logarithm to the base 10 are called common logarithms whereas
logarithms to the base e are called natural logarithm. They are written as ln.
Conversion of natural log into common log: log e x  2.3026 log10 x

Important formulae of logarithm:

(i) log a (mn)  log a m  log a n (Product formula)

m 
(ii) log a    log a m  log a n (Quotient formula)
n
(iii) log a m n  n log a m (Power formula)
(iv) log a m  log b m log a b (Base change formula)
Note: Antilogarithm is the reverse process of logarithm i.e., the number whose logarithm is x is called
antilogarithm of x. If log n  x then n = antilog of x

5. Graphs.
A graph is a line, straight or curved which shows the variation of one quantity w.r.t. other, which are
interrelated with each other.
In a relation of two quantities, the quantity which is made to alter at will, is called the independent
variable and the other quantity which varies as a result of this change is called the dependent variable.
Conventionally, in any graph, the independent variable (i.e. cause) is represented along x-axis and
dependent variable (i.e. effect) is represented along y-axis.
For example, we want to depict V  IR graphically, in which R is a constant called resistance, V is the
applied voltage (cause) and I (effect) is the resulting current. We will represent voltage on x-axis and
current on y-axis.

7
Some important graphs for various equations
Y Y


 C
X y = mx O
Xy = mx + c
O

m = tan = slope of line with x-axis c = Positive intercept on y-axis and positive
slope

Y Y

C 
yX= mx – c Xy = – mx + c
O O
C 

Negative intercept and positive slope Positive intercept and Negative slope
Y Y

O
y2X = kx Xy
2
= – kx
O

Symmetric parabola about positive X-axis

Symmetric parabola about negative X-axis
Y Y

x2X= ky O
Xx
2
= – ky
O

Symmetric parabola about positive Y-axis Symmetric parabola about negative Y-axis
Y
Y

Xy = ax + bx2 y = ax – bx2
O
X
O

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 Asymmetric parabola Asymmetric parabola

Y Y

xy = constant O a
X x2 + y2 = a2
X
O

Rectangular hyperbola Circle of radius 'a'

Y Y

x 2 y2
b
2
 2 1
O a
Xa b y = e–kx
X
O

Ellipse of semi-major axis a and semi-minor Exponential curve

axis b.

+1 +1
180o 450o 180o 360o
 
0 90o 270o 360o 540o
y = sin 0 90o 270o 450o y = cos
–1 –1

sine curve cosine curve

6. Differential calculus.
The differential coefficient or derivative of variable y with respect to variable x is defined as the
dy
instantaneous rate of change of y w.r.t. x. It is denoted by Y y = f (x)
dx
Geometrically the differential coefficient of y  f (x ) with respect to x at any 

point is equal to the slope of the tangent to the curve representing y  f (x ) at

that point X

dy
i.e.  tan  .
dx
9
 dy
Note: Actually is a rate measurer.
dx
dy
 If is positive, it means y is increasing with increasing of x and vice-versa.
dx
dy
 For small change x we use y  . x
dx

ds
Example: (1) Instantaneous speed v =
dt
dv d 2 x
(2) Instantaneous acceleration a  =
dt dt 2
dp
(3) Force F 
dt
d
(4) Angular velocity  
dt
d
(5) Angular acceleration  
dt
dW
(6) Power P 
dt
dL
(7) Torque  
dt

(1) Fundamental formulae of differentiation:

Function Differentiation

If c is some constant d
(c)  0
dx

If y  c x where c is a constant dy

d
(c x )  c
dx
c
dx dx dx

If y  c u where c is a constant and u is a function of x dy


d
(c u)  c
du
dx dx dx

If y = xn where n is a real number dy

 nx n 1
dx

If y = un where n is a real number and u is a function of x dy

 nu n 1
du
dx dx

If y = u + v where u and v are the functions of x dy du dv

 
dx dx dx

If y = uv where u and v are functions of x (product dy

u
dv
v
du
dx dx dx
formula)

10
 u du dv
If y  where u and v are the functions of x (quotient v u
v dy d u  dx dx
  
formula) dx dx  v  v2

If y = f (u) and u = f (x) dy


dy du

dx du dx

If y = (ax + b)n dy
 n (ax  b)n 1 
d
(ax  b)
dx dx

If y = sin x dy

d
(sin x )  cos x
dx dx

If y = cos x dy

d
(cos x )   sin x
dx dx

If y = tan x dy

d
(tan x )  sec 2 x
dx dx

If y = cot x dy

d
(cot x )  cosec 2 x
dx dx

If y = sec x dy

d
(sec x )  tan x sec x
dx dx

If y = cosec x dy

d
(cosec x )   cot x cosec x
dx dx

If y = sin u where u is the function of x dy


d
(sin u)  cos u
d (u)
dx dx dx
If y = cos u where u is the function of x dy

d
(cos u)   sin u
d (u)
dx dx dx
If y = tan u where u is the function of x dy

d
(tan u)  sec 2 u
d (u)
dx dx dx
If y = cot u where u is the function of x dy

d
(cot u)  cosec 2 u
d (u)
dx dx dx
If y = sec u where u is the function of x dy

d
(sec u)  sec u tan u
d(u)
dx dx dx
If y = cosec u where u is the function of x dy

d
(cosec u)   cosec u cot u
d(u)
dx dx dx
If y  log a x dy 1
 log a e
dx x

11
 (2) Maxima and minima: If a quantity y depends on another quantity x in a manner shown in figure.
It becomes maximum at x1 and minimum at x2. Y
At these points the tangent to the curve is parallel to X-axis and hence its
dy
slope is tan   0. but the slope of the curve equals the rate of change .
dx
dy X
Thus, at a maximum or minimum 0 O x1 x2
dx
Just before the maximum the slope is positive, at the maximum it is zero and just after the maximum
dy dy
it is negative. Thus decreases at a maximum and hence the rate of change of is negative at a
dx dx
d  dy 
maximum. i.e.,    0 at a maximum.
dx  dx 
dy d 2y
Hence the condition of maxima:  0 and 0 (Second derivative test)
dx dx 2

Similarly, at a minimum the slope changes from negative to positive. The slope increases at such a
d  dy 
point and hence  0
dx  dx 

dy d 2y
Hence the condition of minima:  0 and 2  0 . (Second derivative test)
dx dx

7. Integral calculus.

The process of integration is just the reverse of differentiation. The symbol ∫ is used to denote
integration.
If f (x ) is the differential coefficient of function F(x ) with respect to x, then by integrating f (x ) we can
get F(x ) again.
(1) Fundamental formulae of integration:

x n 1
 sec x dx  tan x
2

 x n dx 
n 1
, provided n  – 1

x 0 1
 cos ec x dx   cot x
2

 dx   x 0 dx 
0 1
x

12
 (u  v) dx   u dx   v dx  sec x tan x dx  sec x
 cu dx  c  u dx  cosec x cot x dx  cosec x
where c is a constant and u is a function of x.

x n 1 (ax  b)n 1 (ax  b)n 1

 cx n dx  c
n 1  (ax  b)n dx 
d
(n  1) (ax  b)

a(n  1)
dx

a log e ax  b 
x x  (ax  b) dx 
1 dx a
dx   log e x  log e (ax  b)
d
(ax  b)
dx

e dx  e x e ax b e ax b
x
 e ax b dx 
d
(ax  b)

a
dx

ax a cx  d a cx  d
 a x dx 
log e a  a cx  d dx 
log e a
d
(cx  d )

c log e a
dx

tan( ax  b) tan  ax  b)
 sin x dx   cos x  sec
2
(ax  b) dx 
d

a
(ax  b)
dx

 cos nx  cot (ax  b)  cot (ax  v)

 sin nx dx   cosec (ax  b) dx  
2
n d a
(ax  b)
dx

 cos x dx  sin x  sec (ax  b) tan (ax  b) dx

sec (ax  b) sec (ax  b)
 
d a
(ax  b)
dx

 cos nx dx 
sin nx
n
 cosec (ax  b) cot (ax  b) dx
cosec (ax  b) cosec (ax  b)
 
d a
(ax  b)
dx

13
 (2) Method of integration: Sometimes, we come across some functions which cannot be integrated
directly by using the standard integrals. In such cases, the integral of a function can be obtained by
using one or more of the following methods.
(i) Integration by substitution: Those functions which cannot be integrated directly can be reduced to
standard integrand by making a suitable substitution and then can be integrated by using the
standard integrals. To understand the method, we take the few examples.
(ii) Integration by parts: This method of integration is based on the following rule :
Integral of a product of two functions = first function  integral of second function – integral of
(differential coefficient of first function  integral of second function).
 du 
Thus, if u and v are the functions of x, then  uv dx  u  v dx    dx   v dx  dx
(3) Definite integrals: When a function is integrated between definite limits, the integral is called
definite integral. For example,
b
 a
f (x ) dx is definite integral of f (x ) between the limits a and b and is written as
b
 a
f (x ) dx | F(x )| ba  F(b)  F(a)

Here a is called the lower limit and b is called the upper limit of integration.
b
Geometrically a
f (x ) dx equals to area of curve F(x ) between the limits a and b.

8. General formulae for area and volume.

1. Area of square = (side)2

2. Area of rectangle = length  breadth
1
3. Area of triangle   base  height
2
4. Area enclosed by a circle   r 2 ; where r is radius

5. Surface area of sphere  4 r 2

6. Surface area of cube  6 L2 ; where L is a side of cube

7. Surface area of cuboid  2L  b  b  h  h  L ; where L= length, b = breadth, h = height

14
 8. Area of curved surface of cylinder  2 rl ; where r = radius, l = length of cylinder

9. Volume of cube  L3
10. Volume of cuboid  L  b  h

4
11. Volume of sphere   r3
3
12. Volume of cylinder   r 2 l
1
13. Volume of cone   r2h
2

9. Introduction of vector.

Physical quantities having magnitude, direction and obeying laws of vector algebra are called vectors.
Example: Displacement, velocity, acceleration, momentum, force, impulse, weight, thrust, torque,
angular momentum, angular velocity etc.
If a physical quantity has magnitude and direction both, then it does not always imply that it is a
vector. For it to be a vector the third condition of obeying laws of vector algebra has to be satisfied.
Example: The physical quantity current has both magnitude and direction but is still a scalar as it
disobeys the laws of vector algebra.

15
10. Types of vector.

1) Equal vectors: Two vectors A and B are said to be equal when they have equal magnitudes and same
direction.
(2) Parallel vector: Two vectors A and B are said to be parallel when
(i) Both have same direction.
(ii) One vector is scalar (positive) non-zero multiple of another vector.
(3) Anti-parallel vectors: Two vectors A and B are said to be anti-parallel when
(i) Both have opposite direction.
(ii) One vector is scalar non-zero negative multiple of another vector.
(4) Collinear vectors: When the vectors under consideration can share the same support or have a
common support then the considered vectors are collinear.
(5) Zero vector (0 ) : A vector having zero magnitude and arbitrary direction (not known to us) is a zero
vector.
(6) Unit vector: A vector divided by its magnitude is a unit vector. Unit vector for A is  (read as A cap
/ A hat).

Since, ˆ  A  A AA
A ˆ .
A
Thus, we can say that unit vector gives us the direction.
(7) Orthogonal unit vectors: ˆi , ˆj and k̂ are called orthogonal unit vectors. These vectors must form
a Right Handed Triad (It is a coordinate system such that when we Curl the y

fingers of right hand from x to y then we must get the direction of z along
thumb). The
x
ˆi  x , ˆj  y , kˆ  z
x y z
z

 x  xˆi , y  yˆj , z  zkˆ

(8) Polar vectors: These have starting point or point of application. Example displacement and force
etc.

16
 (9) Axial Vectors: These represent rotational effects and are always along the axis of rotation in
accordance with right hand screw rule. Angular velocity, torque and angular momentum, etc., are
example of physical quantities of this type.
Axial vector Axis of rotation

Anticlock wise rotation Clock wise rotation

Axis of rotation Axial vector

(10) Coplanar vector: Three (or more) vectors are called coplanar vector if they lie in the same plane.
Two (free) vectors are always coplanar.

11. Triangle law of vector addition of two vectors.

If two non-zero vectors are represented by the two sides of a triangle taken in same order then the
resultant is given by the closing side of triangle in opposite order. i.e. R  A  B B

 OB  OA  AB
(1) Magnitude of resultant vector
AN O A
In  ABN cos    AN  B cos 
B
BN
sin    BN  B sin 
B
In OBN , we have OB 2  ON 2  BN 2 B

 R 2  ( A  B cos  )2  (B sin  )2
R
B B sin
 
 R 2  A 2  B 2 cos 2   2 AB cos  B 2 sin 2  O A A N

 R  A  B (cos   sin  )  2 AB cos

2 2 2 2 2 B cos

 R 2  A 2  B 2  2 AB cos

 R A 2  B 2  2 AB cos

17
 (2) Direction of resultant vectors: If  is angle between A and B, then

| A  B|  A 2  B 2  2 AB cos 

If R makes an angle  with A, then in OBN , then

BN BN
tan   
ON OA  AN
B sin 
tan  
A  B cos 

12. Parallelogram law of vector addition of two vectors.

If two non-zero vector are represented by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram then the
resultant is given by the diagonal of the parallelogram passing through the point of intersection of
the two vectors.

(1) Magnitude
B C
Since, R  ON  CN
2 2 2

 R 2  (OA  AN )2  CN 2 B sin


 R 2  A 2  B 2  2 AB cos  
O A N
 R | R | | A  B |  A 2  B 2  2 AB cos  B cos

Special cases: R  A  B when  = 0o

R  A  B When  = 180o
R A 2  B 2 When  = 90o

(2) Direction
CN B sin 
tan   
ON A  B cos 

18
13. Polygon law of vector addition.

If a number of non-zero vectors are represented by the (n – 1) sides of an n-sided polygon then the
resultant is given by the closing side or the nth side of the polygon taken in opposite order. So,
D C
R  A BC  D E
OA  AB  BC  CD  DE  OE
E B

 Resultant of two unequal vectors cannot be zero.

 Resultant of three co-planar vectors may or may not be zero
 Resultant of three non-co- planar vectors cannot be zero. O A

14. Subtraction of vectors.

Since, A  B  A  ( B) and | A  B |  A 2  B 2  2 AB cos 

 | A  B|  A 2  B 2  2 AB cos (180 o   )
Since, cos (180   )   cos 
 1
 | A  B |  A  B  2 AB cos 
2 2 2
180 – 
B sin 
tan  1 
A  B cos 
B sin (180   )
and tan  2 
A  B cos (180   )
But sin(180   )  sin  and cos(180   )   cos
B sin 
 tan  2 
A  B cos 

19
15. Resolution of vector into components.

Consider a vector R in x-y plane as shown in fig. If we draw orthogonal vectors R x and R y along x
and y axes respectively, by law of vector addition, R  R x  R y
y
Now as for any vector A  A nˆ so, R x  ˆi R x and R y  ˆjR y

So R  ˆi R x  ˆjR y .....(i) Ry R


But from fig R x  R cos  .....(ii) x
Rx
And R y  R sin  .....(iii)

Since R and  are usually known, Equation (ii) and (iii) give the magnitude of the components of R
along x and y-axes respectively.
Here it is worthy to note once a vector is resolved into its components, the components themselves
can be used to specify the vector as –
(1) The magnitude of the vector R is obtained by squaring and adding equation (ii) and (iii), i.e.

R  R x2  R y2

(2) The direction of the vector R is obtained by dividing equation (iii) by (ii), i.e.
tan   (R y / R x ) Or   tan 1 (R y / R x )

16. Rectangular components of 3-D vector.

R  R x  R y  R z or R  R xˆi  Ry ˆj  R z kˆ

If R makes an angle  with x axis,  with y axis and  with z axis, then Y

Rx Rx
 cos    l
R R x2  R y2  R z2

Ry Ry
 cos    m X
R R x2  R y2  R z2
Z

20
 Rz Rz
 cos    n
R R x2  R y2  R z2

Where l, m, n are called Direction Cosines of the vector R

R x2  R y2  R z2
l 2  m 2  n 2  cos 2   cos 2   cos 2   1
R x2  R y2  R z2

Note: When a point P have coordinate (x, y, z) then its position vector OP  xˆi  yˆj  zkˆ

When a particle moves from point (x1, y1, z1) to (x2, y2, z2) then its displacement vector

r  (x 2  x 1 )ˆi  (y 2  y 1 )ˆj  (z 2  z 1 )kˆ

17. Scalar product of two vectors.

(1) Definition: The scalar product (or dot product) of two vectors is defined as the product of the
magnitude of two vectors with cosine of angle between them.
Thus if there are two vectors A and B having angle  between them, then their scalar product
written as A . B is defined as A . B  AB cos 

(2) Properties: (i) It is always a scalar which is positive if angle between the vectors is acute (i.e., <
90°) and negative if angle between them is obtuse (i.e. 90°< < 180°).

(ii) It is commutative, i.e. A . B  B . A

(iii) It is distributive, i.e. A . (B  C)  A . B  A . C 

(iv) As by definition A . B  AB cos 

 A.B
The angle between the vectors   cos 1  
 AB 

(v) Scalar product of two vectors will be maximum when cos  max  1, i.e.   0 o , i.e., vectors are
parallel ( A . B)max  AB

21
(vi) Scalar product of two vectors will be minimum when | cos  |  min  0, i.e.   90 o ( A . B)min  0

i.e., if the scalar product of two nonzero vectors vanishes the vectors are orthogonal.

(vii) The scalar product of a vector by itself is termed as self dot product and is given by
( A)2  A . A  AA cos   A 2

i.e., A  A . A
(viii) In case of unit vector n̂
nˆ . nˆ  1  1  cos 0  1 so nˆ . nˆ  ˆi .ˆi  ˆj . ˆj  kˆ . kˆ  1

(ix) In case of orthogonal unit vectors ˆi , ˆj and k̂ , ˆi . ˆj  ˆj . kˆ  kˆ .ˆi  1  1 cos 90  0

(x) In terms of components A . B  (iA x  jA y  k A z ). (iB x  jB y  k B z )  [ A x B x  A y B y  A Z B z ]

(3) Example: (i) Work W : In physics for constant force work is defined as, W  Fs cos .......(i)

But by definition of scalar product of two vectors, F. s  Fs cos  .......(ii)

So from eqn (i) and (ii) W  F.s i.e. work is the scalar product of force with displacement.
(ii) Power P :

dW ds
As W  F.s or  F. [As F is constant]
dt dt
 dW ds 
or P  F . v i.e., power is the scalar product of force with velocity.  As  P and  v
 dt dt 
(iii) Magnetic Flux  :
Magnetic flux through an area is given by d  B ds cos  ......(i)

But by definition of scalar product B . d s  Bds cos  ......(ii) 

So from eqn (i) and (ii) we have O

d  B . d s or    B.ds

(iv) Potential energy of a dipole U : If an electric dipole of moment p is situated in an electric field E
or a magnetic dipole of moment M in a field of induction B, the potential energy of the dipole is
given by :
U E   p . E and U B   M . B

22
18. Vector product of two vector.

(1) Definition: The vector product or cross product of two vectors is defined as a vector having a
magnitude equal to the product of the magnitudes of two vectors with the sine of angle between
them, and direction perpendicular to the plane containing the two vectors in accordance with right
hand screw rule.
C  AB
Thus, if A and B are two vectors, then their vector product written as A  B is a vector C defined
by
C  A  B  AB sin  nˆ

The direction of A  B, i.e. C is perpendicular to the plane containing

vectors A and B and in the sense of advance of a right handed screw
rotated from A (first vector) to B (second vector) through the
smaller angle between them. Thus, if a right handed screw whose axis
is perpendicular to the plane framed by A and B is rotated from A
to B through the smaller angle between them, then the direction of advancement of the screw gives
the direction of A  B i.e. C

(2) Properties:
(i) Vector product of any two vectors is always a vector perpendicular to the plane containing these
two vectors, i.e., orthogonal to both the vectors A and B, though the vectors A and B may or may
not be orthogonal.
(ii) Vector product of two vectors is not commutative, i.e., A  B  B  A [but   B  A]
Here it is worthy to note that
| A  B | | B  A |  AB sin 

i.e., in case of vector A  B and B  A magnitudes are equal but directions are opposite.
(iii) The vector product is distributive when the order of the vectors is strictly maintained, i.e.
A  (B  C)  A  B  A  C
(iv) As by definition of vector product of two vectors A  B  AB sin  nˆ

23
 | A  B | 
So | A  B |  AB sin  i.e.,   sin 1  
| A | | B | 

(v) The vector product of two vectors will be maximum when sin   max  1, i.e.,   90 o
[ A  B]max  AB nˆ
i.e., vector product is maximum if the vectors are orthogonal.
(vi) The vector product of two non- zero vectors will be minimum when | sin  |  minimum = 0, i.e.,   0 o
or 180 o
[ A  B]min  0
i.e. if the vector product of two non-zero vectors vanishes, the vectors are collinear.
(vii) The self-cross product, i.e., product of a vector by itself vanishes, i.e., is null vector
A  A  AA sin 0 o nˆ  0

(viii) In case of unit vector nˆ  nˆ  0 so that ˆi  ˆi  ˆj  ˆj  kˆ  kˆ  0

(ix) In case of orthogonal unit vectors, ˆi , ˆj, kˆ in accordance with right hand screw rule :

ˆi  ˆj  kˆ , ˆj  kˆ  ˆi and kˆ  ˆi  ˆj
And as cross product is not commutative,
ˆj  ˆi  kˆ kˆ  ˆj  ˆi and ˆi  kˆ  ˆj

(x) In terms of components

ˆi ˆj kˆ
A  B  Ax Ay A z  ˆi ( A y B z  A z B y )  ˆj( A z B x  A x B z )  kˆ ( A x B y  A y B x )
Bx By Bz

(3) Example: Since vector product of two vectors is a vector, vector physical quantities (particularly
representing rotational effects) like torque, angular momentum, velocity and force on a moving charge
in a magnetic field and can be expressed as the vector product of two vectors. It is well – established in
physics that:

24
 (i) Torque   r  F

(ii) Angular momentum L  r  p

(iii) Velocity v    r

(iv) Force on a charged particle q moving with velocity v in a magnetic field B is given by F  q(v  B)

(v) Torque on a dipole in a field  E  p  E and  B  M  B

19. Lemi's theorem.

In any  A B C with sides a, b, c

180 – 
sin  sin  sin 
 
a b c 

i.e., for any triangle the ratio of the sine of the angle containing the side to
the length of the side is a constant.   180 – 

For a triangle whose three sides are in the same order we establish the
180 – 
Lami's theorem in the following manner. For the triangle shown

ab c  0 [All three sides are taken in order] .....(i)

 a  b  c .....(ii)
Pre-multiplying both sides by a
a  (a  b)  a  c  0  a  b  a  c  a  b  c  a .....(iii)

Pre-multiplying both sides of (ii) by b

b  (a  b)   b  c  b  a  b  b  b  c   a  b  b  c  a  b  b  c .....(iv)

From (iii) and (iv), we get a  b  b  c  c  a

Taking magnitude, we get | a  b | | b  c | | c  a |
 ab sin(180   )  bc sin(180   )  ca sin(180   )
 ab sin   bc sin   ca sin 
sin  sin  sin 
Dividing throughout by abc, we have   
a b c

25
20. Relative velocity.

(1) Introduction: When we consider the motion of a particle, we assume a fixed point relative to
which the given particle is in motion. For example, if we say that water is flowing or wind is
blowing or a person is running with a speed v, we mean that these all are relative to the earth
(which we have assumed to be fixed).

Now to find the velocity of a moving object relative to another moving object, consider a particle P
 
whose position relative to frame S is rPS while relative to S  is rPS  . If the position of frames S 

relative to S at any time is r S S then from fig.
Y
   Y P
rPS  rPS   rS S

Differentiating this equation with respect to time

   X
drPS dr dr S
 PS   S S
dt dt dt S X

    
or v PS  v PS   v S S [as v  d r /dt ]
  
or v PS   v PS  v S S


(2) General Formula : The relative velocity of a particle P1 moving with velocity v 1 with respect to
  
another particle P2 moving with velocity v 2 is given by, v r1 2 = v 1

– v2
P2
(i) If both the particles are moving in the same direction then:
P1
 r12  1 –  2

(ii) If the two particles are moving in the opposite direction, then:
 r12  1   2

(iii) If the two particles are moving in the mutually perpendicular directions, then:

 r12   12   22

 
  1/2
(iv) If the angle between  1 and  2 be , then  r12  12   22 – 21 2 cos  .

26
 
(3) Relative velocity of satellite: If a satellite is moving in equatorial plane with velocity v s and a

point on the surface of earth with v e relative to the center of earth, the velocity of satellite relative to
the surface of earth
  
v se  v s  v e
So if the satellite moves form west to east (in the direction of rotation of earth on its axis) its velocity
relative to earth's surface will be v se  v s  v e
And if the satellite moves from east to west, i.e., opposite to the motion of earth,
v se  v s  (v e )  v s  v e

(4) Relative velocity of rain: If rain is falling vertically with a velocity v R and an observer is moving

horizontally with speed v M the velocity of rain relative to
  
observer will be v RM  v R  v M – vM

Which by law of vector addition has magnitude  – vR

v RM  v R2  v M
2

Direction   tan 1 (v M / v R ) with the vertical as shown in

fig.

(5) Relative velocity of swimmer: If a man can swim relative to water with velocity v and water is
 
flowing relative to ground with velocity v R velocity of man relative to ground v M will be given by:
     
v  v M  v R , i.e., v M  v  v R
So if the swimming is in the direction of flow of water, v M  v  v R

And if the swimming is opposite to the flow of water, v M  v  v R

(6) Crossing the river: Suppose, the river is flowing with velocity  r . A man can swim in still water
with velocity  m . He is standing on one bank of the river and wants to cross the river two cases arise.

27
(i) To cross the river over shortest distance: That is to cross the river straight, the man should swim
making angle  with the upstream as shown.
Here OAB is the triangle of vectors, in which A B
      
OA  v m , AB   r . Their resultant is given by OB   . The
w
direction of swimming makes angle  with upstream. From

the triangle OBA, we find, 
r r Upstreem O Downstreem
cos   Also sin  
m m
Where  is the angle made by the direction of swimming with the shortest distance (OB) across the
river.
Time taken to cross the river: If w be the width of the river, then time taken to cross the river will be
given by
w w
t1  
  m2 –  r2
(ii) To cross the river in shortest possible time: The man should swim perpendicular to the bank.

The time taken to cross the river will be:

w A B
t2 
m
In this case, the man will touch the opposite bank at a distance AB w

downstream. This distance will be given by:

w r
AB   r t 2   r Or AB  w Upstreem O Downstreem
m m

28